Manpower Export in Bangladesh: Problems and Prospects

Sardar Syed Ahamed*

Dr. Md. Rezaul Karim**
1. Introduction:
Migration is a significant feature of globalization. During the decade international
migration of labor has increased tremendously. It has become important source of
employment and plays a vital role in reducing poverty in Bangladesh. Labor migration
has become an important factor for Bangladesh in respect of employment generation,
GDP growth, poverty reduction. Manpower export has been increasing since 1976 except
a few years. Number of migrant workers was 6087 in 1976 but at present it stands at 8.7
million and the flow of total remittances to Bangladesh stands at US $ 16566 million in
2013 (BMET-2013).
Remittances have now become a largest single source of foreign exchange earnings in
Bangladesh. It is 11.14 percent of GDP and 53.5 percent of total export earnings of the
country (Table-5) Remittance contributes towards increasing the income of the
remittance receiving households and the standard of living. It increases investment in
human capital, household consumption and also stimulates the savings and investment.
At the household level remittances are used for meeting basic needs and other family
expenses. Remittances have both direct and indirect impacts on micro and macro level
economics. It not only benefited the remittance receiving families but also contributes to
the growth of output and national income. It helps to support payment of imported capital
goods and raw materials for industries. The direct contributions of remittances to national
income have grown rapidly in the past decade. Remittances have contributed to increase
foreign exchange reserve of Bangladesh. Now foreign exchange reserve of Bangladesh is
over US $ 21 billion which is more than 7 times higher than the foreign exchange
* Professor (Rtd), Vice President, Bangladesh Economics Teachers’ Association
**Associate Professor, Dept. of Economics, Dhaka College, Dhaka and Vice President,
Bangladesh Economics Teachers’ Association
Authors are responsible for views expressed.

1
reserve of the year 2005. (Ahmed-2014) We have a large unemployed labor force. In
2010 unemployment was 2.6 million and at present it stands at more than 3 million. And
more than 10 million including unpaid family helpers (Ahmed-2014) Unemployment is a
chronic problem in Bangladesh and it is possible to solve this problem to a great extent
by exporting manpower. Manpower export is an instrument for increasing foreign
exchange earnings and thereby increasing the national income and growth. Remittance
has become a dominant variable for economic development of Bangladesh. Recognizing
the importance of remittance and migration, the policy makers and the researchers
become more attentive to this particular issue. So, we have selected such a topic of
national importance for study.
2. Objective of the Study:
(i) To analyze the overall impact of Bangladeshi migrants remittances on the
economy of Bangladesh.
(ii) To assess the volume of remittances inflow to Bangladesh.
(iii) To analyze the trend of migration and remittance.
(iv) To focus on the prevailing problems and future prospects for increasing
manpower exports from Bangladesh.
3. Methodology of the Study:
The secondary data had been collected from Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Ministry of
Finance, Ministry of Labor and Employment, Ministry of Expatriate Welfare and
Overseas Employment, Bureau of Manpower, Employment and Training, IOM, BIDS
and Bangladesh Bank.

4. Volume of remittances inflow in Bangladesh since 2000

Globalization makes international migration easy and gets motion. Most of the migrants
are labors. Due to unemployment problem and poverty migration of labor is increasing
tremendously throughout the world. An estimated 200 million of the World’s people line
outside their country of birth (Soddiqui 2012). From 2000 to 2010 worldwide flow of
remittances increased more than three times. It was US $ 135 billion in 2000 and stood at

2
US $ 449 billion in 2011 (World Bank 2012). Bangladesh is one of the largest manpower
exporting countries in the world. She is the 8th largest remittance receiving country and
2nd largest remittance receiving country among the SARC countries (SUR-2013).The
contribution of Bangladesh to the world remittance flows was 1.45 percent in 2000 & it
stands at 2.5 percent in 2011.
Remittance is the largest single source of external inflows for Bangladesh. Remittances
inflows to Bangladesh have increased nearly 6 times in the last decade from US $ 1082
million in the fiscal year 2000 to around US $ 11650 million in 2011 (Table -1)
Table -1: Composition of External inflows (US $ Million)
FY Remittance Grants FDI and ODA Total Share of Remittance GDP
Portfolio Remittance* Ratio
Investment (%)
FY 01 1882 373 169 543 2967 63.4 4.0
FY 02 2501 479 385 298 3663 68.3 5.2
FY 03 3062 510 378 466 4416 69.3 5.9
FY 04 3369 257 282 147 4055 83.0 6.0
FY 05 3848 200 800 491 5339 72.0 6.4
FY 06 4802 500 775 535 6612 72.6 7.8
FY 07 5979 587 899 512 7977 72.6 8.7
FY 08 7915 703 795 758 10171 46.3 9.9
FY 09 9687 523 802 563 11577 83.7 10.8
FY 10 10987 564 519 914 12984 86.6 11.0
FY 11 11650 727 741 312 13429 86.7 10.5
Source: Bangladesh Bank (WB – 2012)
*Share of remittance calculated by the researchers

Remittance had been larger than average annual medium and long term official loans in
the past decade. Migrants’ remittances were 5 and half times larger than the total medium
and long term capital flows received by Bangladesh in 2011 WB- 2012) . Remittance
share to total external inflows was 63.40 percent in 2001 which increased to 86.7 percent
in 2011 (Table -1). The volume of remittance inflow in Bangladesh in 2011- 2012 stood

3
at US $ 12,843 million and further increased and stood at US $ 14,461 million in 2012-
2013 (BER 2014).
5. Economic Impacts of Remittances on Bangladesh Economy
In Bangladesh, remittance has become one of the most important economic factor in the
recent years. Remittances are spent for consumption and house building, and purchase of
landed properties and various investment activities, such as business, industry, stock
share, bonds, certificates and education etc. These activities produce various direct and
indirect growth effects on the economy. These consumption expenditure and investment
expenditure creates multiplier and acceleration effects on the economy. Remittance
inflow to home country play significant role in reducing poverty in various ways and
improve the standard of living of the poor. It contributes to economic growth and
development of the country. Remittances have both micro and macro level impact. It is a
source of income for migrant workers’ households and livelihood. Remittance plays
significant roles for remitter’s family and for the economy of Bangladesh.
6. Macro economic impacts of Remittance
Remittance is increasing year after year and has become second largest sector of foreign
exchange earnings next to RMG sector. It has created a new dimension in the economic
development of Bangladesh. It reduces unemployment and poverty. It helps in balancing
balance of payment, increasing foreign exchange reserves, enhancing national savings
and investment and increasing velocity of money.
The most important macro economic impact of remittance is on the balance of payment
and through that on the economy as a whole. Most of the years Bangladesh economy
suffers from shortage of foreign exchange. Foreign exchange earnings through
remittances are used for importing of capital goods and machineries.
Table 2: impact of Remittance on balance of payment
(in US $ billion)
Year Remittance Import Export Trade balance
2002-2003 3.06 9.66 6.55 3.11

4
 2003-2004 3.37 10.85 7.6 3.25
2004-2005 3.85 1318 8.65 4.52
2005-2006 4.80 14.75 10.53 4.22
2006-2007 5.98 17.16 12.18 4.98
2007-2008 7.92 21.63 14.11 7.52
2008-2009 9.69 22.51 15.57 6.94
2009-2010 10.97 23.74 16.20 7.53
2010-2011 11.65 33.65 22.92 10.73
2011-2012 12.84 35.51 24.30 11.21
2012-2013 14.46 34.08 27.02 7.06
Source: Bangladesh Bank, Bureau of Statistics and Bangladesh Economic review, 2014.
Bangladesh is always a trade deficit country. Import is larger than export (Table-2).
Remittances are used to pay for trade deficit. Increasing remittances help to finance trade
deficit and play a positive role on balance of payment by financing excess imports
payments.
Remittances have direct effect on balance of payment. Remittance inflows help to reduce
foreign exchange deficit needed to payment of imports and consolidate the balance of
payment.
Remittance plays a significant role to bring current account balance positive.
Generally Bangladesh is considered a trade deficit country but statistics show current
account balance during FY2005-06 to 2010-11 remained positive due to high remittance
inflow, which in turn indicates that remittances play a significant role in Bangladesh
economy (Table -3 ). Remittance plays a significant role to bring current account balance.

Table-3: Remittance, Trade Balance and Current Account Balance

(In Million )
Year Current deficit Current Remittance Current Transfer
including trade deficit Transfer Account Balance
2004-2005 -4991 4290 4253 -557
2005-2006 -4614 5438 4802 824
2006-2007 -5602 6554 5979 952

5
 2007-2008 -7849 8529 7915 680
2008-2009 -7810 10226 9689 2416
2009-2010 -7876 11596 10987 3724
2010-2011 -11080 12075 11650 995
2011-2012 -12069 13699 12735 1630
2012-2013 -12484 15009 14945 2525

Source: Bangladesh Economic Review 2014 :

Note: Current deficit includes trade balance service deficit and income deficit

The current account balance stood at US $1630 million in 2012 and it increased by US $
2525 million in the fiscal year 2013(Table-3).
Remittances have contributed a lot to maintain healthy foreign exchange reserve of
Bangladesh. In the FY 2005 the amount of foreign exchange reserve was US $ 2,930
million and it stood at US $ 15315million in 2013(Table-4). In 2005 inflow of migrants’
remittance to Bangladesh was US $ 3,848 million and foreign exchange reserve has
increased with the increase in remittances and in 2014 foreign exchange reserve stands at
US $ 20 billion and remittances stands at US$ 14224 million (Ahmed, 2014).
Table -4: Foreign exchange reserve and remittance growth
Year Reserve Growth (in Remittance(US $ Growth(in
(US $ percent) million) percent)
million)
2005 2930 8.32 3848.3 14.2
2006 3484 18.92 4801.9 24.8
2007 5077 45.72 5978.5 24.5
2008 6149 21.09 7914.8 32.4
2009 7471 21.50 9689.3 22.4
2010 10750 43.89 10987.4 13.4
2011 10912 1.51 11650.3 6.0
2012 10364 -5.02 12843.4 10.24
2013 15315 47.77 14461.4 12.6

Source: Bangladesh Bank Annual Report 2011-2012

It is seen from the Table-3 that the growth of remittance and reserve are increasing
through the rate of growth differs. Foreign exchange reserve stood at US $ 15,315 million
in 2013 and in the same period remittance stood at US $ 14,461 million.

6
It reveals the fact from the table that the remittances as a percentage of GDP (Table -4)
has increased over the years until FY 2009-10 when it was recorded at 10.5 percent.
However in FY 2011-12, the amount of remittance flow in the country amounted to US $
12.44 billion while the amount of remittances as a percentage of GDP increased to
11.11percent and the percentage change in remittance was 10.2 percent, and again it has
risen at 11.14 per cent in 2012-13.
Table-5: Remittance and GDP, Export ratio
Year Remittance Change in Remittance GDP Remittance
(billion) remittance GDP ratio growth export ratio
% %
2001 1.84 -3.4 4.0 4.2 29.1
2002 2.50 32.8 5.2 5.2 42.2
2003 3.06 22.4 5.9 6.3 44.3
2004 3.37 10.1 6.0 5.9 44.4
2005 3.85 14.2 7.7 6.6 45.6
2006 4.80 24.7 8.7 6.4 45.6
2007 5.98 24.5 9.9 6.2 49.9
2008 7.92 32.3 10.5 5.7 56.0
2009 9.69 22.4 10.8 6.0 62.2
2010 10.97 13.4 11.0 6.7 67.8
2011 11.65 6.0 10.5 6.7 50.6
2012 12.44 10.2 11.11 6.2 53.9
2013 14.46 12.5 11.14 6.0 53.5

Source: World Bank 2012, Bangladesh Economic Review-2014, Bangladesh Bank -2013.

Remittances as percentage of GDP highlight its growing importance in the economy of

Bangladesh. The remittance - export ratio was 29.1 percent in 2001 which stands at 53.5
percent in 2013. The contribution of remittances as presented in Table-5provide an
overall idea about the relative importance of remittances vis-à-vis to the key
macroeconomic variables and variation of this overtime.
It is observed from Table -5 that remittances in Bangladesh as a percentage of most
macro-economic variables showed upward trend during the period from 2001-2013.Most
significantly the remittances – GDP ratio was 4.0 percent which stood at 11.14 percent in
2013 whereas it was 3.5 percent in 1997 (BER 2014) The annual growth rate of
remittances also shows a positive relationship with growth throughout years from 2001
to 2013. The amount of remittances gradually increased over the years with a small

7
decline in recent years. Bangladesh has been the largest remittance receiving countries
throughout the last two decades. Migrant workers’ remittances have much impact on the
growth of economy of Bangladesh. The growth effects of remittances can be decomposed
into its impact on saving investment growth consumption, poverty and income
distribution (Solimana 2003-6).
7. Trends of remittance Inflow
During 1970s the rise in oil price created massive demand for unskilled and semi- skilled
labor in oil exporting countries. Later on, in East Asian countries similar demand for
unskilled labors were created. In 1976 stock of migrant workers were only 6,087 and
volume of remittance was only US $ 23.71 million (BER-2009).The number of migrant
workers now is 8.7 million and volume of remittance to Bangladesh stands at US $
116566 million (BMET-2013). Remittance per capita increased from US $ 24.3 in 2004
to US $ 77.4 in 2011. This increase reflects improvement in remittance per capita from
US $ 1,107 in 2004 to US $ 1671 in 2011. In the same period an increase in the stock of
migrant workers raised from 2.2 percent of population to 4.6 percent (WB- 2012)
Table-6: Trends of migration and remittances since 2000 – 2011 to 2012-2013.
FY Number of migration (000) Percent change Remittance Percent change
(US$ million)
2000-2001 213 -14.1 1882 -3.4
2001-2002 195 -54.9 2503 32.9
2002-2003 251 28.7 3060 22.2
2003-2004 299 19.12 3372 10.2
2004-2005 250 -16.3 3484 14.1
2005-2006 291 16.4 4802 24.8
2006-2007 564 93.8 5979 24.5
2007-2008 981 73.9 7915 34.4
2008-2009 650 -33.7 9689 21.9
2009-2010 427 -34.3 10987 13.4
2010-2011 439 2.8 11650 6.0
2011- 2012 691 54.4 12843 10.2
2012-2013 492 28.7 14461 12.6

Source: Bangladesh Economic Survey 2012-2013

8
 Figure:1

it is observed from the table – 6 & figure-1 that during 2000-2001 to 2004-2005 annual
average remittance inflow to Bangladesh was to US$ 2860 million and 2005-2006 to
2004-2010 it was US$ 7834 million. In the last 3 years average annual remittance was
US$ 12985 million. It is also observed that form table 6 figure-1 that form 2001 to 2013
remittances increased 7.68 times. From 2005-2006 the volume of remittance was
increasing at higher level. In 2012-2013 volume of remittance was ever highest in
Bangladesh. In the fiscal year 2007-2008 remittance growth was highest but after that
still now remittance is increasing but at a fluctuating rate ( BER-2014).
It is seen from the Table –6 and figure-1 that yearly growth rate of remittances were
highest in 2007-2008 and in 2001-2002 the rate was 32.9 percent. Again in 2005-2006
it was 24.8 percent. In 2008-2009 the rate was 21.9 percent and afterwards the rate is
decreasing.
8.T rends in Migrants
International labor migration has become increasingly important in the modern world due
to globalization. Globalization has created of different opportunities for migrants.
Massive demand for unskilled labor in labor importing countries and limited
opportunities of employment in the home country and also low level wages etc. are
factors behind labor outflows from Bangladesh. Higher wages in destination countries

9
and employment opportunities determine labour migration level. Both push factors and
pull factors together determine the level of migration. Outflow of migrants recorded by
BMET since 1976 stands at 8.7 million in 2013. Data indicates a positive increasing trend
of labor migrants throughout the period from 2000 to 2008 except for certain years. There
was a sudden increase in outmigration in 2007-2008 when 981 thousand workers left
Bangladesh for overseas employment. The number of migrant workers went down further
to 650 thousand in 2008 after that decreasing (Table –6 and Figure-2).
Figure: 2

The volume does not depend on number of migrants. The growth rate of migrants has no
direct relationship with the growth of remittances. It depends on previous stock of
migrants and other factors such as level of wages, willingness to save and remit and also
socio-economic and political factors prevailing both in native country and destination
countries. It is seen from the table-6 and figure-2 that the growth rate of migration is very
much fluctuating. In 2006 – 2007 the growth rate was 94 percent and in 2007-2008 it was

10
about 74 percent. But the rate became negative in the following two years but again in
2010- 2011 the rate is increased and it was 2.8 percent afterwards the rate is decreasing.
9. Problems of Migration
Manpower export is an important sector for earning foreign exchange and reducing
unemployment problem in a developing country like Bangladesh. Migration and
remittance have played a great role in alleviating poverty in the country. But the
migration process for the migrant workers is a complex task and full of hazards. Some of
the barriers and bottlenecks are discussed in brief.
9.1. Channel of Migration
Bangladesh has millions and millions of unemployed labor force willing to be employed
in foreign countries. But the process of migration from Bangladesh to foreign countries
is complex and time consuming. Around 60 percent of migrant workers migrate
independently, 39 percent with the help of recruiting agencies and about 1 percent
migrate through government and other channels (W.B. 2012). Individual migrant
receives their employment visa through social networks.
9.2. Cost of Migration
The actual average upfront cost of migration from Bangladesh is nearly three times
higher than the official maximum charge.
Table-7: Costs of Migration
Migration Cost in (Taka) Male (%) Female (%) All (%)
25,000 2.9 13.2 3.1
50,001-100,000 9.21 44.1 9.8
100,001-200,000 33.4 23.5 33.3
200,001-300,000 42.3 9.3 41.8
300,001-400,000 6.7 2.5 6.6
400,001+ 3.8 3.9 3.8
Cost home by others 1.6 3.4 1.6

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 NI 12,114 205 12,319
Mean cost of migration 22,843 133,564 219,399
Source: 10 M-2010
* Percentages do not add-up to 100 percent due to unable to reports.
According to IOM survey average migration cost is the Tk. 219.394 (Table-07) where as
the government legal maximum charge for migration to the Middle West is Tk. 84000.
(W.B-2012)
The cost of migrating from Bangladesh is the highest among the South Asian Countries.
Cost of migration from Bangladesh is higher than Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka (Ketheri
– 2007). IGS 2010 asserts that Bangladeshi migrants often pay double what their counter
parts in neighboring countries pay for migration (W.B – 2012).
Table-8: Break down costs of Migration
Income of costs Expenses (in Tk.) Percentage
Government fce 1,763.33 0.80
Agency 23,569.90 10.29
Visa 20,460.29 9.33
Ticket fare 5.417.02 2.47
Intreme 130,518.93 59.49
other helpss 38,665.50 17.62
Mean expenses 219,394.98 100.00
Source: 10 M -2010
The role of dalals in migration process is vital. They exploit migrant workers in different
ways. They take away lion’s share of migration cost. On an average for every migration,
about 60 percent of cost has to pay to Dalals, helpers about 18 percent and visa and
recruiting agencies are to be paid 10 percent of total migration cost. With increased
competition from other labor exporting countries, the cost of obtaining a work visa has
shifted from employers to recruiting agencies in the source countries. It is eventually
passed on to the potential migrant workers (Siddique – 2009).

12
Migrant workers face a lot of problems in home country for migration. They have no
knowledge about the migration process and the cost of migration. They are ignorant
about the documents to be needed. As a result they are cheated by the dalal in many
ways.
9.3. Sources of Finance of Migration
Most of the unskilled workers belong to poor families. In the absence of formal financing
the migrant workers have to borrow at the rate of interest about Tk. 10 per month per
hundred.
Table-9: Source of Financing for Migration
Sources Percentage
Taking Loan 67.4
Family 40.9
Selling Land 24.4
Mortgage Land 23.1
Selling assets such as Jeweley 2
Cattle tree homes 0.1
Personal Savings 8.9
In lours 4.2
Provided by NGO 3.0
Dowary 05
Source: 10 M 2010
Note: Total Member of migrants of include in the sample Percentage
From the Table-9 it is observed that 67 percent of the total migrants workers
Taking loan, 24 percent of migrants sale landed property, 20 percent sales other assets
and 23 percent mortgage land for financing managing migration cost.
9.4. Lower level of Wages
The wage level of Bangladeshi migrant workers is very low. Bangladeshi migrant
workers are paid much less than the workers of the destination countries.

13
Figure-3: Remittance per Migrants per Year, 2010

22,857

9,127 10,000
7,428
6,112
4,843 4,982
3,276
1,672 1,906

Source: World Bank-2012

India is the first and China is the second among the highest remittance receiving countries
in the world. The volume of remittance in India is 5 times higher than Bangladesh.
Remittance per migrant per year is the highest in Belgium which is more than 13 times
higher than Bangladesh. Remittance per migrant per year in India and China are
respectively $ 4843 and $ 6112. Remittance per migrant per year is higher in developed
countries and lower in the developing countries India is the highest remittance receiving
country among the South Asian Countries. The position of Bangladesh is the second and
Pakistan is the third among the SARC countries (Figure-3). The remittance per migrant
in Belgian is about US$ 23000 but in Bangladesh which only US$ 1672 per migrant per
year and which is about four times lower than even India (US$ 4800).
9.5. Political Unrest in Home & Foreign Countries
Political unrest in home and foreign countries distrub normal process of migration.
During the war of Iraq-Iran and Iraq and Kuwait and Amrica invasion by Iraq export of
manpower to those countries decreased. During political unrest in Lybia 36, 500 people
have been repatriated from Lybia to Bangladeshi worker came back to Bangladesh
(Islam) due to recent civil war in Iraq & in Lybia export of manpower to this countries
declined. Recent political unrest in Seyria, Lebanon Egypt and some other countries
hampers manpower export. Political unrest in Bangladesh also hampers our manpower
export.
14
9.6. Short time Job Duration of Migrant Worker:
Most of the Bangladeshi migrants work in Soudi Arab, UAE, Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman
and Qutar. At present stock of migrants are around 8 million of which 90 percent migrant
workers are located in 10 countries. About 80 percent of migrants are employed in
Middle East countries and the rest 20% are in South East Asian countries and other
countries. Share of migrants in UK and USA respectively are 5.8 percent and 4.5 percent
(World Bank -2012) The characteristics of migration to Middle East and South East
Asian countries are that the jobs are short term and contractual basis. The jobs are
temporary in nature. After the contract is over the migrant worker is bound to come back
in native land.
9.7. Problems of migration of Female Worker
Female migration from Bangladesh is much less than Philippine, Indonesia, Sri Lanka
and Nepal. 75 percent of migrant workers of Philippine and Indonesia are women. The
share of female migrants of total migrants in Bangladesh was 0.2 percent in 2000. Female
migrants from Bangladesh constituted around 5 percent of the total outflow in 2009. And
in 2010 percent of women migrants of total migrants increased by 6.48 percent (Siddiqui-
2012) Female labor migration in Bangladesh was banned up to 2003. The share of female
migration to total migration from Bangladesh may be 15 percent (WB-2012). In recent
years demand for female workers has been increased for domestic service and garment
industries in some countries.
Female migrant workers are the most sufferers in the destination countries. They are to
work for unlimited hours in household. Even they are sometimes victims of sexual
harassment. They are deprived of leave and rest recreation facilities. They are compelled
to reside in the residence of the employers. They led a life of a slave in the middle age.
The convention concerning decent work for domestic workers for 2011-ILO convention
189 describes “the main rights given to domestic workers as decent works are daily and
weekly (at least 24 hours) rest hours entitlement to minimum wage and to choose the

15
place where t6hey live and spend their leave. Ratify states parties should take protective
measures against violence and should enforce a minimum age which is consistent with
the minimum age at other types of employment. Workers further have a right to a clear
(perfectly written) communication of employment conditions which should in case of
international recruitment be communicated period to immigration”.
The signatory countries of this convention are Bolivia, Germany, Ghana, Italy, Morasses,
Nicaragua, Paraguay, Philippines, South Africa and Uruguay. But the Middle- East
countries did not sign this convention. So the household workers such as domestic
workers, guards, drivers and malis are not under labor laws of those countries. It is a
challenge to protect workers’ interest and international labor standard. There is no way to
solve any problem arising between worker and employer in the court. Employer himself
is the person upon whom the migrant workers’ interest lies (BMET- 2013).
9.8. Regional disparities of Migration
Workers’ remittances contributed to the well being of the remittance receiving
households, but in Bangladesh there are disparities in access to migration. Household
having expatriate workers are highly concentrated in some areas of the country relative to
others. Over 82 percent of migrants abroad come from Dhaka, Chittagong & Sylhet.
Migration form Chittagong division is highest (40 percent), Dhaka Division (35.5
Percent) where as in Rajshahi Division 7.2 percent, Khulna, 5.6 percent, Barisal 4.1
percent and in Rangpur it is 0.8 percent only (WB-2012).
Labours of remote areas lack behind due to information gap absence of training facilities
& limited network effects.
9.9. Lower Level Skill of Migrant Worker
Most of the Bangladeshi migrant’s destination countries are the Middle -East countries &
South Asian countries where wages of labor are very low in comparison to developed
countries. Generally skilled migrant workers are paid higher wages. But most of the
Bangladeshi workers are un skilled and paid low level of wages. Due to lower level of
wages remittances flows to Bangladesh are low in comparison to huge number of
expatriate workers.

16
Table-10: Skill Composition of Migrant Workers from 2001 to 2012
Year Professional Skilled Semi-skilled Less-skilled Total
2001 5940 42742 30702 109581 188965
2002 14450 56265 36025 118516 225256
2003 15862 74530 29236 134562 254190
2004 12202 110177 28327 122252 272958
2005 1945 113655 24546 112556 252702
2006 925 115468 33965 231158 381516
2007 676 165338 183673 482922 832609
2008 1864 292364 132825 448002 875055
2009 383 104627 18419 341922 465351
2010 387 90621 12469 279673 383150
2011 1192 229149 28729 308992 568062
2012 812 209368 20498 377120 607748

Source: Bangladesh Economic Review 2009, 2012 and Siddiqui-2012.

Figure 4 : Skill Composition of Migrant Workers 2001 & 2012

70 62.5
57.99
60
50
40 34.44
30 22.65
20 16.24

10 3.14 3.37
0.13
0
Professional Skilled Semi-skilled Less-skilled

2001 2012

17
It is seen from table no. 10 and Figure-4 percentage of less skilled migrants is 50 to 60
percent on average. Unskilled migrants have a tendency to increase year after year but the
percentage of professional are decreasing at a alarming rate which was 3.14 percent in
2001 but decreased to 0.13 percent in 2012. The percentage of semi skilled workers have
also decreased significantly which was 16 percent in 2001 but in 2012 it stands at 3.37
percent. Per migrant earning differs because of differences in skills and volume of
remittances depend on migrants composition.
Flow of remittances depends on migrant’s wages in destination countries and propensity
to save and remit. Duration of migration family structure (age, children, dependency etc.)
affect money transfer and network effect. Remittances greatly depend on migrant workers
nature of job. Temporary migrants remit comparatively more money than the skilled. The
unskilled migrant’s propensity to save is more than the skilled but their earnings are has
than the skilled. Income of this skilled labour is Three times higher than an unskilled
migrant labour.
9.10. Professional Immobility of Labor in Destination
The Bangladeshi migrant workers are engaged in jobs of temporary nature and are
contractual basis. They cannot change jobs due to contract. So the workers who have
sufficient efficiency to get a job of higher salary are unable to avail of the opportunity
because of contractual barriers.
9.11. Exploitation by the Middle Man
Most of the time remitters have to pay excessive amount of money to the dalas for
helping to send abroad. Sometimes remitters are exploited by dalas for wrong visa and
work permit.
9.12. Illegal Migration
Illegal migration of the Bangladeshi migrant workers is the causes of decline of
manpower export to Middle East countries and Malaysia. Saudi Arab, EUA, and
Malaysia had stopped imports of workers from Bangladesh. Bangladesh workers in those
countries lost their good will due to different misconduct. Due to misconduct and false

18
visa and work permit those countries impose embargo on export of manpower form
Bangladesh.
More than 10 lac migrant workers become illegal in Saudi Arab, Malaysia and in Iraq.
The migrant workers had become illegal for various reasons, end of contract, false, Visa
false work permits ect, are the causes of illegal migrant.
The migrant costs of migrants are very high in Bangladesh due to dalals and agents. The
migrant workers are engaged in connatural basis and jobs are temporary nature. After the
expiration of the contract period, the migrants are unable to earn even the migration cost.
The migrations cost in Middle East countries are 2-3 lac and in Malaysia 3-4 lac Taka.
Failing to earn even the migration cost. The migrant wants to stay in the destination
countries. In this way illegal migrants are crated.
9.13. G to G Agreement and Non-co-operation by the Agents
As migration cost of Bangladesh is much higher than in our neighboring countries. The
Government of Bangladesh attempted to fix migration cost at a minimum level. To this
end government of Bangladesh signed G to G agreement with some countries. The cost
of migration to Malaysia has been fixed at Taka 33,176, in Jordan Taka 14,000 and in
Korea it is fixed at Taka 65,000 (BER- 2013) After G to G agreement export of
manpower to Malaysia decreased drastically. Export of manpower in Malaysia has been
declined due to non-cooperation of the manpower exporting agents.

9.14. Lack of Education and Training

Remittances vary according to level of education, types of job and skillness. Skilled
migrants earn more money but remit less money than the unskilled. The skilled migrant
workers are permanent job holders. They are more likely to take their family with them in
the destination country. The JOM survey 2010 shows that remittances sent by
Bangladeshi migrant have high positive correlations to their level of education.
Remittances are higher in case of Doctors, Engineers & Professors. A migrant with
secondary education remit taka 30,000/- on an average per annam more than a migrant
without secondary education. A migrant with higher education is likely to remit on

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average Tk. 40,000/- and a unskilled migrant is likely to remit Tk. 29,000/- per annam.
(WB 2012)
Education Status of Expatriates
Sl.No Qualification Percentage
01 Illiterate 9.56
02 1-1X 61.50
03 SSC/ Equivalent 16.25
04 HSC/ Equivalent 7.19
05 Degree/Hons 2.47
06 Masters 0.62
07 MBBS/Eng. 2.41
Sourc- SUR-BBS-2013
About 9.56% of total expatriates are illiterate and 90.44% are literate. Out of the total
expatriates 61.50% has passed class-I to IX, 16.25% obtained SSC or equivalent degree,
2.47% has graduation or graduation with honours degree, 0.62% has masters degree and
2.41% has medical or engineering degrees. About 87.82% of the total expatriates did not
take any formal training before leaving the country. However 12.18% undertook some
level of formal training at home. Among the trained migrants, the highest share, 6.01%,
received vocational training followed by 1.79% on language, 0.38% on computer, 1.59%
on driving and 2.41% on others. (SUR-2013)
Although countries Singapore, Japan, France and Canada account for a small share of
total expatriates of Bangladesh, these countries are predominantly the destination of
trained workers. At the same time, Middle Eastern countries have become the main
destinations of untrained Bangladeshi workers.
9.15. Kafala: Labour migration to GCC Countries and the Arab states are mainly
governed under a system of migration which is known as Kafala. The system provides
the legal framework for recruitment, stay, work and exit of migrant to and foreign GCC
countries. In the kafala system employment assume full responsibilities of the

20
employment during the contract period. After the contract is over the migrant is supposed
to go back to his (own country of origin). It is a system of slavery.
Under the kafala system the sponsor is supposed to pay commission to recruitment
agencies for recruitment of foreign workers. The contract is for two years. The workers is
supposed to work for one employer. In recent decades kafells are nominally involved in
the employment of foreign workers. They allow their names to be used to sponsor foreign
workers in exchange of money. The dalals who could be nationals of the origin countries
organize the business (Siddiqui 2013)
As the workers are under absolute power of the kafala, the employers takes the passport
of the migrant worker and store with him. The workers are forced to serve at lower rate of
wages which was in the contract. Gulf Co-operation Council and in Arab countries are
heavily dependent on foreign labour. According to a estimate of ILO 25 million of
migrant workers work in those countries. This 25 million of labour work as slaves and
deprived of their just share and benefits of jobs. It is a strange state that in civilized world
still salary system like kafala is still operating.
9-16. Lack of Labour Law in destination countries.
There exist disparities among the workers of the destination countries & migrated
workers regarding wages level and other service benefits. The destination’s own workers
are paid much higher wages, than migrant workers in the same jobs.
In some countries there is no labour law of its own and in some countries there is no
labour law for migrant workers. The middle east countries do not follow the ILO
conventions. Some countries do not obey International Human Rights. The migrant
workers have no access to court if there are deprived of the legal pay or for any inhuman
or illegal activates done by the employers. The migrant workers engaged in Middle East
countries are the worst suffers in these cases.
9-17. Language Problem

Language is one of the important problems for the migrant workers. Most of our migrant
workers are illiterate and less educated. Due to language problem migrant workers in
abroad suffer in service receiving and transactions and even in work place and court.

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9-18 Illiteracy & Ignorance
Most of the migrant workers of Bangladesh are unskilled and illiterate or almost illiterate.
They are not aware of government migration process, rules and regulations. They are
unable to find out real manpower recruiting agency and do not know the exact migration
cost. They even do not Know that migration may be possible through government and
about financing form Probashi Kallan Bank. Due to ignorance of the migrant workers,
the Dallas takes the opportunity to exploit them in different phases of the migration.
Sometimes the simple and innocent people are caught in tap of the pacher kari teams. In
recent years about three lac migrant workers had been illegalized in Malaysia of which 30
thousand were for cheating by argents, dalal, and foreign employers (Nahar-2013).
10. Prospects
Demand for labor started to create in the Middle -East countries since 1970s with the rise
in oil price. Massive construction works in those countries was created demand for
unskilled labor at a large scale. The share of foreign labor force to total labor force is
significant in those countries. They are mostly dependent on foreign labor force. In Qatar
it is 94%, UAE 89 %, Oman 73 %, Saudi Arabia 87% Kuwait 83% and Bahrain it is 45
% (Kalam -2013). Labor of South Asia and South East Asian countries are migrated to
those countries.
Table-11: Foreign Labor Force and Share of South Asia in the Middle East
Countries.
Country Total labor Force Foreign labor force Share of South Asia
(Percent) (Percent)
Oman 100 73 57.38
Kuwait 100 83 50.87
KSA 100 89 56.84
Qater 100 49 66.63
Bahrain 100 94 61.95
100 45 91.29

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 Source: Kazi Abul Kalam, BMET -2013(Compiled)
In Bahrain 91 % of the foreign labor is employed from South Asian countries, it is 66.64
% in KSA, 61.95 % in Oman, 57.38 % in UAE. About 70 % of Bangladeshi migrant
workers migrated to these countries.
The demand for female labor was also created in the Middle- East countries with the
economic development of those countries. Philippines, Indonesia, Sri lank, Nepal are
main female labor suppliers to the Middle -East countries. The position of Bangladesh in
exporting female labor was lowest up to 2003, when female labor migration was banned.
In the recent years female migration is increasing.
Due to misconduct and illegal activities, Saudi Arabia, UAE and Malaysia in 2011 put
embargo on manpower importing from Bangladesh. And the same is the case with
Malaysia. Deterioration of bi-lateral relationships with some Middle- East countries
manpower export from Bangladesh decreased drastically. If the illegal activities occurred
by the agents, dalals and migrants are stopped and bi-lateral relationships of the
government improve export of manpower to those countries further may be increased.
We should bear in mind that we have competitors in the international labor market.
Export of manpower in Malaysia was increased tremendously in 2007 and 2008 but
afterwards decreased drastically. After G to G agreement export of manpower in
Malaysia decreased and in 2013 it decreased by 0.13 percent only. To find out causes of
decrease and solution is urgent.
According to a report of World Bank in 2012 Bangladesh is the 7th largest remittance
receiving country and in respect of export of manpower her position is the 4th in the
world. The number of migrants in Bangladesh is 5.4 million and in India was in the first
position while manpower export was 11.4 million. Though population of Bangladesh is
1/9th of India but export of manpower is half of the India. Manpower export from China
was 8.3 million, Mexico 11.9 million, Philippines 4.3 million in and in Germany it was
3.5 million. The position of manpower export of Bangladesh is up to the mark. (WB-
2012)

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The General Agreement on Trade and in Services(GATS) is a new agreement which
came into force with founding of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995 as a
result of the Uruguay Round negotiation. Now-a day the negotiations under WTO
framework are important for developing countries. Temporary Movement of Natural
Persons (TMNP) i.e., Mode-4 can provide it with the opportunities to send its people
abroad to deliver services (Hassain-2010).
Major developed countries are facing changing demographic and economic trends that
projected an important need for increased low skilled worker participation over the next
50 years. Mc Donald and Kippen (2001) concluded that demographic and economic
trends from 2000 to 2050 are projected to reduce labor supply in many of the major
developed countries such as the USA, Australia and Germany. In many other developed
countries there will be the labor shortage within next twenty years. Aging of population,
retirement, young people entering the work force at a later stage, low birth rates and an
increase in living standard leaving the local population less interested in low skilled work
etc. are the causes of demand for low skilled labor in developed countries.
In some developed countries, labor supply is projected to stagnate or fall in the next 10
years. Australia and Canada are likely to experience rising levels of labor force only until
2015, after that levels will become constant. In Netherlands and in Sweden labor supply
is projected to fall after 2015. Labor force of Germany and Japan will decline in near
future. The growth and development of the developed countries will depend on a fast
growing labor force that will require low skilled workers. Given the substantial need for
low skilled workers in developed countries,. LDCs have a 230 million unemployed labors
and they may provide a good source of temporary workers (Hussain-2010). Bangladesh is
a labor surplus country with a unemployment of 2.6 million and including unpaid family
helpers it is 10 million over. Most labors are unskilled and less skilled. Migration of
unskilled and less skilled reduces unemployment and reduces poverty at the same time.
Skilled migrants income are higher but do not play role to reduce poverty as they are
from well to do families. GATS mode-4 or temporary movement of natural persons is

24
especially important for Bangladesh. Bangladesh has significant scope of gaining
benefits from GATS especially in terms of exporting services through Mode-4.
Conclusion
Over a decade export of manpower from Bangladesh has been increased at a progressive
rate except certain years. Migrants’ remittances are now a development alternative for
Bangladesh. Manpower export and earning remittance contributed a lot in our
development. Now the economy would be greatly affected if the remittance earnings do
not continue at a prevailing rate. And the unemployment problem will be turned into a
serious problem. Recent decreasing tendency of both migration and remittance have
disappointed the nation.
To improve bi-lateral relationship with Saudi Arabia, UAE, Kuwait is a urgent need for
Bangladesh. To find out the causes of failure of G to G agreement with Malaysia and to
adopt proper steps is the demand of the time. Training facilities should be expanded
every nock and corner of the country. Exploration of new labor markets is mostly needed
for increasing manpower export. There are disparities of migration among divisions and
districts of the countries. So measures should be taken to reduce migration disparities.
Necessary measures should be taken to increase female migration. To control the illegal
activities of the dalals and recruiting agents, necessary laws should be imposed. The
foreign embassies of Bangladesh should take active part to solve the problems of migrant
workers in destination countries.
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