4.

3 The particle model

explains matter
Matter is made of extremely small particles called atoms, which are difficult
to visualise because they are so tiny. If we imagine the atoms as being tiny
balls, then we are using a model or an analogy. By imagining how the balls
would behave if the substance were melting, dissolving or being heated, we
are comparing the atoms to the balls. This is the particle model of matter.

The kinetic theory of matter Particle energy

The particle model of matter is always true. The movement of people and particles are
Every observation and every experiment can be related to their kinetic (movement) energy.
explained with this model. > When people are sitting quietly, they have
In the particle model of matter, the little kinetic energy. This is like a solid,
particles are always moving. The word ‘kinetic’ where the particles only vibrate.
refers to the energy of anything that is moving. > In a crowd, people are standing and moving
This means we can use the particle theory of around and have more kinetic energy.
matter to describe how the amount of kinetic This is like a liquid, where the particles
energy in each particle determines the state jostle about. Particles in a liquid have more
of the matter (solid, liquid or gas). For this kinetic energy than particles in a solid.
reason, the particle model can also be called > When people are running, they have much
the kinetic theory of matter. more kinetic energy. This is like a gas,
where the particles move fast and on their
own. Particles in a gas have the highest
amount of kinetic energy.

Using the kinetic theory of

matter
The kinetic theory of matter can be used
to explain many of the observations and
measurements that we make about the
substances around us.
Mass is the amount of matter in a substance
and is measured in kilograms (kg). Mass

Solid Gas

Figure 4.7 Some of the energy in storms comes from the condensation of Figure 4.8 A container of a solid has more
vapour into liquid, which we see as rain. particles than the same container of gas.

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 CHALLENGE 4.3A: MODELLING MATTER CHALLENGE 4.3B: MAKING A CUPPA
GO TO PAGE 179. GO TO PAGE 179.

In liquids, the particles jostle against each

other. They do not move far before colliding
with another particle. As a result, particles
in a liquid do not move very far or very fast.
Diffusion in liquids is slow.
In solids, the particles are locked into
position. The particles vibrate, but cannot
Lead Aluminium move to a new location. So, the particles in a
solid cannot spread out and diffusion does not
Figure 4.9 Lead atoms have a greater mass than occur in solids.
aluminium atoms.

depends on the number of particles and the

mass of each individual particle.
A particular volume of solid or liquid has
a greater mass than the same volume of gas
because it has more particles in it. For example,
a container of liquid nitrogen is much heavier
than the same-sized container of nitrogen gas.
A piece of lead has a much greater mass Figure 4.11 Diffusion is slow in liquids.
than the same-sized piece of aluminium. Both
are metals that are made of atom particles that
are packed closely together. The difference is
the mass of each atom particle. Lead atoms
have a greater mass than aluminium atoms.

Diffusion
When the lid is taken off a bottle of perfume,
the smell of the perfume spreads throughout
the room. This occurs without any breeze or Figure 4.12 Solids don’t diffuse.
wind and is called diffusion. Another example
of diffusion is tea spreading out from a tea bag
in a cup of hot water. Stirring the cup of tea Check your learning 4.3
will mix the particles and speed up the rate of
Remember and understand
diffusion.
1 Is there any difference between the particle model of matter
Diffusion occurs fastest in gases. This
and the kinetic theory of matter? Explain your answer.
is because the particles in gases are moving
freely and quickly and there is plenty of space 2 What is the meaning of ‘kinetic’ in the kinetic theory of
matter?
between them. The particles in a gas will
spread out quickly and take up all the space 3 Rank the states solid, liquid and gas in order of energy
they can. content, from highest to lowest.
4 What is meant by ‘mass’?
5 How does the kinetic theory (or particle model) of matter
explain the different masses of different substances?
6 Why does a lump of lead have a greater mass than a lump
of wood?
7 How does the kinetic molecular theory of matter explain
diffusion in:
a liquids?
b gases?
Figure 4.10 Before (left) and after (right) diffusion
in a gas.

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 4.4 The particle model can
explain the properties
of matter
Understanding how particles move can help us explain the physical
properties of matter. This includes how much force the substance can
withstand (strength), its ability to scratch other objects (hardness), its
thickness (viscosity), how much it can be compressed (compressibility) and
the number of particles in a certain volume (density).

Strength held together as strongly and can be removed

or scraped off. Therefore, plastic is not a hard
The idea of strength can be substance.
considered in different ways. A
There is a connection between hardness and
rubber band is easily stretched,
melting. Substances that are hard have strong
but what about a piece of wire?
forces (bonds) between their particles. These
Different wires made of different
strong forces mean that for hard substances
metals will break if stretched.
to melt, a lot of heat energy is needed. These
Tensile strength is a measure
substances usually have a high melting
of the flexibility of the links or
temperature.
bonds between the particles. The
Viscosity
bonds between the particles in steel
are stronger than the bonds between
tin particles. Another type of strength is Viscosity is the thickness or ‘gooiness’ of a
compressional strength. Substances that can liquid. It describes how easily the particles
Figure 4.13 Reinforced withstand large forces without being crushed move around each other. Viscous liquids
concrete combines the have a high compressional strength. are hard to pour. Water has a low viscosity,
tensile strength of steel cooking oil is more viscous and honey is very
with the compressional
strength of concrete. Hardness viscous. Engine oils used in engines have
different viscosities.
Hardness is the ability of a substance to
scratch another substance. An iron nail will
scratch a plastic ruler because the iron is harder
than plastic. However, the iron nail will not
scratch glass because the iron is softer than
glass. The order of hardness is glass, then iron,
then plastic.
Hardness is not the same as strength. A
very hard substance may shatter easily. If this
happens, the material is described as ‘brittle’.
The particle model of matter explains hardness
Figure 4.14 Glass is in terms of the forces that hold the particles
a hard, but brittle,
together. The particles in hard substances are
substance.
held together very strongly and it is difficult to Figure 4.15 Engine oils are labelled with
separate them. In plastic, the particles are not viscosities.

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 EXPERIMENT 4.4: THE DENSIT Y DEN
GO TO PAGE 180.

Gas in bike pump

Normal Compressed

1 litre air
= 0.003 g
Figure 4.16 Compression reduces the space between particles.

Compressibility The densities of some common substances

are given in Table 4.2.
Compressibility refers to the ability of a TABLE 4.2 DENSITIES OF SOME COMMON
substance to be compressed. You can test for SUBSTANCES.
compressibility when substances are in a plastic
Substance DENSITY (G/CM3)
syringe.
If you put your finger over the end of a Air 0.001
syringe, you can compress the air inside it. Foam rubber 0.05 1 litre water
However, if you replace the air with water, you Wood 0.3 = 1.0 kg
cannot compress the water. Similarly, if you Oil 0.75
filled the syringe with sand, you would not be
Water 1.0
able to compress it.
Glass 2.6
In solids and liquids, there are no empty
spaces between the particles, so it is not Steel 7.8
possible to compress the particles together Iron 7.8
any closer. Solids and liquids are said to Copper 8.9
be incompressible. Gases, like air, can be Lead 11.3
compressed. This is because the particles are
Gold 19.3
spread out and there is space between them. 1 litre sand
Mercury 13.6 = 2.5 kg
Density
One way of comparing the ‘heaviness’ of two
Check your learning 4.4
substances is to compare their density. Density Remember and understand
is the mass of a certain volume of a substance. 1 Prepare a table and list the
The density of a substance will affect its physical properties mentioned in
properties, such as its ability to float. Density this chapter and their meanings.
is the mass divided by volume. Density is often Apply and analyse
measured in grams per millilitre (g/mL) or
2 Rank the following in order of
grams per cubic centimetre (g/cm3). 1 litre lead
compressibility: solid, liquid, gas.
One litre of water is heavier than one litre = 8.7 kg
3 If you placed a highly viscous
of air. We say that water has a greater density liquid, such as oil, into a water Figure 4.17 Density
than air. Sand has a greater density than water pistol, what would be the effect? compares the mass
or air, but a lower density than lead. Explain your reasoning. of objects of the same
The particle model of matter explains volume.
4 What would happen to a polished
density in terms of both the mass and the wooden table if you rubbed it with
closeness of the particles. Gases always have sand? Explain by using the idea of
a low density because there is a lot of empty hardness.
space between the particles. Solids normally 5 Why do gases have a much lower
have the highest density because there is no density than solids and liquids?
space between the particles.

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 5.1 Physical change is a
change in shape or
appearance
One way that substances can change is through a physical change. The
substance still consists of the same particles, but it looks different. A cut
diamond is made of the same material as an uncut diamond. Chocolate
that has melted and solidified into a mould is the same as the original block
of chocolate. Physical changes can happen when a force is applied, when
substances break down into smaller pieces and when substances change
state between solid, liquid and gas.

Physical changes are A three-dimensional arrangement of particles

in a regular pattern is called a lattice. The water
reversible molecules in ice are constantly vibrating. This
Most physical changes are reversible, which ice lattice is unique. The solid takes up more
means the change can be undone and the space than the liquid water.
substance goes back to how it was. When you When heat energy is added, the water
put water in the freezer, it turns to solid ice. molecules vibrate faster. However, the molecules
When you take the ice out of the freezer, it are still held in place in the lattice by other water
changes back into water. In this way we can molecules around them. As the ice warms up, the
deduce that a physical change has taken place water molecules gain more energy and vibrate
Figure 5.1 Ice melting to because the water is still water and no new faster. Eventually they have so much energy
water is an example of a substances have been created. that the water molecules break free of the others
physical change. For each of these substances the particle around them. The solid ice has melted to become
itself has not changed. The molecule of water liquid water.
that contains two hydrogen atoms and one
oxygen atom (H2O) is exactly the same when it Changing state
is a solid, liquid or a gas. The main difference is
Substances can change between the three states.
how closely packed all the water molecules are
You are familiar with seeing water change state
and how much kinetic energy they have.
(when ice blocks melt), but other substances may
In ice, all the water molecules are in a only ever be seen in one state. Theoretically, all
regular arrangement (rows, columns and layers). substances can be changed into different states
if the temperature is hot (or cold) enough. Even
gases, such as nitrogen, can be turned into a
liquid at very low temperatures. ‘Dry ice’ is
actually solidified carbon dioxide.

Vaporisation and
condensation
Figure 5.2 Particles in a When a liquid evaporates to become a gas, we
solid may be arranged in say it has vaporised. A vapour is the gaseous
a lattice. form of a substance that is normally a solid or

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 EXPERIMENT 5.1: MELTING CHOCOL ATE CHALLENGE 5.1: EXPLORING PHYSICAL CHANGES
GO TO PAGE 189. GO TO PAGE 190.

Sublimation

Boiling,
Melting vaporisation

LIQUID VAPOUR
SOLID OR GAS
Figure 5.4 Dry ice is
frozen carbon dioxide
Freezing, Condensation gas.
solidification

Sublimation

Figure 5.3 Changing states.

liquid at room temperature. For example, when or from a gas to a solid. This process is called
water is turned into a gas, it is referred to as water sublimation. Dry ice changes directly from
vapour. Vapours that are smelly are often called a solid into a gas. Dry ice is often used to
fumes. However, remember that vapours and produce smoke effects on stage.
fumes are still gases and will behave like gases. However, the ‘smoke’ you see is not
Volatile substances, such as petrol, vaporise carbon dioxide, but clouds of water.
easily. Cooking oil does not vaporise if left at When dry ice sublimes to form carbon
normal room temperatures. Cooking oil is not dioxide gas, it cools the air quickly,
a volatile liquid. which causes water vapour in the air to
condense and form clouds of water.
Boiling occurs when we heat a liquid to
change it into a gas. The boiling point of pure Diamond is the hardest known
water is 100°C. At this temperature, water substance on Earth. It also sublimes,
changes its state to become water vapour. Water but only at extremely high temperatures Figure 5.5 Water vapour
left in the open at normal room temperature (above 3500°C). in the air has condensed
on this cold window.
will gradually evaporate. If the water is heated
to its boiling point, the water molecules will
quickly gain kinetic energy and evaporate faster.
Check your learning 5.1
When a gas changes state to become a liquid, Remember and understand
normally by cooling, we say it condenses. 1 Describe what the following words
The most common condensation that you can mean:
observe is when water vapour in the air (or your a lattice
breath) condenses on a cold surface. The kinetic b sublimation
energy of the water particle passes to the surface c condenses
as heat energy. The water particle slows its
d volatile.
movement and becomes liquid water.
Apply and analyse
Melting and solidification 2 A student claimed that the bubbles
in boiling water were oxygen. Are
When a solid is heated and changes state to they correct? Explain your answer.
become a liquid, we say it has melted. When the
3 Explain why all perfumes are
liquid loses heat and becomes a solid, it is called
volatile liquids.
solidification. When solidification happens to
water, it is sometimes called freezing. Evaluate and create
4 Draw a diagram with the three major
Sublimation states of water. Name the physical Figure 5.6 Dry ice
does not form a liquid.
changes the water goes through to
Some substances don’t ever exist as liquids. Instead the particles
form ice and water vapour. sublimate.
They just change state from a solid to a gas

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGE 81

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