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Underwater Communications: Recent Advances

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 Underwater Communications: Recent Advances
Mohammad Furqan Ali∗ , Dushantha Nalin K. Jayakody∗† , Tharindu D. Ponnimbaduge Perera∗ ,
Kathiravan Srinivasan‡ , Abhishek Sharma§ and Ioannis Krikidis¶
∗ Schoolof Computer Science and Robotics, National Research Tomsk Polytechnic University, RUSSIA
† School of Postgraduate Studies, Sri Lanka Technological Campus, Sri Lanka
‡ School of Information Technology and Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, INDIA
§ Department of Electronics Communication Engineering, The LNM Institute of Information Technology, INDIA
¶ Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Cyprus, Cyprus

Email:[ali89,ponnimbaduage,nalin]@tpu.ru, kathiravan.srinivasan@vit.ac.in, abhisheksharma@lnmiit.ac.in.

Abstract—Our earth the only planet where water could be of Service (QoS) of UWC, depends on the physicochemical
found and covered more than seventy percent with it. Monitoring properties of water medium and physical characteristic of
different phenomenal activities in an underwater environment, optical, acoustic and EM waves. UWC plays a significant role
such as environmental impact surveillance, marine life, oil and
gas exploration is essential in underwater. In this regard, under- in deployed underwater applications, which has an influential
water wireless communication (UWC) has become a significant impact on the wireless network. The deployment of commu-
field. Optical, acoustic and electromagnetic waves have been nication network setup in underwater systems consist of fixed
widely used for data transmission in UWC. Investigation of and anchored sensor nodes with the seabed, floating unmanned
possible UWC techniques has an influential impact on wireless underwater vehicle nodes (UUVs) or autonomous underwater
communications. Nowadays, UWC is being used for experi-
mental observation, oceanographic data collection and analysis, vehicle (AUVs), signal receiver processing towers, floating
underwater navigation, disaster prevention and early detection devices (buoy), submarines, ships and onshore base stations
warning of a tsunami. This work presents an overview, main [4].
initiatives and up-to-date contributions of the most widely used EM waves in radio frequency (RF), 3Hz to 3 kHz frequency
UWC techniques, i.e, underwater wireless optical, acoustic and range is capable for high data acquisition and transmission
electromagnetic communications. In addition, we summarize
emerging technologies in the UWC, future research directions in shallow water over short distances and usually attenu-
and recommendations using fifth generation (5G) communication ated easily by seawater [4]. On the other side, acoustic
techniques. waves are affected by different propagation factors due to
Index Terms—Underwater wireless acoustic communication, ambient noise, external interference, water-surface geomet-
Underwater electromagnetic communication , Underwater optical rical expansion, attenuation, multi-path effects, and Doppler
communication, 5G wireless communication.
spreading. Optical waves have high bandwidth, but affected
by absorption, scattering and different level of temperature
I. I NTRODUCTION
in underwater. Underwater wireless optical communication
Global warming has become an issue for several decades. (UWOC) has less explored and somewhat challenging to de-
In rising of global warming, the polar ice caps melt gradually ploy than acoustic propagation in underwater [5]. The existing
cause of rising sea level. Hence, the importance of observing Underwater wireless acoustic communication (UWAC) has the
ocean environmental activities such as oceanographic data limited performance of low bandwidth, latency and multi-path
collection, water sampling, etc., has gradually increased with propagation in an underwater medium. The maximum data
time variation. Underwater Wireless Communication (UWC) acquisition in UWAC is roughly 100 kbps for short distances
supports surveillance of coastal securities, especially for mil- while 10 kbps over long distances. The possible bandwidth
itary purposes and commercially for investigation of natural with respect to propagation distance in UWAC are listed down
resources in underwater environment. Moreover, it also helps in Table I.
for mapping and discovering the unknown regions of under- The main purpose of this survey is to understand the main
water. Nowadays, UWC is being used for experimental obser- characteristics and existing features of UWC. This work has
vation, data collection, and analysis, underwater navigation, an overview of possible UWC techniques and up-to date
disaster prevention and early detection warning of tsunami [1]. literature. The remaining structure of this paper as follows:
Optical, acoustic and electromagnetic (EM) wireless carriers In section II, we discuss the main deployable techniques
are considered to envisage UWC in underwater applications. of UWC towards the next generation of wireless network.
Deploying UWC techniques in an unexplored water medium Underwater wireless RF communication (UWRFC) and related
are highly challenging as compared to terrestrial wireless issues are described in section III. Underwater wireless optical
communication [2]. However, the quality and reliability of data communication (UWOC) has been widely discussed in section
transmission in shallow and deep water are dependent on the IV. In section V, underwater wireless acoustic communication
physical characteristics of the water channel [3]. The Quality (UWAC) and it’s issues are discussed. The paper contributes
 Description of water a(λ) b(λ) bb (λ) c(λ)
emerging communication techniques proposed by recent re- for UWC
search in section VI. Finally, we conclude the paper in section Pure sea water 0.053 0.003 0.0006 0.056
VII. Clear Ocean water 0.069 0.08 0.001 0.15
Coastal Ocean water 0.088 0.216 0.0014 0.305
Classified Prop- Possible range Maximum Possible Turbid Harbor water 0.295 1.875 0.0076 2.17
agation distance (km) bandwidth data rate TABLE II
(Hz) (kbps) T YPICAL VALUES OF ABSORPTION AND SCATTERING COEFFICIENTS IN
Very Sort Less than 0.1 More than 500 DIFFERENT WATER MEDIUMS [5]
100
short 0.1 to 1 20 to 50 30
Medium 1 to 10 Up to 10 10
Long 10 to 100 2 to 5 5
Very long more than 100 Less than 1 600
TABLE I
T HE POSSIBLE BANDWIDTH FOR DIFFERENT ACOUSTIC PROPAGATION
DISTANCES [6]

II. T HE INTEGRATION OF 5G IN UNDERWATER

COMMUNICATION

5G wireless network will be the future networking technique

in wireless communications with extremely low latency and
high data rate [9] [10]. A high range acoustic communication
through orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM)
techniques has been discussed in [11]. The authors [3] dis-
cussed UWC techniques and its’ related issues along with the
UWC emerging technologies. Filter bank multicarrier (FBMC)
and generalized frequency division multiplexing (GFDM) are
the latest promising techniques for 5G applications in un- Fig. 1. Acoustic and RF signal propagation between underwater sensor nodes
derwater environment. GFDM is a multicarrier scheme that and terrestrial offshore station
based on time and frequency, which is derived from filter bank
approach [12]. FBMC also addresses both time and frequency
dispersions that should be constructed by using prototype filter. losses occur in pure seawater. The higher concentration of
The parametric constraints should matches channel properties suspended particles in ocean water support to scattering and
[13]. An experimental work on GFDM technique towards absorption phenomena and affect to signal propagation. The
underwater 5G communication systems based on multi-carrier highest concentration of particles could be found in turbid
filter bank has been discussed in [12]. The concept of adopting harbor and estuary water than pure and clear ocean waters.
MIMO-OFDM for underwater acoustic channel and using
FBMC modulation technique towards 5G wireless network III. U NDERWATER RF C OMMUNICATION
investigated in [14].
EM waves used for signal transmission between underwater
A. Types of water in UWC and terrestrial communication platforms [16]. EM waves cov-
The seawater has been categorized into three different cate- ers frequency ranges from few kHz to 1 GHz [17]. EM waves
gories in UWC, i.e, clearest, intermediate and murkiest water propagation setup deploy for shallow water over tens of meter
[15]. The clearest water is the most transparent water, which called by RF buoyant underwater communication [6]. The
could be found in Atlantic and Mid-Pacific ocean. Secondly, possibility of RF signal propagation is higher in shallow water
intermediate water can be found in North Pacific ocean. The than deep ocean water. The oceanic water offers high con-
murkiest water can be found typically in the Northern Sea and ductance which could be seriously affected to electromagnetic
Eastern Atlantic ocean. Due to optical propagation, seawater wave propagation [3]. Thus, very less possibility is available
has been divided into four categories due to optical inherent to establish communication over long distance in the under-
properties (IOP) [6] i.e. pure seawater, clear ocean water, water environment, with ultra-high frequency and very high-
coastal ocean water, turbid harbor and estuary water. Typical frequency ranges (VHF and UHF), or even in high-frequencies
values of absorption and scattering coefficients in different (HF). The electromagnetic waves attenuation considered to
waters are listed-down in Table II. be lower enough to achieve expected communications over
Absorption and scattering of signals play a major role in several kilometers in underwater environment [4]. Thus, the
deciding QoS in UWC. In optical signal propagation, the multiple-path propagation could be an additional benefit for
scattering losses arise due to the high particle concentration underwater signal transmission in inland water reservoirs, i,e
in clear ocean water while the absorption and other major lakes, rivers, etc. from submerged communication nodes to
 Types of Tech- Distance Propagation Frequency Bandwidth Data Attenuation Affecting factors deter- Reference
nology Speed(m/s) rate mine channel quality
RF Very short dis- 2.255x108 30-300 Hz MHz Mbps Frequency and Conductivity and permi- [2] [4]
tance (Up to 10 conductivity tivity of channel [7] [6]
m) dependent (3.5-5 [8]
dB/m)
Optical waves Short distances Almost 1012 MHz Gbps 0.39 dB/m (Ocean) Absorption, scattering, [2] [4]
(Up to 100 m) same as RF -1015 Hz and 11 dB/m (Turbid turbidity, suspended and [7] [6]
(2.255x108 ) water) organic matter of channel [8]
link
Acoustic Long distance 1500 10-1 kHz Hz kbps Distance and Absorption, scattering, [2] [4]
(Up to 20 km) frequency dependent pressure, temperature and [7] [6]
(0.1-4 dB/m) salinity of water medium [8]
TABLE III
C OMPARISON AMONG DEPLOYED UNDERWATER WIRELESS COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES

onshore base stations [18]. In UWRFC, signals experience water mediums [8]. The light speed might be around four to
high attenuation than in terrestrial communication. five times stronger and higher in magnitude than propagation
In UWRFC, EM wave propagation depends on underwater speed of acoustic waves in fluids [4]. The sea water offers a
environment. The physical properties of the water, i.e., salinity, conductive property for RF propagation and dielectric proper-
conductivity, and temperature affect electromagnetic propa- ties for optical signal propagation [4]. Optical communication
gation in underwater [19]. In seawater, the average value of is affected by scattering, dispersion, line of sight (LOS),
conductivity approximately 4 mhos/m, which is doubled in the fluctuation in temperature and by physiochemical properties
magnitude of conductivity in freshwater [6]. The absorption of the water. In dielectric medium, the possibility to achieve
coefficient in seawater can be expressed as [19]. high data rates through UWOC technology as compared to
p UWRFC, where the range of propagation limited up to tens of
α(f ) = πσµ0 f , (1)
meters [4]. In addition, the negotiation of Doppler effect can be
where radio frequency denotes by f and σ represents the obtained in optical communications as compare to competitive
conductivity of the water. The vacuum permeability describes schemes, i.e., EM, acoustic.
by µ0 ≡ 4π10−7 H/m. The value of µ0 is almost equal in fresh According to the environmental conditions, the sea water
and seawater [4]. A typical channel model transfer function for has been categorized into two specific categories, inherent
different channel parameters is widely discussed in [19]. optical properties (IOP) and apparent optical properties (AOP)
in respect with optical propagation. IOP is medium dependent,
A. Main issues in underwater RF communication while AOP is light source dependent [20]. In optical propa-
EM waves are affected by several factors depend on the gation, photons change their direction due to scattering and
water properties, such as density level, which can vary with the possibility of scattered photons originated by salt ions in
temperature, high permittivity, electrical conductivity, and pure water [20]. In UWOC propagation, the beam attenuation
salinity. In addition EM waves also affected by turbidity in coefficient is directly related to the intensity and separation
underwater and by the various types of noises. In UWRFC, distance of light sources. The light intensity at receiver end
multi-path propagation is the most influential phenomena that can be expressed as [21].
has a direct impact on RF propagation from water to air. The
refraction angle and losses also have a consideration in RF I = I0 exp−cdλ , (2)
signaling to cross the air-water boundary by patching through where I0 and I are the light intensities both of transmitter
an antenna [4]. Electromagnetic waves used for a limited range ends and receiver, d denotes the distance between transmitter
of communication in underwater, which could be raise for over and receiver.
long ranges by implementing a specific design of an antenna.
A large size antenna is required for RF signal propagation A. Noises in underwater optical communication
between terrestrial and underwater communication. The mag- There are different types of noises in UWOC such as
netic coupled loop types of antennas are the most reliable for quantum shot noise, optical excess noise, optical background
practical solutions. An another option is to use an electric noise, photo-detector dark current noise and electronic noise
dipole antenna for lateral electromagnetic waves that has been [22].
discussed in [18]. In the deployment of UWRFC propagation
• The Quantum noise: This type of noise occurs due to
scheme, major factors to be considered are high data rate, the
receive random variation of photons by optical receiver.
antenna design and transmitting power strength.
• The Optical excess noise: The Optical excess noise
IV. O PTICAL C OMMUNICATION caused due to transmitter imperfection.
UWOC has many distinct properties during propagation • The Background noise: In this type of noise the back-
at different frequencies over different ranges in dissimilar ground consider as a blackbody radiation in underwater
 Fig. 3. Optical wave scattering and absorption phenomena in underwater as
given in [6] [8]

1◦ C temperature in water. According to the acoustic waves

propagation range, the water channel has been categorized
very short, short, medium, long and very long propagation
Fig. 2. Illustration of Underwater optical sensor network clusters with distances [6]. In Table I, mentioned the different bandwidth
terrestrial RF based station
ranges according to the propagation range. An acoustic model
for sound speed profile (SSP) has been discussed for under-
whose primary source is the refracted sunlight from the water communication environments with 1 km of water depth
water surface. Due to this phenomena, the solar and [23].
blackbody radiation background noises occur. c = 1449.2 + 4.6T − 0.055T 2 + 0.00029T 3
(5)
• The Photo-detector dark current noise:- Due to electrical +(1.34 − 0.01T )(S − 35) + 0.016z,
current leakage from photo-detector this kind of noise
where c denotes acoustic wave speed and T is channel
occurs.
temperature, S represents the salinity of water and water
B. Main Issues in optical communication depth denotes by z. Thus, the acoustic waves speed is a
function of channel temperature, depth and salinity of water
Absorption and scattering are the two crucial effects that which can be proportional to water temperature, salinity and
affect the propagation of optical waves in underwater [7]. We depth of water medium [24]. Due to high absorption and
can understand the simple phenomena of these two factors frequency, wave energy converts into heat energy. Similarly,
by the geometrical model of a water element that has shown longer propagation ranges lead to high absorption losses [25].
in Fig. 3. If the input beam of light strength Pi (λ), the The absorption coefficient is the sum of absorptivity and
small fraction of incident beam Pa (λ) absorbed and fraction contribution of chemical reaction by the water medium [26]
Ps (λ) scattered by water element. The unaffected result Pc (λ) [27]. Similarly, scattering loss occurs due to obstacles during
passing through water element whose volume is δV and acoustic wave propagation. These obstacles can be consider
thickness δr respectively. According to energy conservation by the disturbance at sea surface, existing fixed or movable
balancing, the absorption and scattering phenomena can be objects at the bottom of sea. Spreading and absorption losses
described as [6]. contribute path loss, whose explained by a simplified model
Pi (λ) = Pa (λ) + Ps (λ) + Pc (λ). (3) expressed by [25] [28].
10 log A(l, f ) = 10 log (A0 ) + 10k log (l)
The overall attenuation in underwater coefficient c(λ) can (6)
be expressed as [7]. +(l) ∗ 10 log a(f, S, T, c, p, H, z),
where l denotes the distance (in meters) or propagation range
c(λ) = a(λ) + b(λ). (4)
between transmitter and receiver, f is the frequency range
The values of a(λ) and b(λ) in different water medium could (in kHz) and k denotes the spreading factor. For cylindrical
be found from Table II. spreading the value of k = 1, while for spherical spreading
k = 2, the value of k = 1.5 can be taken for experimental
V. ACOUSTIC C OMMUNICATION spreading [25]. Log A0 is called normalizing factor which is
UWAC is an alternative communication technique which the inverse of transmitted power. The variables are represent-
can be used for longer distance communication than UWRFC ing the attenuation coefficient (in dB/meter), depend on envi-
and UWOC. However it has a limited range of propagation and ronmental channel conditions [28]. The variable S represents
is affected by strong attenuation and water turbidity. Acoustic salinity (in ppt), temperature denotes by T (in degree Celsius),
waves propagation offers low frequency, bandwidth and low and c is the speed of acoustic wave propagation (in m/s), z
speed around 1500 m/s. The propagation of acoustic waves and H are showing the depth of water in meters. The path
is faster in normal water than cold water [3]. Generally, the losses expand when the frequency f and separation distance
speed increase of acoustic waves about 4 m/s, due to rising of d between transmitter and receiver increase.
A. Most common Issues in underwater acoustic propagation
The main issues in underwater acoustic propagation that
affect communication links through man-made noises, path
and multi-path losses, Doppler spread, high and variable prop-
agation delay. Above mentioned losses and factors determined
the temporal and spatial variability of the acoustic channel
that cause of limited communication range, frequency and
bandwidth of acoustic communication link. The following
factors are effective issues on acoustic communication.
• Losses: The main factors can be taken into an account
while signal propagation energy losses, absorption and
scattering loss respectively.
• Man-made and ambient noise: Ambient noise related to
hydrodynamics properties of water such as an underwater
Fig. 4. Emerging Underwater Wireless Technologies
thunderstorm, water movement, water tides, water bub-
bles and fain, wind, rain and biological phenomena. The
ambient noise losses up to 26 dB/km [29]. Man-made nodes capable to charge their own batteries sources through
noises produced by machine tools such as pumps, power electromagnetic radiation in remote networking area [30].
plants, submarines and ships etc. WPT offers a good performance for short distances while it
• Attenuation: Attenuation occurs by absorption of the depends on application requirement for long distance. The
acoustic energy that transforms into heat, scattering, authors [30] proposed simultaneous information and power
refraction reverberation phenomenon, and dispersion. transfer EH technique (SWIPT) that enables to transfer in-
Acoustic waves attenuation is directly proportional to the formation and power simultaneously. These investigated tech-
frequency of waves and depth of water medium. niques support to improve efficiency of system.
• Absorption: The energy conversion phenomena of acous-
tic waves in another form of energy by chemical charac- B. Massive MIMO adaptive Underwater Communication
teristics of the water channel. Massive multi-input-multi-output (MIMO) supports under-
• Geometric expansion: Geometric expansion is a spreading water acoustic communication through large number of hy-
experience and function of energy loss in acoustic waves drophones array. It also support the various types of multime-
over the large area. When the acoustic pulse propagates dia communication contents in real time activities and audio-
from source of origin and covers a large water area, the video conferencing [31]. Massive MIMO is an auspicious
wave energy per unit area become smaller. solution that support to improve throughput, capacity and
• Path and multi-path propagation losses produced by the
energy efficiency of UWC system in the future.
degradation of acoustic waves, generates Inter-Symbol C. mmWaves enabling Underwater Communication
Interference (ISI). The multi-path propagation are the
geometrical constraints and configuration link dependent. Due to high demand of improving communication network-
In Vertical channels develops a little time dispersion but ing capacity, mmWaves are an alternative solution to support
through water layers, it has a long multi-path spread, underwater communication. These waves offer likely similar
which is depends on water depth. characteristics to the optical wireless signals. Hence mmWaves
are considering to offer high bandwidth transmission and
• Doppler frequency spread is an important and noticeable
efficiency to improve communication performances [32]. The
factor in UWAC, due to a low destruction in the perfor-
waves are capable to provide up to 10 gbps data rates which
mance of digital communication and transmission at high
is the solution of hybrid communication [33].
data rate [8].
D. Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA) as an emerging
VI. E MERGING U NDERWATER C OMMUNICATION wireless carrier
T ECHNOLOGIES
Non-Orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) offers desirable
A. Energy Harvesting communication benefits and a promising multiple access tech-
Energy harvesting (EH) is an approach to capturing and nique. It allows to connect multiple users simultaneously
transformed usefulness energy into usable electric power and minimize delay. The future acpect of NOMA expected
where energy requires in terms of heat, vibration and RF allocation schemes in Underwater acoustic networks architec-
signals. Underwater wireless sensor network (UWSNs) is an ture (UWASNs) and equal transmission times (ETT) power
emerging technique to establish reliable data although required allocation which are capable to prevent the wasteful resources
high energy constraints. The wireless power transmission generation in underwater environment that proposed for the
(WPT) technique is promising EH technique. In WPT the future perspectives [34].
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