How to Tune a Piano, the Piano Tuning Tutorial http://piano.detwiler.

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How to Tune a Piano

Step-by-step procedure & proper tools
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Welcome! We show how to use proper tools and a basic electronic tuner to Seleccionar idioma ▼
tune a single note or the whole piano. Most other tuning sources tell you not to
try, overwhelm you with technical detail, or really want to sell you a book. Our Welcome!
piano tuning web page is straightforward, online and completely free. Please share
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The tuning process is mechanically simple but di�cult to master.
16
Professional tuners spend a career perfecting their skills. Read this tutorial
carefully, take your time, and don't expect immediate perfection. Thanks for
visiting and good luck.
For more, see our review
of piano tuning books
Part 1: Three Piano Tuning Tools
This process requires the following special tools. You will protect the
instrument and have better results and with appropriate, quality tools. A set of
Prueba HiDrive Gratis
good piano tuning tools will cost less than a single professional tuning.
strato.es/HiDrive
Asegura Tus Archivos en Internet. ¡Mejores
1. Lever Productos y Mayor Calidad!

The most important tool is the piano Tired of tuning Guitar?

tuning lever, hammer, wrench or key. tronical-components.com
Tronical's self tuning system is now available
A tuning lever is speci�cally designed for most major brands
to �t piano pins, which are square but Vehículos de trabajo
also tapered. Its star-shaped socket allows for di�erent handle positions for rentingparapymes.com

control and comfort. The most widely-used tip size is "#2." Renting Flexible de vehículos. Rellene la
solicitud y le llamamos.
Guitarras de Segunda Mano
To feel the subtle motions and maintain absolute control, the lever must
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have a �rm handle and �t the pin securely. Inferior tools may �t poorly, ruining
Segunda Mano con 1 año de garantía. Envío
the feel, and perhaps getting stuck or causing damage. An inferior tool may Gratis a partir de 70€.
become misshapen or break. Simply put, in piano tools, Piano Restoration
the more expensive, the higher the quality. $20 levers glennbrownpianorebuilding.com

are, in a word, useless. While descriptors vary, avoid Quality piano service since 1971 Piano
Moving, Tuning, Restoration
"budget," "bargain," "economy," "beginner" or "gooseneck"
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levers. "German made" and "Grover-Trophy" are likewise
tecnopiano.com
empty descriptors. Medium-quality models are often Cursos a distancia para aprender a afinar
labeled "student," "apprentice," "craftsman," or propio piano. Salida laboral

"professional"--but no matter the label, if the price is cheap, it is inferior. The lever Can Jordi
I have linked to above is the minimum quality I would accept. €39.95
Mariscada para dos con entrantes, postre y
digestivo en marisquería de Ciudad Jardín
Medium quality models like that pictured or better have interchangeable heads or
even interchangeable tips in case you run into an odd pin or a cabinet Alarmas-Descuento de 200€
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con�guration where a shorter or longer head is better, or just prefer the feel of a
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di�erent size. Spend at least $50 on the lever alone. Professional tuning levers like precio de tu alarma.
this extendable one , with with daily-use durability and high-precision
manufacture, are several hundred dollars minimum. Extendable handles makes it

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for the comfort and preferences of the tuner.

Do you need a tip wrench? If you purchase a lever with an interchangeable tip,
purchase a tip wrench to tighten the tip without damaging it. If you do not use a tip
wrench, the tip is likely to unscrew while attempting to use it. (A tip wrench is not
needed if the head and tip are a single, solid piece.)

Do not use a crescent or socket wrench. These pins are tapered; normal sockets are
not. I tried it; it was a disaster. It slipped, tended to damage the squared corners of the
pins, had too much wiggle for a good feel and was too short to control the turn. The
larger handle of a proper lever is also more comfortable for long sessions. Do not risk
damaging, bending or loosening pins. Buy a proper lever.

2. Electronic Chromatic Tuner

An electronic chromatic tuner, such as the
Korg OT-120 is essential for the amateur. It
will provide the reference for all the notes
in the middle octave. It "hears" the tone you
are nearest, and automatically adjusts the
display to match without having to press
more buttons. It will also play all the tones
in the middle octave.

I �rst used a Korg CA-40. The CA-40 is

adequate, but the best handheld tuner
short of a dedicated professional
electronic piano tuning device is the Korg OT-120 Wide 8 Octave Chromatic
Orchestral Tuner. Its primary advantage is that it has a physical needle, rather
than an LCD digital-emulated needle. A physical needle is smoothly responsive;
LCD needles tend to jump as they move between the gaps in LCD display
positions, making subtle distinctions di�cult. Moreover, the OT-120 needle can
be adjusted for sensitivity, labeled "slow" to "fast" on the dial. I keep mine on
the slowest setting. This keeps the needle from �apping around from temporary
harmonics. Other nice features are a more detailed display, a backlight, and the
ability to select a pitch rather than rely on the device to auto-detect. The OT-120
also "hears" a wider range of octaves, and will display the octave number, though
this is not particularly important for the act of tuning (see below for why). You can
get by with a CA-40, but the OT-120 is more helpful.

Chromatic tuners come in many brands and styles. The very best electronic piano
tuners, referred to as "Electronic Tuning Devices" or ETDs by pros, are $500 to
$1800 or more. For the do-it-yourself method in this tutorial, any chromatic tuner
can work. Be careful with "guitar tuners"; some will not work because they may
recognize only certain notes or don't have the display we will need.

An an external contact mic is a very useful accessory for a chromatic tuner.

Electronic tuners can be confused by extraneous sounds and vibrations in the room.
The closer you can get to the string the better your results. For any Korg the easy
choice is the Korg CM-100L Clip On Contact Microphone For Tuner. The CM-100L is a
microphone on a wired clip with which you can get very close to the string you are
working. Clip it to the metal framework near the octave you'll be working (not directly
to the string.) I got by without it at �rst, but it is worth the few extra dollars. This model

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microphone, though it may need an adapter.

I prefer a dedicated, hardware device to fussing with a software program, at least

at my level, but software tuners exist. Note that with any software or app solution you
may need an external mic for best results. I've gathered information about software
for piano tuners in a separate blog post. For information on hooking up a contact mic
to an iPod, see how we did that in this blog post.

3. Mutes
These rubber wedge mutes are only a dollar or two
each . Assorted sizes come in handy. I use the ones
with a wire handle most often. You'll want a variety
of four to six rubber wedge mutes to get started.
See Additional Tools post in our blog for
information on more mutes.

You may also need a screwdriver to remove some

of the cabinetry for the best access. You will also
want a light source; you must see clearly what pin goes to what string. These
interiors also accumulate a good bit of dust and cobwebs, particularly if they have
not been regularly serviced; dust cloths and a vacuum can be helpful.

Vehículos de trabajo
Renting Flexible de vehículos. Rellene la solicitud y le llamamos.

Where to Buy Tools

Amazon sells tools (you were going to look
there �rst anyway, right?) but beware:
Amazon listings include many cheap,
poor-quality tuning tools. Remember my
advice: Pay for quality. If you need spare
parts or more guidance on what tools are
needed for your particular piano then seek
out a professional piano tool and parts supplier. I recommend PianoSupplies.com
Another tool source is Howard Piano. But even with a professional supply house,
look carefully for quality.

Pause for Reality Check

Now that we have our tools, lets take a deep breath before we start turning
anything. We need to understand our limitations and goals, or, to put it another
way, why a professional tuner tells you not to tune your own piano.

This is more than turning pins. A "good" tuning is two di�erent things: accurate
(in tune) and stable (stays in tune). The professional tuner develops these subtle
skills through years of practice, and strive to perfect them their entire career.

This page does not replace the professional. The simpli�ed approach here is
for the curious owner, or those who want to touch up between professional visits,
or perhaps performers who need an emergency adjustment. I have even heard
from people who had an instrument so neglected that a piano tuner refused to
work on it. This method might at least make it playable once more. But if you have

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to learn more, the basic approach given here will be a good start to help you
understand more in-depth sources.

These are large and complex instruments. It can be quite a task to get all the
keys just right, and this gets worse the longer the instrument has been left
untuned. A instrument that has been left untuned for a long time may not hold
tune; it may need a "pitch-raise" (an extended regimen requiring several passes
on the entire keyboard until everything will �nally stay.) Beyond that, voicing and
regulating the action may be required to restore the best tone. Some will require
repairs, like misaligned hammers or loose pins. Such things are beyond this page,
but we have books and other resources to recommend.

Consider the risks. Carelessness or inexperience can break strings, loosen or

bend pins or cause other damage. Too many loose pins, for example, may render
the instrument practically un-tunable and too expensive to repair.

Read this entire tutorial! I occasionally receive comments from professional

piano tuners critical of this web site. Those remarks are welcome; I use them to
improve the website. However, some seem to dismiss the site without reading it
completely. On the other hand, I often receive positive comments from those who
understand my goals. (Check our Guestbook for reader comments.) Please read
the entire website carefully to be certain you understand the details, risks and
limitations of this simpli�ed procedure.

I taught myself on an old, student-quality instrument, not a priceless Steinway. I

would not risk anything expensive or precious until I had plenty of practice. Still, I
am happy with my results. I think other owners can do the same. With disclaimers
out of the way, let's begin.

Part 2: Three Piano Tuning Steps

We have both a video and an info-graphic outlining the process. It is just an
overview; be sure to keep reading this page for all the details.

Our Own YouTube Video

Our Infographic

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Before you begin, clear the area of other humans. Turn o� all other sources of
sound, especially things that "hum." Lock the doors. Prop the lid wide open. You
may need to remove some of the cabinet members; they are designed to be easily
removed with no more than a screwdriver. Position your light source.

Step 1: Tune one string in middle octave

The middle octave is "middle C" also called C4,
upward to C5. Each key in this region strikes three
strings in most cases (two on some reduced spinets
like mine.)

1. Pick one string to work at a time; if three

strings, start with the middle. Carefully �nd the
pin that turns the string you want to tune.
Place the lever so that the socket is fully seated
on the pin.
2. Place your foot on the sustain pedal to lift the
dampers o� the strings whenever placing or I has two strings per
removing mutes. This will protect the felt of the key at this octave;
dampers while you place mutes. most instruments have three.
3. Gently place the rubber wedge mutes to stop
the vibration of the other strings in the set, but not so tight that the string is
unnecessarily deformed.
4. Turn the pin counter-clockwise to slightly loosen the string (�at the note). This
assures that you are on the right pin, among other things.
5. While repeatedly striking the key FIRMLY, turn the pin with the lever clockwise
VERY SLIGHTLY until the Korg shows that it is in tune.

The Korg CA-40 or OT-120 automatically detect the note you are trying to reach. If
the pitch is really o�, the Korg may think you are on another note, so make sure
you know what you are looking for. The OT-120 can be set to listen for a speci�c
pitch. Alternatively, the CA-40 or the OT-120 can also play the tone for you to tune
by ear. More about matching by ear in Step 2.

Important Details About Step 1:

The lever socket must be securely placed on the pin. The pin will bend, mar or
even strip corners if the lever socket is not seated completely. The handle should
have no side to side movement when properly seated; the only direction of
movement should be a radial turn.

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some time to get your ear accustomed to what you are listening for. If you are
hasty you can stretch the string to the break point before you realize your
mistake.
Righty Tighty, Lefty Loosey! Turning the pin right/clockwise will tighten to raise
the pitch. Turning it left/counter-clockwise will loosen to lower the pitch.
Do not overwork the pin. Twist it gently, little by little, without bending it. Don't
wiggle it side to side in any way. Move the pin as little as you can (you'll get better
with practice.) Too much twisting and wiggling can loosen it; a loose pin will keep
slipping out of tune. Rough technique may permanently loosen pins, requiring
replacement by a technician. As a novice, it's better to stop with "pretty close" over
"exactly right" in order to resist the temptation to overwork a pin. Perfection
requires time.
Listen carefully for a change in tone when you begin turning. You should hear
a change in tone with even the smallest movements. If nothing changes, stop to
make sure you are on the right pin.
Loosen the tension (turn left) a little �rst before tightening (turning right).
Better to relax the string with your �rst movement, than to over-tighten
needlessly, especially if you happen to be on the wrong string! Over-tightening
breaks strings, and is a common error for the inexperienced.
Establish a pattern. Develop a consistent sequence for each note, e.g., middle
string--right string--left string etc. You will eventually learn the pattern for what
string goes to what note, you be less likely to choose the wrong pin, and you will
not as easily loose track of what you have done. It does not have to be the order
we give you; a pro piano tuner have his or her preferences, too
About "Setting the Pin." Setting the pin means to move it in such a way that it
does not easily slip back. To set, your �nal movements should be:
1. a slight tightening/clockwise move to stretch the string just a hair above pitch
2. followed by an even slighter loosening/counterclockwise to move into correct
pitch.

This is where practice comes in. The better the tuner, the better he or she is at
setting pins, and the longer a tuning holds. As a novice, your result probably won't
hold as long because of this important skill.
Strike the key �rmly while turning the lever. The vibrations this creates
equalize the tension along the string. A string �rmly struck while turning will stay
tuned longer. If play softly, the string may relax later when someone does play it
hard, and it will slip out. If you like, you can begin with gentler hits; striking it hard
all the time is exhausting and irritating to the ear. After you think you have a string
tuned, �nish with a very sharp "test blow" or two, then recheck the result before
moving on.
Tune to the "early" tone as you strike. As string vibration diminishes, the pitch
will change slightly. Use the �rst, loudest sound made. Strike again if the volume
begins to diminish before you �nish. Hey, that rhymes.
With an electronic tuner, particularly an inexpensive one with its low-resolution,
jumpy LCD needle, you will �nd it nearly impossible to hit the exact frequency
each time. I let the needle hover just a shade sharp when in doubt, as things
generally (though not always) go �at over time rather than sharp. Note that I am
not deliberately tuning sharp; rather I am avoiding erring �at due to the
limitations of the display. (In some humid climates, notes may temporarily go
sharp as the air moisture swells the soundboard, pulling the strings tighter.
However, even here the change from humid to dry to humid will ultimately result

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Step 2: Match remaining string(s)

After the �rst string is tuned, it's time to tune the other string or two in the set to
the �rst; this is called "tuning the unisons."

1. Move the mutes so that the �rst, tuned string and a second string are free,
but the third, if present, is still dampened by a mute.
2. Ignore the chromatic tuner; tune the unisons by ear.
3. Put your wrench on the second string's pin. While repeatedly striking the key
hard, turn the second pin until you can hear no more "beats"--that is, it
sounds like one note, not two in disharmony.
4. Repeat for the third string if necessary, with all rubber mutes removed.

Repeat Step 1 and Step 2 for each in note from C4 to C5. When you have
completed this �rst octave, you have "set the temperament." In Step 3, you will
use this �rst octave as your reference for the rest of the keys.

If you are not sure what to listen for, here is an mp3 (104k �le) I recorded
of a unison being tuned. (Javascript Pop-up window.) In the recording, I
start with an A4 that is in tune, then use the lever to loosen one of the
strings out of tune, then bring it back into tune again. Disclaimer: In order to
demonstrate in this mp3, I have turned the pin dramatically. Turn as little as
possible to avoid loosening the pins.

Do not tune the unisons with the electronic tuner. It's all but impossible to get
a match that way. Tuning unisons by ear is the quintessential skill here; no
electronic device can replace it. For more on unisons and handling the lever, see
our blog.

Step 3: Tune by comparing octaves.

When you have tuned all the strings in the middle octave, you have "set the
temperament." You will now use this middle octave, not the electronic chromatic
tuner, as the reference for the rest of the keys.

1. Do not use the chromatic tuner.

2. First, tune the octaves above and below the middle by ear, matching them to
the middle octave, e.g, A4 to A5, B4 to B5, etc. Work one string in the note at a
time (muting the others)--this time comparing it to the corresponding note in
the middle octave rather than the chromatic tuner.
3. Second, tune the other string(s) (that is, the unisons) within the note to the
�rst as described above.
4. Finally, work your way outward, octave by octave (e.g., A5 to A6, then A6 to A7,
etc.)

Hit both a reference and the key being tuned at the same time with one hand
while using the lever with the other. Since the hand only spreads one octave, this
presents the risk that an error or a pin that slips can be carried on, so frequently

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get to the extreme high and low octaves, it becomes harder to hear precise
di�erences between the reference and the target. If in doubt, err on the sharp
side for upper octaves, and on the �at side for lower octaves for the best sound
(see "Finer Points" below.)

Similar to unisons, the exact order of progression of key to key is up to you, but its
best to keep to a pattern so as not to miss anything. Furthermore, you may
alternate between high and low octaves to keep tension on the soundboard
equalized and your results stable.

Details About Step 3:

Stretching Octaves: For the sound, one must "stretch octaves," which is to
intentionally pull upper octaves progressively sharp and lower octaves
progressively �at. Electronic equipment and software can help a professional
piano tuner calculate precise stretch frequencies, but these are expensive, and
even then he or she will often adjust it from the indicated value anyway. In our
method, we are aligning the entire middle octave to an outside standard, which is
not the best, but these notes are stretched very little if at all. Furthermore, by
adjusting the remaining octaves by ear, we tend naturally to stretch the octaves
because it "sounds right." This mimics the technique of someone who tunes by
ear. Stretching is required because the physical di�erences among strings (length,
construction) make them respond di�erently from the ideal; stretching in e�ect
customizes the sound to the peculiarities of each instrument. For example, small
spinets need more stretch than giant concert grands.
Equal Temperament: The most popular modern model for the frequency for
each note is called "equal temperament." Equal temperament is designed to give
the overall best sound no matter in what key a song is played. The "ideal" piano
would be tuned with mathematically calculated frequencies that have precise
intervals between notes determined by the equal temperament model (though in
practice the octaves must be stretched, see above.) Many di�erent temperaments,
or schemes, have been developed through the years. Some are experimental;
others deliberately favor certain musical intervals. Interestingly, composers of the
classical period composed for one of several temperaments popular in their time.

This chart demonstrates how far (in cents) from ideal equal temperament
(straight, horizontal line at zero) the high and low octaves are "stretched" on a
typical instrument (heavier, green line). Notice that the middle octave (4) is barely
stretched, which is how we can "cheat" with an electronic device on the middle
octave. Further note that how much an example of a real-life example (light, jaggy
line) varies even from the expected stretch (heavier, green line). Even in the
middle octave a professional may make small adjustments, which is why our
method may be su�cient, but not ideal. A really good ear will be able to tell the
di�erence.

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Chart: Brian Tung, GNU Free Documentation License

Pitch Raise: When left untuned a very long time, the lack of proper tension on the
soundboard by the many strings may physically change the shape of the board
from the original design. It does not hold tune well because the misshapen
soundboard warps in irregular ways: the notes you have already worked slip back
out as you work notes elsewhere. If you �nd this is the case for you, the remedy is
a pitch raise. This is a special way of tuning the entire instrument close, but not
perfectly to pitch to stabilize tension on the soundboard, then �ne-tune after it
settles. Pitch raises are beyond the scope of this tutorial.

Common Questions about Piano Tuning

What if I just want to �x A2 or B6 or something? Tune the corresponding note
(e.g. A4 or B4) in the middle octave to use as a reference. Note: if you have an
electronic tuner that can show frequencies or play reference tones for octaves
other than the middle octave, do not use it for anything but the middle octave. If
you use the A2, for example, on an electronic tuner that is not specially designed
for piano, you will not get a good result because of "inharmonicity."

Why not use the Korg (or an electric keyboard) for all the keys directly? Even
if you get every note perfectly with a simple electronic tuner like a Korg, you will
not get the best result. The di�erent lengths and types of strings tend to alter
their resonant characteristics from the ideal. This phenomenon is called
"inharmonicity." The mathematically-calculated equal-temperament pitch actually
sounds wrong for many keys, getting worse the further you are from the middle,
and more so on smaller instruments with shorter strings. In an acoustic
instrument that has been entirely tuned with a simple electronic tuner like the
Korg, the top registers will sound �at, and the bottom registers sharp. Similarly,
electric keyboards will not have stretch and so will not provide the correct
reference, either. In practice, only A4 (A above middle C) is tuned to a outside
standard pitch, 440 Hz; all the other keys are tuned relative to A4. In fact, a purely
aural (by ear) tuner may just tune the "A" with a fork and do the rest by ear.

In our simpli�ed method, using a simple electronic tuner to set the temperament,
then putting it aside to tune octaves by ear will get you closer to proper
adjustment automatically because it will "sound right." This more closely
approaches what a professional piano tuner who tunes by ear does. See
"Stretching Octaves" below. If you desire an electronic tuner to do all the keys,
then you will need a professional device or software, though a professional using
these devices will make further adjustments.

How do you keep a piano from going out of tune? The primary strategy is to
keep the environmental conditions as consistent as possible. Minimize changes in
temperature and humidity; avoid placement near sunlight, windows, heating
ducts, etc. After that, the best way to keep your piano in tune is to (surprise!) tune
your piano. Once tuned, it is easier to keep it in shape with touch-ups and
regularly-scheduled tunings. Don't wait until you can't stand the sound anymore.

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soundboard; this causes a cascade e�ect where more and more strings go out.
The typical recommendation is to do a complete tuning twice a year, shortly after
the heating and cooling seasons begin.

What is missing in this technique that a professional piano tuner would do?
Listening is only part of the equation. The other part is moving the lever with
precision so that the results are both accurate and stable. Both listening and
lever-work require training, study and practice--perhaps a hundred attempts. In
this tutorial we compensate for the listening somewhat by using the electronic
tuner, but we cannot replace experience, especially experience handling the lever.

Another signi�cant part of traditional aural methods that we skip is using �fths
(e.g., A to D), fourths and other intervals. This requires counting "beats," that is the
loud points in the vibrations that two dissonant strings make. (Remember that
with unisons, that is, the strings of a single note, for example, you match them so
the beats disappear entirely.)

In addition, a professional will know how to stretch the octaves for the best sound.
A professional will be less likely to loosen pins or break strings. They may also
make repairs, regulate (adjust the mechanical action of the hammers) and voice
(service the wool pads on the hammers).

For more questions and answers, visit our FAQ and our blog.

What Comes Next

More Tools
The lever, a chromatic tuner, and a few wedge mutes are all you need to get
started, but several additional items that can make things easier or begin to take
you to regulation and repair.

More Mutes of various sizes. One mute

that many �nd essential, but we have not
used in our tutorial for simplicity sake, is
the temperament strip. The temperament
strip is a long strip of wool felt with which
you can mute many strings at once. It is
used to mute all the outside strings of a
section of notes so that only one string
Temperament strip in position. This from each note can vibrate at a time.
particular instrument has only two Push it between strings with a screw
strings per key in the temperament driver. That way you can e�ciently work
octave; the strip is muting one string on one string in each note without having to
every note to leave the other strings move rubber wedges every time you
tunable. Most units have three strings change notes. After one tunes all the
on each note in the temperament. single strings, tune the unisons by
selectively pulling the temperament strip.
Place it once, and complete the entire octave! This is actually a common
professional approach, especially for setting the temperament (hence the name),
though each person has preferences for when to use what mute. We start with
rubber mutes in this tutorial because it is one less layer of complication for the

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The long mute pictured here is a treble

mute, which can be used to mute the
middle string of a three-string "treble." It
Treble Mute for muting the middle
can also mute one or two strings quickly
string in a triad; several types are
without placing wedges. Handy for spot
available; Papp's tweezer-style pictured.
checking.

If you would like to try repairs, you'll need additional tools, such as this basic
regulation tool kit. Wire, key tops and other parts and accessories are also
available. Repairs and restoration are beyond the scope of this website, but check
our book recommendations.

For more questions and answers, see our FAQ, our blog and our comments
section.

Recommended Books and Links

To learn more, many excellent books are available. We review books most often
recommended for beginners in this blog post.

Chuan C. Chang's book.

Chapter 1 teaches a method for learning to play; Chapter 2 is about tuning.

Precision Strobe
Lots the technical details. Not for the faint of heart!

Recommended Links
More links to content-rich websites with information for the do-it-yourself owner
and player, gathered and reviewed by me.

The Chromatic Tuner Guide

While an electronic tuner seems like a straightforward device, you'd be amazed at
what they can do.

Comment accorder un piano vous-même

Traduction Française de cette page

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Recent posts on our Piano Blog:

Should you tune your own piano?

11 de 12 03/05/15 23:30
How to Tune a Piano, the Piano Tuning Tutorial http://piano.detwiler.us/

detail.Read 'Why you should/should not tune your own piano'

Korg OT-120
The Korg CA-40 has been my friend through the years, but I was ready for an
upgrade. See how the Korg OT-120 stacks up. Read 'Korg OT-120'

Splicing a String: First Attempt

Break a string? It happens, even to professionals. Splicing is a time-honored
technique that gives good results, but I found it to be a challenge. Read 'Splicing a
String'

Eleven Tips from Owen Jorgensen for Stability

Not nine, not twelve, but eleven tips from a master professional. Read 'Eleven Tips
from Owen Jorgensen'

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