EEE/ETE 132 INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS AND

CHEMISTRY

Kazi Naziba Tahsin

Lecturer, EEE, SECS
IUB

Thermodynamics and Enthalpy for Engineers

 Why need Thermodynamics :: An Engineering
Science

• The first law of thermodynamics establishes a relationship

between heat and work (Energy Interactions).
• The second law of thermodynamics states that the
spontaneous energy interactions are unidirectional.
• Thermodynamics is totally silent on the question the rate at
which heat travels.
• How to control the rate of heat transfer?
• Heat Transfer is an Engineering science to design thermal
infrastructure in power plants, electronic devices and
electrical machines
The Bare Pentium 4 Processor
Heat Sinks for Pentium 4
Pentium 4 While Performing
 Review of Thermodynamic Processes

• Adiabatic : no heat transfer from or to the

system
• Isothermal : no change in temperature of
the system
• Isobaric : no change in pressure of the
system
• Isochoric : no change in volume of the
system
 The Ideal Gas

• Ideally, the behaviour of air is characterised by its mass,

the volume it occupies, its temperature and the pressure
condition in which it is kept.
PV = mR
T
• Where
• P – Pressure (Pa) V – Volume (m3)
• T – Absolute Temperature (K) T(K) = 273 + t ( C )
• m – mass (kg)
• R – gas constant (J/kgK)
 Alternative Gas Equation During A Change Of
State:
• The equation of state can be used to determine the behaviour of the gas during a
process. This is defined by a simple expression relating the initial and final states
such as :
P1 V 1 / T 1 = P2 V 2 / T 2
 Thermodynamic Processes for gases
• There are four distinct processes which may be undertaken by a gas:
1. Constant volume process, known as isochoric process; given by:-

2. Constant pressure process; known as isobaric process, given by:-

3. Constant temperature process, known as isothermal process, given

by:-

4. n = Cp/Cv, the process is known as adiabatic process

 PV Graphs

Pressure
 The State Diagram – Inside Steam Turbine
• Processes1-2, 2-3, and 3-4
represents a typical constant
pressure heating of water which
initially heated to its boiling
point,(1-2),upon continued heat
input it starts to evaporate at point
2, it is completely liquid,
• Then gradually some of the water
becomes vapour till it reaches
point3, where all the water has
evaporated, further heating will
make the water vapour
superheated(process 3-4).
 Worked Example
• A 6 meter cube tank contains helium at 400K is evacuated form
atmospheric pressure of 100kPa to a final pressure of 2.5kPa.
• Determine
a) the mass of helium remaining in the tank;
b) the mass of helium pumped out;

c) if the temperature of the remaining helium falls to 10oC, what is the pressure in kPa?
 Home Task
• A biker equips his bike tyres with a relief-type valve so that the
pressure inside the tyre will never exceed 220 kPa (gauge). One day he
takes a trip with a pressure of 200 kPa (gauge) and a temperature of
23°C in the tyres. After a long time the temperature of the air in the
tyre reaches 83° C. If each tyre consists of 0.11 kg air. Determine:

• the mass of air escaping each tyre,

• the pressure of the air inside the tyre when the temperature returns to
23°C.
 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
• If an object with a higher temperature comes in contact with a lower temperature object, it
will transfer heat to the lower temperature object. The objects will approach the same
temperature, and in the absence of loss to other objects, they will maintain a single
constant temperature. Therefore, thermal equilibrium is attained

• Therefore, measuring temperatures may be based on one of the following

properties:-
•
– Expansion of materials due temperature variations, eg gas thermometer, liquid-in-
glass thermometer, bi-metal strip.
– Electrical resistance of materials.
– Electro-motive force induced within a circuit made up of two dissimilar materials.
– Radioactive properties of surfaces
 First Law of Thermodynamics
• The first law of thermodynamics is the application of
the conservation of energy principle
.
1. First Law of Thermodynamics Applied to closed Systems
Consider a closed system where there is no flow into or out of the system, and the fluid mass
remains constant. For such system, the first law statement is known as the Non-Flow Energy
Equation, or NFEE abbreviated, it can be summarized as follows:

∆U = Q - W
The first law makes use of the key concepts of internal energy (DU), heat (Q), and system work
(W).
2. Internal Energy
Internal energy is defined as the energy associated with the random, disordered motion
of molecules. It is separated in scale from the macroscopic ordered energy associated
with moving objects; it refers to the invisible microscopic energy on the atomic and
molecular scale.
During a non flow process the change in internal energy is calculated assuming the
closed system volume remains constant, the following equation is used
∆U = mCv ∆T
3. System Work
Work performed on or by the working fluid within a system’s boundary is defined as the
summation (or integration) of the product of pressure and volume of the fluid during a process.
W = ∫P.dV
A. For a constant pressure process, the work during an isobaric process is
simply :
W = p (V2 - V1)
B. For a constant volume process, dv =0; hence the work during an
isochoric process is simply :
W =0
C. For a constant temperature ,isothermal process,
PV = C
D. For an adiabatic ( polytropic ) process,
PV ᶯ = c
integrating between states 1 and 2, the work done is derived :

and using the ideal gas definition, the work done can be written in terms of intial and
final states temperatures:
 Second Law of Thermodynamics
• The second law, indicates that, although the net heat supplied,Q1-Q2, in a cycle is equal
to the network done, W, the gross heat supplied, Q1 must be greater than the network
done; some heat must always be rejected by the system.

Q1 > W,
or to be precise:-

• W = Q1 – Q2
• Where, Q1 is the heat supplied and Q2 is the heat rejected.
The ratio of network output to heat supplied is known as the thermal efficiency of the
system.
In 1865 Clausius observed that the amount dQ/T is proper to describe the
thermodynamic phenomenon. This amount was named reduced heat or entropy.
During a process, the change in entropy is defined as :
• dS = Q/T

Definitions of Entropy :

• is a state variable whose change is defined for a reversible process at T where Q

is the heat absorbed.
• a measure of the amount of energy which is unavailable to do work.
• a measure of the disorder of a system.
 Specific Heat Capacity
Heat may be defined as energy in transit from a high temperature object to a lower temperature object. An
object does not possess "heat";
the appropriate term for the microscopic energy in an object is internal energy. The internal energy may be
increased by transferring energy
to the object from a higher temperature (hotter) object - this is properly called heating.
In order to heat or cool a given quantity of a gas in a given time, the following equation is used:

Quantity of Heat (Q)= mass(m) x specific heat capacity(C ) x temperature difference

Since this heat exchange may take place

Either at constant Q = m Cp (T2 - T1)
pressure:
Or at constant Q=m Cv (T2 - T1)
volume:

Note that for a perfect gas Cp = Cv + R and n= Cp / Cv

 Specific Heat at Constant Volume Cv

• Consider a closed system of unit mass, the first law of

thermodynamics applied to this system is:- q – w = du
• If the volume is constant, then w = 0, it follows that
q = du

• But q = Cv dT
• Hence du = CvdT
Or Cv = du/dT
 Specific Heat at Constant Pressure Cp
• Consider a constant pressure non-flow process, the first law:- q – w = du
• For a constant pressure process

• W = p(v2 –v1)= (p2 v2 – p1v1)

hence q – (p2 v2 -p1v1 ) = u2 -u1
• or q = (u2 + p2 v2 ) – (u1 + p1 v1 ) = h2 – h1

but q = Cp dT hence h2 - h1 = Cp (T2 - T1)

or Cp = dh/dT
 Relationship Between Specific Heats
• Since
H = U + PV
dH = dU + d(PV) ;
d(PV) = d(mRT) = mRdT
m Cp dT = m Cv dT + m R dT

• Therefore, Cp = Cv + R Ie Cp > Cv
• The ratio Cp/Cv = n is called the adiabatic index.
• The reason for the differences between Cp and Cv is that in the constant
pressure process part of the heat transferred is used in doing work against the
moving system boundary and all heat therefore is not available for raising the
gas temperature.
• The First Law of Thermodynamics:-
Q – W = ΔU
• And the Second Law of Thermodynamics:-
Q = Tds
This can also be written in terms of volumes and pressures as:-
 Third Law
• The entropy of a perfect crystal is zero when the temperature of a the
crystal is equal to absolute zero (0 K).
• At 0 K, there is no thermal motion, and if the crystal is perfect, there
will be no disorder
• Once the temperature begins to rise above 0, the particles begin to
move and entropy gradually increases as the average kinetic energy of
the particles increases.
• When temperature reaches the melting point of the substance (Tm),
there is an abrupt increase in entropy as the substance changes from a
solid to a more disordered liquid.
 Example 3
A closed rigid container has a volume of 1 m³ and holds air at
345 kPa and 20°C. Heat is added until the temperature is
327°C. Determine the change in Internal Energy:-
a) Using an average value of the specific heat.
b) Taking into account the variation of specific
heat with temperature.
Example 4
Air at 27°C receives heat at constant volume until its
temperature reaches 927oC. Determine the heat added per
kilogram? Assume for air CV = 0.718 kJ/kgK.
Example 5
• An insulated, constant-volume system
containing 1.36 kg of air receives 53 kJ of
paddle work. The initial temperature is
27oC. Determine
• the change of internal energy.
• the final temperature.
Assume a mean value Cv = 0.718 kJ/kgK
 Project Discussions
• Literature Review/ Project Report ( 10 %)
• Project Viva/ presentation ( 5 %)
 Next Class
• Quiz on
• Lectures 1, 2, 3, 4&5
• Short Questions, MCQ, Broad Questions