LAB 1

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER HARDWARE

 Mother Board

A motherboard, also known as a main board, is the primary circuit board inside of a computer,
and is where the central processing unit (CPU), memory, expansion slots, drives, and other
peripheral devices are connected. The circuitry on a motherboard facilitates the communication
between all of the devices in the computer.

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Also known as the microprocessor or the processor. It is responsible for fetching, decoding, and
executing program instructions as well as performing mathematical and logical calculations. The
processor is the engine of your PC it executes instructions millions of times a second to get the
work you want done finished.
Modern processors will have multiple cores and are known as Dual core (2 cores) or Quad core
(4 core) 'Octa' 8 core which makes them capable of doing more than one thing at a time, or
multi-tasking.

Fabrication Size:

As processors became more complex, more transistors had to be placed on the chip. To fit more
transistors on the chip, the size of the transistors are shrunk. The size of devices like transistors
on a chip is measured in nm (nanometers), a nanometer being one billionth of a meter. The size
of the smallest feature that the manufacturer's fabrication process can etch onto the surface of a
semiconductor wafer is called the fabrication or process size.
For example, many Pentium 4 processors use a fabrication size of 90nm. Processor fabrications
sizes continue to shrink, allowing more transistors to fit on a chip.

CPU Socket:

A CPU socket is used to connect a computer's CPU (Central Processing Unit) to its motherboard.
Modern CPUs use the PGA (Pin Grid Array) package. With a PGA, the underside of the
processor is covered with an array of metal pins. To install a CPU, the pins are inserted into a
ZIF (Zero Insertion Force) socket mounted on the motherboard.

2. Random Access Memory (RAM)

Random Access Memory, or RAM, usually refers to computer chips that temporarily store
dynamic data to enhance computer performance while you are working. In other words, it is the
working place of your computer, where active programs and data are loaded so that any time the
processor requires them, it doesn't have to fetch them from the hard disk.

Random access memory is volatile, meaning it loses its contents once power is turned off. This is
different from non-volatile memory, such as hard disks and flash memory, which do not require
a power source to retain data. When a computer shuts down properly, all data located in RAM is
returned back to permanent storage on the hard drive or flash drive. At the next boot-up, RAM
begins to fill with programs automatically loaded at startup, a process called booting. Later on,
the user opens other files and programs that are still loaded in the memory.
Memory is actually an array of "cells". Each cell holds a binary bit, either 0 or 1. The cells are
arranged in rows of 32 cells to store each "word". Each word can be accessed by its address. A
computer does not have to access the addresses in numerical order. It can store or retrieve a word
from any address at random, hence the term "random access memory" (RAM). The memory
modules that most recent systems accept are 184-pin DDR2 DIMMs, DDR2 DUAL, and now
DDR3 of varying speeds. The type you should buy depends on the motherboard and processor
you choose: For best performance, choose the fastest type of memory module that works
with both. Double data rate synchronous dynamic random-access memory (DDR SDRAM) is a
class of memory integrated circuits used in computers. DDR SDRAM, also called DDR1
SDRAM, has been superseded by DDR2 SDRAM, DDR3 SDRAM and DDR4 SDRAM. (Single
Data Rate means that SDR SDRAM can only read/write one time in a clock cycle whereas DDR
doubles the data rate in one clock cycle). DIMM (dual in line memory module) are mounted on
PCB comprising of random access memory integrated circuits. Based upon pins they support
DDR, DDR2, DDR3 and DDR4. I.e.201 to 300 pins for DDR3.

3. Basic Input/output System (BIOS)

BIOS stand for Basic Input/output System. BIOS are a "read only" memory, which consists of
low-level software that controls the system hardware and acts as an interface between the
operating system and the hardware. BIOS are essentially the link between the computer hardware
and software in a system. On PCs, the BIOS contains all the code required to control the
keyboard, display screen, disk drives, serial communications, and a number of miscellaneous
functions. The system BIOS is a ROM chip on the motherboard used during the start-up routine
(boot process) to check out the system and prepare to run the hardware. The BIOS is stored on a
ROM chip because ROM retains information even when no power is being supplied to them
computer.

4. Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS RAM)

Motherboards also include a small separate block of memory made from CMOS RAM chips
which is kept alive by a battery (known as a CMOS battery) even when the PC’s power is off.
This prevents reconfiguration when the PC is powered on.
CMOS devices require very little power to operate.

A CMOS Battery.

The CMOS RAM is used to store basic Information about the PC’s configuration for instance.

Hard disk drive types

Information about CPU
RAM size
Date and time
Serial and parallel port information
Plug and Play information
Power Saving settings

Other Important data kept in CMOS memory is the time and date, which is updated by a Real
Time Clock (RTC).
5. Cache Memory

L2 cache on an old motherboard

Cache memory is a small block of high-speed memory (RAM) that enhances PC performance by
pre-loading information from the (relatively slow) main memory and passing it to the processor
on demand.

RAMs are divided in to two categories as Static RAM (SRAM) and Dynamic RAM (DRAM).
SRAM uses transistors to store a single bit of data and it does not need to be periodically
refreshed. DRAM uses a separate capacitor to store each bit of data and it needs to be
periodically refreshed to maintain the charge in the capacitors. Cache RAM is made from Static
Memory which has a speed advantage over DRAM (Dynamic Memory). Cache memory is much
faster and also expensive when compared with the RAM. But the capacity of the RAM memory
is larger than the capacity of the cache memory. In modern computers, Levels 1 and 2 cache
memory are built into the processor die. If a third cache is implemented outside the die, it is
referred to as the Level 3 (L3) cache.
6. Expansion Bus

PCI Slot

An expansion bus is an input/output pathway from the CPU to peripheral devices and it is
typically made up of a series of slots on the motherboard. Expansion boards (cards) plug into the
bus. PCI is the most common expansion bus in a PC and other hardware platforms. Buses carry
signals such as data, memory addresses, power, and control signals from component to
component. Other types of buses include ISA and EISA.

Expansion buses enhance the PCs capabilities by allowing users to add missing features in their
computers by slotting adapter cards into expansion slots. Expansion Cards: Special expansion
cards are one way to add new types of ports to an older computer or to expand the number of
ports on your computer. Like other expansion cards, these cards clip into an open expansion slot
on the motherboard.

7. CPU Clock

Clock speed is the speed at which a CPU moves data through its internal architecture and the
speed at which it executes instructions. Clock speeds are measured in GHz (gigahertz or billion
cycles per second). Clock speeds on modern CPU's are approaching 4 GHz. The CPU clock
synchronizes the operation of all parts of the PC and provides the basic timing signal for the
CPU. Using a quartz crystal, the CPU clock use quartz crystal to generate constant flow of
pulses.

For example, a 200 MHz CPU receives 200 million pulses per second from the clock. A 2 GHz
CPU gets two billion pulses per second. Similarly, in any communications device a clock may be
used to synchronize the data pulses between sender and receiver.

A "real-time clock," also called the "system clock," keeps track of the time of day and makes this
data available to the software. A "time-sharing clock" interrupts the CPU at regular intervals and
allows the operating system to divide its time between active users and/or applications.

 Expansion Cards

Special expansion cards are one way to add new types of ports to an older computer or to expand
the number of ports on your computer. Like other expansion cards, these cards clip into an open
expansion slot on the motherboard.

Figure: An expansion card attached to motherboard

1. Video (Graphics) Card

A dedicated video card (or video adapter) is an expansion card installed inside your system unit
to translate binary data received from the CPU or GPU into the images you view on your
monitor. Modern video cards include ports allowing you to connect to different video equipment;
also they contain their own RAM, called video memory. Video cards also come with their own
processors or GPUs. Calls to the CPU for graphics processing are redirected to the processor on
the video card, significantly speeding up graphics processing. Updating to a dedicated graphics
card offloads work from the CPU and system RAM, so not only will graphics processing be
faster, but the system’s overall performance will improve. The video card also controls the
number of colors your monitor can display. The number of bits the video card uses to represent
each pixel on the monitor (referred to as the bit depth) determines the color quality of the image
displayed. The more bits available, the better the color detail of the image.

Figure: A Graphics card with output ports for both digital and analog video
2. Sound Card

Figure: sound card expansion card.

Sound cards attached to the motherboard and enabled your computer to record and reproduce
sounds. Most computers ship with a basic sound card, most often a 3D sound card. 3D sound is
better than stereo sound at convincing the human ear that sound is omnidirectional, meaning that
you can’t tell what direction the sound is coming from. This tends to produce a fuller, richer
sound than stereo sound. To set up surround sound on your computer, you need two things: a set
of surround-sound speakers and a sound card that is Dolby Digital compatible. There are many
formats to choose from such as Dolby Digital EX, Dolby Digital Plus, and Dolby True HD. The
ports on the sound card allow you to connect additional audio devices such as amplified
speakers, headphones, microphones etc.

 Power Supply

The power supply converts the alternating current (AC) from your mains (110V input or 220V
input) to the direct current (DC) needed by the computer 2. In a PC, the power supply is the
metal box usually found in a corner of the case. The power supply is visible from the back of
many systems because it contains the power-cord receptacle and the cooling fan. Power supplies
- often referred to as switching power supplies, use switcher technology to convert the AC input
to lower DC voltages.
The typical voltages produced are: •3.3 volts, •5 volts, •12 volts

The 3.3-volts and 5-volts are typically used by digital circuits, while the 12-volt is used to power
fans and motors in disk drives. The main specification of a power supply is in watts. A watt is
the product of the voltage in volts and the current in amperes or amps.

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 LAB 3
PROCEDURE TO CREATE COMPANY LETTER HEAD

1. Open MS Office-MS Word – File – New.

2. Go to View- Header and Footer- Type the complete address of a
company.
3. Select the Text and click align right on the standard tool bar.
4. In order to insert the company logo (create a logo using paint software
and save it or use the existing one) inside the header go to Insert Picture-From File-and
browse for the required Picture/file/logo where
you have saved – click Insert.
5. After inserting the logo/image resize the logo to fit the top left corner of
the page by right clicking on the logo, go to Format Picture – select
Layout tab – select the Wrapping Style to In front of text- click ok.
6. To insert a Line go to Insert- picture- Auto shapes- Select the line and
draw below the Logo and the address inside the header.
7. Format the line by Right clicking and selecting Format Auto shape select the Color
and Line tab- chose your style- click ok.
8. Then go to the footer- Insert and format a line as did for header.
9. Type the text inside the footer and below the line.
10. Go to Format-Background-Printed Watermark-Picture Mark-Click
Select Picture- Browse for the required background- click Washout Apply- Ok.
(Outcome is shown in picture below)
 LAB 4

PROCEDURES TO CREATE A RESUME

1. Open MS Office-MS Word – File – New

2. Go to View- Header and Footer- Type name, mobile number inside the
Header.
3. Go to Insert- Page Number-select the position bottom of the page
and Alignment to Center – Click Ok.
4. Go to Table-Insert-Table- chose Number of Columns 2 and Rows to
4. Enter the name, format it (bold and increase the font size via standard
Tool Bar). And in the second column type the whole address.
6. Whenever you want to increase the number of column in the existing
row, select that row and go to Table-click Split Cells- enter number of
Columns-click Ok.
7. In order to decrease the existing column numbers, select that columns
and Go to Tables- click Merge cells.
8. Finally type the declaration outside the table with your name aligning
right side and date to the left side. (Outcome is shown in picture below)
 LAB 5
PROCEDURES TO CREATE A COVER PAGE OF A PROJECT
REPORT

1. Open MS Office-MS Word – File – New

2. Type university name, project title, guide name etc line by line. Select
the text and click align center on the standard tool bar. Keep the cursor
where you want to insert the institution logo and then go to Insert Picture-From
File-and browse for the required picture/file - then click
insert.
3. Format the title of your project by selecting and applying the Word art.
For that go to Insert- Picture-Word art- then chose the style you Want
and click Ok. To change the color of the word art text, right click on the
text and go to Format Word art- chose the color- click ok
4. In order to insert the border for your project cover page Go to the
Format-Border and Shading- Select the Border tab and the style and
color of your choice-click OK.
(Outcome is shown in picture below)
 LAB 6

PROCEDURES TO CREATE A SIMPLE PRESENTATION LIST

1. Open MS Office-MS Power Point – File – New - Blank Presentation.

2. Click the Other Task Panes drop down menu- tick Slide Layout- Select
the Layout you want.
3. Click the Other Task Panes drop down menu- tick Slide Design –
Select the Design of your choice.
4. Click on the slide to type the text- align the text using standard tool
bar.
5. In order to insert new slide –go to Insert - New Slide-Type your text.
6. Each slide may have the different slide layouts depending on the
content.
7. After creating all the slides- By holding Ctrl key select all the slides- go
to Slide show - Slide transition- the transition- select speed to
minimum – tick automatically after and enter the time of interval for
each slide to appear in slide show- Click Apply to all the slide.
8. You can also use Custom animation to apply animation to the
Text/Content, for that select the object- go to Slide Show- Custom
animation- click add effect- choose the style.
9. Finally go to Slide Show- view Show
 Lab 7

PROCEDURE TO CALCULATE THE SUM AND PERCENTAGE OF

MARKS SHEET USING EXCEL

1. Open MS Office-MS Excel – File – New

2. Select 3 column and 3 rows at the center of the beginning- right click Format
cells - click select the alignment tab- tick Merge cells option ok-Type the Heading.
3. Enter the 4 column Heading and 10 row heading by clicking the cursor
on to the particular cell.
4. Enter the data for the 4 columns.
5. Select the first column whole data, except the heading and click ∑ (auto
sum) in the standard tool bar- this will add the column’s data and
places the result at the end.
6. Repeat the same for remaining 3 columns.
Enter the column Headings. Enter the data of following columns
manually Sr No, Reg no, Name, Science, Math, English and BCS.
Enter the following formula to calculate the respective values.
Total=SUM (D5:G5)
Percentage =H5/4
After Writing each formula select the cell and drag to the entire column
to apply.
 Lab 8

PROCEDURES TO CREATE A SIMPLE BAR CHART TO HIGH

LIGHT THE SALES OF A COMPANY FOR 3 DIFFERENT
PERIODS

1.Open MS Office -- MS Excel – File – New

2. Select few column and few rows at the center of the beginning- right
Click- Format cells - click select the alignment tab- tick Merge cells
option- ok-Type the Heading.
3. Enter the column Heading and row heading. Enter the data in each
Column.
3. Select the complete row and column data including the header.
4. Go to Insert- Chart-Bars-Select the Chart Type - Custom type- Select
the type- Next- Select Column - next – under Title give the Heading at
Chart title – under Axes chose the Primary axis – under Legends
chose the Placement – under Data labels chose value- next- select
the place chart-Finish.
 LAB 9

PROCEDURES TO CREATE A PIE CHART FOR A SAMPLE

DATA

1. Open MS Office -- MS Excel – File – New

2. Select few column and few rows at the center of the beginning- right
Click- Format cells - click select the alignment tab- tick Merge cells option- ok-
Type the Heading.
3. Enter the column Heading and row heading. Enter the data in each Column.
3. Select the complete row and column data including the header.
4. Go to Insert- Chart- Pie -Select the Chart Type - Next- Select Column – next –
under Title give the Heading at Chart title – under Legends choose the Placement
– under Data labels chose value- next- select the place chart – Finish.