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Sensor are used Engine

Crankshaft Position Sensor

Fig. Crank Shaft Position Sensor

A crankshaft position sensor is an electronic device used in an internal combustion engine,

both petrol and diesel, to monitor the position or rotational speed of the crankshaft.This
information is used by engine management systems to control the fuel injection or
the ignition system timing and other engine parameters.

The crank sensor can be used in combination with a similar camshaft position sensor to

monitor the relationship between the pistons and valves in the engine, which is particularly
important in engines with variable valve timing. This method is also used to "synchronise"
a four stroke engine upon starting, allowing the management system to know when to inject
the fuel. It is also commonly used as the primary source for the measurement of engine speed
in revolutions per minute.

Common mounting locations include the main crank pulley, the flywheel, the camshaft or on

the crankshaft itself.
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Fig. Location of Crankshaft Position Sensor

Sometimes, the sensor may become burnt or worn out - or just die of old age at high mileage.
One likely cause of crankshaft position sensor failure is exposure to extreme heat. Others are
vibration causing a wire to fracture or corrosion on the pins of harness connectors. Many
modern crankshaft sensors are sealed units and therefore will not be damaged by water or
other fluids.

A bad crank position sensor can worsen the way the engine idles, or the acceleration
behaviour. If the engine is revved up with a bad or faulty sensor, it may cause misfiring,
motor vibration or backfires. Acceleration might be hesitant, and abnormal shaking during
engine idle might occur. In the worst case, the car may not start.

Camshaft Position Sensor

The task of the camshaft sensor is to work with the crankshaft sensor to define the exact
position of the crankshaft drive. Through the combination of both sensor signals, the engine
control unit knows when the first cylinder is in the top dead center.
Camshaft position sensor is also called cylinder identification sensor or phase detector.
In consecutive fuel injection systems, ECU must determine which cylinder to fire next. This
information is provided from the cylinder identification sensor. During the engine rotation the
sensor sends a signal to the onboard controller whenever the first cylinder is at the top dead
center (TDC). Thus the duration of the pulse injection is estimated.
 In simultaneous fuel injection systems, the onboard controller does not identify the cylinders
and the firing order, because this is not necessary for the system to operate. When a
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crankshaft or distributor advance ignition signal appears, the exact cylinder is detected by
recognizing the mechanical positions of the crankshaft, camshaft, valves or the distributor
shaft.

 For the start of injection during sequential injection.

 For the actuation signal of the solenoid valve for the pump-nozzle injection system.
 For cylinder-selective knocking control.

Fig. Camshaft Position Sensor

Due to timing rotor rotation, the direction of the magnetic field (magnetic vector) emitted
from the sensor magnet changes according to the detection tooth position during the time
when the detection tooth attached to the timing rotor approaches and then moves away from
the camshaft position sensor. As a result, the MRE resistance value also changes. Voltage
from the engine ECU is applied to the camshaft position sensor, and the change in MRE
resistance value is outputted as a change in voltage. The waveforms of the outputs from the
two MREs are differentially amplified, and shaped into a rectangular waveform by the
amplification / waveform shaping circuit inside the sensor. The MRE outputs are then sent to
the engine ECU.
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Engine Coolant Temperature Sensor

A coolant temperature sensor (CTS) is used to measure the temperature of the

coolant. in the cooling system, giving an indication of how much heat the engine is
giving off.

Fig. Engine Coolant Temperature Sensor

The sensor works with the vehicle’s ECU, continually monitoring the coolant temperature to
make sure the engine is running at the optimum temperature.
To get an accurate reading of the current engine temperature, the ECU sends a regulated
voltage to the CTS. The resistance of the sensor varies with temperature, this is how the ECU
can monitor temperature changes.
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Fig. Location of ECT Sensor

The ECU uses this reading to calculate the coolant temperature, and from there adjusts the
fuel injection, fuel mix, and ignition timing, and controls when the electric cooling fan is
switched on and off. This information is also used to send an accurate reading of the engine
temperature to a gauge on the dashboard.

Exhaust Gas Temperature Sensor

An exhaust gas temperature sensor is a meter used to monitor the exhaust gas

temperature of an internal combustion engine in conjunction with a thermocouple-
type pyrometer.
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Fig. Exhaust Gas Temperature Sensor

EGT gauges are found in certain cars and aeroplanes. By monitoring EGT, the driver or pilot
can get an idea of the vehicle's air-fuel ratio (AFR).

The installation positions of the temperature sensors vary according to the purposes for which
they are used as described above: They are fitted upstream or downstream of the
turbocharger, upstream or downstream of the catalytic converter, upstream and downstream
of the DPF (diesel particulate filter) and at the components of the NOX reduction system.

At a stoichiometric air-fuel ratio, the exhaust gas temperature is different from that in a lean
or rich air-fuel ratio. At rich air-fuel ratio, the exhaust gas temperature either increases or
decreases depending on the fuel. High temperatures (typically above 900 °C) can be an
indicator of dangerous conditions that can lead to catastrophic engine failure.
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Fig. Location of EGT Sensor

MAP Sensor

The manifold absolute pressure sensor (MAP sensor) is an input sensor which detects an

engine load and provides a signal which is proportional to the sum of vacuum. After that, an
engine computer utilizes this data to alter explosion timing & fuel enhancement.

Fig. Manifold Absolute Pressure Sensor

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Whenever the engine works hard, ingestion vacuum falls because of the throttle releases
wide. The engine utilizes more air or more fuel to maintain the air or the fuel ratio instability.
In fact, once the computer examines a load signal from the sensor, usually it makes the blend
of fuel go somewhat richer than regular thus the engine can generate extra power.

Fig. Location of Manifold Absolute Pressure Sensor

Engines that use a MAP sensor are typically fuel injected. The manifold absolute
pressure sensor provides instantaneous manifold pressure information to the
engine's electronic control unit (ECU).

The data is used to calculate air density and determine the engine's air mass flow rate, which
in turn determines the required fuel metering for optimum combustion and influence the
advance or retard of ignition timing.

Mass Air Flow Sensor

A mass airflow sensor (MAF) is a sensor used to determine the mass flow
rate of air entering a fuel-injected internal combustion engine.

The air mass information is necessary for the engine control unit (ECU) to balance and
deliver the correct fuel mass to the engine. Air changes its density with temperature and
pressure. In automotive applications, air density varies with the
ambient temperature, altitude and the use of forced induction, which means that mass flow
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sensors are more appropriate than volumetric flow sensors for determining the quantity
of intake air in each cylinder.
The Mass Airflow sensor is usually located between the air filter housing and the
throttle. The MAF sensor uses a heated wire or filament to measure airflow into the
engine. This is vital information for controlling the fuel mixture.

Fig. Mass Airflow Sensor

There are two common types of mass airflow sensors in use on automotive engines.
These are the vane meter and the hot wire. Neither design employs technology that
measures air mass directly. However, with additional sensors and inputs, an engine's
ECU can determine the mass flow rate of intake air.
When a MAF sensor is used in conjunction with an oxygen sensor, the engine's
air/fuel ratio can be controlled very accurately. The MAF sensor provides the open-
loop controller predicted air flow information (the measured air flow) to the ECU, and
the oxygen sensor provides closed-loop feedback in order to make minor corrections
to the predicted air mass. Also see manifold absolute pressure sensor (MAP sensor).

Oxygen Sensor
An oxygen sensor is an electronic device that measures the proportion of oxygen in
the gas or liquid being analysed.
Automotive oxygen sensors, colloquially known as O 2 sensors, make
modern electronic fuel injection and emission control possible. They help determine,
in real time, whether the air–fuel ratio of a combustion engine is rich or lean.
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Fig. Oxygen Sensor

Oxygen sensors are located in the exhaust stream, they do not directly measure the
air or the fuel entering the engine, but when information from oxygen sensors is
coupled with information from other sources, it can be used to indirectly determine
the air–fuel ratio.

Fig. Location of Oxygen Sensor

The sensor does not actually measure oxygen concentration, but rather the
difference between the amount of oxygen in the exhaust gas and the amount of
oxygen in air. Rich mixture causes an oxygen demand. This demand causes a
voltage to build up, due to transportation of oxygen ions through the sensor layer.
Lean mixture causes low voltage, since there is an oxygen excess.
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Modern spark-ignited combustion engines use oxygen sensors and catalytic

converters in order to reduce exhaust emissions. Information on oxygen
concentration is sent to the engine management computer or engine control
unit (ECU), which adjusts the amount of fuel injected into the engine to compensate
for excess air or excess fuel. The ECU attempts to maintain, on average, a certain
air-fuel ratio by interpreting the information gained from the oxygen sensor. The
primary goal is a compromise between power, fuel economy, and emissions, and in
most cases is achieved by an air–fuel ratio close to stoichiometric. For spark-
ignition engines (such as those that burn gasoline or LPG, as opposed to diesel), the
three types of emissions modern systems are concerned with
are: hydrocarbons (which are released when the fuel is not burnt completely, such as
when misfiring or running rich), carbon monoxide (which is the result of running
slightly rich) and NOx (which dominate when the mixture is lean). Failure of these
sensors, either through normal aging, the use of leaded fuels, or fuel contaminated
with silicones or silicates, for example, can lead to damage of an automobile's
catalytic converter and expensive repairs.

Throttle Position Sensor

A throttle position sensor (TPS) is a sensor used to monitor the air intake of an
engine. The sensor is usually located on the butterfly spindle/shaft, so that it can
directly monitor the position of the throttle. More advanced forms of the sensor are
also used. For example, an extra "closed throttle position sensor" (CTPS) may be
employed to indicate that the throttle is completely closed. Some engine control
units (ECUs) also control the throttle position electronic throttle control (ETC) or
"drive by wire" systems, and if that is done, the position sensor is used in a feedback
loop to enable that control.[1]

Fig. Throttle Position Sensor

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Related to the TPS are accelerator pedal sensors, which often include a wide open
throttle (WOT) sensor. The accelerator pedal sensors are used in electronic throttle
control or "drive by wire" systems, and the most common use of a wide open throttle
sensor is for the kick-down function on automatic transmissions.

Modern day sensors are non contact type. These modern non contact TPS
include Hall effect sensors, inductive sensors, magnetoresistive and others. In
the potentiometric type sensors, a multi-finger metal brush/rake is in contact with a
resistive strip,[2] while the butterfly valve is turned from the lower mechanical stop
(minimum air position) to WOT, there is a change in the resistance and this change
in resistance is given as the input to the ECU.

Fig. Location of Throttle Position Sensor

Non contact type TPS work on the principle of Hall effect or inductive sensors, or
magnetoresistive technologies, wherein generally the magnet or inductive loop is the
dynamic part which is mounted on the butterfly valve throttle spindle/shaft gear and
the sensor & signal processing circuit board is mounted within the ETC gear box
cover and is stationary. When the magnet/inductive loop mounted on the spindle
which is rotated from the lower mechanical stop to WOT, there is a change in the
magnetic field for the sensor. The change in the magnetic field is sensed by the
sensor and the voltage generated is given as the input to the ECU. Normally a two
pole rare-earth magnet is used for the TPS due to their high Curie
temperatures required in the under-hood vehicle environment. The magnet may be
of diametrical type, ring type, rectangular or segment type. The magnet is defined to
have a certain magnetic field that does not vary significantly with time or
temperature.
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Oil Pressure Sensor

The oil pressure sensor is a unit that is in charge of telling a vehicle’s computer, the
engine control unit, the amount of the oil pressure. It controls the gauge on a vehicle
which then lights up as a warning indicator on the dashboard of your vehicle.

Maintaining the proper engine oil pressure by making sure the oil pressure sensor is
working correctly can be a clear way to keep your engine running correctly. Rapidly
moving metal surfaces produce an abundance of heat in the engine and friction,
requiring constant lubrication to prevent damage to other parts and the engine as a
whole, potentially causing a replacement. 

Fig. Oil Pressure Sensor

The oil pressure sensor has to function as the role of monitoring the internal pressure
and sending the signal to the oil pressure gauge, alerting you if there is a problem with
the oil pressure in your vehicle. This warning sign on the dashboard can give the driver
some time to pull over and fix the problem before costly repairs become apparent.

The gauge on the vehicle signals the car’s engine is receiving not enough oil pressure or
that the sending unit is faulty or damaged over time. The low oil pressure could mean
that there is not enough oil present and can be fixed by adding more oil. It might also
show that the engine is burning oil or that there is an oil leak in the system. If the oil
pressure sensor is faulty, this can be tested by using these steps.

The first step is to insert the key into the ignition and turn the key to the accessory
setting. Make sure the engine is not on and has cooled off after use. After this, look at
the oil gauge on the dashboard. Unplug the wire that is directly connected to the sending
unit if the gauge is at zero. If the gauge increases from there, it shows that the sender is
faulty and needs to be replaced. 
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Fig. Location of Oil Pressure Senser

The first step is to insert the key into the ignition and turn the key to the accessory
setting. Make sure the engine is not on and has cooled off after use. After this, look at
the oil gauge on the dashboard. Unplug the wire that is directly connected to the sending
unit if the gauge is at zero. If the gauge increases from there, it shows that the sender is
faulty and needs to be replaced. 

Spark Knock Sensor

Knocking (also knock, detonation, spark knock, pinging or pinking) in spark
ignition internal combustion engines occurs when combustion of some of the air/fuel
mixture in the cylinder does not result from propagation of the flame front ignited by
the spark plug, but one or more pockets of air/fuel mixture explode outside the
envelope of the normal combustion front. The fuel-air charge is meant to be ignited
by the spark plug only, and at a precise point in the piston's stroke. Knock occurs
when the peak of the combustion process no longer occurs at the optimum moment
for the four-stroke cycle. The shock wave creates the characteristic metallic "pinging"
sound, and cylinder pressure increases dramatically. Effects of engine knocking
range from inconsequential to completely destructive.

Knocking should not be confused with pre-ignition—they are two separate events.

However, pre-ignition can be followed by knocking.

The phenomenon of detonation was described in November 1914 in a letter from

Lodge Brothers (spark plug manufacturers, and sons of Sir Oliver Lodge) settling a
discussion regarding the cause of "Konking" or "Pinking" in motorcycles. In the letter
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they stated that an early ignition can give rise to the gas detonating instead of the
usual expansion, and the sound that is produced by the detonation is the same as if
the metal parts had been tapped with a hammer. [1] It was further investigated and
described by Harry Ricardo during experiments carried out between 1916 and 1919
to discover the reason for failures in aircraft engines.[2]

Normal combustion
Under ideal conditions the common internal combustion engine burns the fuel/air
mixture in the cylinder in an orderly and controlled fashion. The combustion is started
by the spark plug some 10 to 40 crankshaft degrees prior to top dead center (TDC),
depending on many factors including engine speed and load. This ignition advance
allows time for the combustion process to develop peak pressure at the ideal time for
maximum recovery of work from the expanding gases.[3]
The spark across the spark plug's electrodes forms a small kernel of flame
approximately the size of the spark plug gap. As it grows in size, its heat output
increases, which allows it to grow at an accelerating rate, expanding rapidly through
the combustion chamber. This growth is due to the travel of the flame front through
the combustible fuel air mix itself, and due to turbulence which rapidly stretches the
burning zone into a complex of fingers of burning gas that have a much greater
surface area than a simple spherical ball of flame would have. In normal combustion,
this flame front moves throughout the fuel/air mixture at a rate characteristic for the
particular mixture. Pressure rises smoothly to a peak, as nearly all the available fuel
is consumed, then pressure falls as the piston descends. Maximum cylinder
pressure is achieved a few crankshaft degrees after the piston passes TDC, so that
the force applied on the piston (from the increasing pressure applied to the top
surface of the piston) can give its hardest push precisely when the piston's speed
and mechanical advantage on the crank shaft gives the best recovery of force from
the expanding gases, thus maximizing torque transferred to the crankshaft. [3][4]

Abnormal combustion
When unburned fuel/air mixture beyond the boundary of the flame front is subjected
to a combination of heat and pressure for a certain duration (beyond the delay period
of the fuel used), detonation may occur. Detonation is characterized by an almost
instantaneous, explosive ignition of at least one pocket of fuel/air mixture outside of
the flame front. A local shockwave is created around each pocket, and the cylinder
pressure will rise sharply – and possibly beyond its design limits – causing damage.
If detonation is allowed to persist under extreme conditions or over many engine
cycles, engine parts can be damaged or destroyed. The simplest deleterious effects
are typically particle wear caused by moderate knocking, which may further ensue
through the engine's oil system and cause wear on other parts before being trapped
by the oil filter. Such wear gives the appearance of erosion, abrasion, or a
"sandblasted" look, similar to the damage caused by hydraulic cavitation. Severe
knocking can lead to catastrophic failure in the form of physical holes melted and
pushed through the piston or cylinder head (i.e., rupture of the combustion chamber),
either of which depressurizes the affected cylinder and introduces large metal
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fragments, fuel, and combustion products into the oil system. Hypereutectic

pistons are known to break easily from such shock waves.[4]
Detonation can be prevented by any or all of the following techniques:

 retarding ignition timing

 the use of a fuel with high octane rating, which increases the combustion
temperature of the fuel and reduces the proclivity to detonate
 enriching the air–fuel ratio which alters the chemical reactions during
combustion, reduces the combustion temperature and increases the margin to
detonation
 reducing peak cylinder pressure
 decreasing the manifold pressure by reducing the throttle opening or boost
pressure
 reducing the load on the engine
Because pressure and temperature are strongly linked, knock can also be
attenuated by controlling peak combustion chamber temperatures by compression
ratio reduction, exhaust gas recirculation, appropriate calibration of the
engine's ignition timing schedule, and careful design of the engine's combustion
chambers and cooling system as well as controlling the initial air intake temperature.
The addition of certain materials such as lead and thallium will suppress detonation
extremely well when certain fuels are used.[citation needed] The addition of tetraethyl
lead (TEL), a soluble organolead compound added to gasoline, was common until it
was discontinued for reasons of toxic pollution. Lead dust added to the intake charge
will also reduce knock with various hydrocarbon fuels. Manganese compounds are
also used to reduce knock with petrol fuel.
Knock is less common in cold climates. As an aftermarket solution, a water
injection system can be employed to reduce combustion chamber peak
temperatures and thus suppress detonation. Steam (water vapor) will suppress
knock even though no added cooling is supplied.
Certain chemical changes must first occur for knock to happen, hence fuels with
certain structures tend to knock more easily than others. Branched
chain paraffins tend to resist knock while straight chain paraffins knock easily. It has
been theorized[citation needed] that lead, steam, and the like interfere with some of the
various oxidative changes that occur during combustion and hence reduce knock.
Turbulence, as stated, has a very important effect on knock. Engines with good
turbulence tend to knock less than engines with poor turbulence. Turbulence occurs
not only while the engine is inhaling but also when the mixture is compressed and
burned. Many pistons are designed to use "squish" turbulence to violently mix the air
and fuel together as they are ignited and burned, which reduces knock greatly by
speeding up burning and cooling the unburnt mixture. One example of this is all
modern side valve or flathead engines. A considerable portion of the head space is
made to come in close proximity to the piston crown, making for much turbulence
near TDC. In the early days of side valve heads this was not done and a much lower
compression ratio had to be used for any given fuel. Also such engines were
sensitive to ignition advance and had less power. [4]
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Knocking is more or less unavoidable in diesel engines, where fuel is injected into
highly compressed air towards the end of the compression stroke. There is a short
lag between the fuel being injected and combustion starting. By this time there is
already a quantity of fuel in the combustion chamber which will ignite first in areas of
greater oxygen density prior to the combustion of the complete charge. This sudden
increase in pressure and temperature causes the distinctive diesel 'knock' or 'clatter',
some of which must be allowed for in the engine design.
Careful design of the injector pump, fuel injector, combustion chamber, piston crown
and cylinder head can reduce knocking greatly, and modern engines using
electronic common rail injection have very low levels of knock. Engines using indirect
injection generally have lower levels of knock than direct injection engines, due to
the greater dispersal of oxygen in the combustion chamber and lower injection
pressures providing a more complete mixing of fuel and air. Diesels actually do not
suffer exactly the same "knock" as gasoline engines since the cause is known to be
only the very fast rate of pressure rise, not unstable combustion. Diesel fuels are
actually very prone to knock in gasoline engines but in the diesel engine there is no
time for knock to occur because the fuel is only oxidized during the expansion cycle.
In the gasoline engine the fuel is slowly oxidizing all the time while it is being
compressed before the spark. This allows for changes to occur in the
structure/makeup of the molecules before the very critical period of high
temperature/pressure.[4]

Rain Sensor
Despite cars that are easier to drive and more reliable, drivers today face more distractions than
ever – traffic and construction delays, cell phone calls, in-car navigation systems, to name just a few.
With Rain Sensor, one such distraction is eliminated. Without diverting the driver's attention, this
fully automatic sensor keeps the windshield clear, allowing the driver to focus on the road.

Rain Sensor makes the wiper system a "set-andforget" function. This is a fully automatic moisture-
activated system that detects how hard rain or snow is falling and determines when to activate the
wipers and how fast to run the wiper motor.

Using an advanced optical sensing system, analog signal processing, and a control algorithm, this
technology provides drivers with added safety, convenience, and comfort in various weather
conditions.
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Fig. Rain Sensor

These wipers provide a convenient, automatic way to keep the windshield clear in foul

weather. rain-sensing wiper use a sensor that's mounted behind the windshield. It sends out
a beam of infrared light that, when water droplets are on the windshield, is reflected back at
different angles.

Fig. Location of Rain Sensor

An infrared beam is reflected off the outside surface of the windshield to the infrared sensor array.
When moisture strikes the windshield, the system experiences an interruption to its infrared beam.
Advanced analog and digital signal processing determines the intensity of rain or snow.

The sensor communicates to the wiper control module to switch on the wiper motor and controls
the wipers automatically according to the moisture intensity detected.
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Fig. on/off Switch

It is possible to operate in manually or automatically by providing on/off switch.

Blind Spot Monitoring

The blind spot monitor is a vehicle-based sensor device that detects other vehicles located to

the driver’s side and rear. Warnings can be visual, audible, vibrating, or tactile.

blind spot monitors are an option that may do more than monitor the sides and rear of the
vehicle. They may also include "Cross Traffic Alert", "which alerts drivers backing out of a
parking space when traffic is approaching from the sides.

Fig.Blind Spot Camera

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overlooked in driver's education classes and takes some getting used to. Calculated
elimination of blind spots by trained drivers is inexpensive and obviates the need for
expensive technological solutions to that problem, provided drivers take the time to set up
and use their mirrors properly.[3]
Increase your driving awareness. A single pair of eyes can only look at so many things at
once. When you have a lot of different things going on around your vehicle, it helps to have
as much extra coverage for your senses as possible. A blind spot monitoring system does just
this by consistently viewing the spots you can't always track while driving.

Fig. Vehicle Warning

Increase response time. Reaction time can be the difference between life and death. In order
to respond to something, you need to actually notice it in the first place. Blind spot sensors
tend to be more effective than mirrors alone since they give an active notification of
something that is nearby or in the blind spot itself. With mirrors, you still have to see the
reflection in order to react accordingly.

Fig. Rear Blind Spot

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Make passengers feel safer. Few people will argue with the opportunity to ride in a car that
increases safety however possible. With a blind spot monitoring system, you can give
passengers some extra piece of mind when riding in an older vehicle. Better still, the basic
indicators notify everyone in the vehicle, so extra passengers can help you notice important
things in tandem with the sensors.
Shield+ by Mobileye is a pedestrian and cyclist blind spot detection system. It utilizes
dynamic detection angles to constantly monitor the vehicle’s blind spots from the A-pillar
and on the right- and left-hand sides of the vehicle. If the driver needs to use caution a yellow
signal is given; if there is risk of an imminent collision and the need to take immediate
preventative action a red signal is given. 

Parking Sensor
Parking sensors are proximity sensors for road vehicles designed to alert the driver of
obstacles while parking. These systems use either electromagnetic or ultrasonic sensors.

Fig. Parking Sensor

Parking sensors have been widely used for some time now, mounted most commonly on the
rear bumper for reverse assistance and the front bumper from forward-clearance in some cars.
Sensors are featured in many different cars under different brand names, such as Park
Distance Control, Park Assist, EPS, Smart Assist, or Smart Park. But, in theory, they all work
in the same manner.

These are the two most popular types of parking sensors:

1. Ultrasonic Parking Sensor

2. Electromagnetic Parking Sensors
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1. Ultrasonic Parking Sensors

These systems feature ultrasonic proximity detectors to measure the distances to nearby
objects via sensors located in the front and/or rear bumper fascias or visually minimized
within adjacent grills or recesses.

Fig. Ultrasonic Parking Sensor

The sensors emit acoustic pulses, with a control unit measuring the return interval of each
reflected signal and calculating object distances.[1] The system in turns warns the driver with
acoustic tones, the frequency indicating object distance, with faster tones indicating closer
proximity and a continuous tone indicating a minimal pre-defined distance. Systems may also
include visual aids, such as LED or LCD readouts to indicate object distance. A vehicle may
include a vehicle pictogram on the car's infotainment screen, with a representation of the
nearby objects as coloured blocks.

Rear sensors may be activated when reverse gear is selected and deactivated as soon as any
other gear is selected. Front sensors may be activated manually and deactivated automatically
when the vehicle reaches a pre-determined speed — to avoid subsequent nuisance warnings.
As an ultrasonic systems relies on the reflection of sound waves, the system may not detect
flat objects or object insufficiently large to reflect sound — e.g., a narrow pole or a
longitudinal object pointed directly at the vehicle or near an object. Objects with flat surfaces
angled from the vertical may deflect return sound waves away from the sensors, hindering
detection. Also soft object with strong sound absorption may have weaker detection, e.g.
wool or moss.

2. Electromagnetic System
The electromagnetic parking sensor (EPS) was re-invented and patented in 1992 by Mauro
Del Signore.[2] Electromagnetic sensors rely on the vehicle moving slowly and smoothly
towards the object to be avoided. Once an obstacle is detected, the sensor continues to signal
the presence of the obstacle even if the vehicle momentarily stops. If the vehicle then resumes
moving backwards the alarm signal becomes louder as the obstacle is approached.
Electromagnetic parking sensors are often sold as not requiring any holes to be drilled
offering a unique design that discreetly mounts on the inner side of the bumper preserving the
'new factory look' of your vehicle.
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Parking Assist
One of the most intelligent parking systems of the time (thanks to technology) is known as
park assist. This is about as close to a fully automated parking system. Park assist is
employed as a feature in various high-end cars. Combining the cameras and sensors, park
assist systems can find and judge the size of a parking space, and with the driver controlling
the speed, it can steer its way into it. Most of these systems are now capable of both reverse
and parallel parking manoeuvres.

Fig. Parking Assist

Advantages of Parking Sensors:

1. With the ever-shrinking parking spaces, the sensors help in reducing blind spots
around the vehicle eases the arduous task of parking in narrow areas.
2. They reduce driver fatigue while parking a car.
3. They reduce the chances of damage a to a car or other nearby objects.
4. Increases drive’s confidence.

Disadvantages of Parking Sensor

1. Only detect obstacles that present are in front and behind the car.
2. Can’t detect side obstacles.
3. Sometimes sensor can’t detect flat object either are in front or back.
4. Driver always depends upon sensor, driver didn’t take any efforts while parking.
Because of sensor driver become more lazy and careless.
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Tyre Pressure Monitoring Sensor

A tire-pressure monitoring system (TPMS) is an electronic system designed to
monitor the air pressure inside the pneumatic tires on various types of vehicles.A
TPMS reports real-time tire-pressure information to the driver of the vehicle, either
via a gauge display or a simple low-pressure warning light.

TPMS are provided both at factory level as well as an aftermarket solution. The goal
of a TPMS is avoiding traffic accidents, poor fuel economy, and increased tire wear
due to under-inflated tires through early recognition of a hazardous state of the tires.

TPMS can be divided into two different types

1. direct tire-pressure monitoring system  (dTPMS) 

2. indirect tire-pressure monitoring system (iTPMS).

Indirect TPMS
Indirect TPMS do not use physical pressure sensors but measure air pressures
using software-based systems, which by evaluating and combining existing sensor
signals like wheel speeds, accelerometers, driveline data, etc. estimate and monitor
the tire pressure without physical pressure sensors in the wheels. First-generation
iTPMS systems are based on the principle that under-inflated tires have a slightly
smaller diameter (and hence higher angular velocity) than a correctly inflated one.
These differences are measurable through the wheel speed sensors of ABS/ESC
systems. Second generation iTPMS can also detect simultaneous under-inflation in
up to all four tires using spectrum analysis of individual wheels, which can be
realized in software using advanced signal processing techniques.
iTPMS cannot measure or display absolute pressure values; they are relative by
nature and have to be reset by the driver once the tires are checked and all
pressures adjusted correctly. The reset is normally done either by a physical button
or in a menu of the on-board computer. iTPMS are, compared to dTPMS, more
sensitive to the influences of different tires and external influences like road surfaces
and driving speed or style. The reset procedure, [5] followed by an automatic learning
phase of typically 20 to 60 minutes of driving under which the iTPMS learns and
stores the reference parameters before it becomes fully active, cancels out many,
but not all of these. As iTPMS do not involve any additional hardware, spare parts,
electronic/toxic waste, or service (beyond the regular reset), they are regarded as
easy to handle and customer friendly.[6]
Since factory installation of TPMS became mandatory in November 2014 for all new
passenger vehicles in the EU, various iTPMS have been type-approved according
to UN Regulation R64. Examples for this are most of the VW group models, but also
numerous Honda, Volvo, Opel, Ford, Mazda, PSA, FIAT and Renault models. iTPMS
are quickly gaining market shares in the EU and are expected to become the
dominating TPMS technology in the near future.
iTPMS are regarded as less accurate by some due to their nature—given that simple
ambient temperature variations can lead to pressure variations of the same
magnitude as the legal detection thresholds— but many vehicle manufacturers and
customers value the ease of use.
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Direct TPMS
Direct TPMS directly measures tire pressure using hardware sensors. In each wheel,
most often on the inside of the valve, there is a battery-driven pressure sensor which
transfers pressure information to a central control unit which reports it to the vehicle's
onboard computer. Some units also measure and alert temperatures of the tire as
well. These systems can identify under-inflation for each individual tire. Although the
systems vary in transmitting options, many TPMS products (both OEM and
aftermarket) can display realtime, individual tire pressures whether the vehicle is
moving or parked. There are many different solutions, but all of them have to face
the problems of exposure to hostile environments. The majority are powered by
batteries which limit their useful life. Some sensors utilise a wireless power
system similar to that used in RFID tag reading which solves the problem of limited
battery life. This also increases the frequency of data transmission up to 40 Hz and
reduces the sensor weight which can be important in motorsport applications. If the
sensors are mounted on the outside of the wheel, as are some aftermarket systems,
they are subject to mechanical damage, aggressive fluids, as well as theft. When
mounted on the inside of the rim, they are no longer easily accessible for battery
change and the RF link must overcome the attenuating effects of the tire which
increases the energy need.
A direct TPMS sensor consists of the following main functions requiring only a few
external components — e.g. battery, housing, PCB — to get the sensor module that
is mounted to the valve stem inside the tire:

 pressure sensor;
 analog-digital converter;
 microcontroller;
 system controller;
 oscillator;
 radio frequency transmitter;
 low frequency receiver, and
 voltage regulator (battery management).
Most originally fitted dTPMS have the sensor mounted on the inside of the rim and
the batteries are not exchangeable. A discharged battery means that the tire must be
dismounted in order to replace it, so long battery life is desireable. To save energy
and prolong battery life, many dTPMS sensors do not transmit information when
parked (which eliminates spare tire monitoring) or apply a more expensive two-way
communication which enables wake-up of the sensor. For OEM auto dTPMS units to
work properly, they need to recognize the sensor positions and must ignore the
signals from other vehicles.
Aftermarket dTPMS units not only transmit while vehicles are moving or parked, but
also provide users with some advanced monitoring options including data logging,
remote monitoring options and more. They are available for all types of vehicles,
from motorcycles to heavy equipment, and can monitor up to 64 tires at a time,
which is important for commercial vehicles. Many aftermarket dTPMS units do not
require specialized tools to program or reset, making them much simpler to use.
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Crash Sensor
Crash sensors collect the data necessary to make decisions about air bag
deployment.

Crash sensors measure how quickly a vehicle slows down in a frontal crash or
accelerates to the side in a side-impact crash. Some vehicles are equipped with a
sensing system designed to detect the onset of a rollover crash.

Frontal crash sensors may be located in the front of the vehicle near the engine,
in the passenger compartment, or sometimes in the electronic control unit (ECU).

Side-impact crash sensors may be located in the ECU, the door, the doorsill, or
between the front and rear doors.

Rollover crash sensors may be located in the ECU or at the vehicle's center of
gravity.

Severe or panic braking alone cannot cause an air bag to deploy; air bags deploy
only in crashes.

Battery Voltage Sensor

The electronic battery sensor (EBS) provides reliable and precise information on the
status of 12-V lead-acid batteries while taking battery aging effects into account. By
providing this relevant information, the EBS allows for the implementation of an
optimized electrical-power management (EEM) system in the vehicle and supports
fuel- and CO2-saving technologies such as start/stop, coasting or recuperation.

The electronic battery sensor (EBS) measures the current, voltage and temperature
of 12-V lead-acid batteries with great precision. The battery status tracking algorithm
(BZE) integrated into the EBS calculates the current and predicted state of charge
and function of the battery from these base parameters and indicates battery aging
effects. This information is passed on to a higher-level control unit, e.g. the electrical-
power management (EEM) system. If needed, that system implements suitable
measures to ensure the power supply to ancillaries that are important or critical to
safety and to serve other purposes, e.g. maximizing battery life by avoiding deep
discharge or supporting fuel- and CO2-saving technologies such as start/stop,
coasting or recuperation.

Push Button Start Sensor

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Push button Start know as Smart Key, A smart key is an electronic access and authorization
system that is available either as standard equipment, or as an option in several car designs.

The smart key allows the driver to keep the key fob pocketed when unlocking, locking and
starting the vehicle. The key is identified via one of several antennas in the car's bodywork
and a radio pulse generator in the key housing. Depending on the system, the vehicle is
automatically unlocked when a button or sensor on the door handle or trunk release is
pressed. Vehicles with a smart-key system have a mechanical backup, usually in the form of
a spare key blade supplied with the vehicle. Some manufacturers hide the backup lock behind
a cover for styling.

Vehicles with a smart-key system can disengage the immobilizer and activate

the ignition without inserting a key in the ignition, provided the driver has the key inside the
car. On most vehicles, this is done by pressing a starter button or twisting an ignition switch.

When leaving a vehicle that is equipped with a smart-key system, the vehicle is locked by
either pressing a button on a door handle, touching a capacitive area on a door handle, or
simply walking away from the vehicle. The method of locking varies across models.

Some vehicles automatically adjust settings based on the smart key used to unlock the car.
User preferences such as seat positions, steering wheel position, exterior mirror settings,
climate control settings, and stereo presets are popular adjustments.

The smart key determines if it is inside or outside the vehicle by measuring the strength of the
LF fields. In order to start the vehicle, the smart key must be inside the vehicle.

Sensor are used for Transmission System

Wheel Speed Sensor

A wheel speed sensor is a type of tachometer. It is a sender device used for reading the speed
of a vehicle's wheel rotation. It usually consists of a toothed ring and pickup.

The wheel speed sensor was initially used to replace the mechanical linkage from the wheels
to the speedometer, eliminating cable breakage and simplifying the gauge construction by
eliminating moving parts. These sensors also produce data that allows automated driving aids
like ABS to function.

The most common wheel speed sensor system consists of a ferromagnetic toothed reluctor
ring (tone wheel) and a sensor (which can be passive or active).

The tone wheel is typically made of steel and may be an open-air design, or sealed (as in the
case of unitized bearing assemblies). The number of teeth is chosen as a trade-off between
low-speed sensing/accuracy and high-speed sensing/cost. Greater numbers of teeth will
require more machining operations and (in the case of passive sensors) produce a higher
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frequency output signal which may not be as easily interpreted at the receiving end, but give
a better resolution and higher signal update rate. In more advanced systems, the teeth can
be asymmetrically shaped to allow the sensor to distinguish between forward and reverse
rotation of the wheel.
A passive sensor typically consists of a ferromagnetic rod which is oriented to project radially
from the tone wheel with a permanent magnet at the opposite end. The rod is wound with fine
wire which experiences an induced alternating voltage as the tone wheel rotates, as the teeth
interfere with the magnetic field. Passive sensors output a sinusoidal signal which grows in
magnitude and frequency with wheel speed.
A variation of the passive sensor does not have a magnet backing it, but rather a tone wheel
which consists of alternating magnetic poles produce the alternating voltage. The output of
this sensor tends to resemble a square wave, rather than a sinusoid, but still increases in
magnitude as wheels speed increases.
An active sensor is a passive sensor with signal conditioning circuitry built into the device.
This signal conditioning may be amplifying the signal's magnitude; changing the signal's
form to PWM, square wave, or others; or encoding the value into a communication protocol
(such as CAN) before transmission.

Vehicle Speed Sensor

VSS gives the onboard computer information about the vehicle speed. The sensor operates
on the principle of the Hall Effect and is usually mounted on the tachometer or in the
gearbox.

Used types of sensors       

 Speed sensors based on the Hall effect

VSS is supplied with +12V from the ignition key. When the tachometer speed cable rotates,
the Hall switch is turned on and off consecutively, sending a rectangular signal to the
onboard computer. The frequency of this signal indicates the speed of the car.

 Speed sensors with mechanical tenon

 The signal from the rotating drive wheel has a rectangular form. The signal voltage varies
from 0V to +5 V or 0V to a value close to the nominal of the car battery. Pulses duty cycle is
between 40% and 60%.

 Inductive speed sensors

The signal from the rotating drive wheel has a sinusoidal form (alternative current). The
signal changes depending on the speed of the wheels as every inductive sensor, for
example, the ABS sensor.