Master of Energy

Management (MEM)
DMX9201 Energy and Environment (E&E)
Assignment 1

Name : H.A.J.N Sameera

Registration No : 620253085
Academic Year : 2020
Date of Submission : 20.03.2020
 1. Study the world energy scenario by analyzing generation in renewable and non-
renewable sources. (Region or country-wise)

Energy is one of the major inputs for the economic development of any country. Energy can be
classified into several types based on the following criteria

• Primary and Secondary energy

• Commercial and Non commercial energy
• Renewable and Non-Renewable energy

Fig 01: Major Primary and Secondary Sources

Primary and Secondary energy

Primary energy sources are those that are either found or stored in nature. Common primary
Energy sources are coal, oil, natural gas, and biomass (such as wood). Other primary energy
sources available include nuclear energy from radioactive substances, thermal energy stored in
earth's interior, and potential energy due to earth's gravity. Primary energy sources are mostly
converted in industrial utilities into secondary energy sources; for example coal, oil or gas
converted into steam and electricity. Primary energy can also be used directly. Some energy
sources have non-energy uses, for example coal or natural gas can be used as a feedstock in
fertilizer plants.
Commercial Energy and Non Commercial Energy

Commercial Energy

The energy sources that are available in the market for a definite price are known as commercial
energy. By far the most important forms of commercial energy are electricity, coal and refined
petroleum products. Commercial energy forms the basis of industrial, agricultural, transport and
commercial development in the modern world. In the industrialized countries, commercialized
fuels are predominant source not only for economic production, but also for many household
tasks of general population. Examples: Electricity, lignite, coal, oil, natural gas etc.

Non-Commercial Energy

The energy sources that are not available in the commercial market for a price are classified as
non-commercial energy. Non-commercial energy sources include fuels such as firewood, cattle
dung and agricultural wastes, which are traditionally gathered, and not bought at a price used
especially in rural households. These are also called traditional fuels. Non-commercial energy is
often ignored in energy accounting.
Example: Firewood, agro waste in rural areas; solar energy for water heating, electricity
generation, for drying grain, fish and fruits; animal power for transport, threshing, lifting water
for irrigation, crushing sugarcane; wind energy for lifting water and electricity generation

Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy

Renewable energy is energy obtained from sources that are essentially inexhaustible. Examples
of renewable resources include wind power, solar power, geothermal energy, tidal power and
hydroelectric power . The most important feature of renewable energy is that it can be harnessed
without the release of harmful pollutants.

Non-renewable energy is the conventional fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas, which are likely
to deplete with time.
Figure 2: Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy

Renewable Non - Renewable

Table 01: Primary energy Consumption according to Country
Table 02: Primary energy consumption by fuel according to Country
According to the BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2019 | 68th edition World Total primary
energy Consumption is 13864.9 Million tonnes oil equivalent in 2018. Further it has 2.9 %
growth compare with last year.

When consider the regional primary energy consumption in 2018

Region Energy Consumption % Consumption Growth compare with

(Million tonnes oil 2017
equivalent )
Total Asia Pacific 5985.8 43 4.1 %
Total Africa 461.5 3.3 2.9 %
Total Middle East 902.3 6.5 2.4 %
Total CIS 930.5 6.7 4.4%
Total Europe 2050.7 14.7 < 0.05 %
Total S. & Cent. 5.06 0.3%
America
Total North 2832.0 21.5 2.8%
America

Sri Lanka primary energy consumption in 2018

Sri Lanka 8.1 0.058421 % 3.3 %

According to the BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2019 Primary energy consumption by
fuel in 2018.

Region Energy Consumption

(Million tonnes oil equivalent )
Oil Natural Gas Coal Nuclear Hydro Renewables
Energy electricity
Total Asia Pacific 1695.4 709.6 2841.3 125.3 388.9 225.4

Total Africa 191.3 129.0 101.4 2.5 30.1 7.2

Total Middle East 412.1 475.6 7.9 1.6 3.4 1.7
Total CIS 193.5 499.4 134.9 46.7 55.4 0.6
Total Europe 742.0 472.0 307.1 212.1 145.3 172.2
Total S. & Cent. 315.3 144.8 36.0 5.1 165.5 35.4
America
Total North 1112.5 879.1 343.3 217.9 160.3 118.8
America
Sri Lanka 5.3 – 1.2 – 1.4 0.1
Graph 01: primary energy consumption by fuel according to Country
2. Identify the trends in power generation using different fuels types in region wise. (Asia,
Europe, North and South America, Australia)

Table 03: Power Generation according to Country

Graph 02: Power Generation according to Country
Table 04: Electrical Generation by fuel according to Country
According to the BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2019 | 68th edition World Total
Electricity Generation is 26614.8 Terawatt-hours in 2018. Further it has 3.7 % growth compare
with last year.

When consider the regional Electricity Generation in 2018

Region Electricity Generation % Generation Growth compare with

(Terawatt-hours) 2017
Total Asia Pacific 12273.6 46.1 6
Total Africa 853.7 3.2 2.9
Total Middle East 1240.4 4.7 1.7
Total CIS 1417.4 5.3 2.6
Total Europe 4077.3 15.3 0.4
Total S. & Cent.
America 1305.3 4.9 -0.5
Total North
America 5447.3 20.5 2.9

Sri Lanka Electricity Generation in 2018

Sri Lanka 15.5 0.058237836 % 4%

According to the BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2019 Electricity Generation by fuel in
2018.

Region Electricity Generation

(Terawatt-hours)
Oil Natural Gas Coal Nuclear Hydro Renewables Others
Energy electricity
Total Asia Pacific
188 1485.8 7290.8 553.6 1718.5 996 40.9
Total Africa 77.6 339.3 255.9 11.1 132.8 31.9 5.1
Total Middle East 310.9 878.5 21.3 7 15.2 7.4 0.1
Total CIS 13.7 686.1 259 206.6 244.8 2.5 4.7
Total Europe 56 731.3 862.7 937.5 642.1 761.1 86.6
Total S. & Cent.
America 90.2 227.9 76.5 22.5 731.3 156.3 0.5
Total North
America 66.3 1833.9 1334.3 963.2 708.4 525.2 16
According to the BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2019 Electricity Generation by fuel in
2018.

Region % Electricity Generation

Oil Natural Gas Coal Nuclear Hydro Renewables Others

Energy electricity
Total Asia Pacific
1.5 12.1 59.6 4.5 14.0 8.1
Total Africa 9.1 40.0 30.2 1.3 15.6 3.8
Total Middle East 25.1 70.8 1.7 0.6 1.2 0.6
Total CIS 1.0 48.6 18.3 14.6 17.3 0.2
Total Europe 1.4 18.3 21.6 23.5 16.1 19.1
Total S. & Cent.
America 6.9 17.5 5.9 1.7 56.1 12.0
Total North
America 1.2 33.8 24.6 17.7 13.0 9.7

According to the data highest renewable energy generation have in Europe its is 19.1 %
(excluding Hydro electricity). Lowest renewable energy generation have in CIS region its 0.2 %.
3. Identify the renewable energy potential and trend in region-wise in the world.

Table 05: Renewable Energy Consumption according to Country

Table 06: Renewable Generation by Source according to Country
Table 07: Bio fuels production according to Country
According to the BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2019 | 68th edition World Total
Renewable Energy Consumption is 561.3 Million tonnes oil equivalent in 2018. Further it has
14.5% growth compare with last year. This renewable energy consumption is 4 % from the
world total primary energy consumption.

When consider the regional Renewable Energy Consumption in 2018

Region Electricity Generation % Generation Growth compare with

(Terawatt-hours) 2017
Total Asia Pacific 225.4 40.2 25
Total Africa 7.2 1.3 18.5
Total Middle East 1.7 0.30 34.2
Total CIS 0.6 0.11 24
Total Europe 172.2 30.7 6.1
Total S. & Cent.
America 35.4 6.3 12.2
Total North
America 118.8 21.1 9.6

Sri Lanka Renewable Energy Consumption in 2018

Sri Lanka 0.1 0.017815785 % 5.6 %

According to the BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2019 Renewable Energy Generation by
fuel in 2018. Total Renewable Energy Generation is 2480.4 Terawatt-hours in 2018. Further it
has 12.6% growth compare with last year. This renewable energy Generation is 9.3 % from the
world total primary energy consumption.

Region Energy Generation Growth Compare with 2017

(Terawatt-hours) in 2018 Wind Solar Other Total
renewable
Total Asia Pacific 996 22.20% 38.30% 14.90% 25.00%
Total Africa 31.9 14.80% 36.60% 8.90% 18.50%
Total Middle East 7.4 21.40% 38.80% – 34.20%
Total CIS 2.5 63.50% 14.90% -0.40% 24.00%
Total Europe 761.1 5.20% 11.70% 4.50% 6.10%
Total S. & Cent.
America 156.3 17.30% 66.70% 3.00% 12.20%
Total North America 525.2 8.80% 24.70% -0.10% 9.60%

Sri Lanka 0.6 -17.4 % 38.1 % 57.1 % 5.6 %

 4. As an energy & environmental engineer what would be your recommendation on
sustainable power generation plan in the future Sri Lanka. (you need to do the
economical, social & environmental analysis) - (20 marks)

Sri Lanka Today Situation

Sri Lanka’s power sector has made commendable progress in several areas in the last 10 years.
Some of its achievements include near 100% electrification, low transmission & distribution
losses and meeting increased electricity demand with new power generation. The country has
also been able to stimulate the growth of Non Conventional Renewable Energy (NCRE) and
rooftop solar projects with financing from domestic banks and Investors.

To meet growing energy needs, Sri Lanka will need to look beyond publicly financed projects
and increase the share of commercial financing and encourage greater private sector
participation. Electricity demand continues to grow at an annual rate of 5.6% and the Long-Term
Generation Expansion Plan (LTGEP) indicates that capacity additions of some 8,341 MW will
be needed by 2037. Public financing has historically been the primary source of financing for
power plants owned by the Ceylon Electricity Board (CEB). Larger Projects (>10MW)
developed by independent power producers (IPPs) on a Build-Own-Operate-Transfer (BOOT)
scheme have been able to mobilize internrequired a guarantee for CEB’s payment obligations
from the Government of Sri Lanka (GoSL).

Despite initial success, the renewable energy sector is yet to scale up and achieve its potential.
NCRE projects up to 10 MW have been successful in attracting private investment from
domestic developers and lenders without government financing support. Such projects have
contributed considerably to installed generation capacity in the country with about 400 MW of
mini hydro, 128 MW of wind, 51 MW land mounted solar, 17 MW biomass, and 120 MW of
rooftop solar. However, apart from a few recent competitive outcomes, the country has not yet
been able to develop utility scale NCRE projects at tariffs comparable with other projects
globally or in the region or to tap into commercial financing and private sector participation in
larger scale projects. As part of the preparation of the InfraSAP, two pre-feasibility assessments
for potential large scale NCRE park sites were conducted for sites in Pooneryn and Moneragala,
respectively, totaling about 500 MW of potential generation capacity
 % Installation
Power Type Load (MW) Contribution
20.89282
Coal Fired Power Station 900
30.45709
Oil-fired power stations 1312
32.02869
Hydroelectric power stations 1379.7
2.971423
Wind farms in Sri Lanka 128
9.285698
Mini hydro 400
1.183926
Land Mounted Solar 51
0.394642
Bio mass 17
2.785709
Rooftop Solar 120
Table 4.1: Sri Lanka Power Contribution in 2018
Table 8 - Installed Capacity and Peak Demand
Figure 4.10 – Total Installed Capacity and Peak Demand

Figure 4.2 – Other Renewable Energy Capacity Development

In early stages the electricity demand of the country was mainly supplied by hydro generation
and the contribution from thermal generation was minimal. With the time, thermal generation
has become prominent. At present, thermal generation share is much higher than that of hydro.
Further the other renewable energy generation from mini hydro, wind, solar, dendro etc is also
increasing. Electricity Generation during the last twenty-five years is summarized in Table 9 and
graphically shown in Figure 1.3
Table 9 - Electricity Generation 1994-2018

(The Total Generation and ORE Generation excludes the contribution from Rooftop Solar)

Figure 1.3 - Generation Share in the Recent Past

Sri Lankan Power System has operated maintaining 30%-60% share of renewable energy throughout the
recent years. This trend will be continued in the future also with the optimum amount of renewable
energy integration to the system. Total renewable energy share over the past ten years are shown in Figure
1.13

Figure 1.4 – Renewable Share in the Recent Past

In Comparison World Electricity Generation has been mainly depended on Thermal Generation
throughout the past two decades. Coal Power Generation is the major source contributing approximately
40% of the World Electricity Generation from 1996 to 2016. Gas power Generation has increased from
15% to 23%, while Oil Power Generation has decreased from 9% to 3% during the past two decades. The
total Renewable Generation including Large Hydro power has increased from 20%-23% during the time
horizon while Nuclear Power Generation has decreased from 17% to 10%. World Electricity Generation
during the last twenty years is summarized in Figure 1.5 and World Electricity Generation by source as a
percentage is shown in Figure 1.6

According to the BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2019 Electricity Generation by fuel in
2018.
Region % Electricity Generation

Oil Natural Gas Coal Nuclear Hydro Renewables Others

Energy electricit
y
Total Asia Pacific 1.5 12.1 59.6 4.5 14.0 8.1
Total Africa 9.1 40.0 30.2 1.3 15.6 3.8
Total Middle East 25.1 70.8 1.7 0.6 1.2 0.6
Total CIS 1.0 48.6 18.3 14.6 17.3 0.2
Total Europe 1.4 18.3 21.6 23.5 16.1 19.1
Total S. & Cent.
America 6.9 17.5 5.9 1.7 56.1 12.0
Total North
America 1.2 33.8 24.6 17.7 13.0 9.7
 Figure 1.5 – World Electricity Generation(GWh)

Figure 1.6 – World Electricity Generation by Source as Percentage

According to the above data we can see at the moment Sri Lankan Power generation is supplied
by 40 % from Hydro - Power , 55% from thermal power ( including IPP and Coal) , 11.2 %
from Renewable sources (mini hydro, wind, solar, dendro). It mean average 50-60 % electricity
generation form renewable energy source. (Including Hydro Electricity).This is a really good
condition when consider the environment pollution controlling and economical side. Europe
region also have 30 - 40 % share of the renewable electricity generation.
However Sri Lanka has 5 to 6 % growth at an
average annual rate. Since when consider the future power plant requirement we have to think
economical, social & environmental analysis before implement the power plants.
We have few selections when implement power plant in future Sri Lanka

1. Hydro Power Plant

2. Coal Power Plant

3. Natural Gas Power Plant

4. Renewable Power Plant

 Wind Power Plant
 Solar Thermal Power Plant
 Bio Mass Power Plant
 Mini hydro

However at this moment Hydro Power is saturated in Sri Lanka since we cannot further added
Hydro Power Plant to the power system. Because of that when consider sustainable power
generation plan in the future Sri Lanka we have only few options.

1. Coal Power Plant

2. Natural Gas Power Plant
3. Renewable Power Plant
 Wind Power Plant
 Solar Thermal Power Plant
 Bio Mass Power Plant
 Mini hydro

Coal Power Plants

Coal Power plants are short term best option for Sri Lankan power requirement. We have good
knowledge about the coal power plant technologies and also it has good economical benefits.
However Coal power plant has negative Environment and social effects but we can mitigate
these effects with good controlling methods.

Natural Gas Power Plant

Natural gas power plants are growing power generation technology in the world. However for us
this is a new technology. Natural gas technology is economical power generation technology
when compare with the Oil-fired power generation. Further it has positive environment and
social benefits compare with the thermal power generation. Natural Gas Power technology is
best option as short and intermediate power requirement in Sri Lanka.
Renewable Power Plant

Natural gas power plants are long term best option for Sri Lankan power requirement. Recently
we are using 10 -15 % renewable power form total power requirement. However this power
should not be a short term solution this should be a long term power solution for Sri Lanka.
Renewable power plants have high environmental and social benefits it also has high economical
benefits (especially wind Power and Solar Power) compare with the thermal power plant.

Table 4.3: Future Sri Lankan power supply plan

Power Solution Time Frame Economical Social&

Effects Environmental
Effects
Coal Power Plants Short Term High Cost Negative effects
Solution Effective
Natural Gas Power Plant Short Medium Cost Medium effect
Intermediate Effective
Term
Solution
Renewable Power Plant Long Term High – Medium Positive Effect
Solution cost Effective
 5. Describe major environmental impacts of fossil fuel consumption. What do you suggest
to mitigate that situation? - (15 marks)

Major Environmental Impacts of Fossil Fuel Consumption

1. Air Pollution

Air pollution is caused by emissions of toxic gases such as S02, NOx and carbon monoxide
together with fly ash and suspended particles. It can pose a serious threat to health, and cause a
high incidence of respiratory problems. In principle these problems are soluble through the
enforcement of clean air regulations. There is however a cost associated with such measures and
a programme of cleaning up the air requires concerted action by governments if it is to succeed.

2. Acid Rain

Acid rain results when sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) are emitted into the
atmosphere and transported by wind and air currents. The SO2 and NOX react with water,
oxygen and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. These then mix with water and
other materials before falling to the ground. While a small portion of the SO2 and NOX that cause
acid rain is from natural sources such as volcanoes, most of it comes from the burning of fossil
fuels. The major sources of SO2 and NOX in the atmosphere are:

 Burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity. Two thirds of SO2 and one fourth of NOX
in the atmosphere come from electric power generators.
 Vehicles and heavy equipment.
 Manufacturing, oil refineries and other industries.

Winds can blow SO2 and NOX over long distances and across borders making acid rain a
problem for everyone and not just those who live close to these sources.

3. The Greenhouse Effect

The third major environmental problem caused by fossil fuels is global warming, or the
"greenhouse effect". The increasing concentration of carbon dioxide, methane,
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), nitrous oxide and ozone in the atmosphere is acting to trap heat
radiated from the earth's surface, and is raising the surface temperature of the earth. Carbon
dioxide constitutes about 50 per cent of the greenhouse gases, and most of the CO2 is released by
fossil fuel combustion. Other contributors to the greenhouse effect are also the product of
energy consumption however leakages from natural gas wells and pipelines release significant
amounts of methane; NOx is produced from fossil fuel combustion, and ozone results from the
combination of fossil fuel pollutants and biomass -burning. Incomplete combustion produces
carbon monoxide and a range of hydrocarbon gases including methane.
Minimizing the Impact of Fossil Fuels on the Environment

Since the industrial revolution, even modest modern lifestyles are reliant on the burning of fossil
fuels. We rely on these fuels for transportation, heating, industrial applications and to generate
electricity. Burning fossil fuels is the single biggest human activity that produces the largest
negative impact on our environment, particularly relating to the release of harmful Greenhouse
Gases (GHG) into our atmosphere associated with climate change. In fact, more than 60% of
harmful emissions are directly related to the burning of fossil fuels.

Governments continue to grapple with legislation to drive a significant decrease in these

emissions and general awareness surrounding environmental sustainability and the importance
thereof continues to grow. Yet despite the many environmental efforts to date, there is no silver
bullet when it comes to dealing with reducing our reliance on fossil fuels. Even with all the
positive advances in renewable energy, their adoption and rollout will take a considerable
amount of time and will come at a considerable cost.

 Use alternative fuel – Renewable Energy

 Lower Fuel Consumption

There are some great initiatives that focus on alternatives to burning fossil fuels, like deciding to
leave the car at home and take the bike to work, and that is great. However, changing people’s
behavior usually comes at the cost of increased inconvenience, which creates a lot of resistance
in getting such voluntary types of initiatives off the ground.

Alongside the approach of using alternatives, we can also explore methods of reducing the
consumption of fossil fuels by discovering ways to maximize our use of equipment that uses
fossil fuels, that in and of itself means we would need to burn less fuel to get the same result.

With enough education and adoption, and with the widespread use of technologies that are
becoming cheaper, businesses, organizations, and individuals can learn to apply best practices
for optimal fuel reduction. We can start by educating drivers about behaviors that can be adjusted
such as excessive speeding, hard braking, and unnecessary idling, all of which burn fuel
wastefully. But, consumption reduction techniques can be exhausted and at some point, they will
face diminishing returns.

 Increase Fuel Efficiency

The next place to turn is making sure that the fuels that must be used are used as efficiently as
possible. Put very simply, this means that we need to ensure that the fuel combustion process is
as efficient as possible, producing the most energy, with minimum waste and emissions, for the
task at hand. Even marginal improvements in fuel efficiency can have a massive impact on the
environment, provided they are far-reaching and can be deployed on a global scale.
Leading-edge fuel efficiency solutions are available that combine synthetic fuel additives
designed to extract more performance out of engines and reduce emissions, advanced lubricants
slow down engine wear-and-tear, and advanced instrumentation and applications exist that
effectively boost fuel efficiency and reduce overall consumption.

Unfortunately, these solutions are targeted at very large private sector players, institutions, and
government sectors. As great as that is at achieving a positive impact, it does leave out SME’s,
smaller organizations, local communities and even individuals — and this is a very large
percentage of the fossil fuel burning sector to leave out of the equation.

Democratizing Fuel Reduction and Efficiency Efforts

To have a real impact, we need something more measurable than voluntary efforts, something
that has the potential to have more persistent and lasting results, and something that can make
use of recent exponentially explosive technological advances.

Why stop at asking drivers to turn off and restart their engines at traffic lights when this can be
automated by cars and traffic lights that communicate and sync, with no inconvenience to the
driver?

To achieve further fuel reduction and efficiency gains we have to be able to mobilize smaller
organizations, smaller businesses, and even individuals. We need to decentralize and distribute
tech and fuel management solutions to the micro level.

We need advanced applications and management software to interact with consumer assets.
Consumer assets can sync with traffic networks, for instance. We are already seeing gains with
the widespread use of GPS and mapping software for optimal routing.

Gadgets that can measure and monitor emissions are becoming cheaper, more connected and
gearing for mainstream adoption. Gadgets can be attached to generators and engines to monitor
fuel and oxygen mixtures to ensure they are operating at near optimum efficiency and notifying
us when they need tuning. As IoT systems come online and are matched by automated software
solutions, a lot of the fine tuning can happen in an automated fashion.
 6. Carbon neutrality is the trend in the modern society. Explain some of the technologies,
ideas and approaches that will play a part in achieving the net zero vision

Figure 6.1: Conceptual diagram for carbon neutrality

Carbon neutrality, or having a net zero carbon footprint, refers to achieving net zero carbon
dioxide emissions by balancing carbon emissions with carbon removal (often through carbon
offsetting) or simply eliminating carbon emissions altogether (the transition to the "post-carbon
economy"). It is used in the context of carbon dioxide-releasing processes associated with
transportation, energy production, agriculture, and industrial processes. Carbon-neutral status can
be achieved in two ways:

 Balancing carbon dioxide emissions with carbon removal beyond natural processes, often
through carbon offsetting, or the process of removing or sequestering carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere to make up for emissions elsewhere. Some carbon-neutral fuels
work in much the same way by being made from carbon dioxide themselves, either
natural or man-made, despite producing carbon emissions as well. Much more extreme
forms of carbon dioxide removal may also be used.
  Reducing carbon emissions (low-carbon economy) through changing energy sources and
industry processes. Shifting towards the use of renewable energy (e.g. wind and solar
power) has shown the reduction of carbon dioxide emissions. Although both renewable
and non-renewable energy both produce carbon emissions, renewable energy has a lesser
to almost zero carbon emissions. which produces much less carbon emissions compared
to fossil fuels. Making changes to current industrial and agricultural processes to reduce
carbon emissions (for example, diet changes to livestock such as cattle can potentially
reduce methane production by 40%. Carbon projects and emissions trading are often used
to reduce carbon emissions, and carbon dioxide can even sometimes be prevented from
entering the atmosphere entirely (such as by carbon scrubbing).

The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases (GHGs) measured in terms of
their carbon dioxide equivalence. The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary's Word
of the Year for 2006. The term climate neutral reflects the broader inclusiveness of other
greenhouse gases in climate change, even if CO2 is the most abundant. The terms are used
interchangeably throughout this article.

There are multiple ways of removing CO2 from the atmosphere, most of which fall into three
broad categories: (1) nature-based solutions, (2) measures that aim to enhance natural processes,
and (3) technology-based solutions.

Nature-based solutions

include afforestation and reforestation. These involve the repurposing of land use by growing
forests where there was none before (afforestation) or re-establishing a forest where there was
one in the past (reforestation). Other nature-based solutions include restoration of coastal and
marine habitats to ensure they continue to draw CO2 from the air.

Enhanced natural processes

Include land management approaches to increase the carbon content in soil through modern
farming methods. This can incorporate the addition of biochar (charcoal produced from biomass)
to soils, where the carbon can remain stored for hundreds or thousands of years. Less developed
approaches include enhanced weathering to accelerate natural processes that absorb CO2 (for
example, by adding very fine mineral silicate rocks to soils) or ocean fertilisation in which
nutrients are added to the ocean to increase its capacity to absorb CO2. Enhanced weathering and
ocean fertilisation approaches require further research to understand their potential for carbon
removal as well as their costs, risks and trade-offs.
Technology solutions

Include bio energy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) and direct air capture, which – as
the name suggests – involves the capture of CO2 directly from the atmosphere. Both of these
solutions rely on geological storage of CO2 for large-scale carbon removal and could play an
important role in clean energy transitions. They are discussed in more detail below.

In pathways limiting global warming to 1.5°C with limited or no overshoot, the IPCC found that
agriculture, forestry and land-use measures could be removing between 1 billion and 11 billion
tonnes of CO2 per year by 2050. The potential amount of CO2 removal from BECCS ranged
from zero to 8 billion tonnes per year by then. To put this in context, global energy-related CO2
emissions were 33 billion tonnes in 2018. Other carbon removal options are not included in the
IPCC pathways because of their lack of maturity.

1. Bio energy with carbon capture and storage

BECCS involves the capture and permanent storage of CO2 from processes where biomass is
burned to generate energy. This can include power plants using biomass (or a mix of biomass
and fossil fuels); pulp mills for paper production; lime kilns for cement production; and
refineries producing biofuels through fermentation (ethanol) or gasification (biogas) of biomass.

BECCS enables carbon removal because biomass absorbs CO2 as it grows, and this CO2 is not
re-released when it is burned. Instead, it is captured and injected into deep geological formations,
removing it from the natural carbon cycle.

BECCS is one of the most mature carbon removal options. There are a number of BECCS
facilities operating around the world today, capturing CO2 from industrial processes (for
example, ethanol production) and biomass-based power generation. In the United States, for
instance, the Illinois Industrial Carbon Capture and Storage project is capturing up to 1 million
tonnes of CO2 from a bioethanol facility each year and storing it in a dedicated geological site. In
the United Kingdom, Drax has begun a pilot project to capture CO2 from its biomass-fuelled
power plant. If the project is successful, it could become the world’s first negative emissions
power plant.

In some cases, BECCS can offer a relatively low-cost opportunity for the deployment of carbon
capture and storage. This includes the production of bio ethanol, where the CO 2 capture costs can
be as low as USD 25 per tonne of CO2. At the same time, BECCS faces deployment challenges
related to the availability of sustainable biomass and the need for infrastructure to transport and
store CO2, which is lacking in most regions of the world.
 2. Direct air capture

Direct air capture can enable carbon removal in which CO2 captured from the atmosphere is
permanently stored. The captured CO2 can also be sold for use, for example, in food and
beverage production or for blending with low-carbon hydrogen to make synthetic fuels. But in
most cases, the captured CO2 that is used is re-released into the atmosphere, such as when the
fuel is burned. In these cases, use of the captured CO2 could still generate climate benefits,
particularly where synthetic fuels are replacing conventional fossil fuels, for example. But this
would not result in negative emissions.

Due to the low concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere, direct air capture technologies are
currently more energy-intensive and expensive than other carbon capture applications, which
draw off more concentrated CO2 from industrial facilities or power plants. Cost estimates in
academic literature range between about USD 95 and USD 230 per tonne of CO2 from direct air
capture, with the lower end reflecting cost targets for future large-scale deployment.

Today, more than 10 direct air capture plants are operating in Europe, the United States and
Canada. Most of these plants are small and sell the captured CO 2 for use – for carbonating
drinks, for example. However, the first large-scale direct air capture plant is now being
developed in the United States by a partnership between Carbon Engineering and Occidental
Petroleum. The plant will capture up to 1 million tonnes of CO2 each year for use in enhanced oil
recovery and could become operational as early as 2023. In Iceland, the CarbFix project is
capturing CO2 from the atmosphere for injection and storage in basalt rock formations.

3. Carbon removal can be part of transitions to ‘net zero’ and beyond

In its recent announcement, Microsoft said it is establishing a USD 1 billion climate innovation
fund to accelerate the global development of carbon reduction, capture and removal
technologies. This could provide a much-needed boost for emerging carbon removal
technologies, which will be important for meeting not only Microsoft’s ambitious carbon
negative pledge but also broader climate goals.

The IEA has consistently highlighted that global energy transitions will require a portfolio of
technologies and measures. There is no single or simple solution to meeting international climate
goals while ensuring energy security and expanding energy access. While cutting emissions is an
urgent priority, the development and deployment of carbon removal technologies such as
BECCS and direct air capture could play an important and complementary role in shifting the
energy sector towards carbon neutrality and – for some key sectors – a carbon negative pathway.

REFERENCES

4. BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2019 | 68 th edition

5. Ceylon electricity board Long term generation expansion plan 2020-2039