Environmental Education Research

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Tracking the environment in Australian children’s

literature: the Children’s Book Council of Australia
Picture Book of the Year Awards 1955-2014

Yeyoung May Babb, Janine McBurnie & Kelly K. Miller

To cite this article: Yeyoung May Babb, Janine McBurnie & Kelly K. Miller (2017): Tracking
the environment in Australian children’s literature: the Children’s Book Council of Australia
Picture Book of the Year Awards 1955-2014, Environmental Education Research, DOI:
10.1080/13504622.2017.1326020

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Environmental Education Research, 2017
https://doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2017.1326020

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Tracking the environment in Australian children’s literature: the

Children’s Book Council of Australia Picture Book of the Year
Awards 1955-2014
Yeyoung May Babba, Janine McBurniea and Kelly K. Millera,b
a
School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Burwood, Australia; bCentre for Integrative Ecology,
Deakin University, Geelong, Australia

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Popular and accessible before television and the internet, picture books Received 5 January 2016
capture the context of the time they were created and influence the Accepted 26 April 2017
generations of children who consume them. Depictions of the natural
KEYWORDS
world have changed across several generations of picture books as seen in Children’s Book Council
illustrations of all 249 books of an influential collection, the Children’s Book of Australia; biodiversity;
Council of Australia Picture Book of the Year Awards shortlists from 1955 to children’s literature;
2014. This study found that natural environments became proportionally less environmental sustainability;
present in picture books over time while depictions of built environments picture books
increased. The presence of wild animals and native Australian animals also
decreased over time. Sustainability themes and more realistic depictions of
wild animals and biodiversity increased over time which reflects a growing
ecological or environmental awareness, and diversification of environmental
themes in recent picture books of this prominent Collection.

Introduction
Pro-environmental behaviours and attitudes in children are most successfully fostered through positive
and direct exposure to natural environments (Chawla and Derr 2012). However, the world’s population
is increasingly inhabiting urban areas and sprawling suburbs (United Nations 2014), making direct
exposure to natural landscapes infrequent for many children. In response, media and literature have
been analysed for their role in reinforcing and reflecting pro-environmental values and behaviours
(Blewitt 2010, 2011; Mobley, Vagias, and DeWard 2010).
In educational contexts, numerous authors have articulated that environmental literature fosters
a value of the natural world and empathetic connections with its non-human inhabitants (Bai et al.
2010; Korteweg, Gonzalez, and Guillet 2010; Payne 2010; Trousdale 2008; Wason-Ellam 2010). Outside of
educational contexts, literature is used as a means of investigating the presence and absence of specific
factors across broad collections or timeframes (Johnson, Mathis, and Gnagey Short 2016). Picture books
inevitably reflect the society in which they were created, illuminating ways of perceiving, relating to,
and depicting how nature may, or may not, have changed.

Study context
In an American based study of Caldecott Medal awarded picture books, Williams et al. (2012) suggested
that decreasing depictions of natural environments were apparent over time, implying that children’s

CONTACT  Kelly K. Miller  kelly.miller@deakin.edu.au

© 2017 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2    Y. M. BABB ET AL.

physical isolation from wilderness is reinforced by a detachment to nature portrayed in the images of
these books. Similarly, an analysis of Disney films (Prévot-Julliard, Julliard, and Clayton 2014) concluded
a growing ‘nature disconnection’ was apparent over time. In particular, decreased diversity of animal
species and animations of ‘green’ outdoor environments.

Children’s Book Council of Australia and study sample

The Children’s Book Council of Australia (CBCA) bestows an Award comparable to the Caldecott Medal.
As such, the sample for this study was made of all titles shortlisted for the Picture Book of the Year Award,
from its inception in 1955 until 2014 (The Collection) (CBCA 2012).
The CBCA is Australia’s premier children’s book endorsement body, and its annually released
Shortlists are recognised by book sellers, librarians and schools (Hateley 2012; Primary English Teaching
Association Australia 2014). A single Winner, and several Honour books are selected from a yearly short-
list. The Winner and Honours books all experience marked interest from both the public and education
institutions, resulting in greater sales (Foster, Finnis, and Nimon 2005; Wells 2013). Understanding the
impact on sales, the CBCA clarifies that lengthy consideration is taken in awarding a title (Foster, Finnis,
and Nimon 2005; Wells 2013), though not without some controversy (MacLeod 2011).
An acknowledgement is made that the Collection is not a representative sample of all Australian
picture books published between 1955 and 2014. Selecting the Collection for analysis was based on
two crucial factors: length of time the Award has existed; and the influence and collectability of its
shortlisted books.

Quantitative content analysis

This study utilises a content analysis approach with coding procedures. Such methods are commonly
used in the analysis of children’s literature (Johnson, Mathis, and Gnagey Short 2016). Previous studies,
aside from Williams et al. (2012), have used this approach to investigate variables in Children’s litera-
ture, such as Gender roles and Fatherhood (Adams, Walker, and O’Connell 2011); depictions of African
Americans (Pescosolido, Grauerholz, and Milkie 1997); diversity, culture and ethnicity (Koss 2015); and
types of narrative form (Wagner 2013).
The authors emphasise that quantitative content analysis does not attempt to replace or replicate
critical qualitative analysis of children’s literature. Rather, researchers are able to investigate ‘quantita-
tively oriented questions’ (Wagner 2013), perceive patterns and recognise common thematic elements
across large bodies of work or time.
Using this approach accounts for the fact that environmental books are situated within a larger
ecosystem of books that may inadvertently reinforce a system of thought in which the exploitation of
nature is made possible. Such hidden narratives penetrate the minds of readers in unintended ways
and reveal implicit attitudes (Garrard 2011), and are as equally important to examine as those with
explicit ecological messages.

A note on nature
The treatment of nature as a concept across all picture books, is varied and embedded in cultural
contexts that often perpetuate human-nature and domestic-wild binaries (Garrard 2011). These rep-
resentations have been critiqued and questioned in wider studies of children’s eco-literature (Bradford
et al. 2008) and society (Dunlap and Catton 1983). As such, the assumption of a nature disconnect is
ultimately embedded in these binaries. However, in positioning picture books for quantitative research,
it is beneficial to delimitate terms around nature, as is done through investigating discreet categories
or variables. For the purpose of this research, a natural environment is identified as ecosystems or
phenomena that may persist (self-reproduce) or change without human assistance. The ways in which
non-human animals may modify landscapes and ecosystems is acknowledged but extends beyond
the scope of this study.
 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION RESEARCH   3

Aims of the study

This study was concerned with a central inquiry; how have depictions of nature changed with time in
the Collection? This central question was investigated using the following specific research questions:

(1)  How have depictions of discreet environmental landscape categories (natural, modified and
built) changed over time?
(2)  How have depictions of wild and domestic animals, and human relations to them, changed
over time?
(3)  How have depictions of wildlife diversity in the collection changed with time? In what ways
is the ecological awareness of authors/illustrators apparent?
(4)  Which repeated Environmental themes – centred around positive or negative depictions
of nature, human society, and their interaction – are prevalent in the Collection? Which
Environmental themes change in prevalence over time?
(5)  How have representations of ‘Australia’ changed over time in the Collection?

These questions aim to provide an overview of a significant and large collection of literature, illu-
minating patterns, interactions, and absences of specific categories across broad timeframes. As many
variables as possible were included to more fairly represent the complexity of society’s interpretations,
relations to, and depictions of nature. The potential for investigating numerous other categories is only
limited by practical considerations.

Methods
The Children’s Book Council of Australia shortlisted 249 books for the Picture Book of the Year Award,
between 1955 and 2014 (the Collection), comprising of 6191 pages with images. Though recorded
across a timeframe of 59 years, data reflects only 51 years as there were 8 years in which no shortlist
was made (1957, 1959–63, 1966 and 1972).

Coding procedure
For every page with an image, a coding procedure recorded the presence or absence of an extensive
list of variables grouped into broader categories.

Environments, animals, and maximum species richness

The first category coded for Environment Type (Williams et al. 2012), marking the dominant environmen-
tal setting of the image; Natural (wilderness areas or self-producing ecosystems); Built (cities, suburbs,
and buildings, indoors and outdoors); Modified (rural farmlands and fields, city or suburban gardens
and parks); and Unclear settings including blank space.
The category, Animals, refers to the presence of Wild, Domestic and Anthropomorphised animals
(Williams et al. 2012). Additional categories, not present in prior research, recorded when environments
or animals were the Subject of the image. Furthermore, times there was an Interaction with a human,
and who Initiated the interaction, were recorded.
The species richness of wild animals in every image, was recoded to identify each book’s Maximum
species richness (Prévot-Julliard, Julliard, and Clayton 2014). In the field of Ecology, species richness
counts how many different species are present in a defined area; higher numbers represent more
diverse and resilient communities of organisms (May and McLean 2007).

Expanding previous studies

Addressing the limitations of previous studies, additional categories were included. The presence of
thirteen Environmental themes were identified in the pilot study and developed for use across The
Collection (Table 1). Identification of themes was informed by several disciplines: principles of Ecology
4    Y. M. BABB ET AL.

Table 1. Coding for presence of environmental themes in picture book images, identified by using the priorities and approaches of
diverse disciplines and movements.

Themes
1 Native Australian animals present (any type)
2 Gives voice to usually non-vocal aspects of nature (trees, sky, earth etc.) Story from viewpoint of animals or nature
3 Appreciation of beauty/wonder/harmony of natural world
4 Human dependence on natural world (food source, oxygen, ecosystems services etc.)
5 Wild animals displaying natural behaviours (not simply ornamentally present in the image)
6 Evokes or depicts empathy towards animals and other living beings (protection of endangered species, care for wildlife
etc.)
7 Direct human impacts on environment/nature (litter, pollution, harm to animals)
8 Simplistic depiction of Biodiversity/species richness (at least 3 different wild species likely to be present in an environment
are shown)
9 Interrelatedness of nature and natural processes (connection between different ecosystems and natural processes i.e.
rainfall and plant growth, food chains, seasons etc.)
10 Wild animal/s reliant on a human (e.g. saving an individual animal or conservation efforts)
11 Negative portrayal of industrialised societies (dark/muted colours and undertones associated with cities and mass produc-
tion/consumption/waste etc.).Negative impacts indirectly caused by human groups.
12 Negative depiction of pest species
13 Environmentally friendly behaviours (recycling, planting, public transport, cycling etc.)
Notes: Literature and nature aesthetics (Trousdale 2008); Ecological principles (May and McLean 2007; Rule and Atkinson 1994);
Deep ecology (Oelschlaeger 2014); Ecological literacy (Orr 1992); Environmental Education (Bigger and Webb 2010); Empathy
(Fien 2003); Sustainable Development (Davis 2010; Kiser 2014); and Environmental themes identified in children’s literature
(Sinclair 1992).

Table 2. Identifying picture books with an Environmental message.

Environmental book type Categorisation criteria

Explicit message Intention to transmit environmental message by author/illustrator is apparent throughout most
images and part of the narrative. Multiple Environmental themes are present across a majority
of the book
Implicit message Multiple images/text with clear Environmental theme present OR most images and text accu-
rately recount ecological information about an animal, plant, or ecosystem (habitat, food).
Environmental themes are conveyed more subtly than with Explicit Environmental Messages

(May and McLean 2007); approaches of Environmental Education (Bigger and Webb 2010; Davis 2010;
Singh 1998; Stevenson and Evans 2011), and collections of ecological literature (Rule and Atkinson
1994; Sinclair 1992).
The possible presence of an overall Environmental message (Table 2) was noted to record how many
books of the Collection could be considered an Environmental book, either with an Explicit or Implicit
ecological message. The system used to identify an Environmental message is based in both objective
and measurable criteria, but also accounts for subjective judgements made after reading books in
their entirety.
A final category for the Location of the image indicated whether the book was set in Australia or
not. This has particular relevance when considering the importance of developing a ‘sense of place’ and
place based education for promoting positive environmental behaviours or connections (Burke and
Cutter-Mackenzie 2010; Cutter-Mackenzie, Payne, and Reid 2010; Stevenson 2011).

Data analysis
To first grasp an overview of the entire Collection, a frequency count for each presence/absence var-
iable was generated across all images, across all books and years. Frequency was then expressed as a
percentage of the total number of images in the Collection – a total of 6191 images.
To understand changes over time (the independent variable), analysis was conducted by first gen-
erating percentage data for each variable within each of the 249 books. These were then used to create
 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION RESEARCH   5

summaries for each of the 51 years based on the mean of the percentages of all books shortlisted in
each year. The yearly mean percentage was used for statistical analysis with SPSS (v22) (IBM Corp 2013).
Where results represent changes over time, the yearly mean percentage data from images were pooled
by decade, except when stated otherwise.

Theoretical framework and interpretation of results

The results of the study were interpreted with a theoretical framework informed by the natural sciences,
especially of Ecology and Ecocritical theory – disciplines that have sought to define and question
definitions of nature. Additionally, any meaning derived may help shape practical applications for
implementation in an Environmental Education context.

Results
The environment in picture books
Environmental setting
In the Collection overall, Natural environments comprised 1,153 images (25.23%); the largest proportion
was of Built environments with 2,167 images (47.42%) and Modified environments occurred in 1250
images (27.35%). Within Modified environments, 75.86% of images were further classified as rural areas,
while 21.14% were urban.
Examining settings over time, the presence of Built environments in the 1950’s was low, with a visible
increase across decades (H = 12.397, df = 6, p = 0.054) (Figure 1(a)). Figure 1(a) demonstrates a decline
in the presence of Natural environments, and increase in Modified environments over time (natural:
H = 9.632, df = 6, p = 0.141; modified: H = 3.416, df = 6, p = 0.755).

Environment as subject of the image

The proportion of incidents in which environmental settings coded as the main focus (Subject) of the
image in books uncovered significant change over time for both Natural and Built environments (nat-
ural environments: H = 88.899, df = 6, p < 0.001 and built: H = 75.046, df = 6, p < 0.001). Figure 1(b)
demonstrates the decline of books with Natural environments as the Subject of the image from 1950
to 1970, with small increases since. Contrastingly, Built environments as the Subject of the image were
less prominent in the 1950’s and rose dramatically in the 1960s, with smaller variations thereafter.

Presence of wild, domestic and anthropomorphised animals

Animals (Wild, Domestic, or Anthropomorphised) were present in 60.17% of all images coded across
the Collection. Of these, 37.93% were Wild, 47.11% were Domestic and Anthropomorphised animals
occurred in 29.80% of images.
Over time, the proportions of all three Animal types present in images have changed (Figure 2(a)).
Wild animal presence was higher in the 1950’s and 1960’s with a sharp drop in the 1970’s, remaining
below Domestic animals until the 2000’s (H = 9.184, df = 6, p = 0.164). Domestic animals showed a
significant difference in presence between decades (H = 12.793, df =, p = 0.046), initially showing low
presence in the 1950’s but increasing in following decades. Domestic animals peaked in the 1990’s,
overtaking Wild animals, with both categories at similar prominence in 2010.
Animals as the Subject of the image, both Wild and Domestic, dramatically declined from the 1950’s
to the 1980’s, with smaller variations thereafter.

Interaction and initiator

Significant changes between decades were recorded for interactions, both Human Initiated (H = 13.430,
df = 6, p = 0.037) and Animal/environment Initiated (H = 18.975, df = 6, p = 0.004). In the 1950s interactions
6    Y. M. BABB ET AL.

Figure 1.  (a) Mean proportion of natural, built and modified environments as settings of images in books over time. (b) Mean
proportion of natural, built and modified environments as the main subject of images in books over time.
Notes: Dash-dot line = natural, solid line = built, dotted line = modified.

between humans and an animal/natural environment, were Initiated by humans in 94% of cases.
Contrastingly, Mutual initiated interactions made up 6% of cases and Animal/nature did not initiate
interactions at all until 1970. By 2010, humans Initiated interactions 46% of the time, while animal/
nature and mutual initiation occurred 22 and 41% of the time, respectively. One image may record
multiple interactions.
 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION RESEARCH   7

Figure 2. (a) Presence of each animal type as proportion of all animals present across time. (b) Animal types that were the subject
of the image as proportion of that animal type present in books over time.
Notes: Solid line = wild, dotted line = domestic, dash-dot line = anthropomorphised.

Maximum species richness

Maximum species richness varied greatly across decades, ranging from 1 to 26 different species (Figure 3).
However, overall trends show Maximum species richness increasing each decade, excluding the 2000’s.
8    Y. M. BABB ET AL.

Figure 3. Species richness maximum of each book shortlisted for the CBCA picture book of the year.

Environmental themes
Environmental themes (Table 1) were present in 23.26% of all images. Of these, the two most common
Themes identified in books overall were, Theme 1: native animal present at 42.64% and Theme 3: aes-
thetic appreciation of nature at 44.86%. One theme was found to display a significant difference between
decades, Theme 11: sustainable behaviours (H = 12.86, df = 6, p = 0.045) (Figure 4).
Figure 4 shows the proportional presence and absence of each of the thirteen Themes (defined in
Table 1) over time. Notable shifts apparent in Figure 4 are listed below:

(1) Native animals: Initial high presence with sharp decline from the 1950’s to 1970’s, plateauing
in following decades.
(2) Vocalising nature: present to a high degree in 1950’s with a sharp decline visible into the 1970’s.
(3) Aesthetic appreciation: consistently present over all decades with highs in the 1960’s and
2010’s.
(4) Human dependence: low presence in all decades. Not present in 1960’s and 2010’s.
(5) Realistic species behaviour: increasing in presence with time. Highest in 2010s.
(6) Empathy: not present in 1950’s but highest in 1960’s, subsequently falling.
(7) Human impacts: first occurs in 1960 at highest presence. Substantial declines until 1990’s
after which small increases appear.
(8) Biodiversity: not present until 1960’s. Present to a small degree overall but highest in 1990
and 2010.
(9) Interrelatedness of ecosystems: not present until the 1970’s after which presence is low, and
highest in the 2010’s.
(10) Wild animal reliance: first present in the 1970’s. Low presence overall, peaking in the 2000’s.
(11) Negative portrayal of industrialised societies: Not present until the 1970’s with a small con-
sistent increase each decade.
(12) Negative portrayal of pests: not present until the 1990’s. Highest in 2010’s.
(13) Sustainable behaviours: not present until the 2000’s after which presence is low.
 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION RESEARCH   9

Decade
Theme 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Mean
1. Native Animals 42.96 31.6 8.5 13.32 10.41 9.3 10.17 18.04
2. Vocalising nature 37.07 14.29 7.67 7.62 5.71 5.95 2.78 11.58
3. Aesthetic appreciation 12 17.8 8.56 10.89 13.56 8.81 21.83 13.35
4. Human dependence 3.04 0 0.92 0.5 0.61 3.02 0 1.16
5. Realistic species behaviour 2.29 3.96 0.67 2.84 4.09 3.8 12.88 4.36
6. Empathy 0 12.47 1.03 3.66 4.79 4.26 3.3 4.22
7. Human impacts 0 10.75 0.66 0.48 1.87 2.83 3.34 2.85
8. Biodiversity 0 2.73 0.33 1.12 4.93 1.03 4.96 2.16
9. Interrelatedness of ecosystems 0 0 1.19 0.21 1.11 1.08 3.65 1.03
10. Wild animal reliance 0 0 0.95 2.01 1.05 2.96 0.54 1.07
11. Neg portrayal of society 0 0 0.21 0.26 0.72 0.87 1.18 0.46
12. Neg portrayal of pests 0 0 0 0 0.85 0.79 1.72 0.48
13. Sustainable behaviours 0 0 0 0 0 2.6 2.1 0.67

0 >0 3+ 6+ 12+ 20+ 40+

Figure 4. Environmental Theme present in images, proportional to total images per book (averaged by year and pooled by decade).
Notes: Themes are ordered by decade of appearance. Darker shades denote higher presence. Mean indicates presence in Collection overall.

Environmental message
Of the 249 books that made up the entire Collection, 9.23% were considered overtly environmental
books (Explicit). Books that were considered to have value as an environmental book but with a less
explicit message (Implicit) occurred in 15.66% of cases. Similar proportions are reflected in the 51 books
awarded the highest position, or winning Picture Book of the Year: 5 were those with an Explicit envi-
ronmental message, and 8 were those with an Implicit environmental message. Books with an Explicit
and Implicit environmental message make up 25.49% of winning books, with most Explicit appearing
in the Collection after 1986, and Implicit after 1974.

Australia as a book setting

The instances in which books could be clearly interpreted as set in Australia are significantly different
between decades (x(6) = 27.343, p < 0.001). In the 1950’s and 1960’s over 90% of books were situated in
Australia. Less than 50% of books were set in Australia in both the 1970’s and 1980’s, with the lowest
reaching 32.96% in the 2010’s.
There is a significant association between having an environmental message and being set in
Australia (x(4) = 39.341, p < 0.001); books with an Explicit environmental message were the most likely
to be set in Australia.

Discussion
Changing landscapes
Similar to the study conducted on Caldecott Medal recipients (Williams et al. 2012) the presence of
Built environments increased whilst Natural environments decreased over time (Figure 1). These results
may indicate a trend that will continue with time, reflecting similar patterns of urban expansion occur-
ring within these two countries and an evolving depiction of life more closely resembling that of the
10    Y. M. BABB ET AL.

average Australian or American (Saxby 2002; Williams et al. 2012). This contrasts to earlier years of the
award which tended to distinguish books that preserved an image of Australia associated with bush
settings and native wildlife (Saxby 2002), reinforcing a national identity tied to such scenes. Williams
et al. (2012) concluded that the decreasing depiction of wild and pristine natural settings may be
reflective of societies’ growing isolation from these types of environments. However, while exposure
to pristine wilderness areas may be decreasingly facilitated by the Collection, other results from this
study suggest that human-nature interactions and socialisation are occurring (and being depicted) in
new and evolving ways.

Wild animals: icons vs biodiversity

The high number of Animals present in the Collection (Figure 2) supports the supposition that humans
are generally interested in animals and the natural world, expressed by researchers as the Biophilia
hypothesis (Bai et al. 2010).
Animal fables from early in the Collection (Mr Koala Bear, 1955; 1956; Possum Magic, 1983), mostly
featured iconic Australian species, but have since given way to books populated by more ornamental
(Figure 2(b)) but also more diverse wild animals (Figure 3). While animal-fables (Saxby 1993) are still
present in later years of the study, they are often instructional, with a greater focus on illustrating the
behaviours and diets of each species depicted (The Hunt, 1995; Fox and Fine Feathers, 2000). It has been
suggested that books such as these may present a problem from an ecocritical viewpoint (Garrard
2011; Glotfelty and Fromm 1996). By prioritising the welfare of one species alone, there is an inevitable
disregard for the nature of ecological systems and the necessary interactions of their many living and
non-living components (Glotfelty and Fromm 1996).
This concern may be alleviated by an increasing Maximum species richness over time (Figure 3), as
it has become more likely to see ecosystems with a wider variety of life, multiple trophic levels, and
complex interactions than in the earlier decades of the Collection.
Recent books with particularly high Species richness in one image (14 species in At the Beach Postcards
from Crabby Spit, 2004; 26 species in To the Top End: Our Trip Across Australia, 2009) were both set in
marine coral reef environments, reinforcing the understanding that coral reefs should house a great
diversity of life, and strengthening the affinity Australians have with the sea (Saxby 2002). Given the
conservation issues currently surrounding Australia’s iconic Great Barrier Reef (Graham et al. 2014) this
provides some insight into the environmental issues that may capture public attention. The increasing
presence of diverse and realistically depicted wild animals in their natural habitats, exhibiting natural
behaviours (Figure 4), reflects some growing ecological awareness in authors and illustrators, and may
reinforce the same in readers.
Furthering readers’ exposure to ecological concepts, pest species feature more prominently in later
decades (Figure 4), universally, as antagonistic characters (The Rabbits 1999; Fox, 2000; Fox and Fine
Feathers, 2009). While examination of the subjectivity involved in positioning some animals as feral, and
some as native or domestic, (Garrard 2011) is a valuable endeavour, such concepts were not apparent
in the Collection.

Pets: becoming ‘part of the family’

Initially, wild animals were much more prominent than domestic animals, but have since become rel-
atively equal in proportion. While being depicted as the subject of the image less often (Figure 2(b)),
domestic animals (especially household pets) in later books, compared to those before 1980, show
greater agency and have larger roles narratively (revealed through increasing Animal/Environment
Initiation of interaction).
In Things My Family Make (1954), the family dog is a passive ornament in the narrative: it has no
name, and though present in many images, does not initiate interaction with family members. This
contrasts with the 1978 Winner John Brown, Rose and the Midnight Cat in which both a dog and cat
 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION RESEARCH   11

exhibit their own distinct personalities, moving the story forward around their relationship to a human
(without anthropomorphism). Later the 1994 shortlisted book Toby, uses realistic illustration to depict
the relationship between a family and their elderly golden retriever. Emphasis is placed on the charac-
ter’s conflictive emotions in response to his dog’s inability to play: first angry at Toby, then eventually
acknowledging his own grief in the dog’s final hours. The changing depiction of human-animal relations,
and animal agency, in these stories may reflect a wider social change in the ways in which people view
and relate to their pets.

Empathy
Depictions of characters displaying empathy towards an animal or environment, and illustrations
designed to elicit empathetic and emotional responses, can be highly influential on readers (Fien 2003;
Gaard 2009). Though a highly subjective category as an Environmental theme, in the case of picture
books, the purposeful nature of illustration makes intentions of the artist to elicit an empathic response
clearly perceivable.
While the prominence of empathy proportionally decreased (Figure 4), it was observed that the
artistic and narrative intent of some images became more intense with time. In Hugh’s Zoo (1964) the
young protagonist takes a baby koala, kangaroo, wombat and kookaburra from their mothers to give
them a better life in his luxurious zoo. Despite depicting its animal characters as ‘sad’ and attempting
to convey that wild animals belong in the bush, the tonality of images and text were kept very light
and unemotive. This starkly contrasts to the uncensored and elaborate imagery and pathos used in
later books: The Deliverance of Dancing Bears (1994) depicts the capture and torment of wild bears for
entertainment; Refugees (2004) illustrates the habitat destruction of a pair of ducks and The Big Little
Book of Happy Sadness (2008) portrays the hopelessness of a three-legged dog, impounded and on
death-row. The coding of these texts for presence of ‘empathy’, in a sense does not adequately repre-
sent how much more mature the content and treatment of imagery has become in the recent years
of the Collection, reflecting the complexity of this concept and the difficulty in recording its presence.

Sustainability
The low presence, and late appearance of themes around sustainability (Figure 4), may be due to
phrases such as ‘recycling’ or ‘renewable energy’ not existing in their modern forms until the 1970’s
when ‘Sustainable Development’ was coined (Kiser 2014). Their lack of presence may be attributed
to the nature of such topics (less interesting than animals and associated with political agendas), or
perhaps the distaste the CBCA judges may have for these messages in their most overt forms. Where
Sustainability themes do occur, they are conveyed with subtlety. A recent example, The Windy Farm
(2013), makes no mention of the environmental benefits of a family installing wind turbines on their
‘annoyingly’ windy, hilltop farm, focusing instead on economic gain.
Inevitably, anthropocentricism is embedded in a discourse of sustainability (Massey and Bradford
2011) while ‘managerialism’ (Garrard 2011, 26), prioritises human consumption and the ordering of
nature over rights to existence. The low presence of this theme overall, however, indicates that such
dialogue is not how award winning authors wish to position their environmental books.

Humans appreciating nature vs appreciating humans are nature

Overall, nature appreciation was prevalent in texts in which natural environments were present
(Figure 4). Natural and modified landscapes were mostly portrayed positively, which may be due to
the artistic treatment of the images.
Furthering a sentiment of appreciation, Theme 4 (human dependence on the natural world) occurred
in varying degrees throughout the Collection, but it is interesting to note that in the first 30 years,
this idea occurred exclusively in books depicting Indigenous characters and Dreaming. An ecocritical
12    Y. M. BABB ET AL.

interpretation of this observation would suggest that such beliefs are congruent with those of Deep
Ecology, and a post-humanist perspective notes that acceptance of interconnectedness also admits
animality (Garrard 2011). This lens may also examine the role colonialism has in subverting recognition
of the undeniable dependence humans have on the natural world (Huggan and Tiffin 2009), which is
highly relevant in countries like Australia, with colonial histories and suppressed Indigenous culture.

Australia: losing wilderness or wilding the city?

Some may perceive the decline of books based in Australia to be of some concern, with implications that
social isolation from the Australian wilderness will be reinforced, and readers will not develop a sense
of place in its iconic landscapes. However, the increasing diversity of places and wildlife depicted in the
collection may in fact expose readers to familiar types of spaces, in which relations with modified and
reconstructed visions of nature occur in replicable ways. It may be the case that, despite moving away
from depicting a wild and untouched Australia, authors and illustrators will begin to explore ecological
concepts within the cities and suburbs that have become so prevalent in these texts. There is some
indication that this is currently occurring (Belonging, 2005; A Bus Called Heaven, 2012). In Home (2006),
a pair of peregrine falcons, displaced by bushfire, go in search of a new nesting site, eventually settling
on the ledge of a skyscraper. Such narratives dismantle traditional human-nature binaries and reima-
gine urban spaces as sites of wildlife diversity, in which humans do, in fact, contribute to an ecosystem.
Likewise, the field of Urban Ecology explores these concepts in physical, rather than literary contexts.
Additionally, the variety of native animals present has expanded over time. Initially, only iconic and
highly dispersed species, such as the koala, kangaroo and wombat were depicted. Recent books include
regionally endemic or lesser known fauna, such as the Superb Lyrebird, Tawny Frogmouth and Royal
Spoonbill, exposing readers to animals they might see in their own backyards or regions. This may well
be highly influential on past, present and future generations of Australian children, given that ‘place-
based education’ or ‘connection to place’ are formative in a child’s developing consciousness of their
place in their own environments (Burke and Cutter-Mackenzie 2010; Korteweg, Gonzalez, and Guillet
2010; Stevenson 2011; Wason-Ellam 2010).

Environmental books as winners

A preference for subtle environmental messages is apparent in the fact that books with Implicit eco-
logical messages are present in 2010s winners, but not Explicit messages. The CBCA shortlists are solely
determined by a judging panel whose decisions are based on personal values in addition to prescribed
judging criteria (CBCA 2013). Analysis of the Collection suggests that the likelihood of an environmental
book being awarded by the CBCA is based on the palatability of its content and the attractiveness of
its imagery. These are sentiments previously expressed by researchers of Australian Children’s literature
(Foster, Finnis, and Nimon 1995). For instance, the winners of the last twenty-five years with Explicit
environmental messages were Window (1991), The Rabbits (1998), Are We There Yet? A Journey around
Australia (2004), all of which are artistically complex or softened by metaphor.

Implications for environmental education

Picture books may provide opportunities for incidental learning and can also be used as tools in formal
Environmental Education to provoke student discussion (Burke and Cutter-Mackenzie 2010). In some
models, environmental picture books might lay a foundation of deep personal connections with nature
in students, after which educators can progress to the discussion of complex environmental issues
(Burke and Cutter-Mackenzie 2010; Cutter-Mackenzie, Payne, and Reid 2010).
In the goal of shaping future eco-citizens (Massey and Bradford 2011), it may be beneficial to select
texts in which characters’ lifestyles are familiar and relatable to readers, developing their agency against
the effects of ‘shallow environmentalism’ (Bradford et al. 2008, 91). There is suggestion that placing
 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION RESEARCH   13

utopian expectations (Bradford et al. 2008) on readers is far less effective than modelling small scale
community action.
Within a pedagogical framework, considerations must be made for the diversity of students’ responses
to ideas and images expressed in picture books. There is no average student and a general model will
not encompass all learners (Prelle and Solomon 1996; Rickinson 2001). Greater success might be had
from using diverse literature and varied interpretations of text, in congruence with individual students’
cognitive preference and context. Books that draw on relatable experiences for urban and suburban
children, rather than romanticising the bush, may be more effective at promoting eco-citizenship in some
students. However, for others, idealised depictions of nature in the abstract may be more inspirational.
Moreover, the use of any text in Environmental Education contexts should be purposefully mediated
by both environments and people who can assist with the measured and appreciative interpretation of
such texts. Unrealistic or simplistic depictions of nature may be an opportunity for investigative tasks that
require students to ‘fill the gaps’ of knowledge presented. Questions to ask could be ‘What other animals
might live here? How do animals really communicate? What does the Great Barrier Reef look like now?’.
However, images that overwhelm readers may require contextualising and solutions-based discussion.
Other opportunities for learning may involve students creating their own picture books modelled
after a chosen text, in which they become the protagonist in familiar environments and are confronted
with environmental decisions to which they can personally relate.

Further research
The content analysis model with coding procedures is readily adaptable to further research investigating
the prevalence of innumerable other concepts; for example, gendered relations to nature, characteris-
tics of eco-citizens, types of environmental behaviours and the use of anthropomorphism. In addition,
the procedure allows ready comparisons to be drawn between the Picture Book of the Year Award and
other award collections, including newer CBCA award categories.
Furthermore, in the view of Ecological Science, there is value in comprehensively investigating the
time of appearance and depiction of particular animal species present in the Collection, while adding
categories for plants would be more inclusive and reflect actual scientific methods.
This study, which provides an overview of a large collection of literature, illuminates particular areas
that require more extensive pursuit in future research. It does not assume finality in any of the analysis
of data given, rather provides a platform upon which inter-disciplinary interpretation and discussion
of our place in this world may continue.

Conclusion
What can be seen from the Collection overall is a welcome expansion of the ideas and concepts included
in award winning Australian children’s literature. The Collection was initially confined to a role rein-
forcing ‘Australiana’ (Saxby 2002), but has since extended the awards to endorse new settings, wildlife,
and ways of relating to and perceiving nature, with more presumed to follow. In a continually evolving
collection of award winning picture books, reflecting and reinforcing broader social contexts, it may
be concluded that in literature – as with nature – diversity is best.

Acknowledgements
We thank the School of Life and Environmental Sciences at Deakin University for supporting this study. Thanks also go to
Anthony Rendall for assistance with statistical analysis, Mike Weston for testing the coding procedures, and Amy Sellers
for locating some very old and rare picture books.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
14    Y. M. BABB ET AL.

Funding
This work was supported by School of Life and Environmental Sciences at Deakin University.

Notes on contributors
Yeyoung May Babb is an Honours graduate from the School of Life and Environmental Sciences at Deakin University and
is currently studying a Masters of Teaching. She is interested in using cross disciplinary approaches to understand how
humans engage with and represent nature.
Janine McBurnie is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Life and Environmental Sciences at Deakin University. Her main focus
for teaching and research is within environmental sustainability, including education for sustainability, and indigenous
engagement within the area of natural resources management.
Kelly Miller is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Life and Environmental Sciences at Deakin University. Her teaching and
research focus on the human dimensions of wildlife management and sustainability. Other interests relate to public and
stakeholder participation in environmental management and decision-making, community attitudes towards the envi-
ronment, and environmental education.

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