Functions and their properties 1

0.1 Triple integrals, volumes and centroids

Let f : R3 → R have for its domain some solid region R in R3 .

We divide R into m subregions of volume, ∆V1 , . . . , ∆Vm in any fashion what-

soever.

Figure 1

Next, as in the definition of the double integral, we pick a point (xi , yi , zi ) in

each subregion of volume δVi , r = 1, 2, . . . , m, and form the sum:
m


f (xi , yi , zi )∆Vi = f (x1 , y1 , z1 )∆V1 + . . . f (xm , ym , zm )δVm
i=1

If this sum approaches a finite limit as m → ∞ and this limit is independent of

the way in which ∆Vi → 0, we call the limit the triple integral of f over R,
  
f dV ≡ Triple integral of f over R
R

dV = volume element in coordinate system which describes R.

(If w = f (x, y, z) ≥ 0 over R the triple integral of f over R actually describes

the volume under the hypersurface w = f (x, y, z) in R4 whose projection on R3
is R!).

By definition, we see that (if f = 1):

  
dV = Volume of R
R

The triple integral has the same properties as the double integral. Its evaluation
is by means of iterated integrals as before.

thus if:
R = {(x, y, z) : g1 (x, y) ≤ z ≤ g2 (x, y), f1 (x) ≤ y ≤ f2 (x), a ≤ x ≤ b}
Then:      
b f2 (x) g2 (x,y)
f dV = f (x, y, z)dzdydx
R 1 f( x) g1 (x,y)

Basically, to describe R one first describes its projection on one of the coordi-
nate planes, (say,z = 0).
Then, by cutting R by means of a fibre, one measures the height of z-variation along this fibre
as (x, y) varies over the projection region.

Example 1 Evaluate:   
1 x xy
I= dzdydx
0 x2 0
2 The ABC’s of Calculus

 1  x  xy
I = { dz }dydx
0 x2
 0  
evaluate innermost first
 1  x
= [z|z=xy
z=0 ]dydx
0 x2
 1 x
= (xy)dydx
0 x2
 1  x
= x( ydy)dx
0 x2
 1 2
x x4
= − )dx
x(
0 2 2
4 6
1 x x
= ( − )|10
2 4 6
1 1 1
= ( − )
2 4 6
= 1
24

Example 2 Evaluate the preceeding integral by changing the order of integra-

tion from:
dzdydx to dzdxdy
Idea R as given is:
R = {(x, y, z) : 0 ≤ z ≤ xy, x2 ≤ y ≤ x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1}
So, the projection of R onto the xy-plane is given by:
R
= {(x, y) : x2 ≤ y ≤ x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1}
Sketch R and change the direction of the fibre used to describe R
.

√
The coordinates of the ends of a horizontal fibre are: (y, y) and ( y, y), Thus:
√
R
= {(x, y) : y ≤ x ≤ y, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1}
and,
 1  x  xy  1  √
y  xy
dzdydx = dzdxdy
0 x2 0 0 y 0
 1  √
y
= xydxdy
0 y
 1  √
y
= y{ xdx}dy
0 y

1 1
= y(y − y 2 )dy
2 0
1 y3 y4
= [ − ]|10
2 3 4
1 4−3
= ( )
2 12
= 1 (as before)
24
Functions and their properties 3

Example 3 Find the volume inside x2 + y 2 = 9, above z = 0, and below

x+z =4

Figure 2

1) Here z = 4 − x. First, we determine the projection of this solid on, say,

z = 0.
This gives the region x2 + y 2 ≤ 9 whose description is, say:
 
R
= {(x, y) : − 9 − x2 ≤ y ≤ 9 − x2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 3}

A fibre extending through the solid starts at (x, y, 0) and ends at (x, y, z)
where z = 4 − x. Hence 0 ≤ z ≤ 4 − x, for the z-variation along this fibre.
 
R = {(x, y, z) : 0 ≤ z ≤ 4 − x, − 9 − x2 ≤ y ≤ 9 − x2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 3}

     √ 
3 + 9−x2 4−x
V olume = dV = √ dzdydx
R 0 − 9−x2 0

is one expression for the volume.

2) In cylindrical coordinates, (as we are dealing with a solid carved out of a
cylinder),
R
= {(r, Θ) : 0 ≤ r ≤ 3, 0 ≤ θ < 2π}
and:

R = {(r, Θ, z) : 0 ≤ z ≤ 4 − r cos θ, 0 ≤ r ≤ 3, 0 ≤ θ < 2π}

    2π  3  4−r cos Θ
V olume = dV = rdzdrdΘ
R 0 0 0

which is easier to evaluate.

 2π  3
= r(4 − r cos θ)drdΘ
0 0
 2π
r3
= (2r2 − cos Θ|r=3
r=0 )dΘ
0 3
 2π
= (18 − 9 cos θ)dΘ
0
= 18 · 2π − 0
= 36π

Example 4 Find the centroid of the volume under z 2 = xy above the triangle
y = x, y = 0, x = 4 in the plane z = 0.

It is clear that the projection of this solid under the surface z 2 = xy on z = 0 is

given by the triangle R
:

R
= {(x, y) : 0 ≤ y ≤ x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 4}
4 The ABC’s of Calculus

Figure 3

Furthermore the ”height” of a vertical fibre from R
to the surface z 2 = xy is

√
z = ± xy (since x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0), we take z ≥ 0.

So:

  
Volume of solid region (above z = 0) = dV
R
 4  x
√
xy
= dzdydx
0 0 0
 4  x
1 1
= x 2 y 2 dydx
0 0
 4 3
1 2y 2 x
= x2 ( )| dx
0 3 0
 4
1 2 3
= x 2 ( x 2 − 0)dx
0 3
 4
2 2
= x dx
0 3
2 x3 4
= · |
3 3 0
128
=
9

[or Volume above and below z = 0, = 2 × ( 128

9 ) =
256
9 ]

the centroid (x, y, z) is given by (in Cartesian coordinates):

  

R xdV R ydV zdV
x=    ,y =    , z =   R
R dV R dV R dV
Now
    4  x
√
xy
xdV = xdzdydx
R 0 0 0
 4 x
√
= x xydydx
0 0
 4  x
3
= x { 2 y 21 dy}dx
0 0
 4
3 2 3
= x 2 · x 2 dx
0 3

2 4 3
= x dx
3 0
2 x4 4
= · |
3 4 0
2 · 43
=
3
Functions and their properties 5

128
=
3

Therefore:
128 128
3 3
x= = 128 =3
volR 9
Similarly:
    4  x
√
xy
ydV = ydzdydx
R 0 0 0
 4  x
3 1
= y 2 x 2 dydx
0 0
 4
2 5 1
= x 2 · x 2 dx
0 5

2 4 3
= x dx
5 0
2 44
= ·
5 4
2 3
= ·4
5
128
=
5

Therefore
128
5 9
y= 128 =
9
5
Finally,
    4  x
√
xy
zdV = zdzdydx
R 0 0 0
 4  x
1
= (xy)dydx
0 0 2
  x
1 4
= x( ydy)dx
2 0 0

1 4 x2
= x · dx
2 0 2
 4
1
= x3 dx
4 0
1 44
= ·
4 4
= 16

Therefore:
16 144 9
z= 128 = =
9
128 8

Example 5 Find the volume of the four -dimensional sphere x2 +y 2 +z 2 +w2 =

a2 , of ”radius” a > 0.
6 The ABC’s of Calculus

Here,W = ± a2 − x2 − y 2 − z 2 = f (x, y, z). consider the hemi-hypersphere
w = a2 − x2 − y 2 − z 2 . If x2 + y 2 + z 2 ≤ a2 ⇒ w is defined and f (x, y, z) ≥ 0

So by definition, the volume of this hemi-hypersphere is:

  
= f (x, y, z)dV
R

where R is the ”ordinary” spherical region:

R = {(x, y, z) : x2 + y 2 + z 2 ≤ a2 }
= 7{(ρ, Θ, φ) : 0 ≤ ρ ≤ a, 0 ≤ θ < 2π, 0 ≤ φ ≤ π}

Therefore the volume of this sphere:

  
V olume = 2 f dV
R
 2π  π  a 
= 2 a2 − ρ2 · ρ2 sin φdρdφdΘ
0 0 0
 2π  π  a 
= 2 sin φ( ρ2 a2 − ρ2 dρ)dφdΘ
0 0
0  
constant
 a   2π  π
= 2·( ρ2 a2 − ρ2 dρ) sin φdφdΘ
0 0 0
 a 
= 2 · 4π ρ2 a2 − ρ2 dρ
0
ρ = a sin u, dρ = a cos udu
 π2
= 2 · 4π a2 sin2 u · a cos u · a cos udu
0
 π
2
= 2 · 4πa4 sin2 u cos2 udu
0
 π2
4πa4
= 2· sin2 (2u)du
4 0
(sin(2u) = 2 sin u cos u)

πa4 π 2
= 2· sin (v)dv (2u = v)
2 0
πa4 1 1
= 2· [ v − sin(2v)]|v=π v=0
2 2 4
4
πa π
= 2· [ ]
2 2
2 4
π a
= 2·
4
π 2 a4
= is the volume of a 4-D sphere with radius a > 0
2
Functions and their properties 7

0.2 Leibnitz’s Rule for Differentiating an inte-

gral:

If f : R2 → R is continuous and differentiable in both variables, and:

 b(α)
I(α) = f (x, α)dx
a(α)

where a(α), b(α) are differentiable functions of x, then I
(α) exists, and:
 b(α)
dI ∂f db da
I
(α) = = (a, α)dx + f (b(α), α) − f (a(α), α)
dα a(α) ∂α dα dα

Example 6 Find I
(α) if:

 cos α
I(α) = (x2 sin α − x3 )dx
sin α

By Leibnitz’s rule:
 cos(α)

∂ 2 d d
I (α) = (x sin α − x3 )dx + (x2 sin α − x3 )|x=cos α · (cos α) − (x2 sin α − x3 )|x=sin α · (sin α)
sin(α) ∂α dα dα
 cos(α)
= (x2 cos α)dx + (cos2 α sin α − cos3 α) · (− sin α) − (sin3 α − sin3 α) · (cosα)
sin(α)
 cos(α)
= cos α x2 dx + cos3 α sin α − cos2 α sin2 α
sin(α)

cos3 α sin3 α
= cos α · − cos α + cos3 α sin α − cos2 α sin2 α
3 3

Example 7 2) Let
 x+ct
1
u(x, t) = g(s)ds
2c x−ct
where g is a differentiable function on R, Then:
 x+ct
∂u 1 g(x + ct) · c g(x − ct)(−c)
= g(s)ds + −
∂t 2c x−ct  2c  2c 
by Leibnitz
c g(x + ct) + c g(x − ct)
= 0+
2c
g(x + ct + g(x − ct)
= ( )
2

∂2u 1

= (g (x + ct) · c + g
(x − ct)(−c))
∂t2 2
c

= (g (x + ct) − g
(x − ct))
2
1 ∂2u g
(x + ct) − g
(x − ct)
or =
c ∂t2 2
8 The ABC’s of Calculus

Now,

∂u 1 x+ct ∂ g(x + ct) · (1) g(x − ct) · (1)
= g(s)ds + −
∂x 2c x−ct ∂x 2c 2c
(g(x + ct) − g(x − ct))
=
2c

∂2u (g
(x + ct)(1) + g
(x − ct)(1))

=
∂x2 2c
(g
((x + ct) − g
(x − ct))
=
2c
∂2u (g
((x + ct) − g
(x − ct))
or c =
∂x2 2
1 ∂2u
=
c ∂t2
1 ∂2u ∂2u
⇒ − 2 =0
c2 ∂t2 ∂x

a one dimensional wave equation:

Also
∂u
u(x, 0) = 0, (x, 0) = g(s)
∂t