Pub 1310

RADAR NAVIGATION AND

MANEUVERING BOARD MANUAL
Seventh Edition 2001

Prepared and published by the

NATIONAL IMAGERY AND MAPPING AGENCY
Bethesda, Maryland

© COPYRIGHT 2001 BY THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT

NO COPYRIGHT CLAIMED UNDER TITLE 17 U.S.C.

For sale by the U.S. Government Printing Office

Superintendant of Documents, Mail Stop: SSOP, Washington, DC 20402-9328
 PREFACE

The 2001 edition of Pub. 1310 Radar Navigation and Maneuvering Board maritime community. Most of the illustrations and examples have been
Manual combines selected chapters from the sixth edition of Pub. 1310, carried forward into this edition.
Radar Navigation Manual, and the fourth edition of Pub. 217, Maneuvering
Board Manual. The chapter on ARPA has been expanded and now includes a sample
operating manual for a modern commercial radar and ARPA. Many excellent
This manual has been compiled by the editorial staff of the Maritime other publications on ARPA are available and should be consulted for a more
Safety Information Center at the National Imagery and Mapping Agency. It thorough understanding on this subject matter.
is intended to be used primarily as a manual of instruction in navigation
schools and by naval and merchant marine personnel. By combining the Users should refer corrections, additions, and comments for improving
previous editions of Pub. 1310 and Pub. 217 into one book we hope that we this product to:
have provided a practical reference for mariners on board ship and
instructors ashore. It is also intended to be of assistance to others who are MARITIME SAFETY INFORMATION CENTER
concerned with marine radar in different and less direct ways. NATIONAL IMAGERY AND MAPPING AGENCY
ST D 44
In combining the two manuals, every effort has been made to retain the 4600 SANGAMORE ROAD
original style and format which has proven to be clear and helpful to the BETHESDA MD 20816-5003

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The information which was used in the book’s recompilation has come Particular thanks are due to Mr. Eric K. Larsson, Director, Center for
from a wide variety of sources. The staff at NIMA would like to thank the Maritime Education, Seaman’s Church Institute, New York and the Furuno
many individuals for their contributions. These include; U.S. Navy Radar Electric Co., LTD. for providing the instruction manual for their latest raster
Training Facilities, merchant marine academies, U.S.Coast Guard Academy, scan radar and ARPA units.
radar manufactures and a number of individual mariners.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1—BASIC RADAR PRINCIPLES AND Dust ................................................................................................. 14

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS Unusual Propagation Conditions .................................................... 14

A BASIC RADAR SYSTEM ...................................................................... 15

INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................1
RADAR SYSTEM CONSTANTS ..................................................... 15
A BRIEF HISTORY ......................................................................................2 Carrier Frequency ........................................................................ 15
Pulse Repetition Frequency ......................................................... 15
RADAR PROPAGATION CHARACTERISTICS ....................................3 Pulse Length ................................................................................. 15
THE RADIO WAVE ................................................................................3 Power Relation ............................................................................. 16
THE RADAR BEAM ...............................................................................4 COMPONENTS AND SUMMARY OF FUNCTIONS ..................... 17
Beam Width .......................................................................................4 FUNCTIONS OF COMPONENTS .................................................... 18
EFFECT OF SEA SURFACE ON RADAR BEAM ................................5
Power Supply ............................................................................... 18
ATMOSPHERIC FACTORS AFFECTING THE Modulator ..................................................................................... 18
RADAR HORIZON .......................................................................................9 Transmitter ................................................................................... 18
THE RADAR HORIZON .........................................................................9 Transmitting and Receiving Antenna System .............................. 18
DIFFRACTION ........................................................................................9 Receiver ....................................................................................... 20
REFRACTION .........................................................................................9 Indicator ....................................................................................... 21
Standard Atmospheric Conditions......................................................9
FACTORS AFFECTING DETECTION, DISPLAY, AND
Sub-refraction ..................................................................................10
MEASUREMENT OF RADAR TARGETS ............................................. 24
Super-refraction ...............................................................................10
FACTORS AFFECTING MAXIMUM RANGE ............................... 24
Extra Super-refraction or Ducting ...................................................11
Ducting Areas ..................................................................................11 Frequency ..................................................................................... 24
WEATHER FACTORS AFFECTING THE RADAR HORIZON ........13 Peak Power ................................................................................... 24
Attenuation by rain, fog, clouds, hail, snow, and dust .....................13 Pulse Length ................................................................................. 24
Rain ..................................................................................................13 Pulse Repetition Rate ................................................................... 24
Fog ...................................................................................................13 Beam Width ................................................................................. 24
Clouds ..............................................................................................14 Target Characteristics .................................................................. 24
Hail ..................................................................................................14 Receiver Sensitivity ..................................................................... 24
Snow ................................................................................................14 Antenna Rotation Rate ................................................................. 24

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 WAVELENGTH ......................................................................................... 31
FACTORS AFFECTING MINIMUM RANGE ..........................................25 TARGET CHARACTERISTICS ............................................................... 34
Pulse Length ..............................................................................................25 Height ........................................................................................................ 34
Sea Return ..................................................................................................25 Size ............................................................................................................ 34
Side-Lobe Echoes ......................................................................................25 Aspect ....................................................................................................... 34
Vertical Beam Width .................................................................................25 Shape ......................................................................................................... 34
FACTORS AFFECTING RANGE ACCURACY .......................................25 Texture ...................................................................................................... 34
Fixed Error .................................................................................................25 Composition .............................................................................................. 34
Line Voltage ..............................................................................................25
Frequency Drift ..........................................................................................25
Calibration .................................................................................................25 CHAPTER 2—RADAR OPERATION
Pip and VRM Alignment ...........................................................................26
Range Scale ...............................................................................................26 RELATIVE AND TRUE MOTION DISPLAYS ..................................... 35
PPI Curvature .............................................................................................26 GENERAL .................................................................................................. 35
Radarscope Interpretation ..........................................................................26 RELATIVE MOTION RADAR ................................................................. 35
FACTORS AFFECTING RANGE RESOLUTION ....................................26 Orientations of Relative Motion Display .................................................. 36
Pulse Length ..............................................................................................26 Stabilization .............................................................................................. 36
Receiver Gain ............................................................................................28 TRUE MOTION RADAR .......................................................................... 37
CRT Spot Size ...........................................................................................28 Stabilization .............................................................................................. 37
Range Scale ...............................................................................................28 Radarscope Persistence and Echo Trails .................................................. 37
FACTORS AFFECTING BEARING ACCURACY ...................................29 Reset Requirements and Methods ............................................................. 37
Horizontal Beam Width .............................................................................29 Modes of Operation .................................................................................. 38
Target Size .................................................................................................29 Types of True Motion Display .................................................................. 38
Target Rate of Movement ..........................................................................29
Stabilization of Display .............................................................................29 PLOTTING AND MEASUREMENTS ON PPI ...................................... 39
Sweep Centering Error ...............................................................................29 THE REFLECTION PLOTTER ................................................................. 39
Parallax Error .............................................................................................29 Basic Reflection Plotter Designs .............................................................. 39
Heading Flash Alignment ..........................................................................29 Marking the Reflection Plotter ................................................................. 39
FACTORS AFFECTING BEARING RESOLUTION ................................29 Cleanliness ................................................................................................ 39
Horizontal Beam Width .............................................................................29 PLOTTING ON STABILIZED AND UNSTABILIZED DISPLAYS ....... 39
Range of Targets ........................................................................................30 Stabilized North-Upward Display ............................................................ 39
CRT Spot Size ...........................................................................................31

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 RANGE AND BEARING MEASUREMENT .......................................44 MEASUREMENT AND ALIGNMENT CONTROLS ...................... 54
Mechanical Bearing Cursor .............................................................44 Range ........................................................................................... 54
Variable Range Marker (Range Strobe) ..........................................44 Bearing ......................................................................................... 55
Electronic Bearing Cursor ...............................................................44 Sweep Centering .......................................................................... 55
Interscan ...........................................................................................45 Center Expansion ......................................................................... 55
Off-Center Display ..........................................................................45 Heading Flash Alignment ............................................................ 55
Expanded Center Display ................................................................46 Range Calibration ........................................................................ 55
TRUE MOTION CONTROLS ........................................................... 56
RADAR OPERATING CONTROLS .........................................................47
Operating Mode ........................................................................... 56
POWER CONTROLS ............................................................................47
Normal Reset Control .................................................................. 56
Indicator Power Switch ....................................................................47
Delayed Reset Control ................................................................. 56
Antenna (Scanner) Power Switch ....................................................47
Manual Reset Control .................................................................. 56
Special Switches ..............................................................................47
Manual Override Control ............................................................. 56
PERFORMANCE CONTROLS—INITIAL ADJUSTMENTS .............48
Ship’s Speed Input Selector Control ............................................ 56
Brilliance Control ............................................................................48
Set and Drift Controls .................................................................. 56
Receiver Gain Control .....................................................................49
Speed and Course Made Good Controls ...................................... 57
Tuning Control .................................................................................50
Zero Speed Control ...................................................................... 57
PERFORMANCE CONTROLS - ADJUSTMENTS ACCORDING
TO OPERATING CONDITIONS ..........................................................50
Receiver Gain Control .....................................................................50 CHAPTER 3—COLLISION AVOIDANCE
Fast Time Constant (FTC) Switch (Differentiator) .........................50
Rain Clutter Control ........................................................................50
RELATIVE MOTION ................................................................................ 59
Sensitivity Time Control (STC) .......................................................52
THE VECTOR TRIANGLE ............................................................... 63
Performance Monitor .......................................................................53
VECTOR EQUATIONS ..................................................................... 64
Pulse Lengths and Pulse Repetition Rate Controls ..........................54
LIGHTING AND BRIGHTNESS CONTROLS ....................................54 MANEUVERING BOARD ........................................................................ 66
Reflection Plotter .............................................................................54 MANEUVERING BOARD FORMAT .............................................. 66
Heading Flash ..................................................................................54 PLOTTING ON MANEUVERING BOARD ..................................... 66
Electronic Bearing Cursor ...............................................................54 Relative Movement Problems ...................................................... 71
Fixed Range Markers .......................................................................54
Variable Range Marker ....................................................................54 THE LOGARITHMIC TIME-SPEED-DISTANCE NOMOGRAM ..... 74
Panel Lighting ..................................................................................54 NAUTICAL SLIDE RULES .............................................................. 76

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 GRAPHICAL RELATIVE MOTION SOLUTIONS .............................76 EXAMPLE 5—COURSE TO PASS SHIP AT A SPECIFIED CPA
RAPID RADAR PLOTTING .................................................................77 (Own ship’s speed is less than that of other ship) .............. 98
TRANSFER PLOTTING ........................................................................77
EXAMPLE 6—VERIFICATION OF FIXED OBJECTS OR RADAR
SELECTION OF PLOTTING TECHNIQUES ......................................77
CONTACTS DEAD IN THE WATER ........................... 100

RADAR PLOTTING SYMBOLS ...............................................................81

EXAMPLE 7—AVOIDANCE OF MULTIPLE CONTACTS WITHOUT
FIRST DETERMINING THE TRUE
GRAPHICAL SOLUTIONS ON THE REFLECTION
COURSES AND SPEEDS OF THE CONTACTS ......... 102
PLOTTER RAPID RADAR PLOTTING .................................................83
CLOSEST POINT OF APPROACH ......................................................83 EXAMPLE 8—DETERMINING THE CLOSEST POINT OF APPROACH
TRUE COURSE AND SPEED OF CONTACT ....................................83 FROM THE GEOGRAPHICAL PLOT .......................... 104
COURSE TO PASS AT SPECIFIED CPA ............................................85
ALTERNATIVE RADAR PLOTTING SYMBOLS ............................. 106
SPECIAL CASES ...................................................................................86
STANDARD PLOTTING PERIOD ................................................. 108
CONSTRUCTING THE PLASTIC RULE USED WITH SUMMARY OF ALTERNATIVE PLOTTING SYMBOLS
RAPID RADAR PLOTTING .....................................................................88 R-T-M TRIANGLE .......................................................................... 110

ALTERNATIVE GRAPHICAL SOLUTIONS ON THE

EXAMPLES REFLECTION PLOTTER ...................................................................... 112
e-r-m TRIANGLE CLOSEST POINT OF APPROACH ................................................ 112
TRUE COURSE AND SPEED OF CONTACT ............................... 112
EXAMPLE 1—DETERMINATION OF CLOSEST POINT COURSE TO PASS AT SPECIFIED CPA ...................................... 114
OF APPROACH (CPA) .......................................................90 SPECIAL CASES ............................................................................. 115
BLACK LIGHT ILLUMINATION .................................................. 115
EXAMPLE 2—COURSE AND SPEED OF A RADAR
CONTACT ...........................................................................92
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 3—COURSE AND SPEED OF RADAR CONTACT
R-T-M TRIANGLE
BY THE LADDER METHOD ............................................94

EXAMPLE 4—COURSE TO PASS A SHIP AT A SPECIFIED CPA EXAMPLE 9—DETERMINATION OF CLOSEST POINT OF
(Own ship’s speed is greater than that of other ship) ...........96 APPROACH (CPA) .......................................................... 118

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EXAMPLE 10—COURSE AND SPEED OF A RADAR CHAPTER 4—RADAR NAVIGATION
CONTACT .......................................................................120

EXAMPLE 11—COURSE AND SPEED OF RADAR CONTACT RADARSCOPE INTERPRETATION .................................................... 147
BY THE LADDER METHOD ........................................122 LAND TARGETS ............................................................................. 147
SHIP TARGETS ............................................................................... 149
EXAMPLE 12—COURSE TO PASS A SHIP AT A SPECIFIED CPA RADAR SHADOW .......................................................................... 149
(Own ship’s speed is greater than that of other ship) .......124 BEAM WIDTH AND PULSE LENGTH DISTORTION ................ 149
SUMMARY OF DISTORTIONS ..................................................... 151
EXAMPLE 13—COURSE TO PASS SHIP AT A SPECIFIED CPA
RECOGNITION OF UNWANTED ECHOES AND
(Own ship’s speed is less than that of other ship) ............126
EFFECTS .......................................................................................... 152
EXAMPLE 14—VERIFICATION OF FIXED OBJECTS OR Indirect (False) Echoes .................................................................. 152
RADAR CONTACTS DEAD IN THE WATER ............128 Side-lobe Effects ........................................................................... 153
Multiple Echoes ............................................................................. 153
EXAMPLE 15—AVOIDANCE OF MULTIPLE CONTACTS Second-Trace (Multiple-Trace) Echoes ........................................ 153
WITHOUT FIRST DETERMINING THE TRUE Electronic Interference Effects ...................................................... 155
COURSES AND SPEEDS OF THE CONTACTS .........130 Blind and Shadow Sectors ............................................................. 155
Spoking .......................................................................................... 156
PRACTICAL SOLUTION FOR CPA IN TRUE
Sectoring ........................................................................................ 156
MOTION MODE .......................................................................................132
Serrated Range Rings .................................................................... 156
SITUATION RECOGNITION .................................................................139 PPI Display Distortion ................................................................... 156
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................139 Hour-Glass Effect .......................................................................... 156
RULES FOR SPEED CHANGE ..........................................................140 Overhead Cable Effect .................................................................. 156
Reduced Speed ...............................................................................140
Increased Speed .............................................................................140 AIDS TO RADAR NAVIGATION .......................................................... 158
Speed of Relative Motion (SRM) ..................................................140 RADAR REFLECTORS ................................................................... 158
SITUATION DISPLAYS .....................................................................140 RADAR BEACONS ......................................................................... 158
APPLICATION ....................................................................................140 Racon ......................................................................................... 159
RULES FOR MANEUVERING ..........................................................145 Ramark ....................................................................................... 160

RADAR FIXING METHODS ................................................................. 161

RANGE AND BEARING TO A SINGLE OBJECT ....................... 161
TWO OR MORE BEARINGS ......................................................... 161

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 TANGENT BEARINGS .......................................................................161 CHAPTER 5—AUTOMATIC RADAR PLOTTING AIDS
TWO OR MORE RANGES .................................................................161 (ARPA)
MIXED METHODS .............................................................................162
PRECONSTRUCTION OF RANGE ARCS ........................................163 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................... 191
CONTOUR METHOD .........................................................................164
STAND-ALONE AND INTEGRAL ARPA’S ......................................... 191
IDENTIFYING A RADAR-INCONSPICUOUS OBJECT ...................165 ARPA DISPLAY ............................................................................... 192
Raster-scan PPI .............................................................................. 192
FINDING COURSE AND SPEED MADE GOOD BY Monochrome and Color CRT ........................................................ 192
PARALLEL-LINE CURSOR ...................................................................166
FEATURES AND OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS FOR
USE OF PARALLEL-LINE CURSOR FOR ANCHORING ................167 A MODERN RASTER SCAN RADAR AND ARPA ............................ 193
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................ 193
PARALLEL INDEXING ..........................................................................169 FEATURES ...................................................................................... 193
General Features ............................................................................ 194
THE FRANKLIN CONTINUOUS RADAR PLOT
ARPA Features .............................................................................. 194
TECHNIQUE .............................................................................................182
DISPLAY CONTROLS..................................................................... 196
TRUE MOTION RADAR RESET IN RESTRICTED Mode Panel .................................................................................... 196
WATERS ....................................................................................................184 Plotting Keypad ............................................................................. 197
OPERATION ............................................................................................. 198
RADAR DETECTION OF ICE ................................................................186 TURNING ON POWER .................................................................... 198
ICEBERGS ...........................................................................................186 TRANSMITTER ON ......................................................................... 198
BERGY BITS .......................................................................................186 CRT BRILLIANCE ........................................................................... 198
GROWLERS .........................................................................................186 TUNING THE RECEIVER ............................................................... 199
Auto Tune ...................................................................................... 199
RADAR SETTINGS FOR RADARSCOPE PHOTOGRAPHY ...........187 Manual Tune .................................................................................. 199
Video Lockup Recovery ................................................................ 199
NAVIGATIONAL PLANNING ...............................................................188 DEGAUSSING THE CRT SCREEN ................................................ 202
SPECIAL TECHNIQUES ....................................................................189 INITIALIZING THE GYRO READOUT ......................................... 202
Identifying Echoes .........................................................................189 PRESENTATION MODES ............................................................... 202
Fixing .............................................................................................189 Relative Motion (RM) ................................................................... 202
True Motion (TM) ......................................................................... 202

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SELECTING THE PRESENTATION MODE...................................202 Vector Time ................................................................................... 213
Head-up Mode ................................................................................203 Target Data .................................................................................... 213
Course-up Mode .............................................................................203 Reading the Target Data ............................................................... 213
Head-up TB (True Bearing) Mode .................................................204 Terminating Target Plotting .......................................................... 213
North-up Mode ...............................................................................204 Entering Own Ship’s Speed........................................................... 213
True Motion Mode..........................................................................205 Automatic Speed Input .................................................................. 214
SELECTING THE RANGE SCALE..................................................206 Manual Speed Input ....................................................................... 214
SELECTING THE PULSEWIDTH....................................................206 TARGET TRAILS (ECHO TRAILS) ............................................... 215
Selecting Pulsewidth 1 or 2 ............................................................206 True or Relative Trails................................................................... 215
Presetting Pulsewidths 1 and 2 .......................................................206 Trail Gradations ............................................................................. 215
ADJUSTING THE SENSITIVITY ....................................................206
Displaying and Erasing Echo Trails .............................................. 215
SUPPRESSING SEA CLUTTER.......................................................207
Resetting Echo Trails..................................................................... 215
Automatic Anti-clutter Control.......................................................207
PARALLEL INDEX LINES ............................................................ 216
Manual Anti-clutter Control ...........................................................207
Displaying and Erasing the Index Lines ........................................ 216
SUPPRESSING PRECIPITATION CLUTTER.................................207
Adjusting Index Line Intervals ...................................................... 216
INTERFERENCE REJECTOR ..........................................................207
ANCHOR WATCH ........................................................................... 216
MEASURING THE RANGE .............................................................208
Activating Anchor Watch .............................................................. 216
MEASURING THE BEARING .........................................................208
Alarm Range Setting...................................................................... 216
COLLSION ASSESSMENT BY OFFSET EBL................................209
Showing Drag Lines ...................................................................... 217
MEASURING RANGE AND BEARING BETWEEN
Anchor Watch in Standby or Transmit Status ............................... 217
TWO TARGETS.................................................................................210
Origin Mark .................................................................................. 217
SETTING A GUARD ZONE (GUARD ALARM)............................210
SILENCING AUDIBLE ALARM, REACTIVATING Zoom.............................................................................................. 217
GUARD ALARM ...............................................................................210 MARKERS ........................................................................................ 218
DISABLING GUARD ZONE (GUARD ALARM)...........................211 Heading Marker ............................................................................. 218
INWARD AND OUTWARD GUARD ALARMS ............................211 Temporarily Erasing Heading Marker........................................... 218
OFF-CENTERING .............................................................................211 North Marker ................................................................................. 218
ECHO STRETCH ...............................................................................211 Stern Marker .................................................................................. 218
ECHO AVERAGING .........................................................................211 Menu Keys.................................................................................... 218
ELECTRONIC PLOTTING (E-PLOT)..............................................212 FUNCTION KEYS ............................................................................ 219
Plotting a target...............................................................................212 Watch Alarm.................................................................................. 220
True or Relative Vector ..................................................................213 EPA Menu .................................................................................... 220

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 NAVIGATION INFORMATION ......................................................221 MODE AND LENGTH OF VECTORS ............................................ 231
Menu and Navigation Data Display ...............................................221 True or Relative Vectors................................................................ 231
Suppressing Second-trace Echoes ..................................................221 True Vector .................................................................................... 231
Adjusting Relative Brilliance Levels of Screen Data .....................222 Relative Vector .............................................................................. 231
Set and Drift (Set and Rate)............................................................222 Vector Time ................................................................................... 231
PAST POSITIONS ............................................................................ 231
OPERATION OF ARPA............................................................................223 Displaying and Erasing Past Positions .......................................... 231
GENERAL .........................................................................................223 Selecting the Number of Dots and Past Positions
PRINCIPAL SPECIFICATIONS .......................................................223 Intervals ........................................................................................ 232
Acquisition and Tracking ...............................................................223 SETTING CPA/TCPA ALARM RANGES ...................................... 232
Vectors............................................................................................223 Silencing CPA/TCPA Aural Alarms ............................................. 232
ARPA MENU OPERATION..............................................................224 Setting a Guard Zone ..................................................................... 232
START UP PROCEDURE .................................................................224 Activating the Guard Zone ............................................................ 233
Activating the ARPA......................................................................224 Deactivating the Guard Zone......................................................... 233
Entering Own Ship’s Speed............................................................224 Silencing the Guard Zone Audible Alarm ..................................... 233
Automatic Speed Input ...................................................................224 Operational Warnings ................................................................... 233
Manual Speed Input........................................................................225 CPA/TCPA Alarm ......................................................................... 234
Target Based Speed ........................................................................225 Guard Zone Alarm ......................................................................... 234
Cancelling Target Based Speed ......................................................225 Lost Target Alarm.......................................................................... 234
Deactivating the ARPA ................................................................. 225 Target Full Alarm .......................................................................... 234
AUTOMATIC ACQUISITION..........................................................225 Manually Acquired Targets ........................................................... 234
Enabling and Disabling Auto Acquisition......................................226 Automatically Acquired Targets.................................................... 234
Setting Auto Aquisition Areas........................................................226 System Failure Alarm ................................................................... 234
Terminating Tracking of Targets....................................................227 TRIAL MANEUVER ........................................................................ 235
Individual Targets...........................................................................227 Dynamic Trial Maneuver............................................................... 235
All Targets ......................................................................................227 Static Trial Maneuver .................................................................... 235
Discrimination Between Landmass and True Targets ....................227 Terminating Trial Maneuver.......................................................... 235
MANUAL ACQUISITION ................................................................227 CRITERIA FOR SELECTING TARGETS FOR
CHANGING PLOT SYMBOL SIZE .................................................227 TRACKING ....................................................................................... 236
ADJUSTING BRILLIANCE OF PLOT MARKS..............................227 Acquisition and Tracking .............................................................. 236
DISPLAYING TARGET DATA........................................................230 Quantization................................................................................... 236

xii
 RADAR OBSERVATION ......................................................................237 CHAPTER 6—MANEUVERING BOARD MANUAL
GENERAL ..........................................................................................237
Minimum Range .............................................................................237
PART ONE: OWN SHIP AT CENTER ................................................. 243
Maximum Range ............................................................................237
X-Band and S-Band........................................................................237 PART TWO: GUIDE AT CENTER ....................................................... 309
Radar Resolution ............................................................................237
Bearing Resolution ........................................................................ 237
APPENDICES
Range Resolution............................................................................237
Bearing Accuracy ...........................................................................237
APPENDIX A. EXTRACT FROM REGULATION 12, CHAPTER V
Range Measurement .......................................................................237 OF THE IMO-SOLAS (1974) CONVENTION
FALSE ECHOES................................................................................238 AS AMENDED TO 1983 ...............................................367
Multiple Echoes ..............................................................................238
APPENDIX B. GLOSSARY AND ABBREVIATIONS.......................... 373
Sidelobe Echoes..............................................................................238
Virtual Image ..................................................................................238 APPENDIX C. RELATIVE MOTION PROBLEMS ............................... 381
Shadow Sectors...............................................................................238
APPENDIX D. BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................ 398
SEARCH AND RESCUE TRANSPONDER (SART).......................238

POST-IT NOTE METHOD OF RADAR CONTACT

THREAT AND ASPECT ASSESSMENT ...............................................239

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 INDEX OF MANEUVERING BOARD EXAMPLES

OWN SHIP GUIDE

AT CENTER AT CENTER

EX Page EX Page
TRACKING
Closest Point of Approach (CPA).................................................................................................................... 1 244 — —
Course and Speed of Other Ship...................................................................................................................... 2 246 — —
Course and Speed of Other Ship using Relative Plot as Relative Vector ........................................................ 3 248 — —

CHANGE OF STATION
With Time, Course, or Speed Specified........................................................................................................... 4 250 29 310
Three Ship Maneuvers..................................................................................................................................... 5 252 30 312

PASSING
At Given Distance............................................................................................................................................ 6 254 31 314
Course and Speed to pass using Relative Plot as Relative Vector ................................................................... 7 256 — —
At Maximum (Minimum) Distance ................................................................................................................. 8 258 32 316
At a Distance Required for Several Ships to Clear.......................................................................................... 9 260 33 318

WIND
Determination of True Wind............................................................................................................................ 10 262 — —
Desired Relative Wind (three methods)........................................................................................................... 11 264 — —

PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF MANEUVERING BOARD SOLUTIONS

Advance, Transfer, Acceleration, and Deceleration ........................................................................................ 12 270 34 320
Maneuvering by Seaman’s Eye ....................................................................................................................... — — 35 322

COLLISION AVOIDANCE
Avoidance of Multiple Contacts ...................................................................................................................... 13 272 — —
Avoidance of Multiple Contacts Without First Determining the True Courses and Speeds of the
Contacts ........................................................................................................................................................... 14 276 — —
Determining the Closest Point of Approach from the Geographical Plot ....................................................... 15 278 — —

xiv
 OWN SHIP GUIDE
AT CENTER AT CENTER

EX Page EX Page
AXIS ROTATION
Formation Axis Rotation—Guide in Center.................................................................................................... — — 36 324
Formation Axis Rotation—Guide out of Center (Replot Method).................................................................. — — 37 326
Formation Axis Rotation—Guide out of Center (Parallel Offset Method) ..................................................... — — 38 328

LIMITING RANGE
Remain in Range for Specified Time............................................................................................................... 16 280 39 330
Open Range in Minimum Time ....................................................................................................................... 17 282 40 332
Close Range in Minimum Time....................................................................................................................... 18 284 41 334
Remain in Range for Maximum Time............................................................................................................. 19 286 42 336
Remain Outside Range for Maximum Time.................................................................................................... 20 288 43 338

FICTITIOUS SHIP
One Ship Alters Course and/or Speed During Maneuver................................................................................ 21 290 44 340
Both Ships Alter Course and/or Speed During Maneuver............................................................................... 22 292 45 342

SCOUTING
Out and In on Present Bearing at Given Speed ............................................................................................... 23 294 46 344
Change Stations, Scouting Enroute ................................................................................................................. 24 296 47 346

BEARINGS ONLY
Course, Speed, and Position derived from Bearings Only .............................................................................. 25 298 — —

ANTI SUBMARINE WARFARE TECHNIQUES

Limited Lines of Approach.............................................................................................................................. 26 300 48 348
Torpedo Danger Zone ...................................................................................................................................... — — 49 350
Missle Danger Zone......................................................................................................................................... — — 50 352
Cone of Courses (two methods) ...................................................................................................................... 27 302 — —
Evasive Action Against a Slow Moving Target ............................................................................................... 28 306 — —

xv
 CHAPTER 1 — BASIC RADAR PRINCIPLES AND GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

INTRODUCTION

The word radar is an acronym derived from the phrase RAdio Detection There are two groups of radio frequencies allocated by international
And Ranging and applies to electronic equipment designed for detecting and standards for use by civil marine radar systems. The first group lies in the X-
tracking objects (targets) at considerable distances. The basic principle band which corresponds to a wavelength of 3 cm. and has a frequency range
behind radar is simple - extremely short bursts of radio energy (traveling at between 9300 and 9500 MHz. The second group lies in the S-band with a
the speed of light) are transmitted, reflected off a target and then returned as wavelength of 10 cm. and has a frequency range of 2900 to 3100 MHz. It is
an echo. sometimes more convenient to speak in terms of wavelength rather than
Radar makes use of a phenomenon we have all observed, that of the frequency because of the high values associated with the latter.
ECHO PRINCIPLE. To illustrate this principle, if a ship’s whistle were A fundamental requirement of marine radar is that of directional
sounded in the middle of the ocean, the sound waves would dissipate their transmission and reception, which is achieved by producing a narrow
energy as they traveled outward and at some point would disappear entirely. horizontal beam. In order to focus the radio energy into a narrow beam the
If, however the whistle sounded near an object such as a cliff some of the laws of physics prevail and the wavelength must be within the few
radiated sound waves would be reflected back to the ship as an echo. centimeters range.
The form of electromagnetic signal radiated by the radar depends upon The radio-frequency energy transmitted by pulse-modulated radars
the type of information needed about the target. Radar, as designed for consists of a series of equally spaced pulses, frequently having durations of
marine navigation applications, is pulse modulated. Pulse-modulated radar about 1 microsecond or less, separated by very short but relatively long
can determine the distance to a target by measuring the time required for an periods during which no energy is transmitted. The terms PULSE-
extremely short burst of radio-frequency (r-f) energy to travel to the target MODULATED RADAR and PULSE MODULATION are derived from this
and return to its source as a reflected echo. Directional antennas are used for method of transmission of radio-frequency energy.
transmitting the pulse and receiving the reflected echo, thereby allowing If the distance to a target is to be determined by measuring the time
determination of the direction or bearing of the target echo. required for one pulse to travel to the target and return as a reflected echo, it
Once time and bearing are measured, these targets or echoes are is necessary that this cycle be completed before the pulse immediately
calculated and displayed on the radar display. The radar display provides the following is transmitted. This is the reason why the transmitted pulses must
operator a birds eye view of where other targets are relative to own ship. be separated by relatively long nontransmitting time periods. Otherwise,
Radar is an active device. It utilizes its own radio energy to detect and transmission would occur during reception of the reflected echo of the
track the target. It does not depend on energy radiated by the target itself. preceding pulse. Using the same antenna for both transmitting and receiving,
The ability to detect a target at great distances and to locate its position with the relatively weak reflected echo would be blocked by the relatively strong
high accuracy are two of the chief attributes of radar. transmitted pulse.

1
 A BRIEF HISTORY

Radar, the device which is used for detection and ranging of contacts, purposes of tracking aircraft and ships finally became recognized when
independent of time and weather conditions, was one of the most important scientists and engineers learned how to use a single antenna for transmitting
scientific discoveries and technological developments that emerged from and receiving.
WWII. It’s development, like that of most great inventions was mothered by Due to the prevailing political and military conditions at the time, the
necessity. Behind the development of radar lay more than a century of radio United States, Great Britain, Soviet Union, France, Italy, Germany and Japan
development. all began experimenting with radar, with varying degrees of success. During
The basic idea of radar can be traced back to the classical experiments on the 1930s, efforts were made by several countries to use radio echo for
electromagnetic radiation conducted by the scientific community in the 19th aircraft detection. Most of these countries were able to produce some form
century. In the early 1800s, an English physicist, Michael Faraday, of operational radar equipment for use by the military at the start of the war
demonstrated that electric current produces a magnetic field and that the in 1939.
energy in this field returns to the circuit when the current is stopped. In 1864 At the beginning of WWII, Germany had progressed further in radar
the Scottish physicist, James Maxwell, had formulated the general equations development and employed radar units on the ground and in the air for
of the electromagnetic field, determining that both light and radio waves are defense against allied aircraft. The ability of radar to serve as an early
actually electromagnetic waves governed by the same fundamental laws but warning device proved valuable as a defensive tool for the British and the
having different frequencies. He proved mathematically that any electrical Germans.
disturbance could produce an effect at a considerable distance from the point Although radar was employed at the start of the war as a defensive
of origin and that this electromagnetic energy travels outward from the weapon, as the war progressed, it came to be used for offensive purposes too.
source in the form of waves moving at the speed of light. By the middle of 1941 radar had been employed to track aircraft
At the time of Maxwell’s conclusions there was no available means to automatically in azimuth and elevation and later to track targets
propagate or detect electromagnetic waves. It was not until 1886 that automatically in range.
Maxwell’s theories were tested. The German physicist, Heinrich Hertz, set All of the proven radar systems developed prior to the war were in the
out to validate Maxwell’s general equations. Hertz was able to show that VHF band. These low frequency radar signals are subject to several
electromagnetic waves travelled in straight lines and that they can be limitations, but despite the drawbacks, VHF represented the frontier of radar
reflected from a metal object just as light waves are reflected by a mirror. technology. Late in 1939, British physicists created the cavity magnetron
In 1904 the German engineer, Christian Hulsmeyer obtained a patent for a oscillator which operated at higher frequencies. It was the magnetron that
device capable of detecting ships. This device was demonstrated to the made microwave radar a reality. It was this technological advance that marks
German navy, but failed to arouse interest probably due in part to its very the beginning of modern radar.
limited range. In 1922, Guglielmo Marconi drew attention to the work of Following the war, progress in radar technology slowed as post war
Hertz and repeated Hertz’s experiments and eventually proposed in principle priorities were directed elsewhere. In the 1950s new and better radar systems
what we know now as marine radar. began to emerge and the benefits to the civil mariner became more
The first observation of the radar effect was made in 1922 by Dr. Albert important. Although radar technology has been advanced primarily by the
Taylor of the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) in Washington, D.C. Dr. military, the benefits have spilled over into many important civilian
Taylor observed that a ship passing between a radio transmitter and receiver applications, of which a principal example is the safety of marine navigation.
reflected some of the waves back to the transmitter. In 1930 further tests at The same fundamental principles discovered nearly a century ago and the
the NRL observed that a plane flying through a beam from a transmitting basic data they provide, namely target range and bearing, still apply to
antenna caused a fluctuation in the signal. The importance of radar for the today’s modern marine radar units.

2
 RADAR PROPAGATION CHARACTERISTICS

THE RADIO WAVE the electric axis is horizontal in space. Horizontal polarization has been
found to be the most satisfactory type of polarization for navigational radars
To appreciate the capabilities and limitations of a marine radar and to be in that stronger echoes are received from the targets normally used with
able to use it to full advantage, it is necessary to comprehend the these radars when the electric axis is horizontal.
characteristics and behavior of radio waves and to grasp the principles of Each pulse of energy transmitted during a few tenths of a microsecond or
their generation and reception, including the echo display as seen by the a few microseconds contains hundreds of complete oscillations. A CYCLE
observer. Understanding the theory behind the target presentation on the is one complete oscillation or one complete wave, i.e., that part of the wave
radar scope will provide the radar observer a better understanding of the art motion passing zero in one direction until it next passes zero in the same
and science of radar interpretation. direction (see figure 1.1). The FREQUENCY is the number of cycles
Radar (radio) waves, emitted in pulses of electromagnetic energy in the completed per second. The unit now being used for frequency in cycles per
radio-frequency band 3,000 to 10,000 MHz used for shipborne navigational second is the HERTZ. One hertz is one cycle per second; one kilohertz (kHz)
radar, have many characteristics similar to those of other waves. Like light is one thousand cycles per second; one megahertz (MHz) is one million
waves of much higher frequency, radar waves tend to travel in straight lines cycles per second.
or rays at speeds approximating that of light. Also, like light waves, radar
waves are subject to refraction or bending in the atmosphere.
Radio-frequency energy travels at the speed of light, approximately
162,000 nautical miles per second; therefore, the time required for a pulse to
travel to the target and return to its source is a measure of the distance to the
target. Since the radio-frequency energy makes a round trip, only half the
time of travel determines the distance to the target. The round trip time is
accounted for in the calibration of the radar.
The speed of a pulse of radio-frequency energy is so fast that the pulse can
circumnavigate the earth at the equator more than 7 times in 1 second. It should
be obvious that in measuring the time of travel of a radar pulse or signal from
one ship to a target ship, the measurement must be an extremely short time
interval. For this reason, the MICROSECOND (µsec) is used as a measure of
time for radar applications. The microsecond is one-millionth part of 1 second,
i.e., there are 1,000,000 microseconds in 1 second of time.
Radio waves have characteristics common to other forms of wave motion
such as ocean waves. Wave motion consists of a succession of crests and
troughs which follow one another at equal intervals and move along at a Figure 1.1 - Wave.
constant speed. Like waves in the sea, radar waves have energy, frequency,
amplitude, wavelength, and rate of travel. Whereas waves in the sea have
mechanical energy, radar waves have electromagnetic energy, usually WAVELENGTH is the distance along the direction of propagation
expressed in watt units of power. An important characteristic of radio waves between successive crests or troughs. When one cycle has been completed,
in connection with radar is polarization. This electromagnetic energy has the wave has traveled one wavelength.
associated electric and magnetic fields, the directions of which are at right The AMPLITUDE is the maximum displacement of the wave from its
angles to each other. The orientation of the ELECTRIC AXIS in space mean or zero value.
establishes what is known as the POLARIZATION of the wave. Horizontal Since the speed of radar waves is constant at 300,000 kilometers per
polarization is normally used with navigational radars, i.e., the direction of second, there is a definite relationship between frequency and wavelength.

3
 The CYCLE is a complete alternation or oscillation from one crest Although the radiated energy is concentrated or focused into a relatively
through a trough to the next crest. narrow main beam by the antenna, similar to a beam of light from a flashlight,
there is no clearly defined envelope of the energy radiated. While the energy is
concentrated along the axis of the beam, its strength decreases with distance
speed of radar waves along the axis. The strength of the energy decreases rapidly in directions away
frequency = --------------------------------------------------
wavelength from the beam axis. The power in watts at points in the beam is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance. Therefore, the power at 3 miles is only
1/9th of the power at 1 mile in a given direction. The field intensity in volts at
When the wavelength is 3.2 centimeters (0.000032 km), points in the beam is inversely proportional to the distance. Therefore, the
voltage at 2 miles is only one-half the voltage at 1 mile in a given direction. With
the rapid decrease in the amount of radiated energy in directions away from the
300, 000 km 0.000032 km
frequency = --------------------------------- ÷ ----------------------------------- axis and in conjunction with the rapid decreases of this energy with distance, it
sec ond cycle follows that practical limits of power or voltage may be used to define the
frequency = 9375 megahertz dimensions of the radar beam or to establish its envelope of useful energy.

Beam Width
THE RADAR BEAM The three-dimensional radar beam is normally defined by its horizontal
and vertical beam widths. Beam width is the angular width of a radar beam
The pulses of r-f energy emitted from the feedhorn at the focal point of a between points within which the field strength or power is greater than
reflector or emitted and radiated directly from the slots of a slotted arbitrarily selected lower limits of field strength or power.
waveguide antenna would, for the most part, form a single lobe-shaped There are two limiting values, expressed either in terms of field intensity
pattern of radiation if emitted in free space. Figure 1.2 illustrates this free or power ratios, used conventionally to define beam width. One convention
space radiation pattern, including the undesirable minor lobes or SIDE defines beam width as the angular width between points at which the field
LOBES associated with practical antenna design. Because of the large strength is 71 percent of its maximum value. Expressed in terms of power
differences in the various dimensions of the radiation pattern, figure 1.2 is ratio, this convention defines beam width as the angular width between
necessarily distorted. HALF-POWER POINTS. The other convention defines beam width as the
angular width between points at which the field strength is 50 percent of its
maximum value. Expressed in terms of power ratio, the latter convention
defines beam width as the angular width between QUARTER-POWER
POINTS.
The half-power ratio is the most frequently used convention. Which
convention has been used in stating the beam width may be identified from
the decibel (dB) figure normally included with the specifications of a radar
set. Half power and 71 percent field strength correspond to -3 dB; quarter
power and 50 percent field strength correspond to -6 dB.
Figure 1.2 - Free space radiation pattern.

4
 The radiation diagram illustrated in figure 1.3 depicts relative values of radar waves directly transmitted and those waves which are reflected from
power in the same plane existing at the same distances from the antenna or the surface of the sea. The vertical beam widths of navigational radars are
the origin of the radar beam. Maximum power is in the direction of the axis such that during normal transmission, radar waves will strike the surface of
of the beam. Power values diminish rapidly in directions away from the axis. the sea at points from near the antenna (depending upon antenna height and
The beam width in this case is taken as the angle between the half-power vertical beam width) to the radar horizon. The indirect waves (see figure 1.4)
points. reflected from the surface of the sea may, on rejoining the direct waves,
either reinforce or cancel the direct waves depending upon whether they are
in phase or out of phase with the direct waves, respectively. Where the direct
and indirect waves are exactly in phase, i.e., the crests and troughs of the
waves coincide, hyperbolic lines of maximum radiation known as LINES OF
MAXIMA are produced. Where the direct and indirect waves are exactly of
opposite phase, i.e., the trough of one wave coincides with the crest of the
other wave, hyperbolic lines of minimum radiation known as LINES OF
MINIMA are produced. Along directions away from the antenna, the direct
and indirect waves will gradually come into and pass out of phase, producing
lobes of useful radiation separated by regions within which, for practical
purposes, there is no useful radiation.

Figure 1.3 - Radiation diagram.

For a given amount of transmitted power, the main lobe of the radar beam
extends to a greater distance at a given power level with greater
concentration of power in narrower beam widths. To increase maximum
detection range capabilities, the energy is concentrated into as narrow a
beam as is feasible. Because of practical considerations related to target
detection and discrimination, only the horizontal beam width is quite narrow, Figure 1.4 - Direct and indirect waves.
typical values being between about 0.65˚ to 2.0˚. The vertical beam width is
relatively broad, typical values being between about 15˚ to 30˚. Figure 1.5 illustrates the lower region of the INTERFERENCE
The beam width is dependent upon the frequency or wavelength of the PATTERN of a representative navigational radar. Since the first line of
transmitted energy, antenna design, and the dimensions of the antenna. minima is at the surface of the sea, the first region of minimum radiation or
For a given antenna size (antenna aperture), narrower beam widths are energy is adjacent to the sea’s surface.
obtained when using shorter wavelengths. For a given wavelength, narrower From figure 1.5 it should be obvious that if r-f energy is to be reflected
beam widths are obtained when using larger antennas. from a target, the target must extend somewhat above the radar horizon, the
The slotted waveguide antenna has largely eliminated the side-lobe amount of extension being dependent upon the reflecting properties of the
problem. target.
A VERTICAL-PLANE COVERAGE DIAGRAM as illustrated in figure
1.5 is used by radar designers and analysts to predict regions in which targets
EFFECT OF SEA SURFACE ON RADAR BEAM will and will not be detected.
Of course, on the small page of a book it would be impossible to illustrate
With radar waves being propagated in the vicinity of the surface of the the coverage of a radar beam to scale with antenna height being in feet and
sea, the main lobe of the radar beam, as a whole, is composed of a number of the lengths of the various lobes of the interference pattern being in miles. In
separate lobes as opposed to the single lobe-shaped pattern of radiation as providing greater clarity of the presentation of the lobes, non-linear
emitted in free space. This phenomenon is the result of interference between graduations of the arc of the vertical beam width are used.

5
 Figure 1.5 - Vertical-plane coverage diagram (3050 MHz, antenna height 125 feet, wave height 4 feet).

6
Figure 1.6 - Vertical-plane coverage diagram (1000 MHz, vertical beam width 10˚, antenna height 80 feet, wave height 0 feet).

7
 The lengths of the various lobes illustrated in figures 1.5 and 1.6 should be lowest lobe is higher than it would be for a higher frequency. Figure 1.6 also
given no special significance with respect to the range capabilities of a illustrates the vertical view of the undesirable side lobes associated with
particular radar set. As with other coverage diagrams, the lobes are drawn to practical antenna design. In examining these radiation coverage diagrams,
connect points of equal field intensities. Longer and broader lobes may be the reader should keep in mind that the radiation pattern is three-
drawn connecting points of equal, but lesser, field intensities. dimensional.
The vertical-plane coverage diagram as illustrated in figure 1.6, while not Antenna height as well as frequency or wavelength governs the number of
representative of navigational radars, does indicate that at the lower lobes in the interference pattern. The number of the lobes and the fineness of
frequencies the interference pattern is more coarse than the patterns for the interference pattern increase with antenna height. Increased antenna
higher frequencies. This particular diagram was constructed with the height as well as increases in frequency tends to lower the lobes of the
assumption that the free space useful range of the radar beam was 50 interference pattern.
nautical miles. From this diagram it is seen that the ranges of the useful lobes The pitch and roll of the ship radiating does not affect the structure of the
are extended to considerably greater distances because of the reinforcement interference pattern.
of the direct radar waves by the indirect waves. Also, the elevation of the

8
 ATMOSPHERIC FACTORS AFFECTING THE RADAR HORIZON

THE RADAR HORIZON Standard Atmospheric Conditions

The affect of the atmosphere on the horizon is a further factor which The distance to the radar horizon, ignoring refraction can be expressed in
should be taken into account when assessing the likelihood of detecting a the following formula. Where h is the height of the antenna in feet, the
particular target and especially where the coastline is expected. distance, d, to the radar horizon in nautical miles, assuming standard
Generally, radar waves are restricted in the recording of the range of low- atmospheric conditions, may be found as follows:
lying objects by the radar horizon. The range of the radar horizon depends
on the height of the antenna and on the amount of bending of the radar wave. d = 1.22 h
The bending is caused by diffraction and refraction. Diffraction is a property
of the electromagnetic wave itself. Refraction is due to the prevailing
atmospheric conditions. There is, therefore, a definite radar horizon.
With the distances to the geometrical or ordinary horizon being 1.06 h
and the distance to the visible or optical horizon being 1.15 h . We see that
DIFFRACTION the range of the radar horizon is greater than that of the optical horizon,
which again is greater than that of the geometrical horizon. Thus, like light
Diffraction is the bending of a wave as it passes an obstruction. Because rays in the standard atmosphere, radar rays are bent or refracted slightly
of diffraction there is some illumination of the region behind an obstruction downwards approximating the curvature of the earth (see figure 1.7).
or target by the radar beam. Diffraction effects are greater at the lower The distance to the radar horizon does not in itself limit the distance from
frequencies. Thus, the radar beam of a lower frequency radar tends to which echoes may be received from targets. Assuming that adequate power
illuminate more of the shadow region behind an obstruction than the beam of is transmitted, echoes may be received from targets beyond the radar horizon
radar of higher frequency or shorter wavelength. if their reflecting surfaces extend above it. Note that the distance to the radar
horizon is the distance at which the radar rays graze the surface of the earth.

REFRACTION

Refraction affects the range at which objects are detected. The

phenomenon of refraction should be well-known to every navigation officer.
Refraction takes place when the velocity of the wave is changed. This can
happen when the wave front passes the boundary of two substances of
differing densities. One substance offers more resistance to the wave than the
other and therefore the velocity of the wave will change. Like light rays,
radar rays are subject to bending or refraction in the atmosphere resulting
from travel through regions of different density. However, radar rays are
refracted slightly more than light rays because of the frequencies used. If the Figure 1.7 - Refraction.
radar waves actually traveled in straight lines or rays, the distance to the
horizon grazed by these rays would be dependent only on the height of the In the preceding discussion standard atmospheric conditions were
antenna, assuming adequate power for the rays to reach this horizon. assumed. The standard atmosphere is a hypothetical vertical distribution of
Without the effects of refraction, the distance to the RADAR HORIZON atmospheric temperature, pressure, and density which is taken to be
would be the same as that of the geometrical horizon for the antenna height. representative of the atmosphere for various purposes.

9
 Standard conditions are precisely defined as follows:
Pressure = 1013 mb decreasing at 36 mb/1000 ft of height
Temperature = 15˚C decreasing at 2˚C/1000 ft of height
Relative Humidity = 60% and constant with height.
These conditions give a refractive index of 1.00325 which decreases at
0.00013 units/1000 ft of height. The definition of “standard” conditions
relates to the vertical composition of the atmosphere. Mariners may not be
able to obtain a precise knowledge of this and so must rely on a more general
appreciation of the weather conditions, the area of the world, and of the time
of the year.
While the atmospheric conditions at any one locality during a given
season may differ considerably from standard atmospheric conditions, the Figure 1.8 - Sub-refraction.
slightly downward bending of the light and radar rays may be described as
the typical case. Super-refraction
While the formula for the distance to the radar horizon
( d = 1.22 h ) is based upon a wavelength of 3cm, this formula may be The distance to the radar horizon is extended. In calm weather with no
used in the computation of the distance to the radar horizon for other turbulence when there is an upper layer of warm, dry air over a surface layer
wavelengths used with navigational radar. The value so determined should of cold, moist air, a condition known as SUPER-REFRACTION may occur
be considered only as an approximate value because the mariner generally (see figure 1.9). For this condition to exist, the weather must be calm with
has no means of knowing what actual refraction conditions exist. little or no turbulence, otherwise the layers of different densities will mix
and the boundary conditions disappear. The effect of super-refraction will
Sub-refraction increase the downward bending of the radar rays and thus increase the ranges
at which targets may be detected. Super-refraction frequently occurs in the
The distance to the radar horizon is reduced. This condition is not as tropics when a warm land breeze blows over cooler ocean currents. It is
common as super-refraction. Sub-refraction can occur in polar regions where especially noticeable on the longer range scales.
Arctic winds blow over water where a warm current is prevalent. If a layer of
cold, moist air overrides a shallow layer of warm, dry air, a condition known
as SUB-REFRACTION may occur (see figure 1.8). The effect of sub-
refraction is to bend the radar rays upward and thus decrease the maximum
ranges at which targets may be detected.
Sub-refraction also affects minimum ranges and may result in failure to
detect low lying targets at short range. It is important to note that sub-
refraction may involve an element of danger to shipping where small vessels
and ice may go undetected. The officer in charge of the watch should be
especially mindful of this condition and extra precautions be administered
such as a reduction in speed and the posting of extra lookouts. Figure 1.9 - Super-refraction.

10
Extra Super-refraction or Ducting variation in the degree of ducting is mainly seasonal, and great changes from
day to day may not take place. In other parts of the world, especially those in
Most radar operators are aware that at certain times they are able to detect which low barometric pressure areas recur often, the extent of nonstandard
targets at extremely long ranges, but at other times they cannot detect targets propagation conditions varies considerably from day to day.
within visual ranges, even though their radars may be in top operating Figure 1.11 illustrates the different places in the world where known
condition in both instances. ducting occurs frequently. Refer to the map to see their location in relation to
These phenomena occur during extreme cases of super-refraction. Energy the climate that exists in each area during different seasons of the year.
radiated at angles of 1˚ or less may be trapped in a layer of the atmosphere Atlantic Coast of the United States (Area 1). Ducting is common in
called a SURFACE RADIO DUCT. In the surface radio duct illustrated in summer along the northern part of the coast, but in the Florida region the
figure 1.10, the radar rays are refracted downward to the surface of the sea, seasonal trend is the reverse, with a maximum in the winter season.
reflected upward, refracted downward again within the duct, and so on Western Europe (Area 2). A pronounced maximum of ducting conditions
continuously. exists in the summer months on the eastern side of the Atlantic around the
British Isles and in the North Sea.
Mediterranean Region (Area 3). Available reports indicate that the
seasonal variation in the Mediterranean region is very marked, with ducting
more or less the rule in summer. Conditions are approximately standard in
winter. Ducting in the central Mediterranean area is caused by the flow of
warm, dry air from the south, which moves across the sea and thus provides
an excellent opportunity for the formation of ducts. In winter, however, the
climate in the central Mediterranean is more or less the same as Atlantic
conditions, therefore not favorable for duct formation.
Arabian Sea (Area 4). The dominating meteorological factor in the Arabian
Sea region is the southwest monsoon, which blows from early June to mid-
September and covers the whole Arabian Sea with moist-equatorial air up to
considerable heights. When this meteorological situation is developed fully, no
Figure 1.10 - Ducting. occurrence of ducting is to be expected. During the dry season, on the other
hand, conditions are different. Ducting then is the rule, not the exception, and on
The energy trapped by the duct suffers little loss; thus, targets may be some occasions extremely long ranges (up to 1,500 miles) have been observed
detected at exceptionally long ranges. Surface targets have been detected at on fixed targets.
ranges in excess of 1,400 miles with relatively low-powered equipment. When the southwest monsoon begins early in June, ducting disappears on
There is a great loss in the energy of the rays escaping the duct, thus the Indian side of the Arabian Sea. Along the western coasts, however,
reducing the chances for detection of targets above the duct. conditions favoring ducting may still linger. The Strait of Hormuz (Persian
Ducting sometimes reduces the effective radar range. If the antenna is Gulf) is particularly interesting as the monsoon there has to contend with the
below a duct, it is improbable that targets above the duct will be detected. In shamal (a northwesterly wind) over Iraq and the Persian Gulf from the north.
instances of extremely low-level ducts when the antenna is above the duct, The strait itself lies at the boundary between the two wind systems; a front is
surface targets lying below the duct may not be detected. The latter situation formed with the warm, dry shamal on top and the colder, humid monsoon
does not occur very often. underneath. Consequently, conditions are favorable for the formation of an
extensive duct, which is of great importance to radar operation in the Strait
Ducting Areas of Hormuz.
Bay of Bengal (Area 5). The seasonal trend of ducting conditions in the
Although ducting conditions can happen any place in the world, the Bay of Bengal is the same as in the Arabian Sea, with standard conditions
climate and weather in some areas make their occurrence more likely. In during the summer southwest monsoon. Ducting is found during the dry
some parts of the world, particularly those having a monsoonal climate, season.

11
 Figure 1.11 - Ducting areas.

12
 Pacific Ocean (Area 6). Frequent occurrences of ducting around should be common in the summer. Conditions in the South China Sea
Guadalcanal, the east coast of Australia, and around New Guinea and Korea approximate those off the southeastern coast of the United States only during
have been experienced. Observations along the Pacific coast of the United the winter months, when ducting can be expected. During the rest of the
States indicate frequent ducting, but no clear indication of its seasonal trend year, the Asiatic monsoon modifies the climate in this area, but no
is available. Meteorological conditions in the Yellow Sea and Sea of Japan, information is available on the prevalence of ducting during this time. Trade
including the island of Honshu, are approximately like those of the winds in the Pacific quite generally lead to the formation of rather low ducts
northeastern coast of the United States. Therefore, ducting in this area over the open ocean.

WEATHER FACTORS AFFECTING THE RADAR HORIZON

The usual effects of weather are to reduce the ranges at which targets can Rain
be detected and to produce unwanted echoes on the radarscope which may
obscure the returns from important targets or from targets which may be In the case of rain the particles which affect the scattering and attenuation
dangerous to one’s ship. The reduction of intensity of the wave experienced take the form of water droplets. It is possible to relate the amount of
along its path is known as attenuation. attenuation to the rate of precipitation. If the size of the droplet is an
Attenuation is caused by the absorption and scattering of energy by the appreciable proportion of the 3cm wavelength, strong clutter echoes will be
various forms of precipitation. The amount of attenuation caused by each of produced and there will be serious loss of energy due to scattering and
the various factors depends to a substantial degree on the radar wavelength. attenuation. If the target is within the area of rainfall, any echoes from
It causes a decrease in echo strength. Attenuation is greater at the higher raindrops will further decrease its detection range. Weaker target responses,
frequencies or shorter wavelengths. as from small vessels and buoys, will be undetectable if their echoes are not
stronger than that of the rain. A very heavy rainstorm, like those sometimes
Attenuation by rain, fog, clouds, hail, snow, and dust encountered in the tropics, can obliterate most of the (X-band) radar picture.
Continuous rainfall over a large area will make the center part of the
The amount of attenuation caused by these weather factors is dependent screen brighter than the rest and the rain clutter, moving along with the ship,
upon the amount of water, liquid or frozen, present in a unit volume of air looks similar to sea clutter. It can be clearly seen on long range scales. This
and upon the temperature. Therefore, as one would expect, the affects can is due to a gradual decrease in returning power as the pulse penetrates further
differ widely. The further the radar wave and returning echo must travel into the rain area.
through this medium then the greater will be the attenuation and subsequent
decrease in detection range. This is the case whether the target is in or Fog
outside the precipitation. A certain amount of attenuation takes place even
when radar waves travel through a clear atmosphere. The affect will not be In most cases fog does not actually produce echoes on the radar display,
noticeable to the radar observer. The effect of precipitation starts to become but a very dense fogbank which arises in polar regions may produce a
of practical significance at wavelengths shorter than 10cm. In any given set significant reduction in detection range.
of precipitation conditions, the (S-band) or 10cm will suffer less attenuation A vessel encountering areas known for industrial pollution in the form of
than the (X-band) or 3cm. smog may find a somewhat higher degree of attenuation than sea fog.

13
Clouds factor is the rate of precipitation, because the water content of the heaviest
snowfall will very rarely equal that of even moderate rain.
The water droplets which form clouds are too small to produce a It is important to keep in mind that in areas receiving and collecting
detectable response at the 3cm wavelength. If there is precipitation in the snowfall and where the snow is collecting on possible danger targets it may
cloud then the operator can expect a detectable echo. render them less detectable. Accumulation of snow produces a limited
absorption characteristic and reduces the detection range of an otherwise
Hail strong target.

With respect to water, hail which is essentially frozen rain reflects radar Dust
energy less effectively than water. Therefore, in general the clutter and
attenuation from hail are likely to prove less detectable than that from rain. There is a general reduction in radar detection in the presence of dust and
sandstorms. On the basis of particle size, detectable responses are extremely
Snow unlikely and the operator can expect a low level of attenuation.

Similar to the effects of hail, the overall effect of clutter on the picture is Unusual Propagation Conditions
less than that due to rain. Falling snow will only be observed on the displays
of 3cm except during heavy snowfall where attenuation can be observed on a Similar to light waves, radar waves going through the earth’s atmosphere
10cm set. are subject to refraction and normally bend slightly with the curvature of the
The strength of echoes from snow depends upon the size of the snowflake earth. Certain atmospheric conditions will produce a modification of this
and the rate of precipitation. For practical purposes, however, the significant normal refraction.

14
 A BASIC RADAR SYSTEM

RADAR SYSTEM CONSTANTS to 4000 pulses per second.

If the distance to a target is to be determined by measuring the time
required for one pulse to travel to the target and return as a reflected echo, it
Before describing the functions of the components of a marine radar, there are is necessary that this cycle be completed before the pulse immediately
certain constants associated with any radar system that will be discussed. These following is transmitted. This is the reason why the transmitted pulses must
are carrier frequency, pulse repetition frequency, pulse length, and power be separated by relatively long nontransmitting time periods. Otherwise,
relation. The choice of these constants for a particular system is determined by transmission would occur during reception of the reflected echo of the
its operational use, the accuracy required, the range to be covered, the practical preceding pulse. Using the same antenna for both transmitting and receiving,
physical size, and the problems of generating and receiving the signals. the relatively weak reflected echo would be blocked by the relatively strong
transmitted pulse.
Carrier Frequency Sufficient time must be allowed between each transmitted pulse for an
echo to return from any target located within the maximum workable range
The carrier frequency is the frequency at which the radio-frequency of the system. Otherwise, the reception of the echoes from the more distant
energy is generated. The principal factors influencing the selection of the targets would be blocked by succeeding transmitted pulses. The maximum
carrier frequency are the desired directivity and the generation and reception measurable range of a radar set depends upon the peak power in relation to
of the necessary microwave radio-frequency energy. the pulse repetition rate. Assuming sufficient power is radiated, the
For the determination of direction and for the concentration of the maximum range at which echoes can be received may be increased through
transmitted energy so that a greater portion of it is useful, the antenna should lowering the pulse repetition rate to provide more time between transmitted
be highly directive. The higher the carrier frequency, the shorter the pulses. The PRR must be high enough so that sufficient pulses hit the target
wavelength and hence the smaller is the antenna required for a given and enough are returned to detect the target. The maximum measurable
sharpness of the pattern of radiated energy. range, assuming that the echoes are strong enough for detection, can be
The problem of generating and amplifying reasonable amounts of radio- determined by dividing 80,915 (radar nautical miles per second) by the PRR.
frequency energy at extremely high frequencies is complicated by the With the antenna being rotated, the beam of energy strikes a target for a
physical construction of the tubes to be used. The common tube becomes relatively short time. During this time, a sufficient number of pulses must be
impractical for certain functions and must be replaced by tubes of special transmitted in order to receive sufficient echoes to produce the necessary
design. Among these are the klystron and magnetron. indication on the radarscope. With the antenna rotating at 15 revolutions per
Since it is very difficult to amplify the radio-frequency echoes of the minute, a radar set having a PRR of 800 pulses per second will produce
carrier wave, radio-frequency amplifiers are not used. Instead, the frequency approximately 9 pulses for each degree of antenna rotation. The
of the incoming signals (echoes) is mixed (heterodyned) with that of a local PERSISTENCE of the radarscope, i.e., a measure of the time it retains
oscillator in a crystal mixer to produce a difference frequency called the images of echoes, and the rotational speed of the antenna, therefore,
intermediate frequency. This intermediate frequency is low enough to be determine the lowest PRR that can be used.
amplified in suitable intermediate frequency amplifier stages in the receiver.
Pulse Length
Pulse Repetition Frequency
Pulse length is defined as the duration of the transmitted radar pulse and is
The Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF), sometimes referred to as Pulse usually measured in microseconds.
Repetition Rate (PRR) is the number of pulses transmitted per second. Some The minimum range at which a target can be detected is determined
characteristic values may be 600, 1000, 1500, 2200 and 3000 pulses per largely by the pulse length. If a target is so close to the transmitter that the
second. The majority of modern marine radars operate within a range of 400 echo is returned to the receiver before the transmission stops, the reception

15
of the echo, obviously, will be masked by the transmitted pulse. For remaining constant, the longer the pulse length, the higher will be the
example, a radar set having a pulse length of 1 microsecond will have a average power; the longer the pulse repetition time, the lower will be the
minimum range of 164 yards. This means that the echo of a target within this average power.
range will not be seen on the radarscope because of being masked by the
transmitted pulse.
Since the radio-frequency energy travels at a speed of 161,829 nautical average power pulse length
miles per second or 161,829 nautical miles in one million microseconds, the ----------------------------------------- = -------------------------------------------------------------
peak power pulse repetition time
distance the energy travels in 1 microsecond is approximately 0.162 nautical
mile or 328 yards. Because the energy must make a round trip, the target
cannot be closer than 164 yards if its echo is to be seen on the radarscope
while using a pulse length of 1 microsecond. Consequently, relatively short
pulse lengths, about 0.1 microsecond, must be used for close-in ranging. These general relationships are shown in figure 1.12.
Many radar sets are designed for operation with both short and long pulse
lengths. Many of these radar sets are shifted automatically to the shorter
pulse length on selecting the shorter range scales. On the other radar sets, the
operator must select the radar pulse length in accordance with the operating
conditions. Radar sets have greater range capabilities while functioning with
the longer pulse length because a greater amount of energy is transmitted in
each pulse.
While maximum detection range capability is sacrificed when using the
shorter pulse length, better range accuracy and range resolution are obtained.
With the shorter pulse, better definition of the target on the radar-scope is
obtained; therefore, range accuracy is better. RANGE RESOLUTION is a
measure of the capability of a radar set to detect the separation between Figure 1.12 - Relationship of peak and average power.
those targets on the same bearing but having small differences in range. If
the leading edge of a pulse strikes a target at a slightly greater range while
the trailing part of the pulse is still striking a closer target, it is obvious that The operating cycle of the radar transmitter can be described in terms of
the reflected echoes of the two targets will appear as a single elongated the fraction of the total time that radio-frequency energy is radiated. This
image on the radarscope. time relationship is called the DUTY CYCLE and may be represented as
follows:
Power Relation

The useful power of the transmitter is that contained in the radiated pulses pulse length
duty cycle = -------------------------------------------------------------
and is called the PEAK POWER of the system. Power is normally measured pulse repetition time
as an average value over a relatively long period of time. Because the radar
transmitter is resting for a time that is long with respect to the operating
time, the average power delivered during one cycle of operation is relatively
low compared with the peak power available during the pulse time. For a radar having a pulse length of 2 microseconds and a pulse repetition
A definite relationship exists between the average power dissipated over rate of 500 cycles per second (pulse repetition time = 2,000 microseconds),
an extended period of time and the peak power developed during the pulse the
time.
The PULSE REPETITION TIME, or the overall time of one cycle of 2µsec
duty cycle = -------------------------- = 0.001
operation, is the reciprocal of the pulse repetition rate (PRR). Other factors 2,000 µsec

16
 Likewise, the ratio between the average power and peak power may be passes these echoes to the receiver.
expressed in terms of the duty cycle. The receiver amplifies the weak radio-frequency pulses (echoes) returned
by a target and reproduces them as video pulses passed to the indicator.
average power
duty cycle = ----------------------------------------- The indicator produces a visual indication of the echo pulses in a manner
peak power that furnishes the desired information.
In the foregoing example assume that the peak power is 200 kilowatts.
Therefore, for a period of 2 microseconds a peak power of 200 kilowatts is
supplied to the antenna, while for the remaining 1998 microseconds the
transmitter output is zero. Because average power is equal to peak power times
the duty cycle,

average power = 200 kw x 0.001 = 0.2 kilowatt

High peak power is desirable in order to produce a strong echo over the
maximum range of the equipment. Low average power enables the
transmitter tubes and circuit components to be made smaller and more
compact. Thus, it is advantageous to have a low duty cycle. The peak power
that can be developed is dependent upon the interrelation between peak and
average power, pulse length, and pulse repetition time, or duty cycle.

COMPONENTS AND SUMMARY OF FUNCTIONS

While pulse-modulated radar systems vary greatly in detail, the principles

of operation are essentially the same for all systems. Thus, a single basic
radar system can be visualized in which the functional requirements are
essentially the same as for all specific equipments.
The functional breakdown of a basic pulse-modulated radar system
usually includes six major components, as shown in the block diagram,
figure 1.13. The functions of the components may be summarized as
follows:
The power supply furnishes all AC and DC voltages necessary for the
operation of the system components.
The modulator produces the synchronizing signals that trigger the
transmitter the required number of times per second. It also triggers the
indicator sweep and coordinates the other associated circuits.
The transmitter generates the radio-frequency energy in the form of short
powerful pulses.
The antenna system takes the radio-frequency energy from the transmitter,
radiates it in a highly directional beam, receives any returning echoes, and Figure 1.13 - Block diagram of a basic pulse-modulated radar system

17
 FUNCTIONS OF COMPONENTS
Power Supply Transmitting and Receiving Antenna System

In figure 1.13 the power supply is represented as a single block. The function of the antenna system is to take the r-f energy from the
Functionally, this block is representative. However, it is unlikely that any one transmitter, radiate this energy in a highly directional beam, receive any
supply source could meet all the power requirements of a radar set. The echoes or reflections of transmitted pulses from targets, and pass these
distribution of the physical components of a system may be such as to make echoes to the receiver.
it impractical to group the power-supply circuits into a single physical unit. In carrying out this function the r-f pulses generated in the transmitter are
Different supplies are needed to meet the varying requirements of a system conducted to a FEEDHORN at the focal point of a directional reflector, from
and must be designed accordingly. The power supply function is performed which the energy is radiated in a highly directional pattern. The transmitted
by various types of power supplies distributed among the circuit components and reflected energy (returned by the same dual purpose reflector) are
of a radar set. conducted by a common path.
In figure 1.14 the modulator, transmitter, and receiver are contained in the This common path is an electrical conductor known as a WAVEGUIDE.
same chassis. In this arrangement, the group of components is called a A waveguide is hollow copper tubing, usually rectangular in cross section,
TRANSCEIVER. (The term transceiver is an acronym composed from the having dimensions according to the wavelength or the carrier frequency, i.e.,
words TRANSmitter and reCEIVER.) the frequency of the oscillations within the transmitted pulse or echo.
Because of this use of a common waveguide, an electronic switch, a
Modulator TRANSMIT-RECEIVE (TR) TUBE capable of rapidly switching from
transmit to receive functions, and vice versa, must be utilized to protect the
The function of the modulator is to insure that all circuits connected with the receiver from damage by the potent energy generated by the transmitter. The
radar system operate in a definite time relationship with each other and that the TR tube, as shown in figure 1.14 blocks the transmitter pulses from the
time interval between pulses is of the proper length. The modulator receiver. During the relatively long periods when the transmitter is inactive,
simultaneously sends a synchronizing signal to trigger the transmitter and the the TR tube permits the returning echoes to pass to the receiver. To prevent
indicator sweep. This establishes a control for the pulse repetition rate (PRR) and any of the very weak echoes from being absorbed by the transmitter, another
provides a reference for the timing of the travel of a transmitted pulse to a target device known as an ANTI-TR (A-TR) TUBE is used to block the passage of
and its return as an echo. these echoes to the transmitter.

Transmitter

The transmitter is basically an oscillator which generates radio-frequency

(r-f) energy in the form of short powerful pulses as a result of being turned
on and off by the triggering signals from the modulator. Because of the
frequencies and power outputs required, the transmitter oscillator is a special
type known as a MAGNETRON.

18
Figure 1.14 - A basic radar system.

19
 The feedhorn at the upper extremity of the waveguide directs the
transmitted energy towards the reflector, which focuses this energy into a
narrow beam. Any returning echoes are focused by the reflector and directed
toward the feedhorn. The echoes pass through both the feedhorn and
waveguide enroute to the receiver. The principles of a parabolic reflector are
illustrated in figure 1.15.

Figure 1.15 - Principles of a parabolic reflector.

Since the r-f energy is transmitted in a narrow beam, particularly narrow

in its horizontal dimension, provision must be made for directing this beam
towards a target so that its range and bearing may be measured. Normally,
this is accomplished through continuous rotation of the radar beam at a rate
of about 10 to 20 revolutions per minute so that it will impinge upon any
targets which might be in its path. Therefore, in this basic radar system the
upper portion of the waveguide, including the feedhorn, and the reflector are
constructed so that they can be rotated in the horizontal plane by a drive
motor. This rotatable antenna and reflector assembly is called the Figure 1.16 - Slotted waveguide antenna.
SCANNER.
Figure 1.16 illustrates a SLOTTED WAVEGUIDE ANTENNA and notice Receiver
that there is no reflector or feedhorn. The last few feet of the waveguide is
constructed so that it can be rotated in the horizontal plane. The forward and The function of the receiver is to amplify or increase the strength of the
narrower face of the rotatable waveguide section contains a series of slots very weak r-f echoes and reproduce them as video signals to be passed to the
from which the r-f energy is emitted to form a narrow radar beam. Returning indicator. The receiver contains a crystal mixer and intermediate frequency
echoes also pass through these slots and then pass through the waveguide to amplification stages required for producing video signals used by the
the receiver. indicator.

20
Indicator If the electron beam is rapidly and repeatedly deflected radially from the
center, a bright line called a TRACE is formed on the PPI. Should the flow of
The primary function of the indicator is to provide a visual display of the electrons be stopped, this trace will continue to glow for a short period
ranges and bearings of radar targets from which echoes are received. In this following the stoppage of the electron beam because of the phosphorescent
basic radar system, the type of display used is the PLAN POSITION coating. The slow decay of the brightness is known as PERSISTENCE; the
INDICATOR (PPI), which is essentially a polar diagram, with the slower the decay the higher the persistence.
transmitting ship’s position at the center. Images of target echoes are At the instant the modulator triggers the transmitter, it sends a TIMING
received and displayed at either their relative or true bearings, and at their TRIGGER signal to the indicator. The latter signal acts to deflect the
distances from the PPI center. With a continuous display of the images of the electron beam radially from the center of the CRT screen (PPI) to form a
targets, the motion of the target relative to the motion of the transmitting ship trace of the radial movement of the electron beam. This radial movement of
is also displayed. the electron beam is called the SWEEP or TIME BASE. While the terms
The secondary function of the indicator is to provide the means for trace and sweep are frequently used interchangeably, the term trace is
operating various controls of the radar system. descriptive only of the visible evidence of the sweep movement.
The CATHODE-RAY TUBE (CRT), illustrated in figure 1.17, is the heart Since the electron beam is deflected from the center of the CRT screen
of the indicator. The CRT face or screen, which is coated with a film of with each pulse of the transmitter, the sweep must be repeated very rapidly
phosphorescent material, is the PPI. The ELECTRON GUN at the opposite even when the lower pulse repetition rates are used. With a pulse repetition
end of the tube (see figure 1.18) emits a very narrow beam of electrons rate of 750 pulses per second, the sweep must be repeated 750 times per
which impinges upon the center of the PPI unless deflected by electrostatic second. Thus, it should be quite obvious why the sweep appears as a solid
or electromagnetic means. Since the inside face of the PPI is coated with luminous line on the PPI. The speed of movement of the point of
phosphorescent material, a small bright spot is formed at the center of the impingement of the electron beam is far in excess of the capability of
PPI. detection by the human eye.
While the sweep must be repeated in accordance with the PRR, the actual
rate of radial movement of the electron beam is governed by the size of the
CRT screen and the distance represented by the radius of this screen
according to the range scale being used. If the 20-mile range scale is
selected, the electron beam must be deflected radially from the center of the
CRT screen having a particular radius at a rate corresponding to the time
required for radio-frequency energy to travel twice the distance of the range
scale or 40 nautical miles. When using the 20-mile range scale, the electron
beam must move radially from the center of the CRT screen to its periphery
in 247 microseconds.

Speed of radio frequency - frequency energy =

0.161829 nm per microsecond

Distance = Speed X Time

40 nm ÷ 0.161829 nm per microsecond =

247 microseconds

The objective of regulating the rate of travel of the electron beam in this
manner is to establish a time base on the PPI which may be used for direct
Figure 1.17 - Electromagnetic cathode-ray tube. measurements of distances to targets without further need to take into

21
 Figure 1.18 - The sweep on the plan position indicator.

22
account the fact that the transmitted pulse and its reflected echo make a around the observer’s ship. In the preceding discussion of how a target image
round trip to and from the target. With the periphery of the PPI representing is painted on the PPI, reference is made only to radial deflection of the
a distance of 20 miles from the center of the PPI at the 20-mile range scale electron beam to produce the sweep or time base. If target images are to be
setting, the time required for the electron beam to move radially from the painted at their relative bearings as well as distances from the center of the
center to the periphery is the same as the time required for the transmitted PPI, the sweep must be rotated in synchronization with the rotation of the
pulse to travel to a target at 20 miles and return to the antenna as a reflected antenna. Just as the electron beam may be deflected radially by electrostatic
echo or the time to travel 40 miles in this case. It follows that a point on the or electromagnetic means, the sweep may be rotated by the same means. The
sweep or time base halfway between the center of the PPI and its periphery sweep is usually rotated electromagnetically in modern radars.
represents a distance of 10 miles from the center of the PPI. The foregoing As the antenna is rotated past the ship’s heading, the sweep, in
assumes that the rate of travel of the electron beam is constant, which is the synchronization with the antenna, is rotated past the 0˚ graduation on the
usual case in the design of indicators for navigational radar. relative bearing dial of the PPI. The image of any target detected ahead is
If the antenna is trained on a target at 10 miles while using the 20-mile painted on the PPI at its relative bearing and distance from the center of
range scale, the time for the 20-mile round trip of the transmitted pulse and the PPI. As targets are detected in other directions, their images are
the returning echo is 123.5 microseconds. At 123.5 microseconds, following painted on the PPI at their relative bearings and distances from the center
the instant of triggering the transmitter and sending the timing trigger pulse of the PPI.
to the indicator to deflect the electron beam radially, the electron beam will Up to this point the discussion of how target information is displayed on
have moved a distance of 10 miles in its sweep or on the time base. On the PPI has been limited to how the target images are painted, virtually
receiving the echo at 123.5 microseconds after the instant of the pulse, the instantaneously, at their distances and relative bearings from the reference
receiver sends a video signal to the indicator which in turn acts to intensify ship at the center of the PPI. It follows that through continuous display
or brighten the electron beam at the point in its sweep at 123.5 (continuous because of the persistence of the CRT screen and the pulse
microseconds, i.e., at 10 miles on the time base. This brightening of the trace repetition rate) of the positions of targets on the PPI, their motions relative to
produced by the sweep at the point corresponding to the distance to the the motion of the reference ship are also displayed.
target in conjunction with the persistence of the PPI produces a visible image In summary, the indicator of this basic radar system provides the means
of the target. Because of the pulse repetition rate, this painting of an image for measuring and displaying, in a useful form, the relative bearings and
on the PPI is repeated many times in a short period, resulting in a steady distances to targets from which reflected echoes may be received. In
glow of the target image if the target is a reasonably good reflector. displaying the positions of the targets relative to the reference ship
In navigational and collision avoidance applications of radar, the antenna continuously, the motions of the targets relative to the motion of the
and the beam of r-f energy radiated from it are rotated at a constant rate, reference ship are evident.
usually about 10 to 20 revolutions per minute in order to detect targets all

23
 FACTORS AFFECTING DETECTION, DISPLAY, AND MEASUREMENT OF RADAR TARGETS

FACTORS AFFECTING MAXIMUM RANGE Target Characteristics

Frequency Targets that are large can be seen on the scope at greater ranges, provided
line-of-sight exists between the radar antenna and the target. Conducting
The higher the frequency of a radar (radio) wave, the greater is the materials (a ship’s steel hull, for example) return relatively strong echoes
attenuation (loss in power), regardless of weather. Lower radar frequencies while nonconducting materials (a wood hull of a fishing boat, for example)
(longer wavelengths) have, therefore, been generally superior for longer return much weaker echoes.
detection ranges.

Peak Power Receiver Sensitivity

The peak power of a radar is its useful power. Range capabilities of the The more sensitive receivers provide greater detection ranges but are more
radar increase with peak power. Doubling the peak power increases the subject to jamming.
range capabilities by about 25 percent.
Antenna Rotation Rate
Pulse Length
The more slowly the antenna rotates, the greater is the detection range of
The longer the pulse length, the greater is the range capability of the radar the radar.
because of the greater amount of energy transmitted. For a radar set having a PRR of 1,000 pulses per second, a horizontal
beam width of 2.0˚, and an antenna rotation rate of 6 RPM (1 revolution in
Pulse Repetition Rate 10 seconds or 36 scanning degrees per second), there is 1 pulse transmitted
each 0.036˚ of rotation. There are 56 pulses transmitted during the time
The pulse repetition rate (PRR) determines the maximum measurable required for the antenna to rotate through its beam width.
range of the radar. Ample time must be allowed between pulses for an echo
to return from any target located within the maximum workable range of the Beam Width 2.0°
system. Otherwise, echoes returning from the more distant targets are ----------------------------------------------------- = ---------------- = 56 pulses
Degrees per Pulse 0.036°
blocked by succeeding transmitted pulses. This necessary time interval
determines the highest PRR that can be used.
With an antenna rotation rate of 15 RPM (1 revolution in 4 seconds or 90
The PRR must be high enough, however, that sufficient pulses hit the scanning degrees per second), there is only 1 pulse transmitted each 0.090˚
target and enough echoes are returned to the radar. The maximum of rotation. There are only 22 pulses transmitted during the time required for
measurable range can be determined approximately by dividing 81,000 by the antenna to rotate through its beam width.
the PRR.
Beam Width 2.0°
Beam Width ----------------------------------------------------- = ---------------- = 22 pulses
Degrees per Pulse 0.090°
The more concentrated the beam, the greater is the detection range of the
radar. From the foregoing it is apparent that at the higher antenna rotation rates,
the maximum ranges at which targets, particularly small targets, may be
detected are reduced.

24
 FACTORS AFFECTING MINIMUM RANGE for r-f energy to go up to the antenna and return to the receiver. This error causes
the indicated ranges to be greater than their true values.
Pulse Length A device called a trigger delay circuit is used to eliminate the fixed error.
By this means the trigger pulse to the indicator can be delayed a small
The minimum range capability of a radar is determined primarily by the amount. Such a delay results in the sweep starting at the instant an echo
pulse length. It is equal to half the pulse length of the radar (164 yards per would return to the indicator from a flat plate right at the antenna not at the
microsecond of pulse length). Electronic considerations such as the recovery instant that the pulse is generated in the transmitter.
time of the receiver and the duplexer (TR and anti-TR tubes assembly)
extend the minimum range at which a target can be detected beyond the Line Voltage
range determined by the pulse length.
Accuracy of range measurement depends on the constancy of the line
Sea Return voltage supplied to the radar equipment. If supply voltage varies from its
nominal value, ranges indicated on the radar may be unreliable. This
Sea return or echoes received from waves may clutter the indicator within fluctuation usually happens only momentarily, however, and after a short
and beyond the minimum range established by the pulse length and recovery wait ranges normally are accurate.
time.
Frequency Drift
Side-Lobe Echoes
Errors in ranging also can be caused by slight variations in the frequency
Targets detected by the side-lobes of the antenna beam pattern are called of the oscillator used to divide the sweep (time base) into equal range
side-lobe echoes. When operating near land or large targets, side-lobe echoes intervals. If such a frequency error exists, the ranges read from the radar
may clutter the indicator and prevent detection of close targets, without generally are in error by some small percentage of the range.
regard to the direction in which the antenna is trained. To reduce range errors caused by frequency drift, precision oscillators in
radars usually are placed in a constant temperature oven. The oven is always
Vertical Beam Width heated, so there is no drift of range accuracy while the rest of the set is
warming up.
Small surface targets may escape the lower edge of the vertical beam
when close. Calibration

The range to a target can be measured most accurately on the PPI when
FACTORS AFFECTING RANGE ACCURACY the leading edge of its pip just touches a fixed range ring. The accuracy of
this measurement is dependent upon the maximum range of the scale in use.
The range accuracy of radar depends upon the exactness with which the Representative maximum error in the calibration of the fixed range rings is
time interval between the instants of transmitting a pulse and receiving the 75 yards or 11/2 percent of the maximum range of the range scale in use,
echo can be measured. whichever is greater. With the indicator set on the 6-mile range scale, the
error in the range of a pip just touching a range ring may be about 180 yards
Fixed Error or about 0.1 nautical mile because of calibration error alone when the range
calibration is within acceptable limits.
A fixed range error is caused by the starting of the sweep on the indicator On some PPI’s, range can only be estimated by reference to the fixed
before the r-f energy leaves the antenna. The zero reference for all range range rings. When the pip lies between the range rings, the estimate is
measurements must be the leading edge of the transmitted pulse as it appears on usually in error by 2 to 3 percent of the maximum range of the range scale
the indicator. Inasmuch as part of the transmitted pulse leaks directly into the setting plus any error in the calibration of the range rings.
receiver without going to the antenna, a fixed error results from the time required Radar indicators usually have a variable range marker (VRM) or

25
adjustable range ring which is the normal means for range measurements. measurements, one should not expect the accuracy of navigational radar to
With the VRM calibrated with respect to the fixed range rings within a be better than + or - 50 yards under the best conditions.
tolerance of 1 percent of the maximum range of the scale in use, ranges as
measured by the VRM may be in error by as much as 21/2 percent of the
maximum range of the scale in use. With the indicator set on the 8-mile FACTORS AFFECTING RANGE RESOLUTION
range scale, the error in a range as measured by the VRM may be in error by
as much as 0.2 nautical mile.
Range resolution is a measure of the capability of a radar to display as
Pip and VRM Alignment separate pips the echoes received from two targets which are on the same
bearing and are close together.
The accuracy of measuring ranges with the VRM is dependent upon the The principal factors that affect the range resolution of a radar are the
ability of the radar observer to align the VRM with the leading edge of the pip on length of the transmitted pulse, receiver gain, CRT spot size, and the range
the PPI. On the longer range scales it is more difficult to align the VRM with the scale. A high degree of range resolution requires a short pulse, low receiver
pip because small changes in the reading of the VRM range counter do not result gain, and a short range scale.
in appreciable changes in the position of the VRM on the PPI.
Pulse Length
Range Scale
Two targets on the same bearing, close together, cannot be seen as two
The higher range scale settings result in reduced accuracy of fixed range distinct pips on the PPI unless they are separated by a distance greater than
ring and VRM measurements because of greater calibration errors and the one-half the pulse length (164 yards per microsecond of pulse length). If a
greater difficulty of pip and VRM alignment associated with the higher radar has a pulse length of 1-microsecond duration, the targets would have to
settings. be separated by more than 164 yards before they would appear as two pips
on the PPI.
PPI Curvature Radio-frequency energy travels through space at the rate of approximately
328 yards per microsecond. Thus, the end of a 1-microsecond pulse traveling
Because of the curvature of the PPI, particularly in the area near its periphery, through the air is 328 yards behind the leading edge, or start, of the pulse. If
range measurements of pips near the edge are of lesser accuracy than the a 1-microsecond pulse is sent toward two objects on the same bearing,
measurements nearer the center of the PPI. separated by 164 yards, the leading edge of the echo from the distant target
coincides in space with the trailing edge of the echo from the near target. As
Radarscope Interpretation a result the echoes from the two objects blend into a single pip, and range
can be measured only to the nearest object. The reason for this blending is
Relatively large range errors can result from incorrect interpretation of a illustrated in figure 1.19.
landmass image on the PPI. The difficulty of radarscope interpretation can In part A of figure 1.19, the transmitted pulse is just striking the near
be reduced through more extensive use of height contours on charts. target. Part B shows energy being reflected from the near target, while the
For reliable interpretation it is essential that the radar operating controls leading edge of the transmitted pulse continues toward the far target. In part
be adjusted properly. If the receiver gain is too low, features at or near the C, 1/2 microsecond later, the transmitted pulse is just striking the far target;
shoreline, which would reflect echoes at a higher gain setting, will not the echo from the near target has traveled 164 yards back toward the antenna.
appear as part of the landmass image. If the receiver gain is too high, the The reflection process at the near target is only half completed. In part D
landmass image on the PPI will “bloom”. With blooming the shoreline will echoes are traveling back toward the antenna from both targets. In part E
appear closer than it actually is. reflection is completed at the near target. At this time the leading edge of the
A fine focus adjustment is necessary to obtain a sharp landmass image on echo from the far target coincides with the trailing edge of the first echo.
the PPI. When the echoes reach the antenna, energy is delivered to the set during a
Because of the various factors introducing errors in radar range period of 2 microseconds so that a single pip appears on the PPI.

26
Figure 1.19 - Pulse length and range resolution.

27
 The data below indicates the minimum separation in range for two targets CRT Spot Size
to appear as separate echoes on the PPI for various pulse lengths.
Pulse Length Range Resolution The range separation required for resolution is increased because the spot
(microseconds) (yards) formed by the electron beam on the screen of the CRT cannot be focused
0.05 8 into a point of light. The increase in echo image (pip) length and width varies
0.10 16 with the size of the CRT and the range scale in use.
0.20 33
0.25 41 CRT Diameter Range Scale Spot Length or Width
0.5 82 (Inches) (nautical mi.) (yards)
1.2 197 Nominal Effective

9 7.5 0.5 5
Receiver Gain
24 220
Range resolution can be improved by proper adjustment of the receiver
gain control. As illustrated in figure 1.20, the echoes from two targets on the 12 10.5 0.5 4
same bearing may appear as a single pip on the PPI if the receiver gain 24 185
setting is too high. With reduction in the receiver gain setting, the echoes
may appear as separate pips on the PPI. 16 14.4 0.5 3
24 134

On the longer range scales, the increase in echo size because of spot size
is appreciable.

Range Scale

The pips of two targets separated by a few hundred yards may merge on the
PPI when one of the longer range scales is used. The use of the shortest range
scale possible and proper adjustment of the receiver gain may enable their
detection as separate targets. If the display can be off-centered, this may permit
display of the targets on a shorter range scale than would be possible otherwise.

Figure 1.20 - Receiver gain and range resolution.

28
 FACTORS AFFECTING BEARING ACCURACY Since there is normally some centering error, more accurate bearing
measurements can be made by changing the range scale to shift the pip
Horizontal Beam Width position away from the center of the PPI.

Bearing measurements can be made more accurately with the narrower Parallax Error
horizontal beam widths. The narrower beam widths afford better definition
of the target and, thus, more accurate identification of the center of the target. Improper use of the mechanical bearing cursor will introduce bearing
Several targets close together may return echoes which produce pips on the errors. On setting the cursor to bisect the pip, the cursor should be viewed
PPI which merge, thus preventing accurate determination of the bearing of a from a position directly in front of it. Electronic bearing cursors used with
single target within the group. some stabilized displays provide more accurate bearing measurements than
The effective beam width can be reduced through lowering the receiver mechanical bearing cursors because measurements made with the electronic
gain setting. In reducing the sensitivity of the receiver, the maximum cursor are not affected by parallax or centering errors.
detection range is reduced, but the narrower effective beam width provides
better bearing accuracy. Heading Flash Alignment

Target Size For accurate bearing measurements, the alignment of the heading flash
with the PPI display must be such that radar bearings are in close agreement
For a specific beam width, bearing measurements of small targets are with relatively accurate visual bearings observed from near the radar
more accurate than large targets because the centers of the smaller pips of antenna.
the small targets can be identified more accurately.

Target Rate of Movement FACTORS AFFECTING BEARING RESOLUTION

The bearings of stationary or slowly moving targets can be measured Bearing resolution is a measure of the capability of a radar to display as
more accurately than the bearings of faster moving targets. separate pips the echoes received from two targets which are at the same
range and are close together.
Stabilization of Display The principal factors that affect the bearing resolution of a radar are
horizontal beam width, the range to the targets, and CRT spot size.
Stabilized PPI displays provide higher bearing accuracies than
unstabilized displays because they are not affected by yawing of the ship. Horizontal Beam Width

Sweep Centering Error As the radar beam is rotated, the painting of a pip on the PPI begins as
soon as the leading edge of the radar beam strikes the target. The painting of
If the origin of the sweep is not accurately centered on the PPI, bearing the pip is continued until the trailing edge of the beam is rotated beyond the
measurements will be in error. Greater bearing errors are incurred when the target. Therefore, the pip is distorted angularly by an amount equal to the
pip is near the center of the PPI than when the pip is near the edge of the PPI. effective horizontal beam width.

29
 As illustrated in figure 1.21, in which a horizontal beam width of 10˚ is Range of Targets
used for graphical clarity only, the actual bearing of a small target having
good reflecting properties is 090˚, but the pip as painted on the PPI extends Assuming a more representative horizontal beam width of 2˚, the pip of a
from 095˚ to 085˚. The left 5˚ and the right 5˚ are painted while the antenna ship 400 feet long observed beam on at a distance of 10 nautical miles on a
is not pointed directly towards the target. The bearing must be read at the bearing of 090˚ would be painted on the PPI between 091.2˚ and 088.8˚, the
center of the pip. actual angular width of the target being 0.4˚. The pip of a ship 900 feet long
observed beam on at the same distance and bearing would be painted on the
PPI between 091.4˚ and 088.6˚, the angular width of the target being 0.8˚.
Since the angular widths of the pips painted for the 400 and 900-foot targets
are 1.4˚ and 1.8˚, respectively, any attempt to estimate target size by the
angular width of the pip is not practical, generally.
Since the pip of a single target as painted on the PPI is elongated
angularly an amount equal to beam width, two targets at the same range must
be separated by more than one beam width to appear as separate pips. The
required distance separation depends upon range. Assuming a 2˚ beam
width, targets at 10 miles must be separated by over 0.35 nautical miles or
700 yards to appear as separate pips on the PPI. At 5 miles the targets must
be separated by over 350 yards to appear as separate pips if the beam width
is 2˚.
Figure 1.22 illustrates a case in which echoes are being received from four
targets, but only three pips are painted on the PPI. Targets A and B are
painted as a single pip because they are not separated by more than one beam
width; targets C and D are painted as separate pips because they are
separated by more than one beam width.
In as much as bearing resolution is determined primarily by horizontal
beam width, a radar with a narrow horizontal beam width provides better
bearing resolution than one with a wide beam.

Figure 1.21 - Angular distortion. Figure 1.22 - Bearing resolution.

30
CRT Spot Size wavelengths aboard a ship steaming in a rain squall and a choppy sea.
Without use of anti-rain and anti-sea clutter controls, the clutter is more
The bearing separation required for resolution is increased because the massive on the PPI of the radar having the shorter wavelength. Also, three
spot formed by the electron beam on the screen of the CRT cannot be targets, which can be detected on the PPI of the radar having the longer
focused into a point of light. The increase in the pip width because of CRT wavelength, cannot be detected on the PPI of the radar having the shorter
spot size varies with the size of the CRT and the range scale in use. wavelength. Following use of the anti-rain and anti-sea clutter controls, the
three targets still cannot be detected on the PPI of the radar having the
shorter wavelength because too much of the energy has been absorbed or
WAVELENGTH attenuated by the rain.
Similarly, figure 1.24 illustrates detection of close targets by a radar
Generally, radars transmitting at the shorter wavelengths are more subject having a relatively long wavelength and no detection of these targets by a
to the effects of weather than radars transmitting at the longer wavelengths. radar having a relatively short wavelength.
Figure 1.23 illustrates the PPI displays of two radars of different

31
 Two identical 8 mile range PPI pictures taken on Raytheon 3 cm. and 10 cm. radars in a rain squall and with a choppy sea. Three ships bearing
225˚, 294˚ and 330˚ shown on the 10 cm. radar right are not shown on the 3 cm. radar left.

On both radars the anti-rain and anti-sea clutter devices are switched in. The three ships are clearly visible on the 10 cm. radar right. There are no
targets visible on the 3 cm. radar left as the echo power has been absorbed by rain.
Reproduced by Courtesy of the Raytheon Company.

Figure 1.23- Effects of rain and sea on PPI displays of radars having different wavelengths.

32
Two identical 20 mile range PPI pictures taken on Raytheon 3 cm. and 10 cm. radars showing the effects of sea clutter. On the 10 cm. radar right
targets inside the 5 mile range marker are clearly visible. On the 3 cm. radar left the close range targets are missing.

On both radars the anti-sea clutter control has been carefully adjusted to remove sea clutter. The close range targets are clearly visible on the 10
cm. right, whereas they are missing on the 3 cm. radar left.
Reproduced by Courtesy of the Raytheon Company.
Figure 1.24 - Effects of sea on PPI displays of radars having different wavelengths.

33
 TARGET CHARACTERISTICS Shape

There are several target characteristics which will enable one target to be Targets of identical shape may give echoes of varying strength, depending
detected at a greater range than another, or for one target to produce a on aspect. Thus a flat surface at right angles to the radar beam, such as the
stronger echo than another target of similar size. side of a steel ship or a steep cliff along the shore, will reflect very strong
echoes. As the aspect changes, this flat surface will tend to reflect more of
Height the energy of the beam away from the antenna, and may give rather weak
echoes. A concave surface will tend to focus the radar beam back to the
Since radar wave propagation is almost line of sight, the height of the antenna while a convex surface will tend to scatter the energy. A smooth
target is of prime importance. If the target does not rise above the radar conical surface will not reflect energy back to the antenna. However, echoes
horizon, the radar beam cannot be reflected from the target. Because of the may be reflected to the antenna if the conical surface is rough.
interference pattern, the target must rise somewhat above the radar horizon.
Texture
Size
The texture of the target may modify the effects of shape and aspect. A
Up to certain limits, targets having larger reflecting areas will return smooth texture tends to increase the reflection qualities, and will increase the
stronger echoes than targets having smaller reflecting areas. Should a target strength of the reflection, but unless the aspect and shape of the target are
be wider than the horizontal beam width, the strength of the echoes will not such that the reflection is focused directly back to the antenna, the smooth
be increased on account of the greater width of the target because the area surface will give a poor radar echo because most of the energy is reflected in
not exposed to the radar beam at any instant cannot, of course, reflect an another direction. On the other hand, a rough surface will tend to break up
echo. Since the vertical dimensions of most targets are small compared to the the reflection, and will improve the strength of echoes returned from those
vertical beam width of marine navigational radars, the beam width limitation targets whose shape and aspect normally give weak echoes.
is not normally applicable to the vertical dimensions. However, there is a
vertical dimension limitation in the case of sloping surfaces or stepped Composition
surfaces. In this case, only the projected vertical area lying within the
distance equivalent of the pulse length can return echoes at any instant. The ability of various substances to reflect radar pulses depends on the
intrinsic electrical properties of those substances. Thus metal and water are
Aspect good reflectors. Ice is a fair reflector, depending on aspect. Land areas vary
in their reflection qualities depending on the amount and type of vegetation
The aspect of a target is its orientation to the axis of the radar beam. With and the rock and mineral content. Wood and fiber glass boats are poor
change in aspect, the effective reflecting area may change, depending upon reflectors. It must be remembered that all of the characteristics interact with
the shape of the target. The nearer the angle between the reflecting area and each other to determine the strength of the radar echo, and no factor can be
the beam axis is to 90˚, the greater is the strength of the echo returned to the singled out without considering the effects of the others.
antenna.

34
 CHAPTER 2 — RADAR OPERATION

RELATIVE AND TRUE MOTION DISPLAYS

GENERAL RELATIVE MOTION RADAR

There are two basic displays used to portray target position and motion on Through continuous display of target pips at their measured ranges and
the PPI’s of navigational radars. The relative motion display portrays the bearings from a fixed position of own ship on the PPI, relative motion radar
motion of a target relative to the motion of the observing ship. The true displays the motion of a target relative to the motion of the observing (own)
motion display portrays the actual or true motions of the target and the ship. With own ship and the target in motion, the successive pips of the target
observing ship. do not indicate the actual or true movement of the target. A graphical
Depending upon the type of PPI display used, navigational radars are solution is required in order to determine the rate and direction of the actual
classified as either relative motion or true motion radars. However, true movement of the target.
motion radars can be operated with a relative motion display. In fact, radars If own ship is in motion, the pips of fixed objects, such as landmasses,
classified as true motion radars must be operated in their relative motion move on the PPI at a rate equal to and in a direction opposite to the motion of
mode at the longer range scale settings. Some radars classified as relative own ship. If own ship is stopped or motionless, target pips move on the PPI
motion radars are fitted with special adapters enabling operation with a true in accordance with their true motion.
motion display. These radars do not have certain features normally
associated with true motion radars, such as high persistence CRT screens.

35
Orientations of Relative Motion Display In figure 2.1 own ship on a heading of 270˚ detects a target bearing 315˚
true. The target pip is painted 045˚ relative to ship’s heading on this
There are two basic orientations used for the display of relative motion on Heading-Upward display. In figure 2.2 the same target is painted at 315˚ true
PPI’s. In the HEADING-UPWARD display, the target pips are painted at on a North-Upward display. While the target pip is painted 045˚ relative to
their measured distances in direction relative to own ship’s heading. In the the heading flash on each display, the Heading-Upward display provides a
NORTH-UPWARD display, target pips are painted at their measured more immediate indication as to whether the target lies to port or starboard.
distances in true directions from own ship, north being upward or at the top
of the PPI. Stabilization

The North-Upward display in which the orientation of the display is fixed

to an unchanging reference (north) is called a STABILIZED display. The
Heading-Upward display in which the orientation changes with changes in
own ship’s heading is called an UNSTABILIZED display. Some radar
indicator designs have displays which are both stabilized and Heading-
Upward. In these displays, the cathode-ray tubes must be rotated as own ship
changes heading in order to maintain ship’s heading upward or at the top of
the PPI.

Figure 2.1 - Unstabilized Heading-Upward display. Figure 2.2 - Stabilized North-Upward display.

36
 TRUE MOTION RADAR

True motion radar displays own ship and moving objects in their true
motion. Unlike relative motion radar, own ship’s position is not fixed on the
PPI. Own ship and other moving objects move on the PPI in accordance with
their true courses and speeds. Also unlike relative motion radar, fixed objects
such as landmasses are stationary, or nearly so, on the PPI. Thus, one
observes own ship and other ships moving with respect to landmasses.
True motion is displayed on modern indicators through the use of a
microprocessor computing target true motion rather than depending on an
extremely long persistence phosphor to leave “trails”.

Stabilization

Usually, the true motion radar display is stabilized with North-Upward.

With this stabilization, the display is similar to a plot on the navigational
chart. On some models the display orientation is Heading-Upward. Because
the true motion display must be stabilized to an unchanging reference, the
cathode-ray tube must be rotated to place the heading at the top or upward.

Radarscope Persistence and Echo Trails

High persistence radarscopes are used to obtain maximum benefit from

the true motion display. As the radar images of the targets are painted
successively by the rotating sweep on the high persistence scope, the images
continue to glow for a relatively longer period than the images on other
scopes of lesser persistence. Depending upon the rates of movement, range
scale, and degree of persistence, this afterglow may leave a visible echo trail
or tail indicating the true motion of each target. If the afterglow of the
moving sweep origin leaves a visible trail indicating the true motion of own
ship, estimates of the true speeds of the radar targets can be made by
comparing the lengths of their echo trails or tails with that of own ship. Figure 2.3 - True motion display.
Because of the requirement for resetting own ship’s position on the PPI,
there is a practical limit to the degree of persistence (see figure 2.3). A design may include North-South and East-West reset controls to enable
the observer to place own ship’s position at the most suitable place on the
Reset Requirements and Methods PPI. Other designs may be more limited as to where own ship’s position can
be reset on the PPI, being limited to a point from which the heading flash
Because own ship travels across the PPI, the position of own ship must be passes through the center of the PPI.
reset periodically. Depending upon design, own ship’s position may be reset The radar observer must be alert with respect to reset requirements. To
manually, automatically, or by manually overriding any automatic method. avoid either a manual or automatic reset at the most inopportune time, the
Usually, the design includes a signal (buzzer or indicator light) to warn the radar observer should include in his evaluation of the situation a
observer when resetting is required. determination of the best time to reset own ship’s position.

37
 Range setting examples for Radiomarine true motion radar sets having current, the echoes of stationary objects will move on the sea-stabilized
double stabilization are as follows: display. Small echo trails will be formed in a direction opposite to the leeway
Type CRM-NID-75 (3.2cm) and Type CRM-N2D-30 (10cm) or set. If the echo from a small rock appears to move due north at 2 knots,
then the ship is being set due south at 2 knots. The usable afterglow of the
True motion range settings 1, 2, 6, Relative motion range settings CRT screen, which lasts from about 11/2 to 3 minutes, determines the
1/ , 1, 2, 6, 16, and 40 miles
and 16 miles 2 minimum rate of movement which can be detected on the display. The
minimum rate of movement has been found to be about 11/2 knots on the 6-
Maximum viewing times between automatic resets in the true motion mile range scale and proportional on other scales.
mode are as follows: The ground-stabilized display provides the means for stopping the small
Speed Range setting Initial view Viewing time movements of the echoes from stationary objects. This display may be used
(knots) (miles) ahead (miles) (minutes) to obtain a clearer PPI presentation or to determine leeway or the effects of
20 16 26 66 current on own ship.
12 6 9.75 41 In the ground-stabilized display own ship moves on the display in
8 2 3.25 24 accordance with its course and speed over the ground. Thus, the movements
8 1 1.6 16 of target echoes on the display indicate the true courses and speeds of the
targets over the ground. Ground-stabilization is effected as follows:
The viewing time ahead can be extended by manually overriding the
(1) The speed control is adjusted to eliminate any movements of the
automatic reset feature.
echoes from stationary targets dead ahead or dead astern. If the
echoes from stationary targets dead ahead are moving towards own
Modes of Operation
ship, the speed setting is increased; otherwise the speed setting is
decreased.
True motion radars can be operated with either true motion or relative
(2) The course-made-good control is adjusted to eliminate any
motion displays, with true motion operation being limited to the short and
remaining movement at right angles to own ship’s heading. The
intermediate range settings.
course-made-good control should be adjusted in a direction counter
In the relative motion mode, the sweep origin can be off-centered to
to the echo movement.
extend the view ahead. With the view ahead extended, requirements for
Therefore, by trial and error procedures, the display can be ground-
changing the range scale are reduced. Also, the off-center position of the
stabilized rapidly. However, the display should be considered only as an
fixed sweep origin can permit observation of a radar target on a shorter range
approximation of the course and speed made good over the ground. Among
scale than would be the case with the sweep origin fixed at the center of the
other factors, the accuracy of the ground-stabilization is dependent upon the
PPI.
minimum amount of movement which can be detected on the display. Small
Through use of the shorter range scale, the relative motion of the radar
errors in speed and compass course inputs and other effects associated with
target is more clearly indicated.
any radar set may cause small false movements to appear on the true motion
display. The information displayed should be interpreted with due regard to
Types of True Motion Display
these factors. During a turn when compass errors will be greater and when
speed estimation is more difficult, the radar observer should recognize that
While fixed objects such as landmasses are stationary, or nearly so, on
the accuracy of the ground stabilization may be degraded appreciably.
true motion displays, fixed objects will be stationary on the PPI only if there
The varying effects of current, wind, and other factors make it unlikely that
is no current or if the set and drift are compensated for by controls for this
the display will remain ground stabilized for long periods. Consequently, the
purpose. Dependent upon set design, current compensation may be effected
display must be readjusted periodically. Such readjustments should be carried
through set and drift controls or by speed and course-made-good controls.
out only when they do not detract from the primary duties of the radar observer.
When using true motion radar primarily for collision avoidance purposes,
While in rivers or estuaries, the only detectable movement may be the
the sea-stabilized display is preferred generally. The latter type of display
movement along own ship’s heading. The movements of echoes of
differs from the ground-stabilized display only in that there is no
stationary objects at right angles to own ship’s heading are usually small
compensation for current. Assuming that own ship and a radar contact are
in these circumstances. Thus, in rivers and estuaries adjustment of the
affected by the same current, the sea-stabilized display indicates true courses
speed control is the only adjustment normally required to obtain ground
and speeds through the water. If own ship has leeway or is being affected by
stabilization of reasonable accuracy in these confined waters.

38
 PLOTTING AND MEASUREMENTS ON PPI

THE REFLECTION PLOTTER position of the reflection of the grease pencil point on the PPI, a line is
drawn rapidly through the middle of the leading edge of the radar pip. A
The reflection plotter is a radarscope attachment which enables plotting of second such line is drawn rapidly to form an “X”, which is the plotted
position and motion of radar targets with greater facility and accuracy by position of the radar target. Some skill is required to form the
reduction of the effect of parallax (apparent displacement of an object due to intersection at the desired point.
observer’s position). The reflection plotter is designed so that any mark made
on its plotting surface is reflected to a point directly below on the PPI. Cleanliness
Hence, to plot the instantaneous position of a target, it is only necessary to
make a grease pencil mark so that its image reflected onto the PPI just The plotting surface of the reflection plotter should be cleaned
touches the inside edge of the pip. frequently and judiciously to insure that previous markings do not
The plotter should not be marked when the display is viewed at a very low obscure new radar targets, which could appear undetected by the
angle. Preferably, the observer’s eye position should be directly over the observer otherwise. A cleaning agent which does not leave a film residue
center of the PPI. should be used. Any oily film which is left by an undesirable cleaning
agent or by the smear of incompletely wiped grease pencil markings
Basic Reflection Plotter Designs makes the plotting surface difficult to mark. A weak solution of ammonia
and water is an effective cleaning agent. During plotting, a clean, soft rag
The reflection plotter on a majority of marine radar systems currently should be used to wipe the plotting surface.
offered use a flat plotting surface.
The reflection plotters illustrated in figures 2.4 and 2.5 are designs that
were previously used aboard many navy and merchant ships and may still be PLOTTING ON STABILIZED AND UNSTABILIZED
in use. The curvature of the plotting surface as illustrated in figure 2.4 DISPLAYS
matches, but is opposite to the curvature of the screen of the cathode-ray
tube, i.e., the plotting surface is concave to the observer. A semi-reflecting Stabilized North-Upward Display
mirror is installed halfway between the PPI and plotting surface. The
plotting surface is edge-lighted. Without this lighting the reflections of the Assuming the normal condition in which the start of the sweep is at
grease pencil marks do not appear on the PPI. the center of the PPI, the pips of radar targets are painted on the PPI at
their true bearings at distances from the PPI center corresponding to
Marking the Reflection Plotter target ranges. Because of the persistence of the PPI and the normally
continuous rotation of the radar beam, the pips of targets having
The modern flat plotting surface uses a mirror which makes the mark reasonably good reflecting properties appear continuously on the PPI. As
appear on, not above, the surface of the oscilloscope as depicted in figure targets move relative to the motion of own ship, the pips, as painted
2.5. successively, move in the direction of this motion. With lapse of time, the
In marking the older flat plotter shown in figure 2.5, the grease pencil pips painted earlier fade from the PPI. Thus, it is necessary to record the
is placed over the pip and the point is pressed against the plotting surface positions of the pips through plotting to permit analysis of this radar
with sufficient pressure that the reflected image of the grease pencil point data. Failure to plot the successive positions of the pips is conducive to
is seen on the PPI below. The point of the pencil is adjusted to find the the much publicized RADAR ASSISTED COLLISION.
more precise position for the mark or plot (at the center and leading edge Through periodically marking the positions of the pips, either on the
of the radar pip). With the more precise position for the plot so found, the glass plate (implosion cover) over the CRT screen or the reflection
grease pencil point is pressed harder against the plotting surface to leave plotter mounted thereon, a visual indication of the past and present
a plot in the form of a small dot. positions of the targets is made available for the required analysis. This
In marking the plotting surface of the concave glass plotters, the point analysis is aided by the HEADING FLASH (HEADING MARKER)
of the grease pencil is offset from the position of the pip. Noting the which is a luminous line of the PPI indicating ship’s heading.

39
 Figure 2.4 - Reflection plotter having curved plotting surface.

40
Figure 2.5 - Reflection plotter having flat plotting surface.

41
 Figure 2.6 - Effect of yawing on unstabilized display. Figure 2.7 - Effect of course change on unstabilized display.

Unstabilized Heading-Upward Display conditions, plotting on the unstabilized display must be coordinated with
the instants that the ship is on course if any reasonable accuracy of the
Plotting on the unstabilized Heading-Upward display is similar to plot is to be obtained.
plotting on the stabilized North-Upward display. Since the pips are Because of the persistence of the CRT screen and the illumination of
painted at bearings relative to the heading of the observer’s ship, a the pips at their instantaneous relative bearings, as the observer’s ship
complication arises when the heading of the observer’s ship is changed. yaws or its course is changed the target pips on the PPI will smear.
If a continuous grease pencil plot is to be maintained on the unstabilized Figure 2.6 illustrates an unstabilized Heading-Upward relative motion
Heading-Upward relative motion display following course changes by display for a situation in which a ship’s course and present heading are
the observer’s ship, the plotting surface of the reflection plotter must be 280˚, as indicated by the heading flash. The ship is yawing about a
rotated the same number of degrees as the course or heading change in a heading of 280˚. In this case there is slight smearing of the target pips. If
direction opposite to this change. Otherwise, the portion of the plot made the ship’s course is changed to the right to 340˚ as illustrated in figure
following the course change will not be continuous with the previous 2.7, the target pips smear to the left through 60˚, i.e., an amount equal
portion of the plot. Also the unstabilized display is affected by any and in a direction opposite to the course change. Thus, to maintain a
yawing of the observer’s ship. Plots made while the ship is off the desired continuous grease pencil plot on the reflection plotter it is necessary that
heading will result in an erratic plot or a plot of lesser accuracy than the plotting surface of this plotter be rotated in a direction opposite to
would be afforded by a stabilized display. Under severe yawing and equal to the course change.

42
 Figure 2.8 - Stabilized display following course change. Figure 2.9 - Stabilized display preceding course change.

Figures 2.8 and 2.9 illustrate the same situation appearing on a the course change. The plot during and following the course change is
stabilized North-Upward display. There is no pip smearing because of continuous with the plot preceding the course change. Thus, there is no
yawing. There is no shifting in the positions of the target pips because of need to rotate the plotting surface of the reflection plotter when the
the course change. Any changes in the position of the target pips are due display is stabilized.
solely to changes in the true bearings and distances to the targets during

43
 RANGE AND BEARING MEASUREMENT Variable Range Marker (Range Strobe)

Mechanical Bearing Cursor The variable range marker (VRM) is used primarily to determine the
ranges to target pips on the PPI. Among its secondary uses is that of
The mechanical bearing cursor is a radial line or cross hair inscribed providing a visual indication of a limiting range about the position of the
on a transparent disk which can be rotated manually about its axis observer’s ship, within which targets should not enter for reasons of safety.
coincident with the center of the PPI. This cursor is used for bearing The VRM is actually a small rotating luminous spot. The distance of the
determination. Frequently, the disk is inscribed with a series of lines spot from the sweep origin corresponds to range; in effect, it is a variable
parallel to the line inscribed through the center of the disk, in which range ring.
case the bearing cursor is known as a PARALLEL-LINE CURSOR or The distance to a target pip is measured by adjusting the circle described
PARALLEL INDEX (see figure 2.10.) To avoid parallax when reading by the VRM so that it just touches the leading (inside) edge of the pip. The
the bearing, the lines are inscribed on each side of the disk. VRM is adjusted by means of a range crank. The distance is read on a range
When the sweep origin is at the center of the PPI, the usual case for counter.
relative motion displays, the bearing of a small, well defined target pip is For better range accuracy, the VRM should be just bright enough to see
determined by placing the radial line or one of the radial lines of the cross and should be focused as sharply as possible.
hair over the center of the pip. The true or relative bearing of the pip can be
read from the respective bearing dial. Electronic Bearing Cursor

The designs of some radar indicators may include an electronic bearing

cursor in addition to the mechanical bearing cursor. This electronic cursor is
a luminous line on the PPI usually originating at the sweep origin. It is
particularly useful when the sweep origin is not at the center of the PPI (see
figure 2.3). Bearings are determined by placing the cursor in a position to
bisect the pip. In setting the electronic cursor in this manner, there are no
parallax problems such as are encountered in the use of the mechanical
bearing cursor. The bearings to the pips or targets are read on an associated
bearing indicator.
The electronic bearing cursor may have the same appearance as the
heading flash. To avoid confusion between these two luminous lines
originating at the sweep origin on the PPI, the design may be such that the
electronic cursor appears as a dashed or dotted luminous line. Another
design approach used to avoid confusion limits the painting of the cursor to
that part of the radial beyond the setting of the VRM. Without special
provision for differentiating between the two luminous lines, their brightness
may be made different to serve as an aid in identification.
In the simpler designs of electronic bearing cursors, the cursor is
independent of the VRM, i.e., the bearing is read by cursor and range is read
by the rotating VRM. In more advanced designs, the VRM (range strobe)
moves radially along the electronic bearing as the range crank is turned. This
serves to expedite the reading of the range and bearing to a pip.

Figure 2.10 - Measuring bearing with parallel-line cursor.

44
Interscan

The term INTERSCAN is descriptive of various designs of electronic

bearing cursors, the lengths of which can be varied for determining the range
to a pip.
Interscans are painted continuously on the PPI; the paintings of the other
electronic bearing cursors are limited to one painting for each rotation of the
antenna. Thus, the luminous lines of the latter cursors tend to fade between
paintings. The continuously luminous line of the interscan serves to expedite
measurements.
In some designs the interscan may be positioned at desired locations on
the PPI; the length and direction of the luminous line may be adjusted to
serve various requirements, including the determination of the bearing and
distance between two pips.

Off-Center Display

While the design of most relative motion radar indicators places the
sweep origin only at the center of the PPI, some indicators may have the
capability for off-centering the sweep origin (see figure 2.11).
The primary advantage of the off-center display is that for any particular
range scale setting, the view ahead can be extended. This lessens the
requirement for changing range scale settings. The off-centering feature is
particularly advantageous in river navigation.
With the sweep origin off-centered, the bearing dials concentric with the
PPI cannot be used directly for bearing measurements. If the indicator does
not have an electronic bearing cursor (interscan), the parallel-line cursor may
be used for bearing measurements. By placing the cursor so that one of the
parallel lines passes through both the observer’s position on the PPI (sweep
origin) and the pip, the bearing to the pip can be read on the bearing dial.
Generally, the parallel lines inscribed on the disk are so spaced that it would
be improbable that one of the parallel lines could be positioned to pass
through the sweep origin and pip. This necessitates placing the cursor so that
the inscribed lines are parallel to a line passing through the sweep origin and Figure 2.11 - Off-center display.

45
Expanded Center Display Ranges must be measured from the zero range circle rather than the center
of the PPI. While the display is distorted, the bearings of pips from the center
Some radar indicator designs have the capability for expanding the center of the PPI are not changed. Through shifting close target pips radially away
of the PPI on the shortest range scale, 1 mile for instance. While using an from the PPI center, better resolution or discrimination between the pips is
expanded center display, zero range is at one-half inch, for instance, from the afforded. Also because of the normal small centering errors of the PPI
center of the PPI rather than at its center. With sweep rotation the center of display, the radial shifting of the target pips permits more accurate bearing
the PPI is dark out to the zero range circle. determinations.
Figure 2.12 illustrates a normal display in which range is measured from
the center of the PPI. Figure 2.13 illustrates an expanded center display of
the same situation.

Figure 2.12 - Normal display. Figure 2.13 - Expanded center display.

46
 RADAR OPERATING CONTROLS

POWER CONTROLS

Indicator Power Switch antenna rotation for deicing purposes when the radar set is either off or in
standby operation. Separate switching permits work on the antenna platform
This switch on the indicator has OFF, STANDBY, and OPERATE (ON) when power is applied to other components without the danger attendant to a
positions. If the switch is turned directly from the OFF to OPERATE rotating antenna.
positions, there is a warm-up period of about 3 minutes before the radar set
is in full operation. During the warm-up period the cathodes of the tubes are Special Switches
heated, this heating being necessary prior to applying high voltages. If the
switch is in the STANDBY position for a period longer than that required for Even when the radar set is off, provision may be made for applying power
warm-up, the radar set is placed in full operation immediately upon turning to heaters designed for keeping the set dry. In such case, a special switch is
the switch to the OPERATE position. Keeping the radar set in STANDBY provided for turning this power on and off.
when not in use tends to lessen maintenance problems. Frequent switching
from OFF to OPERATE tends to cause tube failures. Note: Prior to placing the indicator power switch in the OPERATE position,
the brilliance control, the receiver gain control, the sensitivity time control,
Antenna (Scanner) Power Switch and the fast time constant switch should be placed at their minimum or off
positions. The setting of the brilliance control avoids excessive brilliance
For reasons for safety, a radar set should have a separate switch for harmful to the CRT on applying power. The other settings are required prior
starting and stopping the rotation of the antenna. Separate switching permits to making initial adjustments of the performance controls.

47
 PERFORMANCE CONTROLS—INITIAL ADJUSTMENTS

Brilliance Control

Also referred to as Intensity or Brightness control. The brilliance control,

which determines the overall brightness of the PPI display, is first adjusted to
make the trace of the rotating sweep visible but not too bright. Then it is
adjusted so that the trace just fades. This adjustment should be made with the
receiver gain control at its minimum setting because it is difficult to judge
the right degree of brilliance when there is a speckled background on the
PPI. Figures 2.14, 2.15, and 2.16 illustrate the effects of different brilliance
settings, the receiver gain control being set so that the speckled background
does not appear on the PPI. With too little brilliance, the PPI display is
difficult to see; with excessive brilliance, the display is unfocused.

Figure 2.15 - Normal brilliance.

Figure 2.14 - Too little brilliance. Figure 2.16 - Excessive brilliance.

48
Receiver Gain Control

The receiver gain control is adjusted until a speckled background just

appears on the PPI. Figures 2.17, 2.18, and 2.19 illustrate too little gain,
normal gain, and excessive gain, respectively. With too little gain, weak
echoes may not be detected; with excessive gain, strong echoes may not be
detected because of the poor contrast between echoes and the background of
the PPI display.
In adjusting the receiver gain control to obtain the speckled background,
the indicator should be set on one of the longer range scales because the
speckled background is more apparent on these scales. On shifting to a
different range scale, the brightness may change. Generally, the required
readjustment may be effected through use of the receiver gain control alone
although the brightness of the PPI display is dependent upon the settings of
the receiver gain and brilliance controls. In some radar indicator designs, the
brilliance control is preset at the factory. Even so, the brilliance control may
have to be readjusted at times during the life of the cathode-ray tube. Also
the preset brilliance control may have to be readjusted because of large
changes in ambient light levels.

Figure 2.18 - Normal gain.

Figure 2.17 - Too little gain. Figure 2.19 - Excessive gain.

49
Tuning Control

Without ship or land targets, a performance monitor, or a tuning indicator,

the receiver may be tuned by adjusting the manual tuning control for
maximum sea clutter. An alternative to the use of normal sea clutter which is
usually present out to a few hundred yards even when the sea is calm, is the
use of echoes from the ship’s wake during a turn. When sea clutter is used
for manual tuning adjustment, all anti-clutter controls should be either off or
placed at their minimum settings. Also, one of the shorter range scales
should be used.

PERFORMANCE CONTROLS - ADJUSTMENTS ACCORDING TO

OPERATING CONDITIONS

Receiver Gain Control

This control is adjusted in accordance with the range scale being used.
Particular caution must be exercised so that while varying its adjustment for
better detection of more distant targets, the area near the center of the PPI is not
subjected to excessive brightness within which close targets may not be detected.
When detection at the maximum possible range is the primary objective, Figure 2.20 - Clutter caused by a rain squall.
the receiver gain control should be adjusted so that a speckled background is
just visible on the PPI. However, a temporary reduction of the gain setting
may prove useful for detecting strong echoes from among weaker ones.

Fast Time Constant (FTC) Switch (Differentiator)

With the FTC switch in the ON position, the FTC circuit through
shortening the echoes on the display reduces clutter on the PPI which might
be caused by rain, snow, or hail. When used, this circuit has an effect over
the entire PPI and generally tends to reduce receiver sensitivity and, thus, the
strengths of the echoes as seen on the display.

Rain Clutter Control

The rain clutter control provides a variable fast time constant. Thus, it
provides greater flexibility in the use of FTC according to the operating
conditions. Whether the FTC is fixed or variable, it provides the means for
breaking up clutter which otherwise could obscure the echo of a target of
interest. When navigating in confined waters, the FTC feature provides better
definition of the PPI display through better range resolution. Also, the use of
FTC provides lower minimum range capability.
Figure 2.20 illustrates clutter on the PPI caused by a rain squall. Figure
2.21 illustrates the break up of this clutter by means of the rain clutter Figure 2.21 - Break up of clutter by means of rain clutter control.
control.

50
 Figure 2.22 illustrates the appearance of a harbor on the PPI when the
FTC circuit is not being used. Figure 2.23 illustrates the harbor when the
FTC circuit is being used. With use of the FTC circuit, there is better
definition.

Figure 2.22 - FTC not in use. Figure 2.23 - FTC in use.

51
Sensitivity Time Control (STC)

Also called SEA CLUTTER CONTROL, ANTI-CLUTTER CONTROL,

SWEPT GAIN, SUPPRESSOR.
Normally, the STC should be placed at the minimum setting in calm seas.
This control is used with a circuit which is designed to suppress sea clutter out to
a limited distance from the ship. Its purpose is to enable the detection of close
targets which otherwise might be obscured by sea clutter. This control must be
used judiciously in conjunction with the receiver gain control. Generally, one
should not attempt to eliminate all sea clutter with this control. Otherwise,
echoes from small close targets may be suppressed also.
Figures 2.24, 2.25, and 2.26 illustrate STC settings which are too low,
correct, and too high, respectively.

Figure 2.25 - STC setting correct.

Figure 2.24 - STC setting too low. Figure 2.26 - STC setting too high.

52
Performance Monitor Any reduction of over 20 percent of the range to which the plume extends
when the radar set is operating at its highest performance is indicative of the
The performance monitor provides a check of the performance of the need for tuning adjustment. If tuning adjustment does not produce a plume
transmitter and receiver. Being limited to a check of the operation of the length within specified limits, the need for equipment maintenance is
equipment, the performance monitor does not provide any indication of indicated.
performance as it might be affected by the propagation of the radar waves With malfunctioning of the performance monitor, the plume appears as
through the atmosphere. Thus, a good check on the performance monitor illustrated in figure 2.28.
does not necessarily indicate that targets will be detected. The effectiveness of the anti-clutter controls can be checked by inspecting
When the performance monitor is used, a plume extends from the center their effects on the plume produced by the echo from the echo box.
of the PPI (see figure 2.27). The length of the plume, which is dependent
upon the strength of the echo received from the echo box in the vicinity of
the antenna, is an indication of the performance of the transmitter and the
receiver. The length of this plume is compared with its length when the radar
is known to be operating at high performance.

Figure 2.27 - Performance monitor plume. Figure 2.28 - Appearance of plume when performance monitor is malfunctioning.

53
Pulse Lengths and Pulse Repetition Rate Controls Electronic Bearing Cursor

On some radar sets the pulse length and pulse repetition rate (PRR) are The brightness of the electronic bearing cursor is adjusted by a control for
changed automatically in accordance with the range scale setting. At the this purpose. Unless the electronic bearing cursor appears as a dashed or
higher range scale settings the radar operation is shifted to longer pulse dotted line, the brightness levels of the electronic bearing cursor and the
lengths and lower pulse repetition rates. The greater energy in the longer heading flash should be different to serve as an aid to their identification.
pulse is required for detection at longer ranges. The lower pulse repetition Radar indicators are now equipped with a spring-loaded switch to
rate is required in order that an echo can return to the receiver prior to the temporarily disable the flash.
transmission of the next pulse. At the shorter range scale settings, the shorter
pulse length provides better range resolution and shorter minimum ranges, Fixed Range Markers
the higher power of the longer pulse not being required. Also, the higher
pulse repetition rates at the shorter range scale settings provide more The brightness of the fixed range markers is adjusted by a control, labeled
frequent repainting of the pips and, thus, sharper pips on the PPI desirable FIXED RANGE MARK INTENSITY CONTROL. The fixed range markers
for short range observation. should be turned off periodically to avoid the possibility of their masking a
On other radar sets the pulse length and PRR must be changed by manual small pip on the PPI.
operation of controls. On some of these sets pulse length and PRR can be
changed independently. The pulse lengths and PRR’s of radar sets installed Variable Range Marker
aboard merchant ships usually are changed automatically with the range
scale settings. The brightness of the variable range marker is adjusted by the control
labeled VARIABLE RANGE MARK INTENSITY CONTROL. This control
is adjusted so that the ring described by the VRM is sharp and clear but not
LIGHTING AND BRIGHTNESS CONTROLS too bright.

Reflection Plotter Panel Lighting

The illumination levels of the reflection plotter and the bearing dials are The illumination of the panel is adjusted by the control labeled PANEL
adjusted by a control, labeled PLOTTER DIMMER. CONTROL.

The reflection plotter lighting must be turned on in order to see reflected

images of the grease pencil plot on the PPI. With yellowish-green MEASUREMENT AND ALIGNMENT CONTROLS
fluorescence, yellow and orange grease pencil markings provide the clearest
images on the PPI; with orange fluorescence, black grease pencil markings Range
provide the clearest images.
Usually, ranges are measured by means of the variable range marker
Heading Flash (VRM). On some radars the VRM can be used to measure ranges up to only
20 miles although the maximum range scale setting is 40 miles. For
The brightness of the heading flash is adjusted by a control, labeled distances greater than 20 miles, the fixed range rings must be used.
FLASHER INTENSITY CONTROL. The brightness should be kept at a low The radar indicators designed for merchant ship installation have
level to avoid masking a small pip on the PPI. The heading flash should be range counter readings in miles and tenths of miles. According to the
turned off periodically for the same reason. range calibration, the readings may be either statute or nautical miles.
The range counter has three digits, the last or third digit indicating the
range in tenths of a mile. As the VRM setting is adjusted, the range is
read in steps of tenths of a mile. The VRM control may have coarse and

54
fine settings. The coarse setting permits rapid changes in the range accuracy is improved because centering errors have lesser effect on accuracy
setting of the VRM. The fine setting permits the operator to make small with greater displacement of pips from the PPI center. When center
adjustments of the VRM more readily. For accurate range measurements, expansion is used, the fixed range rings expand with the center. However, the
the circle described by the VRM should be adjusted so that it just touches range must be measured from the inner circle as opposed to the center of the
the inside edge of the pip. PPI.
The use of the center expansion can be helpful in anti-clutter
Bearing adjustment.

On most radar indicators bearings are measured by setting the mechanical Heading Flash Alignment
bearing cursor to bisect the target pip and reading the bearing on the bearing
dial. For accurate bearing measurements, the alignment of the heading flash
With unstabilized Heading-Upward displays, true bearings are read on the with the PPI display must be such that radar bearings are in close agreement
outer, rotatable dial which is set either manually or automatically to ship’s with relatively accurate visual bearings observed from near the radar
true heading. antenna.
With stabilized North-Upward displays, true bearings are read on the On some radar indicators, the heading flash must be set by a PICTURE-
fixed dial. With loss of compass input to the indicator, the bearings as read ROTATE CONTROL according to the type of display desired. Should there
on the latter dial are relative. Some radar indicators designed for stabilized be any appreciable difference between radar and visual bearings, adjustment
North-Upward displays have rotatable relative bearing dials, the zero of the heading flash contacts is indicated. The latter adjustment should be
graduations of which can be set to the heading flash for reading relative made in accordance with the procedure prescribed in the manufacturer’s
bearings. instruction manual. However, the following procedures should prove helpful
Some radar indicators, especially those having true motion displays, may in obtaining an accurate adjustment:
have an electronic bearing cursor and associated bearing indicator. The (1) Adjust the centering controls to place the sweep origin at the center of
electronic cursor is particularly useful when the display is off-centered. the PPI as accurately as is possible.
(2) In selecting an object for simultaneous visual and radar bearing
Sweep Centering measurements, select an object having a small and distinct pip on the PPI.
(3) Select an object which lies near the maximum range of the scale in
For accurate bearing measurement by the mechanical bearing cursor, the use. This object should be not less than 2 nautical miles away.
sweep origin must be placed at the center of the PPI. Some radar indicators (4) Observe the visual bearings from a position as close to the radar
have panel controls which can be used for horizontal and vertical shifting of antenna as is possible.
the sweep origin to place it at the center of the PPI and, thus, at the pivot (5) Use as the bearing error the average of the differences of several
point of the mechanical bearing cursor. On other radar indicators not having simultaneous radar and visual observations.
panel controls for centering the sweep origin, the sweep must be centered by (6) After any heading flash adjustment, check the accuracy of the
making those adjustments inside the indicator cabinet as are prescribed in adjustment by simultaneous radar and visual observations.
the manufacturer’s instruction manual.
Range Calibration
Center Expansion
The range calibration of the indicator should be checked at least once each
Some radar indicators have a CENTER EXPAND SWITCH which is used watch, before any event requiring high accuracy, and more often if there is
to displace zero range from the center of the PPI on the shortest range scale any reason to doubt the accuracy of the calibration. A calibration check
setting. With the switch in the ON position, there is distortion in range but no made within a few minutes after a radar set has been turned on should be
distortion in the bearings of the pips displayed because the expansion is checked again 30 minutes later, or after the set has warmed up thoroughly.
radial. Using center expansion, there is greater separation between pips near The calibration check is simply the comparison of VRM and fixed range
the center of the PPI and, thus, better bearing resolution. Also, bearing ring ranges at various range scale settings. In this check the assumptions are

55
that the calibration of the fixed range rings is more accurate than that of the position may be reset manually or automatically. Automatic reset is
VRM, and that the calibration of the fixed range rings is relatively stable. performed at definite distances from the PPI center, according to the radar
One indication of the accuracy of the range ring calibration is the linearity of set design. With the normal reset control actuated, reset may be performed
the sweep or time base. Since range rings are produced by brightening the automatically when own ship has reached a position beyond the PPI center
electron beam at regular intervals during the radial sweep of this beam, equal about two thirds the radius of the PPI. Whether own ship’s position is reset
spacing of the range rings is indicative of the linearity of the time base. automatically or manually, own ship’s position is reset to an off-center
Representative maximum errors in calibrated fixed range rings are 75 yards or position on the PPI, usually at a position from which the heading flash passes
1.5 percent of the maximum range of the range scale in use, whichever is greater. through the center of the PPI. This off-center position provides more time
Thus, on a 6-mile range scale setting the error in the range of a pip just touching before resetting is required than would be the case if own ship’s position
a range ring may be about 180 yards or about 0.1 nautical mile. Since fixed range were reset to the center of the PPI.
rings are the most accurate means generally available for determining range
when the leading edge of the target pip is at the range ring, it follows that ranging Delayed Reset Control
by radar is less accurate than many may assume. One should not expect the
accuracy of navigational radar to be better than plus or minus 50 yards under the With the delayed reset control actuated, reset is performed automatically
best conditions. when own ship has reached a position closer to the edge of the PPI than with
Each range calibration check is made by setting the VRM to the leading edge normal reset. With either the normal or delayed reset control actuated, there is an
of a fixed range ring and comparing the VRM range counter reading with the alarm signal which gives about 10 seconds forewarning of automatic resetting.
range represented by the fixed range ring. The VRM reading should not differ
from the fixed range ring value by more than 1 percent of the maximum range of Manual Reset Control
the scale in use. For example, with the radar indicator set on the 40-mile range
scale and the VRM set at the 20-mile range ring, the VRM range counter reading The manual reset control permits the resetting of own ship’s position at
should be between 19.6 and 20.4 miles. any desired time.

Manual Override Control

TRUE MOTION CONTROLS The manual override control when actuated prevents automatic resetting
of own ship’s position. This control is particularly useful if a critical
The following controls are representative of those additional controls used situation should develop just prior to the time of automatic resetting. Shifting
in the true motion mode of operation. If the true motion radar set design from normal to delayed reset can also provide more time for evaluating a
includes provision for ground stabilization of the display, this stabilization situation before resetting occurs.
may be effected through use of either set and drift or speed and course-
made-good controls. Ship’s Speed Input Selector Control

Operating Mode Own ship’s speed and course being necessary inputs to the true motion
radar computer, the ship’s speed input selector control permits either manual
Since true motion radars are designed for operation in true motion and input of ship’s speed or automatic input of speed from a speed log. With the
relative motion modes, there is a control on the indicator panel for selecting control in the manual position, ship’s speed in knots and tenths of knots can
the desired mode. be set in steps of tenths of knots.

Normal Reset Control Set and Drift Controls

Since own ship is not fixed at the center of the PPI in the true motion Set and drift controls, or their equivalent, provide means for ground
mode, own ship’s position must be reset periodically on the PPI. Own ship’s stabilization of the true motion display. When there is accurate compensation

56
for set and drift, there is no movement of stationary objects on the PPI. within limits of about 25˚ to the course input to the radar set. The speed
Without such compensation, slight movements of stationary objects may be control permits the input of a correction to the speed input from the
detected on the PPI. The set control may be labeled DRIFT DIRECTION; underwater speed log or from an artificial (dummy) log.
the drift control may be labeled DRIFT SPEED.
Zero Speed Control
Speed and Course Made Good Controls
In the ZERO position, the zero speed control stops the movement of own
The radar set design may include speed and course made good controls in ship on the PPI; in the TRUE position own ship moves on the PPI at a rate
lieu of set and drift controls to effect ground stabilization of the true motion set by the speed input.
display. The course made good control permits the input of a correction,

57
 CHAPTER 3 — COLLISION AVOIDANCE

RELATIVE MOTION

In the Universe there is no such condition as absolute rest or absolute ship B proceeds from geographic position B1 to B3. The changes in the
motion. An object is only at rest or in motion relative to some reference. A positions of ship A relative to ship B are illustrated in the successive PPI
mountain on the earth may be at rest relative to the earth, but it is in motion presentations corresponding to the geographic positions of ships A and B.
relative to the sun. Although all motion is relative, as used here actual or true
motion is movement with respect to the earth; relative motion is motion with
respect to an arbitrarily selected object, which may or may not have actual or
true motion.
The actual or true motion of an object usually is defined in terms of its
direction and rate of movement relative to the earth. If the object is a ship,
this motion is defined in terms of the true course and speed. The motion of
an object also may be defined in terms of its direction and rate of movement
relative to another object also in motion. The relative motion of a ship, or the
motion of one ship relative to the motion of another ship, is defined in terms
of the Direction of Relative Movement (DRM) and the Speed of Relative
Movement (SRM). Each form of motion may be depicted by a velocity
vector, a line segment representing direction and rate of movement. Before
further discussion of velocity vectors and their application, a situation
involving relative motion between two ships will be examined.
In figure 3.1, ship A, at geographic position A1, on true course 000˚ at 15
knots initially observes ship B on the PPI bearing 180˚ at 4 miles. The
bearing and distance to ship B changes as ship A proceeds from geographic
position A1 to A3. The changes in the positions of ship B relative to ship A
are illustrated in the successive PPI presentations corresponding to the
geographic position of ships A and B. Likewise ship B, at geographic
position B1, on true course 026˚ at 22 knots initially observes ship A on the
PPI bearing 000˚ at 4 miles. The bearing and distance to ship A changes as Figure 3.1 - Relative motion between two ships.

59
 If the radar observer aboard ship A plots the successive positions of ship If the radar observer aboard ship B plots the successive positions of ship
B relative to his position fixed at the center of the PPI, he will obtain a plot A relative to his position fixed at the center of the PPI, he will obtain a
called the RELATIVE PLOT or RELATIVE MOTION PLOT as illustrated relative plot illustrated in figure 3.3. The radar observer aboard ship A will
in figure 3.2. determine that the Direction of Relative Movement (DRM) of ship B is 064˚
whereas the radar observer aboard ship B will determine that the DRM of
ship A is 244˚.

Figure 3.2 - Motion of ship B relative to ship A. Figure 3.3 - Motion of ship A relative to ship B.

60
 Of primary significance at this point is the fact that the motion depicted by to R may be obtained by additional graphical construction or by visualizing
the relative plot on each PPI is not representative of the true motion or true the changes in bearings and distances between plots coordinated in time, the
course and speed of the other ship. Figure 3.4 illustrates the actual heading geographical plot does not provide a direct presentation of the relative
of ship B superimposed upon the relative plot obtained by ship A. Relative movement.
motion displays do not indicate the aspects of ship targets. For either radar
observer to determine the true course and speed of the other ship, additional
graphical constructions employing relative and true vectors are required.

Figure 3.5 - True velocity vectors.

Figure 3.6 illustrates a modification of figure 3.5 in which the true bearing
lines and ranges of other ship M from own ship R are shown at equal time
intervals. On plotting these ranges and bearings from a fixed point R, the
movement of M relative to own ship R is directly illustrated. The lines
between the equally spaced plots at equal time intervals provide direction
and rate of movement of M relative to R and thus are relative velocity
vectors.

Figure 3.4 - The actual heading of ship B.

Figure 3.5 illustrates the timed movements of two ships, R and M, with
respect to the earth. This plot, similar to the plot made in ordinary chart
navigation work, is called a geographical (navigational) plot. Ship R
proceeding on course 045˚, at a constant speed passes through successive
positions R1, R2, R3, R4... equally spaced at equal time intervals. Therefore,
the line segments connecting successive positions represent direction and
rate of movement with respect to the earth. Thus they are true velocity
vectors. Likewise, for ship M on course 325˚ the line segments connecting
the equally spaced plots for equal time intervals represent true velocity
vectors of ship M. Although the movement of R relative to M or M relative Figure 3.6 - Relative velocity vectors.

61
 The true velocity vector depicting own ship’s true motion is called own although the arrowheads are not shown. The plot, called the RELATIVE
ship’s true (course-speed) vector; the true velocity vector depicting the other PLOT or RELATIVE MOTION PLOT, is the plot of the true bearings and
ship’s true motion is called other ship’s true (course-speed) vector; the distances of ship M from own ship R. If the plots were not timed, vector
relative velocity vector depicting the relative motion between own ship and magnitude would not be indicated. In such cases the relative plot would be
the other ship is called the relative (DRM-SRM) vector. related to the (DRM-SRM) vector in direction only.
In the foregoing discussion and illustration of true and relative velocity Figure 3.8 illustrates the same situation as figure 3.7 plotted on a
vectors, the magnitudes of each vector were determined by the time interval Maneuvering Board. The center of the Maneuvering Board corresponds to
between successive plots. the center of the PPI. As with the PPI plot, all ranges and true bearings are
Actually any convenient time interval can be used as long as it is the same plotted from a fixed point at the center, point R.
for each vector. Thus with plots equally spaced in time, own ship’s true Figure 3.8 illustrates that the relative plot provides an almost direct
(course-speed) vector magnitude may be taken as the line segment between indication of the CLOSEST POINT OF APPROACH (CPA). The CPA is the
R1 and R3, R1 and R4, R2 and R4, etc., as long as the magnitudes of the other true bearing and distance of the closest approach of one ship to another.
two vectors are determined by the same time intervals.

Figure 3.7 - Relative Plot.

A plot of the successive positions of other ship M in the same situation on

a relative motion display on the PPI of the radar set aboard own ship R
would appear as in figure 3.7. With a Relative Movement Line (RML) drawn
through the plot, the individual segments of the plot corresponding to
relative distances traveled per elapsed time are relative (DRM-SRM) vectors, Figure 3.8 - Relative Plot on the Maneuvering Board.

62
 THE VECTOR TRIANGLE The resultant vector, the true (course-speed) vector of other ship M, is
found by drawing a vector from the origin of the two connected vectors to
In the foregoing discussion, the relative motion of other ship M with their end point. Unless the two vectors added have the same or opposite
respect to own ship R was developed graphically from the true motions of directions, a triangle called the vector triangle is formed on drawing the
ship M and ship R. The usual problem is to determine the true motion (true resultant vector.
course and speed) of the other ship M, knowing own ship’s true motion (true Insight into the validity of this procedure may be obtained through the
course and speed) and, through plotting, determining the motion of ship M mariner’s experience with the effect of a ship’s motion on the wind.
relative to own ship R. If a ship is steaming due north at 15 knots while the true wind is 10 knots
The vector triangle is a graphical means of adding or subtracting two from due north, the mariner experiences a relative wind of 25 knots from due
velocity vectors to obtain a resultant velocity vector. To determine the true north. Assuming that the mariner does not know the true wind, it may be
(course-speed) vector of other ship M, the true (course-speed) vector of own found by laying own ship’s true (course-speed) vector and the relative wind
ship R is added to the relative (DRM-SRM) vector derived from the relative (DRM-SRM) vector end to end as in figure 3.9.
plot, or the timed motion of other ship M relative to own ship R. In figure 3.9, own ship’s true (course-speed) vector is laid down in a due
In the addition of vectors, the vectors are laid end to end, taking care that north direction, using a vector magnitude scaled for 15 knots. At the end of
each vector maintains its direction and magnitude, the two essential elements the latter vector, the relative wind (DRM-SRM) vector is laid down in a due
of a vector. Just as there is no difference whether 5 is added to 3 or 3 is added south direction, using a vector magnitude scaled for 25 knots. On drawing
to 5, there is no difference in the resultant vector whether the relative (DRM- the resultant vector from the origin of the two connected vectors to their end
SRM) vector is laid at the end of own ship’s true (course-speed) vector or point, a true wind vector of 10 knots in a due south direction is found.
own ship’s true (course-speed) vector is laid at the end of the relative (DRM- If own ship maintains a due north course at 15 knots as the wind direction
SRM) vector. Because of the notations used in this manual, the relative shifts, the relative wind (DRM-SRM) vector changes. In this case a vector
(DRM-SRM) vector is laid at the end of own ship’s true (course-speed) triangle is formed on adding the relative wind (DRM-SRM) vector to own
vector, unless otherwise specified. ship’s true (course-speed) vector (see figure 3.10).

Figure 3.9 - Relative and true wind vectors. Figure 3.10 - Wind vector triangle.

63
 Returning now to the problem of relative motion between ships and using VECTOR EQUATIONS
the same situation as in figure 3.7, a timed plot of the motion of other ship M
relative to own ship R is made on the PPI as illustrated in figure 3.11. Where:
Assuming that the true (course-speed) vector of other ship M is unknown,
it may be determined by adding the relative (DRM-SRM) vector to own em is other ship’s true (course-speed) vector.
ship’s true (course-speed) vector.
The vectors are laid end to end, while maintaining their respective er is own ship’s true (course-speed) vector.
directions and magnitudes. The resultant vector, the true (course-speed) rm is relative (DRM-SRM) vector.
vector of other ship, is found by drawing a vector from the origin of the two
connected (added) vectors to their end point. em = er + rm
er = em - rm
rm = em - er

(See figure 3.12)

Figure 3.11 - Vector triangle on PPI. Figure 3.12 - True and relative vectors.

64
 To determine vector em from vectors er and rm, vectors er and rm are
added by laying them end to end and drawing a resultant vector, em, from the
origin of the two connected vectors to their end point (see figure 3.13).
To determine vector er from vectors em and rm, vector rm is subtracted
from vector em by laying vector rm, with its direction reversed, at the end of
vector em and drawing a resultant vector, er, from the origin of the two
connected vectors to their end point (see figure 3.14).
To determine vector rm from vectors em and er, vector er is subtracted
from vector em by laying vector er, with its direction reversed, at the end of
vector em and drawing a resultant vector from the origin of the two
connected vectors to their end point (see figure 3.15).

Figure 3.14 - Subtraction of the relative (DRM-SRM) vector from other ship’s true (course-
speed) vector to find own ship’s true (course-speed) vector.

Figure 3.13 - Addition of own ship’s true (course-speed) vector and the relative (DRM-SRM) Figure 3.15 - Subtraction of own ship’s true (course-speed) vector from other ship’s true
vector to find the true (course-speed) vector of the other ship. (course-speed) vector to find the relative (DRM-SRM) vector.

65
 MANEUVERING BOARD

MANEUVERING BOARD FORMAT Maneuvering Board format is particularly advantageous for relatively rapid
transfer plotting, i.e., plotting target (radar contact) information transferred
The Maneuvering Board is a diagram which can be used in the solution of from the radarscope.
relative motion problems. Printed in green on white, it is issued in two sizes, The extension of the dotted radials and arcs of concentric circles into the
10 inches and 20 inches, charts 5090 and 5091, respectively. corners of the Maneuvering Board permits plotting with the same facility
Chart 5090, illustrated in figure 3.16, consists primarily of a polar when the distances to the targets are just beyond 10 miles and their bearings
diagram having equally spaced radials and concentric circles. The radials are correspond to these regions.
printed as dotted lines at 10˚ intervals. The 10 concentric circles are also In plotting the ranges and bearings of radar targets on the Maneuvering
dotted except for the inner circle and the outer complete circle, which has a Board, the radar observer generally must select an optimum distance scale.
10-inch diameter. Dotted radials and arcs of concentric circles are also For radar targets at distances between 10 and 20 miles, the 2:1 scale is the
printed in the area of the corners of the 10-inch square framing the polar best selection, unless the targets can be plotted within the corners of the
diagram. Maneuvering Board using the 1:1 scale. The objective is to provide as much
The 10-inch circle is graduated from 0˚ at the top, through 360˚ with the separation between individual plots as is possible for both clarity and
graduations at each 10˚ coinciding with the radials. accuracy of plotting.
The radials between concentric circles are subdivided into 10 equal parts While generally either the 1:1 or 2:1 scale is suitable for plotting the
by the dots and small crosses from which they are formed. Except for the relative positions of the radar contacts in collision avoidance applications
inner circle, the arcs of the concentric circles between radials are subdivided when the ranges are measured in miles, the radar observer also must select a
into 10 equal parts by the dots and small crosses from which they are suitable scale for the graphical construction of the vector triangles when the
formed. The inner circle is graduated at 5˚ intervals. sides of these triangles are scaled in knots.
Thus, except for the inner circle, all concentric circles and the arcs of To avoid confusion between scales being used for distance and speed in
concentric circles beyond the outer complete circle are graduated at one- knots, the radar observer should make a notation on the Maneuvering Board
degree intervals. as to which scale is being used for distance and which scale is being used for
In the labeling of the outer complete circle at 10˚ intervals, the reciprocal speed in knots. However, rapid radar plotting techniques, within the scope of
values are printed inside this circle. For example, the radial labeled as 0˚ is using a selected portion of the relative plot directly as the relative (course-
also labeled as 180˚. speed) vector, may be employed with the Maneuvering Board.
In the left-hand margin there are two vertical scales (2:1 and 3:1); in the As illustrated in figure 3.18, the plotting of relative positions on the
right-hand margin there are two vertical scales (4:1 and 5:1). Maneuvering Board requires the use of a straightedge and a pair of dividers.
A logarithmic time-speed-distance scale and instructions for its use are The distance scale is selected in accordance with the radar range setting. To
printed at the bottom. avoid mistakes, the distance scale used should be circled.
Chart 5090 is identical to chart 5091 except for size. As illustrated in figure 3.19, the construction of own ships true (course-
speed) vector scaled in knots and originating from the center of the
Maneuvering Board also requires the use of a straightedge and pair of
PLOTTING ON MANEUVERING BOARD dividers.
In the use of a separate relative plot and vector triangle scaled in knots, the
If radar targets to be plotted lie within 10 miles of own ship and the direction of the relative (DRM-SRM) vector must be transferred from the
distances to these targets are measured in miles, and tenths of miles, the relative plot by parallel rules or by sliding one triangle against another.

66
Figure 3.16 - Maneuvering Board.

67
 Figure 3.17 - Speed triangle and relative plot on the Maneuvering Board.

68
Figure 3.18 - Plotting relative positions on the Maneuvering Board.

69
 Figure 3.19 - Constructing a true vector on the Maneuvering Board.

70
Relative Movement Problems

Relative movement problems may be divided into two general categories:

(1) Tracking: from observed relative movement data, determining the
actual motion of the ship or ships being observed.
(2) Maneuvering: knowing, or having previously determined the actual
motion of the ships involved in the problem, ascertaining the
necessary changes to actual motion to obtain a desired relative
movement.
Three separate and distinct plots are available for the solution of relative
movement problems:
(1) Geographical or navigational plot.
(2) Relative plot.
(3) Vector diagram (Speed Triangle).
Each of these plots provides a method either for complete solutions or for
obtaining additional data required in the solution of more complex problems.
In the foregoing treatment of the geographical and relative plots, the true
and relative vector nature of those plots was illustrated. But in the use of
vectors it is usually more convenient to scale the magnitudes of the vectors
in knots while at the same time utilizing optimum distance and speed scales
for plotting accuracy. Therefore, if the geographical and relative plots are
used only for obtaining part of the required data, other means must be
employed in completing the solution. This other means is the vector diagram
which is a graphical means of adding or subtracting vectors.
When the vector diagram is scaled in knots it is commonly called the
Speed Triangle. Figure 3.20 illustrates the construction of a speed triangle in
which the true vectors, scaled in knots, are drawn from a common point e
(for earth) at the center of the polar diagram. The true vector of the reference
ship is er; the true vector of ship M, commonly called the maneuvering ship,
is em, and the relative vector is rm. The vector directions are shown by the
Figure 3.20 - Speed triangle and relative plot.
arrowheads.
The direction of the relative vector rm in the speed triangle is the same as
the DRM in the relative plot. The DRM is the connecting link between the If in figure 3.20 the true vector of the maneuvering ship were known as
two diagrams. Also, the magnitude (SRM) of the relative vector in the speed well as that of the reference ship, the relative vector could be obtained by
triangle is determined by the rate of motion of ship M along the RML of the subtracting the true vector of the reference ship from the true vector of the
relative plot. maneuvering ship ( rm = em – er ).
If in figure 3.20 the true vector of the reference ship were known and the In this vector subtraction, the true vectors are constructed end to end as
relative vector were derived from the rate and direction of the relative plot, before, but the direction of the reference ship true vector is reversed.
the vectors could be added to obtain the true vector of the maneuvering ship If in figure 3.20 the true vector of the maneuvering ship were known as
( em = er + rm ). In the addition of vectors, the vectors are constructed end well as the relative vector, the true vector of the reference ship could be
to end while maintaining vector magnitude and direction. The sum is the obtained by subtracting the relative vector from the true vector of the
magnitude and direction of the line joining the initial and terminal points of maneuvering ship ( er = em – rm ).
the vectors. But in the practical application of constructing two of the known vectors,

71
the third vector may be found by completing the triangle. The formulas as
such may be ignored as long as care is exercised to insure that the vectors are
constructed in the right direction. Particular care must be exercised to insure
that the DRM is not reversed. The relative vector rm is always in the
direction of the relative movement as shown on the relative plot and always
join the heads of the true vectors at points r and m.
Fundamental to this construction of the speed triangle (vector diagram)
with the origin of the true vectors at the center of the polar diagram is the
fact that the locations where the actual movement is taking place do not
affect the results of vector addition or subtraction. Or, for given true courses
and speeds of the reference and maneuvering ships, the vector diagram is
independent of the relative positions of the ships. In turn, the place of
construction of the vector diagram is independent of the position of the
relative plot.
In figure 3.20 the vector diagram was constructed with the origins of the
true vectors at the center of the polar diagram in order to make most effective
use of the compass rose and distance circles in constructing true vectors. But
in this application of the vector diagram in which the vector magnitudes are
scaled in knots, to determine the true vector of the maneuvering ship an
intermediate calculation is required to convert the rate of relative movement
to relative speed in knots before the relative vector may be constructed with
its origin at the head of the true vector of the reference ship. This
intermediate calculation as well as the transfer of the DRM to the vector
diagram may be avoided through direct use of the relative plot as the relative
vector. In this application the vector diagram is constructed with the true
vectors set to the same magnitude scale as the relative vector. This scale is
Figure 3.21 - Vector diagram.
the distance traveled per the time interval of the relative plot.
There are two basic techniques used in the construction of this type of
vector diagram. Figures 3.21 and 3.22(a) illustrate the construction in which
the reference ship’s true vector is drawn to terminate at the initial plot of the
segment of the relative plot used directly as the relative vector. The vector
diagram is completed by constructing the true vector of the maneuvering
ship from the origin of the reference ship’s true vector, terminating at the end
of the relative vector. Figure 3.22(b) illustrates the construction in which the
reference ship’s true vector is drawn to originate at the final plot of the
segment of the relative plot used directly as the relative vector. The vector
diagram is completed by constructing the true vector of the maneuvering
ship from the origin of the relative vector, terminating at the head of the
reference ship’s true vector. In the latter method the advantages of the
conventional vector notation are lost. Either method is facilitated through the
use of convenient time lapses (selected plotting intervals) such as 3 or 6
minutes, or other multiples thereof, with which well known rules of thumb
may be used in determining the vector lengths.
Figure 3.22 - Vector diagrams.

72
 Figure 3.23 illustrates that even though the vector diagram may be
constructed initially in accordance with a particular selected plotting
interval, the vector diagram subsequently may be subdivided or expanded in
geometrically similar triangles as the actual time lapse of the plot differs
from that previously selected. If own ship’s true vector er is drawn initially
for a time lapse of 6 minutes and the actual plot is of 8 minutes duration,
vector er is increased in magnitude by one third prior to completing the
vector diagram.

Figure 3.23 - Vector diagram.

73
 THE LOGARITHMIC TIME-SPEED-DISTANCE NOMOGRAM

At the bottom of the Maneuvering Board a nomogram consisting of three two known terms on their respective scales and connecting such marks by a
equally spaced logarithmic scales is printed for rapid solution of time, speed, straight line, the value of the third term is found at the intersection of this
and distance problems. line with the remaining scale.
The nomogram has a logarithmic scale for each of the terms of the basic Figure 3.24 illustrates a solution for speed when a distance of 4 miles is
equation: traveled in 11 minutes. Only one of the three scales is required to solve for
Distance = Speed x Time time, speed, or distance if any two of the three values are known. Any one of
the three logarithmic scales may be used in the same manner as a slide rule
The upper scale is graduated logarithmically in minutes of time; the for the addition or subtraction of logarithms of numbers. Because the upper
middle scale is graduated logarithmically in both miles and yards; and the scale is larger, its use for this purpose is preferred for obtaining greater
lower scale is graduated logarithmically in knots. By marking the values of accuracy.

Figure 3.24 - Logarithmic time-speed-distance nomogram.

74
 When using a single logarithmic scale for the solution of the basic For speeds of less than 60 knots and when using a logarithmic scale which
equation with speed units in knots and distance units in miles or thousands of increases from left to right, the distance graduation always lies to the left of
yards, either 60 or 30 has to be incorporated in the basic equation for proper the time in minutes graduation; the speed in knots graduation always lies to
cancellation of units. the left of the 60 graduation.
Figure 3.24 illustrates the use of the upper scale for finding the speed in The use of the single logarithmic scale is based upon the fundamental
knots when the time in minutes and the distance in miles are known. In this property of logarithmic scales that equal lengths along the scale represent
problem the time is 11 minutes and the distance is 4 miles. One point of a equal values of ratios. For example, if one has the ratio 1/2 and with the
pair of dividers is set at the time in minutes, 11, and the second point at the dividers measures the length between 1 and 2, he finds the same length
distance in miles, 4. Without changing the spread of the dividers or the right- between 2 and 4, 5.5 and 11.0, or any other two values one of which is half
left relationship, set the first point at 60. The second point will then indicate the other. In using the single logarithmic scale for the solution of a specific
the speed in knots, 21.8. If the speed and time are known, place one point at problem in which a ship travels 10 nautical miles in 20 minutes, the basic
60 and the second point at the speed in knots, 21.8. Without changing the formula is rearranged as follows:
spread of the dividers or the right-left relationship, place the first point at the
time in minutes, 11. The second point then will indicate the distance in Dis tan ce ( nautical miles ) 60 min.
Speed = -------------------------------------------------------------------- times ----------------------
miles, 4. Time ( minutes ) 1 hr.
In the method described, there was no real requirement to maintain the On substituting known numerical values and canceling units, the formula
right-left relationship of the points of the pair of dividers except to insure is rearranged further as:
that for speeds of less than 60 knots the distance in miles is less than the time Speed ( knots ) 10
in minutes. If the speed is in excess of 60 knots, the distance in miles will ---------------------------------------- = ------
always be greater than the time in minutes. 60 20
If the distance is known in thousands of yards or if the distance is to be The ratio 10/20 has the same numerical value as the ratio Speed (knots)/
found in such units, a divider point is set at 30 rather than the 60 used with 60. Since each ratio has the same numerical value, the length as measured on
miles. If the speed is less than 30 knots in this application, the distance in the logarithmic scale between the distance in nautical miles (10) and the time
thousands of yards will always be less than the time in minutes. If the speed in minutes (20) will be the same as the length between 60 and the speed in
is in excess of 30 knots, the distance in thousands of yards will always be knots. Thus, on measuring the length between 10 and 20 and measuring the
greater than the time in minutes. same length from 60 the speed is found to be 30 knots.

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 NAUTICAL SLIDE RULES

Several slide rules have been designed for the solution of time, speed, and
distance problems. The circular slide rule illustrated in figure 3.25 has
distance graduations in both nautical miles and yards. One nautical mile is
assumed to be equal to 2,000 yards. On setting two known values to their
respective arrowheads, the value sought is found at the third arrowhead.
Thus, there is relatively little chance for error in the use of this slide rule.
While the nautical miles and yards graduations are differentiated clearly by
their numbering, the nautical miles graduations are green and the yards
graduations are black. There is a notation on the base of the slide rule with
respect to this color code.
There are straight slide rules designed specifically for the solution of time,
speed, and distance problems. The fixed and sliding scales are labeled so as
to avoid blunders in their use.

GRAPHICAL RELATIVE MOTION SOLUTIONS

This section provides example solutions of typical relative motion

problems encountered while avoiding collision at sea. The solutions to these
problems may be derived from radar plots made on the PPI, a reflection
plotter mounted on the PPI, or from radar plot information transferred to a
separate polar plotting diagram such as the Maneuvering Board.
Until recently, transfer plotting techniques or the transfer of radar plot
information to a separate polar plotting diagram were given primary
emphasis in the training of radar observers. Studies of the increasing
numbers of collisions among radar-equipped ships have directed attention to
the fact that too many mariners, usually trained only in transfer plotting
techniques, were not making effective use of their radars because of a
number of factors, including:
(1) Their performance of multiple duties aboard merchant ships with little
if any assistance.
(2) The problems inherent to transfer plotting, such as the time lag in
measuring the ranges and bearings and transferring this data to a separate
plot, and the possibility of error in transferring the data.
(3) Their attention being directed away from the radar indicator and the
subsequent movements of the targets and the appearance of new targets on
the PPI while recording, plotting, and constructing graphical solutions on a
separate plotting diagram.
(4) In a multiple radar contact situation, the confusion and greater Figure 3.25 - Nautical slide rule.
probability for blunders associated with the construction of overlapping
vector triangles, the vectors of which must be related to separate relative
plots.

76
 (5) The general lack of capability of competent radar observers to own ship’s true course (090˚) with its magnitude scaled in knots. The 2:1
determine expeditiously initial relative motion solutions for more than about scale in the left margin is used for scaling the vectors of the vector triangle
two or three radar contacts imposing possible danger at one time while using (speed triangle) in knots. Using a pair of dividers, own ship’s speed of 12
conventional transfer plotting techniques. The latter capability generally knots is picked off the 2:1 scale to determine the length of vector er.
requires the use of at least two competent radar observers. Evasive action by Using the distance scale on which the relative plot is based, i.e., the 2:1
one or more of the radar contacts may result in an extremely confusing scale (circled as an aid in avoiding the subsequent use of the wrong distance
situation, the timely solution of which may not be practicable by means of scale), the relative distance between timed plots M1/0720 and M2/29 is
transfer plotting techniques. measured as 3.3 miles. With other ship M having moved 3.3 miles in 9
minutes relative to own ship R, the speed of relative movement (SRM) is 22
knots.
RAPID RADAR PLOTTING Since the direction of the relative (DRM-SRM) vector is that of the
direction of relative movement (DRM), i.e., the direction along the relative
The expression RAPID RADAR PLOTTING is descriptive of techniques movement line (RML) from M1 to M2, all information needed for
used to obtain solutions to relative motion problems by making the required constructing the relative (DRM-SRM) vector is available.
graphical constructions on the PPI or reflection plotter as opposed to the use Transferring the DRM from the relative plot by parallel rulers or other
of a separate plotting diagram for these constructions. These techniques means, a line is drawn from the extremity of own ship’s true (course-speed)
make direct use of the timed relative motion plot on the PPI as the relative vector er in the same direction as the DRM. The length of the relative vector
(DRM-SRM) vector. The other two vectors of the vector triangle are scaled rm is taken from the 2:1 scale used in constructing own ship’s true vector er.
in accordance with the scale of the relative (DRM-SRM) vector. Thus, the The true (course-speed) vector of other ship M, vector em, is found by
magnitudes of all vectors are governed by the same interval of time, the completing the triangle. The speed of other ship M in knots is found by
distance scale of the radar range setting, and the respective rates of setting the length of the vector em to the 2:1 scale.
movement.
The direct use of the timed relative motion plot as the relative (DRM-
SRM) vector eliminates the necessity for making measurements of the SELECTION OF PLOTTING TECHNIQUES
bearings and ranges of the radar targets for plotting on a separate diagram.
This information is obtained simply by marking the target pips on the PPI The primary advantage of transfer plotting is the higher accuracy afforded
by grease pencil. Thus, rapid radar plotting techniques, when feasible, by the large vector triangles scaled in knots. Also, the plotting diagrams used
permit the radar observer to employ simpler procedures while being able to provide a permanent record. For a specific situation, the selection of the
devote more time to radar observation. basic technique to be used should be based upon the relative advantages and
disadvantages of each technique as they pertain to that situation. While the
individual’s skill in the use of a particular technique is a legitimate factor in
TRANSFER PLOTTING technique selection, the competent radar observer should be skilled in the
use of both basic techniques, i.e., transfer plotting and rapid radar plotting.
Relative motion solutions derived from radar data transferred to a plotting During daylight when the hood must be mounted over the PPI, the rapid
diagram can be determined through the direct use of a timed segment of the radar plotting technique generally is not practical. Even with hand access
relative plot as the relative (DRM-SRM) vector of the vector triangle as in holes in the hood, direct plotting generally is too awkward to be feasible for
rapid radar plotting. Usually, however, the vector triangle is scaled in knots reasonably accurate solutions. However, the use of a blackout curtain instead
with the origin of each true vector at the center of the plotting diagram. In of a hood enables the use of the rapid radar plotting technique during
this transfer plotting technique, the separate relative plot and vector triangle daylight as long as the curtain adequately shields the PPI from ambient light.
are related in that the relative (DRM-SRM) vector of the vector triangle Since most hood designs do not permit more than one observer to view the
scaled in knots is derived from the relative plot. radarscope at one time, blackout curtain arrangements which permit more
As illustrated in figure 3.26, own ship’s true (course-speed) vector er is than one observer to view the radarscope at one time should enable safer
constructed from the center of the Maneuvering Board in the direction of radar observation than hood designs which limit observation to one observer.

77
 Figure 3.26 - Determining the true course and speed of the other ship by transfer plotting.

78
 Rapid radar plotting techniques are particularly valuable when rapid,
approximate solutions have higher priority than more accurate solutions
derived from time consuming measurement of radar information and transfer
of this information to separate plotting sheets for graphical constructions
thereon. The feasibility of the rapid radar plotting techniques is enhanced
when used with reflection plotters mounted on the larger sizes of PPI’s. The
feasibility is enhanced further at the lower radar range scale settings. With
the larger PPI’s and at the lower range scale settings, larger vector triangles
are formed for a particular plotting interval. These larger triangles provide
more accurate solutions. Plotting and graphical construction errors
associated with the use of the grease pencil have lesser effects on the
accuracy of the solution when the display is such that larger vector triangles
are formed.
In many situations it is preferable to obtain an approximate solution
rapidly on which to base early and substantial evasive action rather than wait
for a more accurate solution. In the use of rapidly obtained approximate
solutions, the radar observer should, of course, incorporate in his solution a
larger safety factor than would be the case with more tedious and accurate
solutions. Should the radar observer employ more time consuming and
accurate techniques, there is always the possibility that evasive action by the
other ship will nullify his solution. The same is true for early and
approximate solutions, but such would have the advantage of being acted
upon while the ships are at greater distances from one another. It is far better
that any misunderstandings as to the intentions and actions of the ship be
incurred while the ships are farther apart.
Figure 3.27 illustrates a transfer plotting solution for only two contacts
initially imposing danger. From this illustration it should be readily apparent
that a competent radar observer having multiple responsibilities on the
navigation bridge with little, if any, assistance would have to direct his
attention primarily to the transfer plotting task. Particularly if there were
three radar contacts initially imposing danger, the probability for solution
mistakes generally would be significantly greater because of the greater Figure 3.27 - Multiple-contact solution by transfer plotting.
possibility of confusion associated with the overlapping vectors. If one or
more of the contacts should change course or speed during the solution,
evaluation of the situation could become quite difficult.

79
 The use of rapid radar plotting techniques in a multiple radar contact not been obtained.
situation should tend to reduce solution mistakes or blunders because of the The foregoing discussion of the comparative advantages of rapid radar
usual separation of the vector triangles. Through constructing the vector plotting over transfer plotting in a multiple radar contact situation does not
triangles directly on the PPI or reflection plotter, the probability of timely mean to imply that rapid radar plotting techniques always should be used
detection of new contacts and any maneuvers of contacts being plotted whenever feasible. Each basic technique has its individual merits. In some
should be greater while using rapid radar plotting techniques than while situations, the more accurate solutions afforded by transfer plotting may
using transfer plotting. justify the greater time required for problem solution. However, the radar
Should the radar observer choose to use a separate plotting sheet for each observer should recognize that the small observational and plotting errors
of the contacts in a multiple radar contact situation to avoid any overlapping normally incurred can introduce significant error in an apparently accurate
of vector triangles in transfer plotting, this multiple usage of plotting sheets transfer plotting solution. A transfer plotting solution may indicate that a
can introduce some difficulty in relating each graphical solution to the PPI contact on a course nearly opposite to that of own ship will pass to starboard
display. Through constructing the vector triangles directly on the PPI while the actual situation is that each ship will pass port to port if no evasive
display, the graphical solutions can be related more readily to the PPI action is taken. If in this situation own ship’s course is changed to the left to
display. Also, the direct plotting is compatible with a technique which can be increase the CPA to starboard, the course of the other ship may be changed
used to evaluate the effect of any planned evasive action on the relative to its right to increase the CPA of a correctly evaluated port passing. Such
movements of radar contacts for which true course and speed solutions have action taken by own ship could result in a collision.

80
 RADAR PLOTTING SYMBOLS
(See Alternative Radar Plotting Symbols)

RELATIVE PLOT VECTOR TRIANGLE

Symbol Meaning Symbol Meaning

R Own Ship. e The origin of any ship’s true (course-speed) vector;

fixed with respect to the earth.
M Other Ship.
M1 First plotted position of other ship. r The end of own ship’s true (course-speed) vector, er;
the origin of the relative (DRM-SRM) vector, rm.
M2, M3 Later positions of other ship.
Mx Position of other ship on RML at planned time of r1, r2 The ends of alternative true (course-speed) vectors for
evasive action; point of execution. own ship.

NRML New relative movement line. er Own ship’s true (course-speed) vector.
RML Relative movement line. m The end of other ship’s true (course-speed) vector, em;
the end of the relative (DRM-SRM) vector, rm.
DRM Direction of relative movement; always in the
direction of M1→ M2→ M3........ em Other ship’s true (course-speed) vector.
SRM Speed of relative movement. rm The relative (DRM-SRM) vector; always in the
direction of M1→ M2→ M3........
MRM Miles of relative movement; relative distance traveled.
CPA Closed point of approach.

81
 Figure 3.28 - Examples of use of radar plotting symbols.

82
 GRAPHICAL SOLUTIONS ON THE REFLECTION PLOTTER
RAPID RADAR PLOTTING

CLOSEST POINT OF APPROACH

To determine the closest point of approach (CPA) of a contact by

graphical solution on the reflection plotter, follow the procedure given
below.
(1) Plot at least three relative positions of the contact. If the relative
positions lie in a straight or nearly straight line, fair a line through the
relative positions. Extend this relative movement line (RML) past the
center of the PPI.
(2) Crank out the variable range marker (VRM) until the ring described
by it is tangent to the RML as shown in figure 3.29. The point of
tangency is the CPA.
(3) The range at CPA is the reading of the VRM counter; the bearing at
CPA is determined by means of the mechanical bearing cursor,
parallel-line cursor, or other means for bearing measurement from the
center of the PPI.
Note: The RML should be reconstructed if the contact does not continue to
plot on the RML as originally constructed.

TRUE COURSE AND SPEED OF CONTACT

To determine the true course and speed of a contact by graphical solution

on the reflection plotter, follow the procedure given below.
(1) As soon as possible after a contact appears on the PPI, plot its relative
position on the reflection plotter. Label the position with the time of
the observation as shown in figure 3.29. When there is no doubt with
respect to the hour of the plot, it is only necessary to show the last two
digits, i.e., the minutes after the hour. In those instances where an
unduly long wait would not be required it might be advantageous to
delay starting the timed plot until the time is some tenth of an hour...,
6 minutes, 12 minutes, 18 minutes, etc., after the hour. This timing
could simplify the use of the 6-minute plotting interval normally used
with the rapid radar plotting technique.
(2) Examine the relative plot to determine whether the contact is on a Figure 3.29 - Closest point of approach.
steady course at constant speed. If so, the relative positions plot in a
straight or nearly straight line; the relative positions are equally

83
 Figure 3.30 - Use of the notched plastic rule. Figure 3.31 - Use of parallel-line cursor to find true course of contact.

(3) With the contact on a steady course at constant speed, select a suitable speed) vector, is at the plot 12 minutes beyond r in the direction of
relative position as the origin of the relative speed (DRM-SRM) relative movement.
vector; label this plot r as shown in figure 3.30. (6) Construct the contact’s true (course-speed) vector em.
(4) Crank the parallel-line cursor until its lines are parallel to the heading (7) Crank the parallel-line cursor so that its lines are parallel to vector em
flash. As shown in figure 3.30, place the appropriate plastic rule so as shown in figure 3.31. The contact’s true course is read on the true
that one notch is at r and its straightedge is parallel to the lines of the bearing dial using the radial line of the parallel-line cursor; the
cursor and the heading flash. The rule is scaled for a 6-minute run contact’s true speed is estimated by visual comparison with own
between notches. ship’s true vector er. For example if em is about two-thirds the length
(5) Select the time interval for the solution, 12 minutes for example. of er, the contact’s speed is about two-thirds own ship’s speed. Or, the
Accordingly, the origin e of own ship’s true (course-speed) vector er notched rule can be used to determine the speed corresponding to the
is at the second notch from r; m, the head of the contact’s true (course- length of em.

84
 COURSE TO PASS AT SPECIFIED CPA

The procedure for determining own ship’s new course and/or speed to
reduce the risk of collision is given below.
(1) Continuing with the plot used in finding the true course and
speed of the contact, mark the point of execution (Mx) on the RML as
shown in figure 3.32. Mx is the position of the contact on the RML at
the planned time of evasive action. This action may be taken at a
specific clock time or when the range to the contact has decreased to a
specified value.
(2) Crank the VRM to the desired distance at CPA. This is normally the
distance specified for the danger or buffer zone. If the fixed range rings are
displayed and one range ring is equal to this distance, it will not be necessary
to use the VRM.
(3) From Mx draw the new RML tangent to the VRM circle. Two lines
can be drawn tangent to the circle, but the line drawn in figure 3.32 fulfills
the requirement that the contact pass ahead of own ship. If the new RM L
crosses the heading flash, the contact will pass ahead.
To avoid parallax, the appropriate sector of the VRM may be marked on
the reflection plotter and the new RML drawn to it rather than attempting to
draw the new RML tangent to the VRM directly.
(4) Using the parallel-line cursor, draw a line parallel to the new RML
through m or the final plot (relative position) used in determining the course
and speed of the contact. This line is drawn from m in a direction opposite to
the new DRM because the new relative speed (DRM-SRM) vector will be
parallel to the new RML and the head (m) of the new vector (r'm) will lie in
the new DRM away from the origin, r'.
(5) Avoiding by course change only, the magnitude of own’s true (course-
speed) vector remains constant. Therefore, the same number of notches on
the plastic rule used for own ship’s true vector for the contact’s course and
speed solution are used for own ship’s new true vector er'. With one notch
set at e, the ruler is adjusted so that the third notch away intersects the line
drawn parallel to the new RML. As shown in figure 3.32, the intersection at
r' is the head of the required new true vector for own ship (er'); it is the
origin of the new relative speed vector, r'm.
The previously described use of the plastic ruler, in effect, rotates vector Figure 3.32 - Evasive action.
er about its origin; the head of the vector describes an arc which intersects
the line drawn parallel to the new RLM at r'.
If the speed of the contact were greater than own ship’s speed, there
would be two intersections and, thus, two courses available to produce the
desired distance at CPA. Generally, the preferred course is that which results
in the higher relative speed (the longer relative speed vector) in order to
expedite safe passing.

85
 SPECIAL CASES

In situations where contacts are on courses opposite to own ship’s course the relative speed is equal to own ship’s speed plus the contact’s speed. The
or are on the same course as own ship but at slower or higher speeds, the contact is on a course opposite to own ship’s course at about the same speed.
relative movement lines are parallel to own ship’s course line. If a contact Inspection of the plot for contact B reveals that the DRM is opposite to
has the same course and speed as own ship, there is no relative movement own ship’s course; the relative speed is equal to own ship’s speed minus the
line; all relative positions lie at one point at a constant true bearing and contact’s speed. The contact is on the same course as own ship at about one-
distance from own ship. If a contact is stationary or dead in the water, the half own ship’s speed.
relative vector rm and own ship’s true vector er are equal and opposite, and Inspection of the plot for contact C reveals that the DRM is opposite to
coincident. With e and m coincident, there is no vector em. own ship’s course; the relative speed is equal to own ship’s speed plus the
The solutions of these special cases can be effected in the same manner as contact’s speed. The contact is on a course opposite to own ship’s course at
those cases resulting in the conventional vector triangle. However, no vector about the same speed.
triangle is formed; the vectors lie in a straight line and are coincident. Inspection of the plot for contact D reveals that the DRM is the same as
In figure 3.33 contacts A, B, C, and D are plotted for a 12-minute interval; own ship’s course; the relative speed is equal to the contact’s speed minus
own ship’s true vector er is scaled in accordance with this time. Inspection of own ship’s speed. The contact is on the same course as own ship at about
the plot for contact A reveals that the DRM is opposite to own ship’s course; twice own ship’s speed.

86
Figure 3.33 - Special cases.

87
 CONSTRUCTING THE PLASTIC RULE USED WITH RAPID RADAR PLOTTING

When plotting by the rapid radar plotting technique, a colored 6 to 8-inch

flexible plastic straightedge is normally used to construct the vectors and
other line segments on the reflection plotter. The following procedure can be
used to construct the desired scale for vector magnitudes on the straightedge.

(1) Switch the radar indicator to an appropriate plotting range, 24 miles

for example.
(2) Crank out the variable range marker (VRM) to an integral value of
range, 5 miles for example. Mark the reflection plotter at the
intersection of the VRM and the heading flash as shown in figure
3.34. This point will represent zero on the scale to be constructed for
subsequent transfer to the plastic strip.
(3) Compute the distance own ship will travel in 6 minutes at a speed
expected to be used in collision avoidance. At a speed of 21 knots,
own ship will travel 2.1 miles in 6 minutes.
(4) Since the zero mark is at 5 miles on the PPI, crank out the VRM to 7.1
miles and mark the reflection plotter at the intersection of the VRM
and the heading flash to obtain the scale spacing for 2.1 miles. Repeat
this procedure with the VRM set at 9.2, 11.3, and 13.4 miles to obtain
Figure 3.34 - Constructing the scale.
other scale graduations 2.1 miles apart. The length between scale
marks at 5.0 and 7.1 miles provides the magnitude of 6-minute
vectors at 21 knots; the length between scale marks at 5.0 and 9.2
provides the magnitudes of 12-minute vectors at 21 knots, etc.
(5) As shown in figure 3.35, lay the plastic strip adjacent to the
graduation marks on the reflection plotter and parallel to the heading
flash. Extend the grease pencil marks onto the plastic strip. With the
scale transferred to the plastic strip, a permanent rule is made by
notching the scale on the plastic strip. The notches in the rule shown
in figure 3.35 have been drawn large and angular for illustration
purposes only. They should be about the size and shape of the cross-
section of the lead used in the grease pencil.
(6) Several rules are normally used, each graduated for a particular range
scale setting and own ship speed. The range and speed should be
prominently marked on each rule.

Figure 3.35 - Graduating the rule.

88
 EXAMPLES
e-r-m TRIANGLE
EXAMPLE 1 . DETERMINATION OF CLOSEST POINT OF APPROACH (CPA)

EXAMPLE 2 . COURSE AND SPEED OF A RADAR CONTACT

EXAMPLE 3 . COURSE AND SPEED OF RADAR CONTACT BY THE LADDER METHOD

EXAMPLE 4 . COURSE TO PASS A SHIP AT A SPECIFIED CPA

Own Ship’s Speed is Greater Than That of Other Ship

EXAMPLE 5 . COURSE TO PASS A SHIP AT A SPECIFIED CPA

Own Ship’s Speed is Less Than That of Other Ship

EXAMPLE 6 . VERIFICATION OF FIXED OBJECTS OR RADAR CONTACTS DEAD IN THE WATER

EXAMPLE 7 . AVOIDANCE OF MULTIPLE CONTACTS WITHOUT FIRST DETERMINING TRUE COURSES AND SPEEDS
OF THE CONTACTS

EXAMPLE 8 . DETERMINING THE CLOSEST POINT OF APPROACH FROM THE GEOGRAPHICAL PLOT

89
 EXAMPLE 1

DETERMINATION OF CLOSEST POINT OF APPROACH (CPA)

Situation: relative movement (DRM): 236˚.

(3) Measure the relative distance (MRM) between any two timed plots
With own ship on course 070˚ and the radar set on the 12-mile range on the RML, preferably between the two best plots with the greatest time
scale, other ship M is observed as follows: separation. In this instance, measure the distance between M1 and M3:
3.0 miles. Using the corresponding time interval (1000 - 1012 = 12m),
Time Bearing Range (miles) Rel. position obtain the speed of relative movement (SRM) from the Logarithmic
Time-Speed-Distance Scale at the bottom of the Maneuvering Board: 15
1000 050˚ 9.0 M1 knots.
1006 049˚ 7.5 M2 (4) From the center of the radar plotting sheet, R, draw a line
1012 047˚ 6.0 M3 perpendicular to the RML; label the intersection CPA. The direction of the
CPA from the center of the plotting sheet, i.e., own ship’s position, is the
Required: bearing of the CPA: 326˚; the distance from the center or own ship is the
range at CPA: 0.9 mile.
(1) Direction of relative movement (DRM). (5) Measure the distance from M3 to CPA: 6.0 miles. Using this distance
(2) Speed of relative movement (SRM). and the speed of relative movement (SRM): 15 knots, obtain the time
(3) Bearing and range at closest point of approach (CPA). interval from 1012 (the time of plot M3) by means of the Time-Speed-
(4) Estimated time of arrival at CPA. Distance Scale: 24m. The estimated time of arrival at CPA is 1012 + 24m =
1036.
Solution:

(1) Plot and label the relative positions, M1, M2, and M3, using the 1:1 Answers:
scale; fair a line through the relative positions; extend this line, the relative
movement line (RML), beyond the center of the Maneuvering Board. (1) DRM 236˚; (2) SRM 15 knots; (3) CPA 326˚, 0.9 mile; (4) ETA at
(2) The direction of the RML from the initial plot M1, is the direction of CPA 1036.

90
 EXAMPLE 1

Notes:
1. There should be sufficient plots to
insure accurate construction of the RML
faired through the plots. Should only two
plots be made, there would be no means
of detecting course or speed changes by
the other ship. The solution is valid only
if the other ship maintains course and
speed constant. Preferably, the timed
plots should be made at equal time
intervals. Equal spacing of the plots
timed at regular intervals and the
successive plotting of the relative
positions in a straight line indicate that
the other ship is maintaining constant
course and speed.
2. This transfer plotting solution
required individual measurements and
recording of the ranges and bearings of
the relative position of ship M at intervals
of time. It also entailed the normal
requirement of plotting the relative
positions on the PPI or reflection plotter.
Visualizing the concentric circles of the
Maneuvering Board as the fixed range
rings of the PPI, a faster solution may be
obtained by fairing a line through the
grease pencil plot on the PPI and
adjusting the VRM so that the circle
described is tangent to or just touches the
RML. The range at CPA is the setting of
the VRM; the bearing at CPA and the
DRM may be found by use of the
parallel-line cursor (parallel index). The
time of the CPA can be determined with
reasonable accuracy through visual
inspection, i.e., the length along the RML
from M3 to CPA by quick visual
inspection is about twice the length
between M1 and M3 representing about
24 minutes.

91
 EXAMPLE 2

COURSE AND SPEED OF A RADAR CONTACT

Situation: out to 7.5 miles and mark the intersection of the VRM and the heading flash.
The length between the two marks (1.5 mi.) is transferred to a short plastic
Own ship R is on course 340˚, speed 15 knots. The radar is set on the 12- rule.
mile range scale. A radar contact, ship M, is observed to be changing course,
and possibly speed, between times 0953 and 1000. While keeping a close (2) Observation of the PPI reveals that between 1000 and 1006, M is on a
watch of the relative movement, the relative positions of M are marked at steady course at constant speed (successive plots form a straight line on the
frequent intervals on the reflection plotter by grease pencil. scope; plots for equal time intervals are equally spaced). Draw the relative
movement line (RML) from the 1000 plot (M1) through the 1006 plot (M3),
Required: extending beyond the center of the PPI.
(3) Set center line of parallel-line cursor to heading flash. At the 1000 plot
(1) Course and speed of ship M when M has steadied on course and speed. (M1) place the plastic rule, marked for the 6-minute run of own ship, parallel
to the cursor lines. In the direction of own ship’s course, draw a line of 1.5
Solution: miles length which ends at the 1000 plot. Two sides of the vector triangle
have been formed (er and rm). The solution is obtained by completing the
(1) With the decision made that the solution will be obtained by rapid triangle to form true (course-speed) vector em.
radar plotting, the solution is started while M is still maneuvering through (4) On completing the triangle, the third side, vector em, represents the
determining: (a) the distance own ship will travel through the water during a true course and rate of movement of M. The true course may be read by
time lapse of 6 minutes and (b) the length of such distance on the PPI at the adjusting the parallel-line cursor parallel to the third side, true vector em.
range setting in use. The speed of M in knots may be estimated by comparing the length of em
(i) The distance traveled by own ship in 6 minutes is one-tenth of the with the length of er, the true (course-speed) vector of own ship R, the speed
speed in knots, or 1.5 nautical miles. of which in knots is known.
(ii) The length of 1.5 nautical miles on the PPI may be found through use
of the variable range marker (VRM). Crank the VRM out to a convenient Answers:
starting point, 6 miles for instance.
Mark the intersection of the VRM and the heading flash. Crank the VRM (1) Course 252˚, speed 25 knots.

92
 EXAMPLE 2

Heading-Upward
Unstabilized PPI Display
with Stabilized True
Bearing Dial

Scale: 12-mile range setting

Note:
In some cases it may be
desirable to construct own ship’s
true vector originating at the end
of the segment of the relative plot
used directly as the relative
vector rm. If applied to this case,
the 6-minute run of own ship
would be drawn from the 1006
plot in the direction of own ship’s
course. On completing the
triangle, the third side would
represent the true course and rate
of movement of M.

93
 EXAMPLE 3

COURSE AND SPEED OF RADAR CONTACT BY THE LADDER METHOD

Situation: (3) Draw own ship’s true (course-speed) vector er in the direction of own
ship’s true course, with the head of the vector at the 0506 plot; the length of
Own ship R is on course 120˚, speed 15 knots. The radar is set on the 6- this vector is drawn in multiples of 6-minute runs of own ship and
mile range scale because small wooden vessels are expected to be subsequently subdivided by eye to form a ladder. Since the timed plot on the
encountered. The range scale setting is being shifted periodically to longer relative movement line starts at 0506, the starting point of the 6-minute run
ranges for possible detection of distant targets. A radar contact is being of own ship is labeled 12; the starting point of the 12-minute run is labeled
plotted on the reflection plotter. Inspection of the plot reveals that the contact 18.
is on steady course at constant speed (see solution step (2) of example 2). (4) The first solution is obtained at time 0512 by drawing a line from the
12-graduation or rung on the ladder to the 0512 plot on the RML. This line,
Required: which completes the vector triangle for a 6-minute run, represents the true
course and rate of movement of the contact. The true course and speed of the
(1) Course and speed of the radar contact. contact is obtained as in solution step (4) of Example 2.
(5) The second solution is obtained at time 0515 by drawing a line from
Solution: the 15-graduation or rung on the ladder to the 0515 plot on the RML. This
line, which completes the vector triangle for a 9-minute run, represents the
(1) With the decision made that the solutions will be obtained by rapid true course and rate of movement of the contact.
radar plotting, the radar observer further elects to use the Ladder Method in
order to be able to refine the solution as the relative plot for the contact
develops with time. Answers:
(2) For a 6-minute interval of time, own ship at 15 knots runs 1.5 nautical
miles through the water; the run for 12 minutes is 3.0 nautical miles. (1) Course 072˚, Speed 17 knots.

94
 EXAMPLE 3

Heading-Upward
Unstabilized PPI Display
with Stabilized True
Bearing Dial
Scale: 6-mile range setting

Notes:
1. Using the ladder method, the
radar observer is able to obtain an
approximate solution quickly and
then refine the solution as the plot
develops.
2. This solution was simplified
by starting the timed plot at some
tenth of an hour after the hour.

95
 EXAMPLE 4

COURSE TO PASS A SHIP AT A SPECIFIED CPA

(Own ship’s speed is greater than that of other ship)

Situation: nautical miles for a 6-minute run of own ship at 18 knots) is used as the
radius of the arc.
Own ship R is on course 188˚, speed 18 knots. The radar is set on the 12-
mile range scale. Other ship M, having been observed and plotted between (3) Using the parallel-line cursor, draw a line through M2 parallel to the
times 1730 and 1736, is on course 258˚ at 12 knots. Ships M and R are on new RML (Mx M3) to intersect the arc drawn in (2).
collision courses. Visibility is 2.0 nautical miles.
(4) The intersection of the arc with the line through M2 parallel to the new
Required: RML establishes the head of the own ship’s new true (course-speed) vector
drawn from point e. Therefore, own ship’s new course when other ship M
(1) Course of own ship R at 18 knots to pass ahead of other ship M with a reaches relative position Mx is represented by the true vector drawn from
CPA of 3.0 nautical miles if course is changed to the right when the range is point e to the intersection at r1.
6.5 nautical miles.
Answers:
Solution:
(1) Course 218˚.
(1) Continuing with the plot on the PPI used in finding the true course and
speed of other ship M, plot Mx bearing 153˚, 6.5 nautical miles from R. Notes:
Adjust the VRM to 3.0 nautical miles, the desired distance at CPA. From Mx
draw a line tangent to the VRM circle at M3. From Mx two lines can be 1. Actually the arc intersecting the line drawn M2 in a direction opposite
drawn tangent to the circle, but the point of tangency at M3 fulfills the to the new DRM would also intersect the same line if extended in the new
requirement that own ship pass ahead of the other ship or that other ship M DRM. But a new course of own ship based upon this intersection would
pass astern of own ship R. reverse the new DRM or reverse the direction the other ship would plot on
the new RML.
(2) From the origin of the true vectors of the vector triangle used in 2. If the speed of other ship M were greater than own ship R, there would
finding the true course and speed of ship M, point e, describe an arc of radius be two courses available at 18 knots to produce the desired distance at CPA.
1.8 nautical miles. Since own ship R will not change speed in the maneuver, Generally, the preferred course is that which results in the highest relative
the distance and corresponding PPI length of own ship’s true vector (1.8 speed in order to expedite the safe passing.

96
 EXAMPLE 4

North-Upward
Stabilized PPI Display
Scale: 12-mile range setting

Notes: (Continued)
3. After own ship’s course has
been changed, other ship R
should plot approximately along
the new RML, as drawn and in
the desired direction of relative
movement. This continuity of the
plot following a course change by
own ship is one of the primary
advantages of a stabilized
display. Immediately following
any evasive action, one should
inspect the PPI to determine
whether the target’s bearing is
changing sufficiently and in the
desired direction. With the
stabilized display, the answer is
before the radar observer’s eyes.

97
 EXAMPLE 5

COURSE TO PASS SHIP AT A SPECIFIED CPA

(Own ship’s speed is less than that of other ship)

Situation: nautical miles for a 6-minute run of own ship at 15 knots) is used as the
radius of the arc.
Own ship R is on course 340˚, speed 15 knots. The radar is set on the 12- (3) Using the parallel-line cursor, draw a line through M2 parallel to the
mile range scale. Other ship M, having been observed and plotted between new RML (Mx M3) to intersect the arc drawn in (2).
times 0300 and 0306, is on course 249˚ at 25 knots. Since the CPA will be (4) Since the speed of other ship M is greater than that of own ship R, the
1.5 nautical miles at 310˚ if both ships maintain their courses and speeds arc intersects the line through M2 at two points. Each intersection establishes
until they have passed, the distance at CPA is considered too short for a head of a possible new own ship’s true vector. Of the two possible vectors
adequate safety. one provides a higher speed of relative movement than the other. Generally,
the true vector which provides the higher SRM or longer relative vector is
Required: chosen to expedite the passing. However, in this example a course change to
the right is specified. This requires the use of vector er1, which provides the
(1) Course of own ship R at 15 knots to pass astern of other ship M with a higher SRM.
CPA of 3.0 nautical miles if course is changed to the right when the range to
ship M is 6.0 nautical miles. (5) With this unstabilized, Heading-Upward PPI display, there is a
complication arising from the plot shifting equal and opposite to the amount
Solution: and direction of the course change. Some reflection plotter designs have
provisions for either manual or automatic shifting of their plotting surfaces
(1) Continuing with the plot on the PPI used in finding the true course, to compensate for the shifting of the plot. Without this capability, there is no
speed, and CPA of ship M, plot Mx on the RML 6.0 nautical miles from own continuity in the grease pencil plot following course changes by own ship.
ship R. Set the VRM to 3.0 nautical miles, the desired distance at CPA (in Consequently, it is necessary to erase the plot and replot the other ship’s
this case the VRM setting is coincident with the first fixed range ring). From relative position when own ship steadies on course. With the VRM set to 3.0
Mx two lines can be drawn tangent to the VRM circle, but the point of miles, the new RML must be drawn tangent to the circle described by the
tangency at M3 fulfills the requirement that own ship pass astern of other VRM. The other ship must be watched closely to insure that its relative
ship M. movement conforms with the new RML.
(2) From the origin of the true vectors of the vector triangle used in
finding the true course and speed of ship M, point e, describe an arc of radius Answers:
1.5 nautical miles. Since own ship will not change speed in the maneuver,
the distance and corresponding PPI length of own ship’s true vector (1.5 (1) Course 030˚.

98
 EXAMPLE 5

Heading–Upward
Unstabilized PPI Display
with Stabilized True
Bearing Dial
Scale: 12-mile range setting

Note:
Examination of the plot reveals
that if own ship R maintains its
original true course (340˚), the
intersection of the original true
vector er of own ship with the line
drawn through M2 parallel to the
new RML provides the head of the
vector er2 required to effect the
desired CPA without course
change. Since the length of vector
er2 is approximately half that of
the original vector er, an
instantaneous change to
approximately half the original
speed would produce the desired
results. A lesser change of course
to the right in conjunction with a
speed reduction could be used to
compensate for deceleration.

99
 EXAMPLE 6

VERIFICATION OF FIXED OBJECTS OR RADAR CONTACTS DEAD IN THE WATER

Situation: Solution:

Own ship R is on course 340˚, speed 20 knots. The radar is set at the 24- (1) On the PPI, preferably a reflection plotter mounted thereon, plot M1,
mile range scale. Radar observations are made as follows: M2, M3. Draw the relative movement line (RML) through the relative
positions, M1, M2, M3.
Time Bearing Range (miles) Rel. position
(2) Using the same distance scale as the radar range setting, determine the
1200 017˚ 22.8 M1 length of the true (course-speed) vector er of own ship R for a time interval
1218 029˚ 17.4 M2 of 36 minutes: 12 miles.
1236 046˚ 14.4 M3
(3) Draw true vector er in the direction of own ship’s course with its head
The RML is parallel to and the DRM is opposite to own ship’s course, 340˚. at relative position M1. If, after such graphical construction, the vector origin
e lies over relative position M3, the length of the em vector would be zero.
Required: Thus, the true speed of the observed contact would be zero. Even if the
observed target is dead in the water or a fixed object, small observational and
Course and speed of M in order to verify whether M is dead in the water plotting errors will frequently indicate a small value of true speed for the
or a terrestrial object. contact.

100
 EXAMPLE 6

Heading-Upward
Unstabilized PPI Display
with Stabilized True
Bearing Dial
Scale: 24-mile range setting

101
 EXAMPLE 7

AVOIDANCE OF MULTIPLE CONTACTS WITHOUT FIRST DETERMINING THE TRUE

COURSES AND SPEEDS OF THE CONTACTS

Situation: (3) For contacts A, B, and C, offset the initial plots (A1, B1, and C1) in the
same direction and distance as the dashed line r-r'; label each such offset plot
Own ship R is on course 000˚, speed 20 knots. With the stabilized relative r'.
motion display radar set at the 12-mile range setting, radar contacts A, B, (4) In each relative plot, draw a straight line from the offset initial plot, r',
and C are observed and plotted directly on the PPI or reflection plotter. The through the final plot (A2 or B2 or C2). The lines r' A2, r' B2, and r' C2
plots at time 1000 are considered as the initial plots in the solution. represent the new RML's which would result from a course change to 065˚
and speed change to 15 knots at time 1006.
Required:

(1) Determine the new relative movement lines for contacts A, B, and C Answers:
which would result from own ship changing course to 065˚ and speed to 15
knots at time 1006. (1) New RML of contact A-DRM 280˚
(2) Determine whether such course and speed change will result in New RML of contact B-DRM 051˚
desirable or acceptable CPA’s for all contacts. New RML of contact C-DRM 028˚
(2) Inspection of the new relative movement lines for all contacts
Solution: indicates that if all contacts maintain course and speed, all contacts will plot
along their respective relative movement lines at a safe distances from own
(1) With the center of the PPI as their origin, draw own ship’s true vectors ship R on course 065˚, speed 15 knots.
er and er' for the course and speed in effect or to be put in effect at times
1000 and 1006, respectively. Using the distance scale of the radar Explanation:
presentation, draw each vector of length equal to the distance own ship R
will travel through the water during the time interval of the relative plot The solution is based upon the use of the relative plot as the relative
(relative vector), 6 minutes. Vector er, having a speed of 20 knots, is drawn vector. With each contact maintaining true course and speed, the em vector
2.0 miles in length in true direction 000˚; vector er', having a speed of 15 for each contact remains static while own ship’s er' vector is rotated about e
knots, is drawn 1.5 miles in length in true direction 065˚. to the new course and changed in magnitude corresponding to the new
(2) Draw a dashed line between r and r'. speed.

102
 EXAMPLE 7

North-Upward
Stabilized PPI Display
Scale: 12-mile range setting

103
 EXAMPLE 8

DETERMINING THE CLOSEST POINT OF APPROACH FROM THE GEOGRAPHICAL PLOT

Situation: plot indicate rate of movement and true direction of travel for each ship, each
line segment between successive plots represents a true velocity vector.
Own ship R is on course 000˚, speed 10 knots. The true bearings and Equal spacing of the plots timed at regular intervals and the successive
ranges of another ship are plotted from own ship’s successive positions to plotting of the true positions in a straight line indicate that the other ship is
form a geographical (navigational) plot: maintaining constant course and speed.
Time Bearing Range (miles) Rel. position (2) The solution is essentially a reversal of the procedure in relative
motion solutions in which, from the relative plot and own ship’s true vector,
0200 074˚ 7.3 T1 the true vector of the other ship is determined. Accordingly, the true vectors
0206 071˚ 6.3 T2 from the two true plots for the same time interval, 0206-0212 for example,
0212 067˚ 5.3 T3 are subtracted to obtain the relative vector (rm = em - er).
(3) The relative (DRM-SRM) vector rm is extended beyond own ship’s
Required: 0212 position to form the relative movement line (RML).
(4) The closest point of approach (CPA) is found by drawing a line from
(1) Determine the closest point of approach. own ship’s 0212 plot perpendicular to the relative movement line.

Solution: Answers:

(1) Since the successive timed positions of each ship of the geographical (1) CPA 001˚, 2.2 miles.

104
 EXAMPLE 8

Note:
Either the time 0200, 0206, or
0212 plots of the other ship can
be used as the origin of the true
vectors of the vector diagram.
Using the time 0200 plot as the
origin and a time interval of 6
minutes for vector magnitude, the
line perpendicular to the
extended relative movement line
would be drawn from the time
0206 plot of own ship.
While the Maneuvering Board
has been used in illustrating the
solution, the technique is
applicable to solutions for CPA
on true motion displays. See
PRACTICAL SOLUTION FOR
CPA IN TRUE MOTION
MODE.

105
 ALTERNATIVE RADAR PLOTTING SYMBOLS

The alternative radar plotting symbols described in this section were

derived from those used in Real Time Method of Radar Plotting by Max H.
Carpenter and Captain Wayne M. Waldo of the Maritime Institute of
Technology and Graduate Studies, Linthicum Heights, Maryland. The above
manual should be referred to for a more complete explanation of the symbols
and their use in radar plotting.
The explanation of the alternative symbols as given here follows an
approach different from that used by Carpenter and Waldo. The two
approaches should be helpful to the student.
The alternative symbols are deemed to provide simpler and more
representational symbology for Rapid Radar Plotting than does the
Maneuvering Board symbology, which has value for relative motion
solutions of greater variety than those normally associated with collision
avoidance. Greater simplicity is afforded by using the same symbols for the
relative motion plot and the corresponding side of the vector diagram
(triangle). The symbols are deemed to be more representational in that the
symbols suggest their meaning.
As shown in figure 3.36, the relative motion plot is labeled R-M; the true
motion plot is labeled T-M. In the relative motion case, the first plot is at R;
the second plot (or the plot for the time interval to be used in the solution) is
labeled M. Thus, R-M is descriptive of the relative motion plotted. Likewise
with the first plot being labeled T in the true motion case, T-M is descriptive
of the true motion plotted.
As is also shown in figure 3.36, the plots are annotated with time in two
digits (for minutes of time). Preferably the first plot is for zero time rather
than clock time. Such practice is enhanced with the use of a suitable timer
which can be readily reset as required. Such practice, which is followed here,
facilitates plotting at desired intervals and also enables more accurate timing
of the plot.
When using this symbology in textual references, time interval from zero
time is indicated as a subscript of a symbol when appropriate. For example,
the relative plot (or relative vector) for plotting interval 3 minutes may be
shown as
R00—M03

Figure 3.36 - Relative and true motion plots.

106
 In actual plotting on the reflection plotter, the placement of the time
annotation is affected by practical considerations, including clutter.
With consideration at this point that Rapid Radar Plotting makes direct
use of the relative plot as the relative vector of the vector diagram (triangle),
the symbols for the other two vectors or sides of the triangle are now
described.
Since the other two vectors are true vectors, the symbol T is used to
indicate the origin of both vectors at a common point. One of the true vectors
must end at R, the other at M. The true vector T-R is own ship’s (reference
ship R in the other symbology) true (course-speed) vector; the other true
vector T-M is the other ship’s (other ship M in the other symbology) true
(course-speed) vector.
Own ship’s true vector T-R being suggestive of the abbreviation TR for
track, in turn suggests true course and speed. Or, using a combination of
symbologies, the symbol T-R suggests true vector for reference ship R (own
ship).
The other ship’s true vector T-M is suggestive of true motion (of the other
ship, or of other ship M, using a combination of symbologies). See figure
3.37 for the R-T-M triangle.
Now thinking in terms of true motion rather than true course and speed of
the other ship, the abbreviations DTM and STM are used to indicate
direction of true motion and speed of true motion, respectively.

In brief the vectors are comprised of the following elements:

R-M: DRM & SRM
T-R: Course & Speed (of own ship)
T-M: DTM & STM (of other ship)

Abbreviations common to both symbologies are CPA (Closest Point

Approach), DRM (Direction of Relative Movement), SRM (Speed of
Relative Movement) and NRML (New Relative Movement Line). In
addition to DTM (Direction of Contact’s True Motion) and STM (Speed of
Contact’s True Motion), the alternative symbology uses MCPA for minutes Figure 3.37 - R-T-M triangle.
to CPA. The symbol R is used to indicate the head of own ship’s true vector
following a change of course or speed or both to obtain a new RML. The
symbol M is also used to indicate the point of execution.

107
 The following is an alternative presentation of the R-T-M triangle which
does not use vector terminology.
By examining the combination geographic (true) and relative plot in
figure 3.38, it can be seen that T-M of the triangle is the path actually
followed by the other ship at the rate of its actual speed. At the time of the
first observation from T', the other ship was actually at T, not R. Also own
ship was at T', not R'. However, at the end of the plotting interval, the other
ship was actually at M and own ship was actually at R'. But all observations
of the other ship were actually plotted from R'. Thus, the first observation
placed the other ship at R; successive observations place the other ship at
points along R-M until M was reached at the end of the plotting interval.
In the above presentation the true motion of the other ship is given. But in
the normal course of radar observation for collision avoidance purposes, this
motion must be determined. With R-M derived by plotting, it can be seen by
inspection that T of the triangle can be located by constructing T-R in the
direction of own ship’s course and scaled according to the distance own ship
travels during the plotting interval. After such construction, the triangle is
completed to find T-M (DTM & STM).

STANDARD PLOTTING PERIOD

A standard plotting period, which varies in a simple, easily remembered

relationship with the range scale setting, can be used to facilitate scaling T-
R or determining STM from T-M. The use of standard plotting period is
enhanced when the PPI has six fixed range rings and the range scales are
11/2, 3, 6, 12, 24, and 48 miles.
The standard plotting period enables the direct use of the range ring
separation as the speed scale as shown below. On a given properly adjusted
(for linearity) PPI with six range rings, the ring separation is 5 centimeters.
On the 6-mile scale, this separation (5 centimeters) represents 1 nautical Figure 3.38 - Combination geographic (true) and relative plot.
mile. On the 12-mile scale, the same separation between rings (5
centimeters) represents 2 nautical miles; and on the 24-mile scale, 4 nautical equal to one half of the range scale in miles (6).
miles, etc. With distance in miles traveled in 6 minutes being numerically Whatever the speed of own ship or of the other ship may be, for the six-
equal to one-tenth of the speed in knots, at 20 knots a vessel travels 2 miles ring PPI having the scales as described above, the standard plotting period
in 6 minutes. Thus, on the frequently used 12-mile scale, a vessel steaming remains: a period in minutes equal to one half of the range scale in miles.
at 20 knots (relative or true) travels a distance (relative or true) equal to the For example on the 12-mile scale and using the associated 6-minute standard
range ring separation (5 centimeters or 2 nautical miles) in the number of plotting period, a vessel at 20 knots travels one ring separation (5
minutes (6) equal to one half of the range scale in miles (12). With the range centimeters) during the plotting period; at 10 knots the vessel travels one half
scale changed to 6 miles, a vessel at 20 knots (relative or true) still travels a of the ring separation during the same period. Thus a single speed scale can
distance (relative or true) equal to the range ring separation (5 centimeters be calibrated linearly for use with different range scales. But the associated
now corresponding to 1 nautical mile) during the number of minutes (3) standard plotting period must be used with each range scale.

108
 In summary, the standard plotting period makes one range ring separation If the PPI has four fixed range rings, standard plotting periods can be
equal to 20 knots whatever the range scale setting may be. Multiples and established in like manner for one range ring separation equal to 20 knots.
sub-multiples of this one range ring separation for 20 knots establish other As with the six-ring PPI, the standard plotting period doubles as the range
speeds as shown in figure 3.39. scale doubles. The only difference is that the standard plotting period is
The standard plotting intervals based upon the six-ring PPI and range three-fourths of the range scale setting, instead of one-half.
scales described above and upon one range ring separation corresponding to
20 knots are summarized as follows:

Range Scale (miles) Standard Plotting Period

12 6 min.
6 3 min.
3 90 sec.
1.5 45 sec.

Figure 3.39 - Standard plotting period scale. Under “black light” illumination a plastic scale of chartreuse color has been found to be most useful.

109
 SUMMARY OF ALTERNATIVE PLOTTING SYMBOLS
R-T-M TRIANGLE

RELATIVE PLOT VECTOR TRIANGLE

Symbol Meaning Symbol Meaning

R00 First plotted position of other ship; plotted position of T03 The origin of any ship’s true (course-speed) vector; fixed
other ship at time 00. with respect to the earth. The subscript is the plotting
period used to construct the triangle.
M03, M06 Plotted positions of other ship at times 03 and 06,
respectively. R00 The head of own ship’s true (course-speed) vector,
T03-R00; the origin of the relative (DRM-SRM) vector,
Mx Position of other ship on RML at planned time of evasive
action; point of execution. R00-M03.

RML Relative movement line. T03-R00 Own ship’s true (course-speed) vector.
NRML New relative movement line. T03-M03 Other ship’s true (course-speed) vector. The subscript is
the plotting period used to construct the triangle.
DRM Direction of relative movement; always in the direction of
R00→ M03→ M06........ DTM Direction of other ship’s true motion.
SRM Speed of relative movement. STM Speed of other ships true motion.
CPA Closest point of approach. R00-M03 The relative (DRM-SRM) vector; always in the direction
of R00→ M03→ M06........
MCPA Minutes to CPA.
TCPA Time to CPA. Rc The head of own ship’s true (course-speed) vector
following course or speed change or both to obtain a new
RML.

Rc-M03 The relative (DRM-SRM) vector; always in the direction

of the new RML (Mx Mx+3 Mx+6...).

T03-Rc Own ship’s true (course-speed) vector required to obtain

new RML.

110
Figure 3.40 - Alternative plotting symbols.

111
 ALTERNATIVE GRAPHICAL SOLUTIONS ON THE REFLECTION PLOTTER
R-T-M TRIANGLE

CLOSEST POINT OF APPROACH

To determine the closest point of approach (CPA) of a contact by

graphical solution on the reflection plotter, follow the procedure given
below.
(1) Plot at least three relative positions of the contact. If the relative
positions lie in a straight or nearly straight line, fair a line through the
relative positions. Extend this relative movement line (RML) past the
center of the PPI.
(2) Crank out the variable range marker (VRM) until the ring described
by it is tangent to the RML as shown in figure 3.41. The point of
tangency is the CPA.
(3) The range at CPA is the reading of the VRM counter; the bearing at
CPA is determined by means of the mechanical bearing cursor,
parallel-line cursor, or other means for bearing measurement from the
center of the PPI.
Note: The RML should be reconstructed if the contact does not continue to
plot on the RML as originally constructed.

TRUE COURSE AND SPEED OF CONTACT

To determine the true course and speed of a contact by graphical solution

on the reflection plotter, follow the procedure given below.
(1) As soon as possible after a contact appears on the PPI, plot its relative
position on the reflection plotter. Label the position with the time of
the observation as shown in figure 3.41. As recommended in
Alternative Plotting Symbols, the first plot is labeled as time zero.
Subsequent relative positions are plotted and labeled at 3-minute
intervals, preferably using a suitable timing device which can be reset
to zero time when desired.
(2) Examine the relative plot to determine whether the contact is on a
steady course at constant speed. If so, the relative positions plot in a
straight or nearly straight line; the relative positions are equally
spaced for equal time intervals as shown in figure 3.41.
(3) With the contact on a steady course at constant speed, R00, the plot for
zero time, is the origin of the relative (DRM-SRM) vector. At plot time
03, this vector is R00-M03; at plot time 06, this vector is R00-M06. Note Figure 3.41 - Closest point of approach.
that the relative motion and relative vector are always in the direction of
R00M03M06.

112
(4) Crank the parallel-line cursor until its lines are parallel to the heading (6) Construct the other ship’s true (course-speed) vector T06-M06.
flash. As shown in figure 3.42, place the standard plotting period scale (7) Crank the parallel-line cursor so that its lines are parallel to vector
so that its straightedge is parallel to the lines of the cursor and the T06-M06 as shown in figure 3.43. The other ship’s direction of true
heading flash and the zero speed graduation is at R00. motion (DTM) is read on the true bearing dial using the radial line of
(5) Given that own ship is on course 000˚ at 30 knots and the range scale the parallel-line cursor; the other ship’s speed of true motion (STM) is
setting is 12 miles, the standard plotting period is 6 minutes; the 30- measured by the standard plotting period scale or estimated by visual
knot graduation on the scale corresponds to T06. The head of the other comparison with own ship’s true vector T06-R00. For example, if T00-
ship’s true (course-speed) vector is at M06 beyond R00 in the direction M06 is about two-thirds the length of T06-R00, the other ship’s speed
of relative movement (DRM). of true motion is about two-thirds own ship’s speed.

Figure 3.42 - Use of the standard plotting period scale. Figure 3.43 - Use of parallel-line cursor to find true course of contact.

113
 COURSE TO PASS AT SPECIFIED CPA

The procedure for determining own ship’s new course and/or speed to
reduce the risk of collision is given below.
(1) Continuing with the plot used in finding the true course and speed of
the other ship, mark the point of execution (Mx) on the RML as shown in
figure 3.44. Mx is the position of the contact on the RML at the planned time
of evasive action. This action may be taken at a specific clock time or when
the range to the other ship has decreased to a specified value.
(2) Crank the VRM to the desired distance at CPA. This is normally the
distance specified for the danger or buffer zone. If the fixed range rings are
displayed and one range ring is equal to this distance, it will not be necessary
to use the VRM.
(3) From Mx draw the new RML tangent to the VRM circle. Two lines can
be drawn tangent to the circle, but the line drawn in figure 3.44 fulfills the
requirement that the other ship pass ahead of own ship. If the new RML
crosses the heading flash, the other ship will pass ahead.
(4) Using the parallel-line cursor, draw a line parallel to the new RML
through M06 or the final plot (relative position) used in determining the
course and speed of the contact. This line is drawn from M06 in a direction
opposite to the new DRM because the new relative speed (DRM-SRM)
vector will be parallel to the new RML and the head (M06) of the new vector
(RcM06) will lie in the new DRM away from the origin, Rc.
(5) Avoiding by course change only, the magnitude of own ship’s true
(course-speed) vector remains constant. Therefore, the same speed
graduation on the standard plotting interval scale used to construct T06-R00 is
set at T06. The scale is then adjusted so that its zero graduation intersects the
line drawn parallel to the new RML. As shown in figure 3.44, the
intersection at Rc is the head of the required new true (course-speed) vector
for own ship, T06-Rc.
The previously described use of the plastic ruler, in effect, rotates vector
T06-Rc about its origin; the head of the vector describes an arc which
intersects the line drawn parallel to the new RML at Rc.
If the speed of the contact were greater than own ship’s speed, there
Figure 3.44 - Evasive action.
would be two intersections and, thus, two courses available to produce the
desired distance at CPA. Generally, the preferred course is that which results
in the higher relative speed (the longer relative speed vector) in order to
expedite safe passing.

114
 SPECIAL CASES half own ship’s speed.
Inspection of the plot for contact C reveals that the DRM is opposite to
In situations where contacts are on courses opposite to own ship’s course own ship’s course; the relative speed is equal to own ship’s speed plus the
or are on the same course as own ship but at slower or higher speeds, the contact’s speed. The contact is on a course opposite to own ship’s course at
relative movement lines are parallel to own ship’s course line. If a contact about the same speed.
has the same course and speed as own ship, there is no relative movement Inspection of the plot for contact D reveals that the DRM is the same as
line; all relative positions lie at one point at a constant true bearing and own ship’s course; the relative speed is equal to the contact’s speed minus
distance from own ship. If a contact is stationary or dead in the water, the own ship’s speed. The contact is on the same course as own ship at about
relative vector R-M and own ship’s true vector T-R are equal and opposite, twice own ship’s speed.
and coincident. With T and M coincident, there is no vector T-M.
The solutions of these special cases can be effected in the same manner as
those cases resulting in the conventional vector triangle. However, no vector BLACK LIGHT ILLUMINATION
triangle is formed; the vectors lie in a straight line and are coincident.
In figure 3.45 contacts A, B, C, and D are plotted for a 12-minute interval; “Black light” illumination of the reflection plotter permits the use of the
own ship’s true vector T12-R00 is scaled in accordance with this time. standard plotting period scale without the use of notches in the scale that
Inspection of the plot for contact A reveals that the DRM is opposite to own would otherwise be required. However, when this type of illumination is
ship’s course; the relative speed is equal to own ship’s speed plus the used to facilitate scaling by means of a graduated scale, such illumination
contact’s speed. The contact is on a course opposite to own ship’s course at should be used only while scaling because it tends to make the video on the
about the same speed. PPI less visible. Therefore, means should be readily available to extinguish
Inspection of the plot for contact B reveals that the DRM is opposite to this illumination when it is not required.
own ship’s course; the relative speed is equal to own ship’s speed minus the The shaft of the grease pencil as well as the standard plotting period scale
contact’s speed. The contact is on the same course as own ship at about one- should be fluorescent.

115
 Figure 3.45 - Special cases.

116
 EXAMPLES
R-T-M TRIANGLE

EXAMPLE 9 . DETERMINATION OF CLOSEST POINT OF APPROACH (CPA)

EXAMPLE 10 . COURSE AND SPEED OF A RADAR CONTACT

EXAMPLE 11 . COURSE AND SPEED OF RADAR CONTACT BY THE LADDER METHOD

EXAMPLE 12 . COURSE TO PASS A SHIP AT A SPECIFIED CPA
Own ship’s Speed is Greater Than That of Other Ship

EXAMPLE 13 . COURSE TO PASS A SHIP AT A SPECIFIED CPA

Own ship’s Speed is Less Than That of Other Ship

EXAMPLE 14 . VERIFICATION OF FIXED OBJECTS OR RADAR CONTACTS DEAD IN THE WATER

EXAMPLE 15 . AVOIDANCE OF MULTIPLE CONTACTS WITHOUT FIRST DETERMINING TRUE COURSES AND
SPEEDS OF THE CONTACTS

117
 EXAMPLE 9

DETERMINATION OF CLOSEST POINT OF APPROACH (CPA)

Situation: (2) The direction of the RML from the initial plot R00 is the direction of
relative movement (DRM): 236˚.
With own ship on course 070˚ and the radar set on the 12-mile range (3) Measure the relative distance between any two timed plots on the
scale, the other ship is observed as follows: RML, preferably between the two best plots with the greatest time
separation. In this instance, measure the distance between R00 and M12: 3.0
Time Bearing Range (miles) Rel. position miles. Using the corresponding time interval (1000 - 1012 = 12m), obtain the
speed of relative movement (SRM) from the Logarithmic Time-Speed-
1000 050˚ 9.0 R00 Distance Scale at the bottom of the Maneuvering Board: 15 knots.
1006 049˚ 7.5 M06 (4) From the center of the Maneuvering Board, draw a line perpendicular
1012 047˚ 6.0 M12 to the RML; label the intersection CPA. The direction of the CPA from the
center of the plotting sheet, i.e., own ship’s position, is the bearing of the
Required: CPA: 326˚; the distance from the center or own ship is the range at CPA: 0.9
mile.
(1) Direction of relative movement. (DRM) (5) Measure the distance from M12 to CPA: 6.0 miles. Using this distance
(2) Speed of relative movement. (SRM) and the speed of relative movement (SRM): 15 knots, obtain the minutes to
(3) Bearing and range at closest point of approach. (CPA) CPA (MCPA) from 1012 (the time of plot M12) by means of the Time-
(4) Estimated time of arrival at CPA. Speed-Distance Scale: 24m. The estimated time of arrival at CPA is 1012 +
24m = 1036.
Solution:
Answers:
(1) Plot and label the relative positions, R00, M06, and M12, using the 1:1
scale; fair a line through the relative positions; extend this line, the relative (1) DRM 236˚ (2) SRM 15 knots; (3) CPA 326˚, 0.9 mile; (4) ETA at CPA
movement line (RML), beyond the center of the Maneuvering Board. 1036.

118
 EXAMPLE 9

Notes:
1. There should be sufficient plots to
insure accurate construction of the RML
faired through the plots. Should only two
plots be made, there would be no means
of detecting course or speed changes by
the other ship. The solution is valid only
if the other ship maintains course and
speed constant. Preferably, the timed
plots should be made at equal time
intervals. Equal spacing of the plots
timed at regular intervals and the
successive plotting of the relative
positions in a straight line indicate that
the other ship is maintaining constant
course and speed.
2. This transfer plotting solution
required individual measurements and
recording of the ranges and bearings of
the relative position of ship M at intervals
of time. It also entailed the normal
requirement of plotting the relative
positions on the PPI or reflection plotter.
Visualizing the concentric circles of the
Maneuvering Board as the fixed range
rings of the PPI, a faster solution may be
obtained by fairing a line through the
grease pencil plot on the PPI and
adjusting the VRM so that the circle
described is tangent to or just touches the
RML. The range at CPA is the setting of
the VRM; the bearing at CPA and the
DRM may be found by use of the
parallel-line cursor (parallel index). The
time of the CPA can be determined with
reasonable accuracy through visual
inspection, i.e., the length along the RML
from M12 to CPA by quick visual
inspection is about twice the length
between R00 and M12, representing about
24 minutes.

119
 EXAMPLE 10

COURSE AND SPEED OF A RADAR CONTACT

Situation: (2) Observation of the PPI reveals that between 1000 and 1006, the
contact is on a steady course at constant speed (successive plots form a
Own ship is on course 340˚, speed 15 knots. The radar is set on the 12- straight line on the scope; plots for equal time intervals are equally spaced).
mile range scale. A radar contact is observed to be changing course, and Draw the relative movement line (RML) from the 1000 plot (R00) through
possibly speed, between times 0953 and 1000. While keeping a close watch the 1006 plot (M06), extending beyond the center of the PPI.
of the relative movement, the relative positions of the contact are marked at (3) Set center line of parallel-line cursor to heading flash. Place the
frequent intervals on the reflection plotter by grease pencil. standard plotting period scale parallel to the lines on the cursor and with its
zero graduation at R00. The 15-knot graduation on the scale corresponds to
Required: T06. Two sides of the vector diagram (triangle) have been formed: T06-R00
and R00-M06. The solution is obtained by completing the triangle to form the
(1) Course and speed of the contact when it has steadied on course and contact’s true (course-speed) vector T06-M06.
speed. (4) The direction of the contact’s true motion (DMT) can be read by
adjusting the parallel-line cursor parallel to T06-M06. After such adjustment,
Solution: the radial line of the cursor indicates the DTM or true course of the contact.
The speed of the contact’s true motion (STM) can be measured by the
(1) The solution is started before the contact steadies on course and speed standard plotting period scale, or it can be estimated by comparing the length
through planning: of T06-M06 with T06-R00, the speed of which in knots is known.
(a) Since the contact is being observed on the 12-mile range scale, the
standard plotting period for use with the six fixed range rings is 6 minutes. Answers:
(b) The observer anticipates that after the contact has been observed to be
on a steady course at constant speed for 6 minutes he will be able to obtain (1) Course 252˚, speed 25 knots.
a rapid solution by using the spacing between range rings as a speed scale.

120
 EXAMPLE 10

Heading-Upward
Unstabilized PPI Display
with Stabilized True
Bearing Dial
Scale: 12-mile range setting

Notes:
1. In this example with the
contact observed to be changing
course, and possibly speed,
between times 0953 and 1000, it
was necessary to delay
construction of own ship’s true
vector (T06-R00) until after 1000.
However, when it is not known
that the contact is on other than a
steady course at constant speed,
the solution can often be
expedited by constructing T06-
R00 soon after the initial
observation and then determining
whether the contact is on a steady
course at constant speed. If such
is the case, the triangle is
completed at time 06.
2. With the display of the fixed
range rings, a practical solution
can be obtained without the use
of the standard plotting period
scale by visualizing the vector
diagram (triangle) using the
spacing between range rings as
the speed scale.

121
 EXAMPLE 11

COURSE AND SPEED OF RADAR CONTACT BY THE LADDER METHOD

Situation: T03. The ladder is drawn in multiples and sub-multiples to T03-R00: The 40-
knot graduation corresponds to T06; the 30-knot graduation corresponds to
Own ship is on course 120˚, speed 20 knots. The radar is set on the 6-mile T4.5; and the 10-knot graduation corresponds to T1.5.
range scale because small wooden vessels are expected to be encountered. (4) With the assumption that the contact is on a steady course at constant
The range scale setting is being shifted periodically to longer ranges for speed, the first solution is obtained at time 1.5 (90 seconds) by constructing
possible detection of distant targets. A radar contact is being plotted on the vector T1.5-M1.5. At time 03 it is seen that the contact is on a steady course at
reflection plotter. Inspection of the plot reveals that the contact is on steady constant speed. The solution obtained at time 03 by completing vector T03-
course at constant speed (see solution step (2) of example 10). M03 is a refinement of the earlier solution. Assuming that the contact
maintains course and speed, solutions obtained at later times should be of
Required: increasing accuracy.
(5) The direction of the contact’s true motion (DTM) at time 06 can be
(1) Course and speed of the radar contact. read by adjusting the parallel-line cursor parallel to T06-M06. After such
adjustment, the radial line of the cursor indicates the DTM or true course of
Solution: the contact. The speed of the contact’s true motion (STM) can be measured
by the standard plotting period scale, or it can be estimated by comparing the
(1) With the decision made that the solutions will be obtained by rapid length of T06-M06 with T06-R00, the speed of which in knots (20) is known.
radar plotting, the radar observer further elects to use the Ladder Method in Note that although the 40-knot graduation on the standard plotting period
order to be able to refine the solution as the relative plot for the contact scale corresponds to time 06, vectors T1.5-R00, T03-R00, T4.5-R00, and T06-
develops with time. R00 are all 20-knot vectors.
(2) Since the contact is being observed on the 6-mile range scale, the
standard plotting period for use with the six fixed range rings is 3 minutes. Answers:
(3) Set the center line of the parallel-line cursor to heading flash. Place the
standard plotting period scale parallel to the lines of the cursor and with its (1) Course 072˚, Speed 22 knots.
zero graduation at R00. The 20-knot graduation on the scale corresponds to

122
 EXAMPLE 11

Heading-Upward
Unstabilized PPI Display
with Stabilized True
Bearing Dial
Scale: 6-mile range setting

Notes:
1. Using the ladder method, the
radar observer is able to obtain an
approximate solution quickly and
then refine the solution as the plot
develops.
2. This solution was simplified
by starting the timed plot at some
tenth of an hour after the hour.

123
 EXAMPLE 12

COURSE TO PASS A SHIP AT A SPECIFIED CPA

(Own ship’s speed is greater than that of other ship)

Situation: (2) From the origin of the true vectors of the vector triangle used in
finding the DTM and STM of the other ship, T06, describe an arc of radius
Own ship is on course 188˚, speed 18 knots. The radar is set on the 12- equal to the length of T06-R00.
mile range scale. Between times 1730 and 1736 a ship has been observed to (3) With the aid of the parallel-line cursor, draw a line through M06
be on a collision course with own ship. By rapid radar plotting, it is found to parallel to the new RML to intersect the arc drawn in (2).
be on course 258˚ at 12 knots. The visibility is 2.0 nautical miles. (4) The intersection of the arc with the line through M06 parallel to the
new RML establishes the head of vector T06-Rc, own ship’s true (course-
Required: speed) vector required to obtain new RML.

(1) Course of own ship at 18 knots to pass ahead of the other ship with a Answers:
CPA of 3.0 nautical miles if course is changed to the right when the range is
6.5 nautical miles. (1) Course 218˚.

Notes:
Solution:
1. Actually the arc intersecting the line drawn from M06 in a direction
(1) Continuing with the plot on the PPI used in finding the true course and opposite to the new DRM would also intersect the same line if extended in
speed of the other ship, plot Mx on the RML 6.5 nautical miles from own the new DRM. But a new course of own ship based upon this intersection
ship. Adjust the VRM to 3.0 nautical miles, the desired distance at CPA. would reverse the new DRM or reverse the direction the other ship would
From Mx draw a line tangent to the VRM circle. From Mx two lines can be plot on the new RML.
drawn tangent to the circle, but the line as drawn fulfills the requirement that 2. If the speed of the other ship were greater than that of own ship, there
own ship pass ahead of the other ship or that the other ship pass astern of would be two courses available at 18 knots to produce the desired distance at
own ship. CPA.

124
 EXAMPLE 12

North-Upward
Stabilized PPI Display
Scale: 12-mile range setting

Notes: (continued)
Generally, the preferred course
is that which results in the highest
relative speed in order to expedite
the safe passing.
3. After own ship’s course has
been changed, the other ship
should plot approximately along
the new RML, as drawn and in
the desired direction of relative
movement. This continuity of the
plot following a course change by
own ship is one of the primary
advantages of a stabilized
display. Immediately following
any evasive action, one should
inspect the PPI to determine
whether the target’s bearing is
changing sufficiently and in the
desired direction. With the
stabilized display, the answer is
before the radar observer’s eyes.

125
 EXAMPLE 13

COURSE TO PASS SHIP AT A SPECIFIED CPA

(Own ship’s speed is less than that of other ship)

Situation: parallel to the new RML to intersect the arc drawn in (2).
(4) Since the speed of the other ship is greater than that of own ship, the
Own ship is on course 340˚, speed 15 knots. The radar is set on the 12- arc intersects the line through M06 at two points. Each intersection
mile range scale. Between times 0300 and 0306, a ship has been observed to establishes a head of a possible new own ship’s true vector. Of the two
be on a collision course with own ship. By rapid radar plotting, it is found to possible vectors one provides a higher speed of relative movement than the
be on course 249˚ at 25 knots. The visibility is 2.0 nautical miles. other. Generally, true vector which provides the higher SRM or longer
relative vector is chosen to expedite the passing. However, in this example a
Required: course change to the right is specified. This requires the use of vector T06-
Rc1, which provides the higher SRM.
(1) Course of own ship at 15 knots to pass astern of the other ship with (5) With this unstabilized, Heading-Upward PPI display, there is a
CPA of 3.0 nautical miles if course is changed to the right when the range is complication arising from the plot shifting equal and opposite to the amount
6.0 nautical miles. and direction of the course change. Some reflection plotter designs have
provisions for either manual or automatic shifting of their plotting surfaces
Solution: to compensate for the shifting of the plot. Without this capability, there is no
continuity in the grease pencil plot following course changes of own ship.
(1) Continuing with the plot on the PPI used in finding the true course, speed, Consequently, it is necessary to erase the plot and replot the other ship’s
and CPA of the other ship, plot Mx on the RML 6.0 nautical miles from own relative position when own ship steadies on course. With the VRM set to 3.0
ship. Adjust the VRM to 3.0 nautical miles, the desired distance at CPA. From miles, the new RML must be drawn tangent to the circle described by the
Mx two lines can be drawn tangent to the VRM circle, but the line as drawn VRM. The other ship must be watched closely to insure that its movement
fulfills the requirement that own ship pass astern of the other ship. conforms with the new RML.
(2) From the origin of the true vectors of the vector triangle used in
finding the DTM and STM of the other ship, T06, describe an arc of radius Answers:
equal to T06-R00.
(3) With the aid of the parallel-line cursor, draw a line through M06 (1) Course 030˚.

126
 EXAMPLE 13

Heading-Upward
Unstabilized PPI Display
with Stabilized True
Bearing Dial

Scale: 12-mile range setting

Note:
Examination of the plot reveals
that if own ship maintains its
original true course (340˚), the
intersection of the original true
vector T06-R00 of own ship with
the line drawn through M06
parallel to the new RML provides
the head of the vector T06-RC2
required to effect the desired CPA
without course change. Since the
length of vector T06-RC2 is
approximately half that of the
original vector T06-R00, an
instantaneous change to
approximately half the original
speed would produce the desired
results. A lesser change of course
to the right in conjunction with a
speed reduction could be used to
compensate for deceleration.

127
 EXAMPLE 14

VERIFICATION OF FIXED OBJECTS OR RADAR CONTACTS DEAD IN THE WATER

Situation: Solution:

Own ship is on course 340˚, speed 20 knots. The radar is set at the 24-mile
range scale. Radar observations are made as follows: (1) On the PPI, preferably one with a reflection plotter mounted thereon,
plot R00, M18, M36. Draw the relative movement line (RML) through these
Time Bearing Range (miles) Rel. position relative positions.

1200 017˚ 22.8 R00 (2) Using the same distance scale as the radar range setting, determine the
1218 029˚ 17.4 M18 length of the true (course-speed) vector T-R of own ship for a time interval of
1236 046˚ 14.4 M36 36 minutes: 12 miles.

The RML is parallel to and the DRM is opposite to own ship’s course, (3) Draw true vector T36-R00 in the direction of own ship’s course with its
340˚. head at relative position R00. If after such graphical construction, the vector
origin lies over relative position M36, the length of the T36-M36 vector would
Required: be zero. Thus, the true speed of the observed contact would be zero. Even if
the observed target is dead in the water or a fixed object, small observational
Course and speed of contact in order to verify whether it is dead in the and plotting errors will frequently indicate a small value of true speed for the
water or a terrestrial object. contact.

128
 EXAMPLE 14

Heading-Upward
Unstabilized PPI Display
with Stabilized True
Bearing Dial

Scale: 24-mile range setting

129
 EXAMPLE 15

AVOIDANCE OF MULTIPLE CONTACTS WITHOUT FIRST DETERMINING THE TRUE COURSES

AND SPEEDS OF THE CONTACTS

Situation: (3) For contacts A, B, and C, offset the initial plots (A1, B1, and C1) in the
same direction and distance as the broken line R-Rc; label each such offset
Own ship is on course 000˚, speed 20 knots. With the stabilized relative plot Rc.
motion display radar set at the 12-mile range setting, radar contacts A, B, (4) In each relative plot, draw a straight line from the offset initial plot Rc,
and C are observed and plotted directly on the PPI or reflection plotter. The through the final plot (A2 or B2 or C2). The lines Rc A2, Rc B2, and Rc C2
plots at time 1000 are considered as the initial plots in the solution. represent the new RML’s which would result from a course change to 065˚
and speed change to 15 knots at time 1006.
Required:
Answers:
(1) Determine the new relative movement lines for contacts A, B, and C
which would result from own ship changing course to 065˚ and speed to 15 (1) New RML of contact A—DRM 280˚
knots at time 1006. New RML of contact B—DRM 051˚
(2) Determine whether such course and speed change will result in New RML of contact C—DRM 028˚
desirable or acceptable CPA’s for all contacts.
(2) Inspection of the new relative movement lines for all contacts
Solution: indicates that if all contacts maintain course and speed, all contacts will plot
along their respective relative movement lines at safe distances from own
(1) With the center of the PPI as their origin, draw own ship’s true vectors ship on course 065˚, speed 15 knots.
T-R and T-Rc for the course and speed in effect or to be put in effect at times
1000 and 1006, respectively. Using the distance scale of the radar Explanation:
presentation, draw each vector of length equal to the distance own ship will
travel through the water during the time interval of the relative plot (relative The solution is based upon the use of the relative plot as the relative
vector), 6 minutes. Vector T-R, having a speed of 20 knots, is drawn 2.0 vector. With each contact maintaining true course and speed, the true vector
miles in length in true direction 000˚; vector T-Rc, having a speed of 15 for each contact remains static while own ship’s true vector is rotated about
knots, is drawn 1.5 miles in length in true direction 065˚. its origin T to the new course and changed in magnitude corresponding to the
(2) Draw a broken line between R and Rc. new speed.

130
 EXAMPLE 15

North-Upward
Stabilized PPI Display

Scale: 12-mile range setting

131
 PRACTICAL SOLUTION FOR CPA IN TRUE MOTION MODE

A practical solution for CPA in the true motion mode is dependent upon a reckoning position. During this time the contact moves in deduced true
feature normally provided with a true motion radar: some form of electronic motion from its initial position, T00 to M03 as shown in figure 3.48. With the
bearing line (EBL) that can hold the range and bearing to which set. With the motions of own ship and of the contact producing the two true vectors of the
EBL originating at own ship moving in true motion on the PPI, it follows R-T-M triangle, the triangle is completed to provide the relative vector R03-
that if the EBL is held at an initial setting, the end of the EBL moves at the M03, the extension of which provides the RML, by means of which the CPA
same speed as own ship along a parallel path. Or the end of the EBL follows is determined. See figure 3.49.
own ship in true motion. With the EBL holding the initial range and bearing, it follows that the
The true motions of own ship and of a contact are shown in figure 3.46 motions of the contact and of the end of the EBL from the initial position
after observation for about 3 minutes. With own ship (at the center of the continuously generate the R-T-M triangle. Therefore the R-T-M triangle can
range rings) on course 000˚ at 20 knots, its tail has a length about equal to be completed at any time between times 00 and 03 by constructing the
the 1-mile range ring interval, 1 mile being the distance own ship travels in 3 relative vector from the end of the EBL to the position the contact occupies
minutes at 20 knots. The tail of the contact bearing 045˚ at 4 miles indicates at the same time. Figure 3.50 shows the completion of the R-T-M triangle at
that the contact is on true course 280˚ at 30 knots. At this point it should be times 01, 02, and 03. However, as indicated above, the triangle can be
noted that the accuracy of the true motion displayed is dependent upon the completed at any time. The relative vector and the RML can be obtained
accuracies of own ship course and speed inputs, particularly the speed input, without any direct consideration of plot time. This fact enhances the
and other errors associated with dead reckoning, such as those due to practicality of the solution. It enables real-time visualization of the RML
currents. Therefore, true motion solutions should be considered more through observation of the current position of the contact in relation to the
approximate than those derived from stabilized relative motion displays. end of the moving EBL. This, in turn, enables the observer to determine the
Due to the fact that unlike relative motion, the true motion is not actually CPA very quickly.
observed but is deduced from observed relative motion and estimated own Should the CPA be less than desired, a procedure similar to obtaining a
ship course and speed over ground inputs, the true motion displayed on the desired CPA on a relative motion display (see examples 12 and 13) can be
PPI is better called deduced true motion. used. As shown in figure 3.51, the CPA is increased by course change only.
Figure 3.47 shows the EBL set at the contact at the initial position (time The CPA is measured from the position own ship occupies on the PPI at
00), which is labeled T00. Own ship’s position at this time is also labeled 00. plot time 03.
If own ship is dead reckoned to the time 03 position as shown in figure 3.48, This practical solution for CPA in the true motion mode was devised by
with the EBL holding the range and bearing to which set at time 00, the end Captain Wayne M. Waldo, Head, All-weather Navigation Department,
of the EBL, moving in parallel motion at the same rate as the true motion of Maritime Institute of Technology and Graduate Studies, Linthicum Heights,
ship, arrives at R03 at the same time as own ship reaches the time 03 dead Maryland.

132
 Own ship’s course 000˚
speed 20 knots

Contact’s course 280˚

speed 30 knots

Range-ring interval: 1 mile

Figure 3.46 - True motion display

133
 Own ship’s course 000˚
speed 20 knots

Contact’s course 280˚

speed 30 knots

Range-ring interval: 1 mile

Figure 3.47 - Electronic bearing line set at initial time position of contact moving in true motion.

134
 Own ship’s course 000˚
speed 20 knots

Contact’s course 280˚

speed 30 knots

Range-ring interval: 1 mile

Figure 3.48 - True motion display with electronic bearing line holding the bearing and range at which initially set.

135
 Own ship’s course 000˚
speed 20 knots

Contact’s course 280˚

speed 30 knots

Range-ring interval: 1 mile

Figure 3.49 - Solution for CPA on true motion display.

136
 Own ship’s course 000˚
speed 20 knots

Contact’s course 280˚

speed 30 knots

Figure 3.50 - Construction of R-T-M triangle at any time.

137
 Own ship’s course 000˚
speed 20 knots

Contact’s course 280˚

speed 30 knots

Range-ring interval: 1 mile

Desired CPA: 1.5 miles

Figure 3.51 - Solution for desired CPA.

138
 SITUATION RECOGNITION

INTRODUCTION second is to recognize those actions you can take which will reduce the risk
of collision, i.e. increase the passing distance
The rules for Situation Recognition were developed by Mr. Max H. Step one; is relatively simple provided you obey the instruction given in
Carpenter and Captain Wayne M. Waldo, former members of the faculty for the Steering and sailing Rules and ascertain the risk of collision, by
the Maritime Institute of Technology and Graduate Studies, Linthicum “carefully watching the compass bearing of an approaching vessel.
Heights, Maryland. The following information is printed from Section VII of Therefore, your radar must give you the compass reference you need to
the Real Time Method of Radar Plotting. recognize risk of collision. This means that the situation at a glance requires
As your RTM plotting skills increase so will your ability to instantly a gyro stabilized display. Unless your radar is so equipped that you can, at a
recognize dangerous situations without a plot. This skill can be described as glance, observe the compass bearing change of all approaching vessels you
Situation Recognition, and makes use of everything you have learned and are seriously handicapped. There is no way you can, at a glance, determine
practiced thus far. the risk of collision by observing the relative bearings of approaching
This ability to recognize a situation as you view it on radar will mark you vessels. To repeat: there is only one method that is 100% reliable in
as an exceptionally competent mariner. determining risk of collision either visually or by radar, and that is the one
In a risk of collision situation, the true or compass direction of relative given in the Steering and Sailing Rules. In this game of collision avoidance if
movement must be changed. Simple rules for rapid prediction of the change you cannot satisfactorily answer the requirements of step one, it is
in the compass direction of relative movement (DRM) of a radar contact impossible to evaluate the actions required in step two.
resulting from a course or speed change by own ship can be invaluable, Step two; consists of deciding which of the four basic collision avoidance
particularly in confusing multiple-contact situations. maneuvers will best increase the passing distance (turn left, turn right, speed
The rules can be used only when using a stabilized relative motion up, slow down). This is relatively easy for you have been making these same
display. Attempting to apply these rules using an unstabilized radar display decisions all your life. If while you are moving you visually observe an
could be very dangerous since a high degree of compass orientation is object coming towards you, you can very quickly decide how best to avoid a
required to discover and avoid the risk of collision. Preferably, the collision by either turning right or left, speeding up or slowing down. You do
radarscope should have high persistence. exactly the same thing using a radar to observe contacts coming towards the
Situation Recognition can be thought as a two-step procedure. The first is center of the scope.
to ascertain the risk of collision as required by the Rules of the road. The

139
 RULES FOR SPEED CHANGE

The following rules provide predictions of how a contact’s relative motion

changes with a speed change by own ship. The predictions are valid
irrespective of the position of the contact in range and bearing.

Reduced Speed

The relative plot moves up-the-scope when own ship reduces speed or
stops.

Increased Speed

The relative plot moves down-the-scope when own ship increases speed.

Speed of Relative Motion (SRM)

The effectiveness of a turning maneuver depends, in part, upon the SRM

of the radar target. A target whose SRM is high will show less change in
relative motion than a similarly located contact with a low SRM.
Assume two contacts on collision courses approaching the observer’s
Figure 3.52 - Effects of a course change against targets
vessel at the same speed, with one contact 40˚ on the observer’s port bow with different speeds of relative motion.
and the other 40˚ to starboard. A right turn will result in a small change in
the DRM of the contact to starboard and a much larger change in the one to have instantaneous, readily available, at-a-glance information which will
port. The difference is explained by the fact that the turn toward the “hang in” when the going gets rough and when orientation seems to be the
starboard contact raised its SRM, making it more difficult to change. The most threatened. This is important, for it is difficult to assess a maneuver by
port contact’s SRM was reduced. As a result, the amount of DRM change reading a list of numbers concerning the threat and then mentally trying to
was greater. associate those numbers with what own ship is doing.
Thus, the effectiveness of a turn to avoid a contact is enhanced by turning
away from the contact. This is illustrated in Figure 3.52.
APPLICATION

SITUATION DISPLAYS Figures 3.53 to 3.56 illustrate the use of the rules in evaluating the effects
of evasive action by own ship.
The series of illustrations which follow, shows various steps in evaluating When the contact is faster than own ship, the effect of own ship’s
the results of own ship’s maneuvers using only the direction of relative evasive action on the compass direction of relative movement is
motion as presented, and demonstrates the immediate readability of generally less than it would be if own ship were the faster ship. Note that
information sufficient to make risk of collision assessment and maneuver. the contact is always faster than own ship in the up-the-scope and across-
These photographs were taken of a 16 inch stabilized north up relative the-scope cases.
motion radar, the range setting is 6 miles. Views A and B show the situation In making maneuvering decisions using the DRM technique, speed
up to the decision time of 3 minutes. Views C thru J show the results of four information on a ratio basis is adequate. The observer need only know
simulator runs demonstrating each basic maneuver. whether the contact’s speed is about one-half, three-fourths, or twice own
These illustrations show that it is possible for the maneuvering officer to ship’s speed for example.

140
View A Upon switching from standby to on, we discover 3 contacts. No risk of View B After the end of 3 minutes the direction of relative motion reveals that risk of
collision is available therefore no maneuver decision can be made. collision exists with contacts on the starboard bow and beam. In other words the
compass bearing is not changing on these two contacts.

View C At the end of 5 minutes a decision to turn right 60° has resulted in a change in View D Approximately 10 minutes from the start the Master can begin coming back to base
DRM of all contacts. The contact astern has changed his DRM from up to course expecting to achieve 1.5 mile CPA on all targets.
across category.

Reproduced by Courtesy of Maritime Institute of Technology and Graduate Studies, Linthicum Heights, Maryland.

Figure 3.53 - Predicting effects of evasive action.

141
 View E Same situation as Fig. 3 at five minutes, but with a 35 deg. left turn. View F The decision nine minutes from first observation for 35 deg. left projects a 1.5 mile
Note “down” contact has moved to his left, “up” contact to his right. CPA. Notice the beam contact has lost most of its relative motion, thus revealing his
course and speed to be about the same as own ship’s at this instant.

View G This is the original situation plus five minutes. The Master in this instance View H After 11 minutes, the action to stop has resulted in a close quarters situation.
decided to stop. Note that all DRM is swinging forward.

Reproduced by Courtesy of Maritime Institute of Technology and Graduate Studies, Linthicum Heights, Maryland.

Figure 3.54 - Predicting effects of evasive action.

142
View I At five minutes the decision to increase speed from half to full ahead results in View J After 10 minutes it is obvious that all contacts will pass clear, but contact whose
a swing of all DRM aft. It is apparent that vessel whose DRM is 195 deg. will DRM is 195˚ will clear by only one-half mile.
pass close but clear.

View K A high density situation. View L Trying for a 1-mile CPA in the high density situation illustrated in View K the
conning officer comes to course 060˚. After 2 minutes he notes that the contact
bearing 125˚ will pass too close. Therefore, he starts to come to course 125˚.

Reproduced by Courtesy of Maritime Institute of Technology and Graduate Studies, Linthicum Heights, Maryland.

Figure 3.55 - Predicting effects of evasive action.

143
View M The relative plots of all contacts are changing according to the rules. View N After 6 minutes the conning officer can resume his original course.

Reproduced by Courtesy of Maritime Institute of Technology and Graduate Studies, Linthicum Heights, Maryland.

Figure 3.56 - Predicting effects of evasive action.

 RULES FOR MANEUVERING
To maneuver using the information from “situation recognition” requires the heading flasher but in the opposite direction, when own ship turns right,
a technique whose effectiveness has been demonstrated in the radar the direction of relative motion will turn to its right. (Views A-D) This rule
laboratory and is currently being used at sea. This technique makes use of also applies in the case of a left turn as shown in (Views E and F).
the “natural” ability we all have in avoiding collision with moving objects in
daily life. This ability is, an understanding of relative motion. In this Rule number three: Any contact whose DRM is across-the-scope is in
technique we use the Direction of Relative Motion (DRM) as the key to the “limbo”. Changing of own ship’s course left or right will have very little
whole thing. effect on the crossing contacts DRM until it’s category is changed to either a
In considering this key, let’s remember that any collision avoidance “down contact” or “up contact”, and then the contact will follow rules One
system requires, as a minimum, a stabilized radar which has the high or Two as stated previously (View F).
persistence phosphor C.R.T. With this we have a display from which we can
obtain the information on the DRM almost at a glance. With a few simple Rule number four: If own ship reduces speed or stops, all relative
rules concerning this direction of relative motion, and a Deck Officer with motion observed on your scope will swing forward or “up-the-scope”, no
maneuvering experience, we now have a competent marine collision matter where they are. (View G).
avoidance system.
In viewing any radar scope, the direction in which the ship’s heading Rule number five: Conversely, if own ship increases speed, all relative
flasher is pointing can be described as “up the scope”. The reciprocal of it is motion will swing aft, or down the scope. (View I).
a direction opposite to the heading flasher, or “down the scope”. A contact
moving at right angles to the heading flasher anywhere on the scope would The experienced mariner of course knows that any contact whose relative
be described as “across the scope”. motion is up-the-scope is a faster ship. this fact also applies to contacts
The rules we use to show that DRM is the “key” are based solely on the whose direction of relative motion is at right angles to the heading flasher as
relationship of DRM with reference to own ship’s heading flasher. These in rule three contacts.
rules alert the deck officer to the expected effect on DRM as a result of any Though specific speed is not available in using the DRM technique, the
collision avoidance action, such as any course or speed change. We have speed information is adequate for making decisions in maneuvering. The
three specific rules concerning course change, two specific rules concerning experienced officer usually handles speed on the basis of a ratio. Is the
speed change, and two subordinate rules which apply to the technique threat’s relative speed faster or slower than own ship’s speed?
described therein.
Rule number six: If contact’s relative speed is high, the effect of own
Rule number one: Any contact appearing on the scope, regardless of ship’s avoiding action is low.
position in range and bearing whose direction of relative motion is up-the-
scope, from a few degrees up, to parallel to the heading flasher, when own Rule number seven: If contact’s relative speed is low, the effect of own
ship turns right, the direction of relative motion of the observed threat will ship’s avoiding action is high.
turn to its left.
To state Rules 6 and 7 in another way, if the contact is faster than own
Rule number two: Any contact whose direction of relative motion is ship, it is likely to be harder to maneuver against. If it is slower, then own
down-the-scope, that is, anywhere from a few degrees down, to parallel to ship essentially is in command of the situation.

145
 CHAPTER 4 — RADAR NAVIGATION

RADARSCOPE INTERPRETATION

In its position finding or navigational application, radar may serve the LAND TARGETS
navigator as a very valuable tool if its characteristics and limitations are
understood. While determining position through observation of the range On relative and true motion displays, landmasses are readily recognizable
and bearing of a charted, isolated, and well defined object having good because of the generally steady brilliance of the relatively large areas painted
reflecting properties is relatively simple, this task still requires that the on the PPI. Also land should be at positions expected from knowledge of the
navigator have an understanding of the characteristics and limitations of his ship’s navigational position. On relative motion displays, landmasses move
radar. The more general task of using radar in observing a shoreline where in directions and at rates opposite and equal to the actual motion of the
the radar targets are not so obvious or well defined requires considerable observer’s ship. Individual pips do not move relative to one another. On true
expertise which may be gained only through an adequate understanding of motion displays, landmasses do not move on the PPI if there is accurate
the characteristics and limitations of the radar being used. compensation for set and drift. Without such compensation, i.e., when the
While the plan position indicator does provide a chartlike presentation true motion display is sea-stabilized, only slight movements of landmasses
when a landmass is being scanned, the image painted by the sweep is not a may be detected on the PPI.
true representation of the shoreline. The width of the radar beam and the While landmasses are readily recognizable, the primary problem is the
length of the transmitted pulse are factors which act to distort the image identification of specific features so that such features can be used for fixing
painted on the scope. Briefly, the width of the radar beam acts to distort the the position of the observer’s ship. Identification of specific features can be
shoreline features in bearing; the pulse length may act to cause offshore quite difficult because of various factors, including distortion resulting from
features to appear as part of the landmass. beam width and pulse length and uncertainty as to just which charted
The major problem is that of determining which features in the vicinity of features are reflecting the echoes. The following hints may be used as an aid
the shoreline are actually reflecting the echoes painted on the scope. in identification:
Particularly in cases where a low lying shore is being scanned, there may be (a) Sandspits and smooth, clear beaches normally do not appear on the
considerable uncertainty. PPI at ranges beyond 1 or 2 miles because these targets have almost no area
An associated problem is the fact that certain features on the shore will that can reflect energy back to the radar. Ranges determined from these
not return echoes, even if they have good reflecting properties, simply targets are not reliable. If waves are breaking over a sandbar, echoes may be
because they are blocked from the radar beam by other physical features or returned from the surf. Waves may, however, break well out from the actual
obstructions. This factor in turn causes the chartlike image painted on the shoreline, so that ranging on the surf may be misleading when a radar
scope to differ from the chart of the area. position is being determined relative to shoreline.
If the navigator is to be able to interpret the chartlike presentation on (b) Mud flats and marshes normally reflect radar pulses only a little better
his radarscope, he must have at least an elementary understanding of the than a sandspit. The weak echoes received at low tide disappear at high tide.
characteristics of radar propagation, the characteristics of his radar set, Mangroves and other thick growth may produce a strong echo. Areas that are
the reflecting properties of different types of radar targets, and the ability indicated as swamps on a chart, therefore, may return either strong or weak
to analyze his chart to make an estimate of just which charted features echoes, depending on the density and size of the vegetation growing in the
are most likely to reflect the transmitted pulses or to be blocked from the area.
radar beam. While contour lines on the chart topography aid the (c) When sand dunes are covered with vegetation and are well back from
navigator materially in the latter task, experience gained during clear a low, smooth beach, the apparent shoreline determined by radar appears as
weather comparison of the visual cross-bearing plot and the radarscope the line of the dunes rather than the true shoreline. Under some conditions,
presentation is invaluable. sand dunes may return strong echo signals because the combination of the

147
vertical surface of the vegetation and the horizontal beach may form a sort of
corner reflector.
(d) Lagoons and inland lakes usually appear as blank areas on a PPI
because the smooth water surface returns no energy to the radar antenna. In
some instances, the sandbar or reef surrounding the lagoon may not appear
on the PPI because it lies too low in the water.
(e) Coral atolls and long chains of islands may produce long lines of
echoes when the radar beam is directed perpendicular to the line of the
islands. This indication is especially true when the islands are closely
spaced. The reason is that the spreading resulting from the width of the radar
beam causes the echoes to blend into continuous lines. When the chain of
islands is viewed lengthwise, or obliquely, however, each island may
produce a separate pip. Surf breaking on a reef around an atoll produces a
ragged, variable line of echoes.
(f) Submerged objects do not produce radar echoes. One or two rocks
projecting above the surface of the water, or waves breaking over a reef, may
appear on the PPI. When an object is submerged entirely and the sea is
smooth over it, no indication is seen on the PPI.
(g) If the land rises in a gradual, regular manner from the shoreline,
no part of the terrain produces an echo that is stronger than the echo
from any other part. As a result, a general haze of echoes appears on
the PPI, and it is difficult to ascertain the range to any particular part of
the land.
Land can be recognized by plotting the contact. Care must be exercised
when plotting because, as a ship approaches or goes away from a shore
behind which the land rises gradually, a plot of the ranges and bearings to the
land may show an “apparent course and speed. This phenomenon is
demonstrated in figure 4.1. In view A the ship is 50 miles from the land, but Figure 4.1 - Apparent course and speed of land target.
because the radar beam strikes at point 1, well up on the slope, the indicated
range is 60 miles. In view B where the ship is 10 miles closer to land, the need not always be the opposite of the course of the ship, as assumed in this
indicated range is 46 miles because the radar echo is now returned from simple demonstration.
point 2. In view C where the ship is another 10 miles closer, the radar beam (h) Blotchy signals are returned from hilly ground because the crest of
strikes at point 3, even lower on the slope, so that the indicated range is 32 each hill returns a good echo although the valley beyond is in a shadow. If
miles. If these ranges are plotted, the land will appear to be moving toward high receiver gain is used, the pattern may become solid except for the very
the ship. deep shadows.
In figure 4.1, a smooth, gradual slope is assumed, so that a consistent plot (i) Low islands ordinarily produce small echoes. When thick palm trees or
is obtained. In practice, however, the slope of the ground usually is irregular other foliage grow on the island, strong echoes often are produced because
and the plot erratic, making it hard to assign a definite speed to the land the horizontal surface of the water around the island forms a sort of corner
contact. The steeper the slope of the land, the less is its apparent speed. reflector with the vertical surfaces of the trees. As a result, wooded islands
Furthermore, because the slope of the land does not always fall off in the give good echoes and can be detected at a much greater range than barren
direction from which the ship approaches, the apparent course of the contact islands.

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 SHIP TARGETS The radar beam may be blocked from a segment of this shoreline by an
obstruction such as a promontory. An indentation in the shoreline, such
With the appearance of a small pip on the PPI, its identification as a ship as a cove or bay, appearing on the PPI when the ship is at one position
can be aided by a process of elimination. A check of the navigational may not appear when the ship is at another position nearby. Thus, radar
position can overrule the possibility of land. The size of the pip can be used shadow alone can cause considerable differences between the PPI
to overrule the possibility of land or precipitation, both usually having a display and the chart presentation. This effect in conjunction with the
massive appearance on the PPI. The rate of movement of the pip on the PPI beam width and pulse length distortion of the PPI display can cause
can overrule the possibility of aircraft. even greater differences.
Having eliminated the foregoing possibilities, the appearance of the pip at
a medium range as a bright, steady, and clearly defined image on the PPI
indicates a high probability that the target is a steel ship. BEAM WIDTH AND PULSE LENGTH DISTORTION
The pip of a ship target may brighten at times and then slowly decrease in
brightness. Normally, the pip of a ship target fades from the PPI only when The pips of ships, rocks, and other targets close to shore may merge with
the range becomes too great. the shoreline image on the PPI. This merging is due to the distortion effects
of horizontal beam width and pulse length. Target images on the PPI always
are distorted angularly by an amount equal to the effective horizontal beam
RADAR SHADOW width. Also, the target images always are distorted radially by an amount at
least equal to one-half the pulse length (164 yards per microsecond of pulse
While PPI displays are approximately chartlike when landmasses are length).
being scanned by the radar beam, there may be sizable areas missing Figure 4.2 illustrates the effects of ship’s position, beam width, and pulse
from the display because of certain features being blocked from the length on the radar shoreline. Because of beam width distortion, a straight,
radar beam by other features. A shoreline which is continuous on the or nearly straight, shoreline often appears crescent-shaped on the PPI. This
PPI display when the ship is at one position may not be continuous effect is greater with the wider beam widths. Note that this distortion
when the ship is at another position and scanning the same shoreline. increases as the angle between the beam axis and the shoreline decreases.

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 Figure 4.2 - Effects of ship’s position, beam width, and pulse length on radar shoreline.

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 SUMMARY OF DISTORTIONS (c) The radar shadow behind both mountains. Distortion owing to radar
shadows is responsible for more confusion than any other cause. The small
Figure 4.3 illustrates the distortion effects of radar shadow, beam width, island does not appear because it is in the radar shadow.
and pulse length. View A shows the actual shape of the shoreline and the (d) The spreading of the land in bearing caused by beam width distortion.
land behind it. Note the steel tower on the low sand beach and the two ships Look at the upper shore of the peninsula. The shoreline distortion is greater
at anchor close to shore. The heavy line in view B represents the shoreline on to the west because the angle between the radar beam and the shore is
the PPI. The dotted lines represent the actual position and shape of all smaller as the beam seeks out the more westerly shore.
targets. Note in particular: (e) Ship No. 1 appears as a small peninsula. Her pip has merged with the
(a) The low sand beach is not detected by the radar. land because of the beam width distortion.
(b) The tower on the low beach is detected, but it looks like a ship in a (f) Ship No. 2 also merges with the shoreline and forms a bump. This
cove. At closer range the land would be detected and the cove-shaped area bump is caused by pulse length and beam width distortion. Reducing
would begin to fill in; then the tower could not be seen without reducing the receiver gain might cause the ship to separate from land, provided the ship is
receiver gain. not too close to the shore. The FTC could also be used to attempt to separate
the ship from land.

Figure 4.3 - Distortion effects of radar shadow, beam width, and pulse length.

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 RECOGNITION OF UNWANTED ECHOES AND EFFECTS Characteristics by which indirect echoes may be recognized are
summarized as follows:
The navigator must be able to recognize various abnormal echoes and (1) The indirect echoes will usually occur in shadow sectors.
effects on the radarscope so as not to be confused by their presence. (2) They are received on substantially constant bearings although the true
bearing of the radar contact may change appreciably.
Indirect (False) Echoes (3) They appear at the same ranges as the corresponding direct echoes.
(4) When plotted, their movements are usually abnormal.
Indirect or false echoes are caused by reflection of the main lobe of the (5) Their shapes may indicate that they are not direct echoes.
radar beam off ship’s structures such as stacks and kingposts. When such Figure 4.5 illustrates a massive indirect echo such as may be reflected by a
reflection does occur, the echo will return from a legitimate radar contact to landmass.
the antenna by the same indirect path. Consequently, the echo will appear on
the PPI at the bearing of the reflecting surface. This indirect echo will appear
on the PPI at the same range as the direct echo received, assuming that the
additional distance by the indirect path is negligible (see figure 4.4).

Figure 4.4 - Indirect echo. Figure 4.5 - Indirect echo reflected by a landmass.

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Side-lobe Effects Second-Trace (Multiple-Trace) Echoes

Side-lobe effects are readily recognized in that they produce a series of Second-trace echoes (multiple-trace echoes) are echoes received from a
echoes on each side of the main lobe echo at the same range as the latter. contact at an actual range greater than the radar range setting. If an echo from a
Semi-circles or even complete circles may be produced. Because of the low distant target is received after the following pulse has been transmitted, the echo
energy of the side-lobes, these effects will normally occur only at the shorter will appear on the radarscope at the correct bearing but not at the true range.
ranges. The effects may be minimized or eliminated through use of the gain Second-trace echoes are unusual except under abnormal atmospheric conditions,
and anticlutter controls. Slotted wave guide antennas have largely eliminated or conditions under which super-refraction is present. Second-trace echoes may
the side-lobe problem (see figure 4.6). be recognized through changes in their positions on the radarscope on changing
the pulse repetition rate (PRR); their hazy, streaky, or distorted shape; and their
Multiple Echoes erratic movements on plotting.
As illustrated in figure 4.8, a target pip is detected on a true bearing of
Multiple echoes may occur when a strong echo is received from another 090˚ at a distance of 7.5 miles. On changing the PRR from 2000 to 1800
ship at close range. A second or third or more echoes may be observed on pulses per second, the same target is detected on a bearing of 090˚ at a
the radarscope at double, triple, or other multiples of the actual range of the distance of 3 miles (see figure 4.9). The change in the position of the pip
radar contact (see figure 4.7). indicates that the pip is a second-trace echo. The actual distance of the target
is the distance as indicated on the PPI plus half the distance the radar wave
travels between pulses.

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 Figure 4.6 - Side-lobe effects. Figure 4.7 - Multiple echoes.

Figure 4.8 - Second-trace echo on 12-mile range scale. Figure 4.9 - Position of second-trace echo on 12-mile range scale after changing PRR.

154
 From the Use of Radar at Sea, 4th Ed. Copyright 1968, The Institute of Navigation, London. Used by permission.
Figure 4.10 - Normal, indirect, multiple, and side echoes.

Figure 4.10 illustrates normal, indirect, multiple, and side echoes on a PPI Blind and Shadow Sectors
with an accompanying annotated sketch.
Stacks, masts, samson posts, and other structures may cause a reduction in
Electronic Interference Effects the intensity of the radar beam beyond these obstructions, especially if they
are close to the radar antenna. If the angle at the antenna subtended by the
Electronic interference effects, such as may occur when in the vicinity of obstruction is more than a few degrees, the reduction of the intensity of the
another radar operating in the same frequency band as that of the observer’s radar beam beyond the obstruction may be such that a blind sector is
ship, is usually seen on the PPI as a large number of bright dots either produced. With lesser reduction in the intensity of the beam beyond the
scattered at random or in the form of dotted lines extending from the center obstructions, shadow sectors, as illustrated in figure 4.11, can be produced.
to the edge of the PPI. Within these shadow sectors, small targets at close range may not be
Interference effects are greater at the longer radar range scale settings. The detected while larger targets at much greater ranges may be detected.
interference effects can be distinguished easily from normal echoes because they
do not appear in the same places on successive rotations of the antenna.

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 Sectoring

The PPI display may appear as alternately normal and dark sectors. This
phenomenon is usually due to the automatic frequency control being out of
adjustment.

Serrated Range Rings

The appearance of serrated range rings is indicative of need for equipment

maintenance.

PPI Display Distortion

After the radar set has been turned on, the display may not spread
immediately to the whole of the PPI because of static electricity inside the
CRT. Usually, this static electricity effect, which produces a distorted PPI
display, lasts no longer than a few minutes.

Hour-Glass Effect

Hour-glass effect appears as either a constriction or expansion of the

display near the center of the PPI. The expansion effect is similar in
appearance to the expanded center display. This effect, which can be caused
by a nonlinear time base or the sweep not starting on the indicator at the
same instant as the transmission of the pulse, is most apparent when in
narrow rivers or close to shore.
Figure 4.11 - Shadow sectors.

Spoking Overhead Cable Effect

Spoking appears on the PPI as a number of spokes or radial lines. Spoking The echo from an overhead power cable appears on the PPI as a single echo
is easily distinguished from interference effects because the lines are straight always at right angles to the line of the cable. If this phenomenon is not
on all range-scale settings and are lines rather than a series of dots. recognized, the echo can be wrongly identified as the echo from a ship on a
The spokes may appear all around the PPI, or they may be confined to a steady bearing. Avoiding action results in the echo remaining on a constant
sector. Should the spoking be confined to a narrow sector, the effect can be bearing and moving to the same side of the channel as the ship altering course.
distinguished from a ramark signal of similar appearance through This phenomenon is particularly apparent for the power cable spanning the
observation of the steady relative bearing of the spoke in a situation where Straits of Messina. See figure 4.12 for display of overhead cable effect.
the bearing of the ramark signal should change. The appearance of spoking
is indicative of need for equipment maintenance.

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 Figure 4.12 - Overhead cable effect.
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 AIDS TO RADAR NAVIGATION

Various aids to radar navigation have been developed to aid the navigator Each corner reflector illustrated in figure 4.14 consists of three mutually
in identifying radar targets and for increasing the strength of the echoes perpendicular flat metal surfaces.
received from objects which otherwise are poor radar targets. A radar wave on striking any of the metal surfaces or plates will be
reflected back in the direction of its source, i.e., the radar antenna. Maximum
energy will be reflected back to the antenna if the axis of the radar beam
RADAR REFLECTORS makes equal angles with all the metal surfaces. Frequently corner reflectors
are assembled in clusters to insure receiving strong echoes at the antenna.
Buoys and small boats, particularly those boats constructed of wood, are
poor radar targets. Weak fluctuating echoes received from these targets are
easily lost in the sea clutter on the radarscope. To aid in the detection of these
targets, radar reflectors, of the corner reflector type, may be used. The corner
reflectors may be mounted on the tops of buoys or the body of the buoy may
be shaped as a corner reflector, as illustrated in figure 4.13.

Figure 4.14 - Corner reflectors.

RADAR BEACONS

While radar reflectors are used to obtain stronger echoes from radar
targets, other means are required for more positive identification of radar
targets. Radar beacons are transmitters operating in the marine radar
frequency band which produce distinctive indications on the radarscopes of
ships within range of these beacons. There are two general classes of these
beacons: racon which provides both bearing and range information to the
target and ramark which provides bearing information only. However, if the
ramark installation is detected as an echo on the radarscope, the range will
Figure 4.13 - Radar reflector buoy. be available also.

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 Figure 4.16 - Coded racon signal.

“Frequency agile” racons are now in widespread use. They respond to both 3
Figure 4.15 - Racon signal. and 10 centimeter radars.
The racon signal appears on the PPI as a radial line originating at a point
Racon just beyond the position of the radar beacon or as a Morse code signal
displayed radially from just beyond the beacon (see figures 4.15 and 4.16).
Racon is a radar transponder which emits a characteristic signal when Racons are being used as ranges or leading lines. The range is formed by
triggered by a ship’s radar. The signal may be emitted on the same frequency two racons set up behind each other with a separation in the order of 2 to 4
as that of the triggering radar, in which case it is automatically superimposed nautical miles. On the PPI scope the “paint” received from the front and rear
on the ship’s radar display. The signal may be emitted on a separate racons form the range.
frequency, in which case to receive the signal the ship’s radar receiver must Some bridges are now equipped with racons which are suspended under
be capable of being tuned to the beacon frequency or a special receiver must the bridge to provide guidance for safe passage.
be used. In either case, the PPI will be blank except for the beacon signal. The maximum range for racon reception is limited by line of sight.

159
 Figure 4.17 - Ramark signal appearing as a dotted line. Figure 4.18 - Ramark signal appearing as a dashed line.

Ramark without any clutter introduced by the ramark signal on the scope. The ramark
signal as it appears on the PPI is a radial line from the center. The radial line may
Ramark is a radar beacon which transmits either continuously or at intervals. be a continuous narrow line, a series of dashes, a series of dots, or a series of dots
The latter method of transmission is used so that the PPI can be inspected and dashes (see figures 4.17 and 4.18).

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 RADAR FIXING METHODS

RANGE AND BEARING TO A SINGLE OBJECT

Preferably, radar fixes obtained through measuring the range and bearing
to a single object should be limited to small, isolated fixed objects which can
be identified with reasonable certainty. In many situations, this method may
be the only reliable method which can be employed. If possible, the fix
should be based upon a radar range and visual gyro bearing because radar
bearings are less accurate than visual gyro bearings. A primary advantage of
the method is the rapidity with which a fix can be obtained. A disadvantage
is that the fix is based upon only two intersecting position lines, a bearing
line and a range arc, obtained from observations of the same object.
Identification mistakes can lead to disaster.

TWO OR MORE BEARINGS

Generally, fixes obtained from radar bearings are less accurate than those
obtained from intersecting range arcs. The accuracy of fixing by this method
is greater when the center bearings of small, isolated, radar-conspicuous
objects can be observed. Figure 4.19 - Fixing by tangent bearings and radar range.
Because of the rapidity of the method, the method affords a means for
initially determining an approximate position for subsequent use in more
reliable identification of objects for fixing by means of two or more ranges. TWO OR MORE RANGES

In many situations, the more accurate radar fixes are determined from
TANGENT BEARINGS nearly simultaneous measurements of the ranges to two or more fixed
objects. Preferably, at least three ranges should be used for the fix. The
Fixing by tangent bearings is one of the least accurate methods. The use number of ranges which it is feasible to use in a particular situation is
of tangent bearings with a range measurement can provide a fix of dependent upon the time required for identification and range measurements.
reasonably good accuracy. In many situations, the use of more than three range arcs for the fix may
As illustrated in figure 4.19, the tangent bearing lines intersect at a range introduce excessive error because of the time lag between measurements.
from the island observed less than the range as measured because of beam If the most rapidly changing range is measured first, the plot will indicate
width distortion. Right tangent bearings should be decreased by an estimate less progress along the intended track than if it were measured last. Thus,
of half the horizontal beam width. Left tangent bearings should be increased less lag in the radar plot from the ship’s actual position is obtained through
by the same amount. The fix is taken as that point on the range arc midway measuring the most rapidly changing ranges last.
between the bearing lines. Similar to a visual cross-bearing fix, the accuracy of the radar fix is
It is frequently quite difficult to correlate the left and right extremities of the dependent upon the angles of cut of the intersecting position lines (range
island as charted with the island image on the PPI. Therefore, even with arcs). For greater accuracy, the objects selected should provide range arcs
compensation for half of the beam width, the bearing lines usually will not with angles of cut as close to 90˚ as is possible. In cases where two
intersect at the range arc. identifiable objects lie in opposite or nearly opposite directions, their range

161
arcs, even though they may intersect at a small angle of cut or may not
actually intersect, in combination with another range arc intersecting them at
an angle approaching 90˚, may provide a fix of high accuracy (see figure
4.20). The near tangency of the two range arcs indicates accurate
measurements and good reliability of the fix with respect to the distance off
the land to port and starboard.

Figure 4.21 - Fix by small, isolated radar-conspicuous objects.

As the ship travels along its track, the three radar-conspicuous objects still
afford good fixing capability until such time as the angles of cut of the range
arcs have degraded appreciably. At such time, other radar-conspicuous
objects should be selected to provide better angles of cut. Preferably, the first
new object should be selected and observed before the angles of cut have
degraded appreciably. Incorporating the range arc of the new object with
Figure 4.20 - Radar fix. range arcs of objects which have provided reliable fixes affords more
positive identification of the new object.
Small, isolated, radar-conspicuous fixed objects afford the most reliable
and accurate means for radar fixing when they are so situated that their
associated range arcs intersect at angles approaching 90˚. MIXED METHODS
Figure 4.21 illustrates a fix obtained by measuring the ranges to three well
situated radar-conspicuous objects. The fix is based solely upon range While fixing by means of intersecting range arcs, the usual case is that
measurements in that radar ranges are more accurate than radar bearings even two or more small, isolated, and conspicuous objects, which are well situated
when small objects are observed. Note that in this rather ideal situation, a point to provide good angles of cut, are not available. The navigator must exercise
fix was not obtained. Because of inherent radar errors, any point fix should be considerable skill in radarscope interpretation to estimate which charted
treated as an accident dependent upon plotting errors, the scale of the chart, etc. features are actually displayed. If initially there are no well defined features
While observed radar bearings were not used in establishing the fix as such, displayed and there is considerable uncertainty as to the ship’s position, the
the bearings were useful in the identification of the radar-conspicuous objects. navigator may observe the radar bearings of features tentatively identified as

162
a step towards their more positive identification. If the cross-bearing fix does (1) The general need for redundancy—but not to such extent that too
indicate that the features have been identified with some degree of accuracy, much is attempted with too little aid or means in too little time.
the estimate of the ship’s position obtained from the cross-bearing fix can be (2) The characteristics of the radar set.
used as an aid in subsequent interpretation of the radar display. With better (3) Individual skills.
knowledge of the ship’s position, the factors affecting the distortion of the (4) The navigational situation, including the shipping situation.
radar display can be used more intelligently in the course of more accurate (5) The difficulties associated with radarscope interpretation.
interpretation of the radar display. (6) Angles of cut of the position lines.
Frequently there is at least one object available which, if correctly
identified, can enable fixing by the range and bearing to a single object
method. A fix so obtained can be used as an aid in radarscope interpretation PRECONSTRUCTION OF RANGE ARCS
for fixing by two or more intersecting range arcs.
The difficulties which may be encountered in radarscope interpretation Small, isolated, radar-conspicuous objects permit preconstruction of range
during a transit may be so great that accurate fixing by means of range arcs is arcs on the chart to expedite radar fixing. This preconstruction is possible
not obtainable. In such circumstances, range arcs having some degree of because the range can be measured to the same point on each object, or nearly
accuracy can be used to aid in the identification of objects used with the so, as the aspect changes during the transit. With fixed radar targets of lesser
range and bearing method. conspicuous, the navigator, generally, must continually change the centers of the
With correct identification of the object observed, the accuracy of the fix range arcs in accordance with his interpretation of the radarscope.
obtained by the range and bearing to a single object method usually can be To expedite plotting further, the navigator may also preconstruct a series
improved through the use of a visual gyro bearing instead of the radar of bearing lines to the radar-conspicuous objects. The degree of
bearing. Particularly during periods of low visibility, the navigator should be preconstruction of range arcs and bearing lines is dependent upon acceptable
alert for visual bearings of opportunity. chart clutter resulting from the arcs and lines added to the chart. Usually,
While the best method or combination of methods for a particular preconstruction is limited to a critical part of a passage or to the approach to
situation must be left to the good judgment of the experienced navigator, an anchorage.
factors affecting method selection include:

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 CONTOUR METHOD accuracy of the point fix. The contour method is most feasible when the
land rises steeply at or near the shoreline, thus enabling a more accurate
The contour method of radar navigation consists of constructing a land estimate of the reflecting surfaces.
contour on a transparent template according to a series of radar ranges and Figure 4.22 illustrates a rectangular template on the bottom side of which
bearings and then fitting the template to the chart. The point of origin of the radials are drawn at 5-degree intervals. The radials are drawn from a small
ranges and bearings defines the fix. hole, which is the position of the radar fix when the template is fitted to the
This method may provide means for fixing when it is difficult to chart.
correlate the landmass image on the PPI with the chart because of a lack In making preparation for use of the template, the template is tacked to the
of features along the shoreline which can be identified individually. The range (distance) scale of the chart. As the ranges and bearings to shore are
accuracy of the method is dependent upon the navigator’s ability to measured at 5 or 10-degree intervals, the template is rotated about the zero-
estimate the contours of the land most likely to be reflecting the echoes distance graduation and marked accordingly. A contour line is faired through
forming the landmass image on the PPI. Even with considerable skill in the marks on each radial.
radarscope interpretation, the navigator can usually obtain only an On initially fitting the contour template to the chart, the template should
approximate fit of the template contour with the estimated land contour. be oriented to true north. Because of normal bearing errors in radar
There may be relatively large gaps in the fit caused by radar shadow observations, the template will not necessarily be aligned with true north
effects. Thus, there may be considerable uncertainty with respect to the when the best fit is obtained subsequently.

Figure 4.22 - Transparent template used with contour method.

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 IDENTIFYING A RADAR-INCONSPICUOUS OBJECT

Situation:

There is doubt that a pip on the PPI represents the echo from a buoy, a
radar-inconspicuous object. On the chart there is a radar-conspicuous object,
a rock, in the vicinity of the buoy. The pip of the rock is identified readily on
the PPI.

Required:

Identify the pip which is in doubt.

Solution:

(1) Measure the bearing and distance of the buoy from the rock on the
chart.
(2) Determine the length of this distance on the PPI according to the
range scale setting.
(3) Rotate the parallel-line cursor to the bearing of the buoy from the rock
(see figure 4.23).
(4) With rubber-tipped dividers set to the appropriate PPI length, set one
point over the pip of the rock; using the parallel lines of the cursor as
a guide, set the second point in the direction of the bearing of the
buoy from the rock.
(5) With the dividers so set, the second point lies over the unidentified
pip. Subject to the accuracy limitations of the measurements and
normal prudence, the pip may be evaluated as the echo received from
the buoy.

NOTE: During low visibility a radar-conspicuous object can be used

similarly to determine whether another ship is fouling an anchorage berth. Figure 4.23 - Use of parallel-line cursor to identify radar-inconspicuous object.

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 FINDING COURSE AND SPEED MADE GOOD BY PARALLEL-LINE CURSOR

Situation:

A ship steaming in fog detects a prominent rock by radar. Because of the

unknown effects of current and other factors, the navigator is uncertain of the
course and speed being made good.

Required:

To determine the course and speed being made good.

Solution:

(1) Make a timed plot of the rock on the reflection plotter.

(2) Align the parallel-line cursor with the plot to determine the course
being made good, which is in a direction opposite to the relative
movement (see figure 4.24).
(3) Measure the distance between the first and last plots and using the
time interval, determine the speed of relative movement. Since the
rock is stationary, the relative speed is equal to that of the ship.
NOTE: This basic technique is useful for determining whether the ship
is being set off the intended track in pilot waters. Observing a radar-
conspicuous object and using the parallel-line cursor, a line is drawn
through the radar-conspicuous object in a direction opposite to own
ship’s course.
By observing the successive positions of the radar-conspicuous object
relative to this line, the navigator can determine whether the ship is being set
to the left or right of the intended track. Figure 4.24 - Use of parallel-line cursor to find course and speed made good.

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 USE OF PARALLEL-LINE CURSOR FOR ANCHORING

Situation: (3) Using the parallel lines of the cursor as a guide, draw, at a distance
from the center of the PPI as determined in step (2), the relative
A ship is making an approach to an anchorage on course 290˚. The movement line for the head of the jetty in a direction opposite to the
direction of the intended track to the anchorage is 290˚. Allowing for the direction of the intended track.
radius of the letting go circle, the anchor will be let go when a radar- (4) Make a mark at 290˚ and 1.0 mile from the center of the PPI; label
conspicuous islet is 1.0 mile ahead of the ship on the intended track. A this mark “LG” for letting go.
decision is made to use a parallel-line cursor technique to keep the ship on (5) Make another mark at 290˚ and 1.0 mile beyond the LG mark; label
the intended track during the last mile of the approach to the anchorage and this mark “1”.
to determine the time for letting go. Before the latter decision was made, the (6) Subdivide the radial between the marks made in steps (4) and (5).
navigator’s interpretation of the stabilized relative motion display revealed This subdivision may be limited to 0.1 mile increments from the LG
that, even with change in aspect, the radar image of a jetty to starboard could mark to the 0.5 mile graduation.
be used to keep the ship on the intended track. (7) If the ship is on the intended track, the RML should extend from the
radar image of the head of the jetty. If the ship keeps on the intended
Required: track, the image of the jetty will move along the RML. If the ship
deviates from the intended track, the image of the jetty will move
Make the approach to the anchorage on the intended track and let the away from the RML. Corrective action is taken to keep the image of
anchor go when the islet is 1.0 mile ahead along the intended track. the jetty on the RML.
(8) With the ship being kept on the intended track by keeping the image
Solution: of the jetty on the RML, the graduations of the radial in the direction
of the intended track provide distances to go. When the mark labeled
(1) From the chart determine the distance at which the head of the jetty “1” just touches the leading edge of the pip of the islet ahead, there is
will be passed abeam when the ship is on course and on the intended 1 mile to go. When the mark label “.5” just touches the leading edge
track. of the latter pip, there is 0.5 mile to go, etc. The anchor should be let
(2) Align the parallel-line cursor with the direction of the intended track, go when the mark labeled “LG” just touches the leading edge of the
290˚ (see figure 4.25). pip of the islet.

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 Figure 4.25 - Use of parallel-line cursor for anchoring.

168
 PARALLEL INDEXING

Parallel Indexing has been used for many years. It was defined by William Cross Index Range (“C”)
Burger in the Radar Observers Handbook (1957, page. 98) as equidistantly
spaced parallel lines engraved on a transparent screen which fits on the PPI The distance of an object when abeam if the vessel was to pass the
and can be rotated. This concept of using parallel lines to assist in navigation navigation mark. A parallel line is drawn through this mark. The
has been extensively used in Europe to assist in maintaining a specified perpendicular distance from the center of the display to this parallel line is
track, altering course and anchoring. It is best suited for use with a stabilized the Cross Index Range (1964, Admiralty Manual of Navigation).
radar. When using an unstabilized radar, it can pose some danger to an
individual that is unaware of problems inherent in this type of display. Dead Range (“D”)
With the advent of ARPA with movable EBLs (Electronic Bearing Lines) The distance at which an object tracking on a parallel line would be on a
and Navigation Lines, parallel indexing on screen can be accomplished with new track line (ahead of or behind the beam bearing of the object).
greater accuracy. Index lines that are at exact bearings and distances off can
be displayed with greater ease. A number of diagrams are included on the Wheel Over Point (“W”)
pages that follow to explain the use of parallel indexing techniques as well as The point at which the actual maneuver is made to insure that the object
its misuse. being “indexed” is on the new track line taking into account the advance and
transfer of the vessel.

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 THE FRANKLIN CONTINUOUS RADAR PLOT TECHNIQUE

The Franklin Continuous Radar Plot technique provides means for planned RML, the technique does not interfere with the use of the PPI for
continuous correlation of a small fixed, radar-conspicuous object with own fixing by other means. Preferably, the technique should be used in
ship’s position and movement relative to a planned track. The technique, as conjunction with either visual fixing or fixing by means of three or more
developed by Master Chief Quartermaster Byron E. Franklin, U.S. Navy, intersecting range arcs. Fixing by either means should establish whether the
while serving aboard USS INTREPID (CVS-11), is a refinement of the radar-conspicuous object has been identified correctly. With verification that
parallel-cursor (parallel-index) techniques used as a means for keeping own the radar-conspicuous object has been identified correctly, requirements for
ship on a planned track or for avoiding navigational hazards. frequent visual fixes or fixes by range measurements are less critical.
Ranges and bearings of the conspicuous object from various points, Because of the normal time lag in the latest radar fix plotted on the chart,
including turning points, on the planned track are transferred from the chart inspection of the position of the pip of the radar-conspicuous object relative
to the reflection plotter mounted on a stabilized relative motion indicator. On to the planned RML should provide a more timely indication as to whether
plotting the ranges and bearings and connecting them with line segments, the the ship is to the left or right of the planned track or whether the ship has
navigator has a visual display of the position of the conspicuous object turned too early or too late according to plan.
relative to the path it should follow on the PPI (see figure 4.26). Once the radar-conspicuous object has been identified correctly, the
If the pip of the conspicuous object is painted successively on the planned RML enables rapid re-identification in those situations where the
constructed path (planned relative movement line or series of such lines), the radarscope cannot be observed continuously. Also, this identification of the
navigator knows that, within the limits of accuracy of the plot and the radar conspicuous object with respect to its movement along the planned RML
display, his ship is on the planned track. With the plot labeled with respect to provides means for more certain identification of other radar targets.
time, he knows whether he is ahead or behind his planned schedule. If the While the planned RML can be constructed through use of the bearing
pips are painted to the left or right of the RML, action required to return to cursor and the variable range marker (range strobe), the use of plastic
the planned track is readily apparent. However, either of the following rules templates provides greater flexibility in the use of the technique, particularly
of thumb may be used: (1) Using the DRM as the reference direction for any when there are requirements for use of more than one range scale setting or a
offsets of the pips, the ship is to the left of the planned track if the pips are need for shifting to a different radar-conspicuous object during a passage
painted to the left of the planned RML; the ship is to the right of the planned through restricted waters. With a planned RML for a specific radar-
track if the pips are painted to the right of the planned RML. (2) While conspicuous object cut in a plastic template for a specific range scale setting
facing in the direction of travel of the conspicuous object on the PPI, the ship available, the planned RML can be traced rapidly on the PPI. With
is to the left or right of the planned track if the pips are painted left or right of availability of other templates prepared for different range scale settings or
the planned RML, respectively. different objects and associated range scale settings, the planned RML as
Through taking such corrective action as is necessary to keep the needed can be traced rapidly on the PPI. Other templates can be prepared for
conspicuous object pip on the RML in accordance with the planned time alternative planned tracks.
schedule, continuous radar fixing is, in effect, accomplished. This fixing has If the range scale setting is continuously adjustable or “rubberized it may
the limitation of being based upon the range and bearing method, more be possible to construct the template by tracing the planned track on a chart
subject to identification mistakes than the method using three or more having a scale which can be duplicated on the PPI. Because the planned
intersecting range arcs. RML is opposite to the planned track, the track cut in the template must be
Except for the limitations of being restricted with respect to the range rotated 180˚ prior to tracing the planned RML on the PPI.
scale setting and some PPI clutter produced by the construction of the

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 Figure 4.26 - The Franklin continuous radar plot technique.

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 TRUE MOTION RADAR RESET IN RESTRICTED WATERS

When using true motion displays, the navigator should exercise care in At 1040
deciding when and where to reset own ship’s position on the PPI. While Own ship is reset to the east to display area C. The reset has been carried
navigating in restricted waters, he must insure that he has adequate warning out early to avoid a reset in the entrance and to show all traffic up to South
ahead; through sound planning, he must avoid any need for resetting the Shields.
display at critical times.
At 1055
The following is an example of resetting a true motion display for a ship Own ship is reset to the northeast to display area D. The reset has been
entering the River Tyne. The speed made good is 6 knots. The navigator carried out early before the bend of the river at South Shields and to place
desires to maintain a warning ahead of at least 1 mile (see figure 4.27). the bend at Tyne Dock near the center of the display.

At 1000 At 1117
Own ship is reset to the south on the 3-mile range scale to display area Own ship is reset to the east to display area E.
A so that Tynemouth is just showing and sufficient warning to the north
is obtained for the turn at about 1030. At 1133
Own ship is reset to the northeast to display area F. The reset has been
At 1024 carried out before the bend at Hebburn and up to the northeast because the
Own ship is reset to the southeast on the 1.5-mile range scale to display ship is making good a southwest direction.
area B before the turn at 1030.
At 1200
Own ship is reset to the southeast to display area G.

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Figure 4.27 - Resetting a true motion display.

185
 RADAR DETECTION OF ICE

Radar can be an invaluable aid in the detection of ice if used wisely by the and aspect, the iceberg may appear on the radarscope as separate echoes.
radar observer having knowledge of the characteristics of radar propagation Tabular icebergs, having flat tops and nearly vertical sides which may
and the capabilities of his radar set. The radar observer must have good rise as much as 100 feet above the sea surface, are comparatively good
appreciation of the fact that ice capable of causing damage to a ship may not radar targets.
be detected even when the observer is maintaining a continuous watch of the Generally, icebergs will be detected at ranges not less than 3 miles
radarscope and is using operating controls expertly. because of irregularities in the sloping faces.
When navigating in the vicinity of ice during low visibility, a continuous
watch of the radarscope is a necessity. For reasonably early warning of the
presence of ice, range scale settings of about 6 or 12 miles are probably BERGY BITS
those most suitable. Such settings should provide ample time for evasive
action after detection. Because any ice detected by radar may be lost Bergy bits, extending at most about 15 feet above the sea surface, usually
subsequently in sea clutter, it may be advisable to maintain a geographical cannot be detected by radar at ranges greater than 3 miles. However, they
plot. The latter plot can aid in differentiating between ice aground or drifting may be detected at ranges as great as 6 miles. Because their echoes are
and ship targets. If an ice contact is evaluated as an iceberg, it should be generally weak and may be lost in sea clutter, bergy bits weighing several
given a wide berth because of the probability of growlers in its vicinity. If ice hundred or a few thousand tons can impose considerable hazard to a ship.
contacts are evaluated as bergy bits or growlers, the radar observer should be
alert for the presence of an iceberg. Because the smaller ice may have calved
recently from an iceberg, the radar observer should maintain a particularly GROWLERS
close watch to windward of the smaller ice.
Growlers, extending at most about 6 feet above the sea surface, are
extremely poor radar targets. Being smooth and round because of wave
ICEBERGS action, as well as small, growlers are recognized as the most dangerous type
of ice that can be encountered.
While large icebergs may be detected initially at ranges of 15 to 20 miles In a rough sea and with sea clutter extending beyond 1 mile, growlers
in a calm sea, the strengths of echoes returned from icebergs are only about large enough to cause damage to a ship may not be detected by radar. Even
1/ of the strengths of echoes which would be returned from a steel ship of
60 with expert use of receiver gain, pulse length, and anti-clutter controls,
equivalent size. dangerous growlers in waves over 4 feet in height may not be detected.
Because of the shape of the iceberg, the strengths of echoes returned In a calm sea growlers are not likely to be detected at a range exceeding 2
may have wide variation with change in aspect. Also, because of shape miles.

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 RADAR SETTINGS FOR RADARSCOPE PHOTOGRAPHY

Radar settings are an important factor in preparing good quality and appear unfocused. It becomes difficult to distinguish the division
radarscope photography. A natural tendency is to adjust the radar image so between land and water, and ground and cultural returns.
that it presents a suitable visual display, but this, almost invariably, produces (2) Improper contrast results in a lack of balance in the grey tonal
poor photographic results. Usually the resulting photograph is badly gradations on the scope, greatly degrading the interpretive quality.
overexposed and lacking in detail. Another tendency is to try to record too (3) High gain results in “blooming” of all bright returns adversely
much information on one photograph such that the clutter of background affecting the image resolution. High gain also causes the formation of
returns actually obscures the target images. In both cases, the basic problem a “hot spot” at the sweep origin.
is a combination of gain and intensity control. A basic rule of thumb is if (4) Low gain results in a loss of weak to medium returns. The result will
imagery looks right to visual inspection, it will probably overexpose the be poor interpretive quality where there are few bright targets
recording film. As a rule of thumb, if the image intensity is adjusted so that illuminated due to absence of definitive target patterns on the scope.
weak returns are just visible, then a one sweep exposure should produce a (5) Excessively bright bearing cursors, heading flashes, and range markers
reasonably good photograph. result in wide cursors, flashes, and markers which may obscure
The following list of effects associated with various radar settings can be significant images.
used as an aid in avoiding improper settings for radarscope photography: (6) Improper radarscope or camera focus will result in extremely fuzzy or
(1) Excessive brightness produces an overall milky or intensely bright blurred imagery.
appearance of the images. Individual returns will bloom excessively

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 NAVIGATIONAL PLANNING

Before transiting hazardous waters, the prudent navigator should develop difficulty and with greater safety than would be the case if the radar were not
a feasible plan for deriving maximum benefit from available navigational continuously manned and used to support visual fixing.
means. In developing his plan, the navigator should study the capabilities While the navigational plan must be prepared in accordance with the
and limitations of each means according to the navigational situation. He manning level and individual skills as well as the navigational situation,
should determine how one means, such as cross-bearing fixing, can best be characteristics of navigational aids or equipment, characteristics of radar
supported by another means, such as fixing by radar-range measurements. propagation, etc., the navigator should recognize the navigational limitations
The navigator must be prepared for the unexpected, including the imposed by lack of provision for continuous manning of the radar. A transit,
possibility that at some point during the transit it may be necessary to direct which may be effected with a reasonable margin of safety if the radar is
the movements of the vessel primarily by means of radar observations manned continuously by a competent observer, may impose too much risk if
because of a sudden obscurity of charted features. Without adequate provision is not made for the continuous manning of the radar.
planning for the use of radar as the primary means for insuring the safety of The provision for continuous manning of the radar by a designated and
the vessel, considerable difficulty and delay may be incurred before the competent observer does not necessarily mean that other responsible
navigator is able to obtain reliable fixes by means of radar following a navigational personnel should not observe the radarscope from time to time.
sudden loss of visibility. In fact the observations by other navigational personnel are highly desirable.
An intended track which may be ideal for visual observations may impose According to the navigational plan, the designated observer may be relieved
severe limitations on radar observations. In some cases a modification of this by a more experienced and proficient observer in the event that radar must be
intended track can afford increased capability for reliable radar observations used as the primary means of insuring the safety of the vessel at some point
without unduly degrading the reliability of the visual observations or during the transit. In such event the observer who has been manning the
increasing the length of the transit by a significant amount. In that the radar should be able to brief his relief rapidly and reliably with respect to the
navigator of a radar-equipped vessel always must be prepared to use radar as radar situation. Assuming that the previous observer has made optimum
the primary means of navigating his vessel while in pilot waters, the range settings according to plan at various points on the track, the new
navigator should effect a reasonable compromise between the requirements observer should be able to make effective use of the radar almost
for visual and radar fixing while determining the intended track for the immediately. If this more proficient observer has been making frequent
transit. observations of the radarscope, aided by comment of the observer
The value of radar for navigation in pilot waters is largely lost when it is continuously manning the radar, any briefing requirements on actually
not manned continuously by a competent observer. Without continuous relieving the other observer should be minimal.
manning the problems associated with reliable radarscope interpretation are If radar is to be used effectively in hazardous waters, it is essential that
too great, usually, for prompt and effective use of the radar as the primary provisions be made for the radar observer and other responsible navigational
means of insuring the safety of the vessel. The continuous manning of the personnel to be able to inspect the chart in the immediate vicinity of the
radar is also required for obtaining the best radarscope presentation through radar indicator. The practice of leaving a radar indicator installed in the
proper adjustments of the operating controls as the navigational situation wheelhouse to inspect the chart in the chartroom is highly unsatisfactory in
changes or as there is a need to make adjustments to identify specific situations requiring prompt and reliable radarscope interpretation. The radar
features. observer must be able to make frequent inspections of the chart without
With radar being used to support visual fixing during a transit of undue delays between such inspections and subsequent radar observations.
hazardous waters, visual observations can be used as an aid in the A continuous correlation of the chart and the PPI display is required for
identification of radar observations. Through comparing the radar plot with reliable radarscope interpretation.
the visual plot, the navigator can evaluate the accuracies of the radar If the navigational plot is maintained on a chart other than that used by the
observations. With radar actually being used to support visual fixing, the radar observer for radarscope interpretation, the observer’s chart should
transition to the use of radar as the primary means can be effected with lesser include the basic planning data, such as the intended track, turning bearings,
danger bearings, turning ranges, etc.

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 In planning for the effective use of radar, it is advisable to have a definite technique compensates for the difficulty imposed by viewing the PPI at one
procedure and standardized terminology for making verbal reports of radar and scale and the chart at another scale. Through study of the positions of various
visual observations. At points on the track where simultaneous visual and radar charted features with respect to the simulated fixed range rings on the
observations are to be made, the lack of an adequate reporting procedure will transparency as the center of the simulated rings is moved along the intended
make the required coordination unduly difficult. Reports of radar observations track, certain possibilities for unique observations may be revealed.
can be simplified through the use of appropriate annotations on the chart and
PPI. For example, a charted rock which is identified on the PPI can be designated Identifying Echoes
as “A”; another radar-conspicuous object can be designated as “B,” etc. With the
chart similarly annotated, the various objects can be reported in accordance with By placing the center of the properly scaled simulated range ring
their letter designations. transparency over the observer’s most probable position on the chart, the
identification of echoes is aided. The positions of the range rings relative to
the more conspicuous objects aid in establishing the most probable position.
SPECIAL TECHNIQUES With better positioning of the center of the simulated rings, more reliable
identification is obtained.
In that the navigator of a radar-equipped vessel always must be prepared to
use radar as his primary means of navigation in pilot waters, during the planning Fixing
for a transit of these waters it behooves him to study the navigational situation
with respect to any special techniques which can be employed to enhance the use By placing the simulated range ring transparency over the chart so that the
of radar. The effectiveness of such techniques usually is dependent upon simulated rings have the same relationship to charted objects as the actual
adequate preparation for their use, including special constructions on the chart or range rings have to the corresponding echoes, the observer’s position is
the preparation of transparent chart overlays. found at the center of the simulated range rings.
The correlation of the chart and the PPI display during a transit of Under some conditions, there may be not be enough suitable objects and
confined waters frequently can be aided through the use of a transparent corresponding echoes to correlate with the range rings to obtain the desired
chart overlay on which properly scaled concentric circles are inscribed as a accuracy.
means of simulating the fixed range rings on the PPI. By placing the center This method of fixing should be particularly useful aboard small craft
of the concentric circles at appropriate positions on the chart, the navigator is with limited navigational personnel, equipment, and plotting facilities. This
able to determine by rapid inspection, and with close approximation, just method should serve to overcome difficulties associated with unstabilized
where the pips of certain charted features should appear with respect to the displays and lack of a variable range marker.
fixed range rings on the PPI when the vessel is at those positions. This

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 CHAPTER 5 — AUTOMATIC RADAR PLOTTING AIDS (ARPA)

INTRODUCTION 3. Digital read-out of acquired targets which provides course, speed, range,
bearing, closest point of approach (CPA, and time to CPA (TCPA).
The availability of low cost microprocessors and the development of
advanced computer technology during the 1970s and 1980s have made it 4. The ability to display collision assessment information directly on the
possible to apply computer techniques to improve commercial marine radar PPI, using vectors (true or relative) or a graphical Predicted Area of
systems. Radar manufactures used this technology to create the Automatic Danger (PAD) display.
Radar Plotting Aids (ARPA). ARPAs are computer assisted radar data
processing systems which generate predictive vectors and other ship 5. The ability to perform trial maneuvers, including course changes, speed
movement information. changes, and combined course/speed changes.

The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has set out certain 6. Automatic ground stabilization for navigation purposes.
standards amending the International Convention of Safety of Life at Sea
requirements regarding the carrying of suitable automated radar plotting aids ARPA processes radar information much more rapidly than conventional
(ARPA). The primary function of ARPAs can be summarized in the radar but is still subject to the same limitations. ARPA data is only as
statement found under the IMO Performance Standards. It states a accurate as the data that comes from inputs such as the gyro and speed log.
requirement of ARPAs....“in order to improve the standard of collision
avoidance at sea: Reduce the workload of observers by enabling them to
automatically obtain information so that they can perform as well with STAND-ALONE AND INTEGRAL ARPA’s
multiple targets as they can by manually plotting a single target”. As we can
see from this statement the principal advantages of ARPA are a reduction in Over the past 10 years, the most significant changes to the ARPA systems
the workload of bridge personnel and fuller and quicker information on has been in their design. The majority of ARPAs manufactured today
selected targets. integrate the ARPA features with the radar display.

A typical ARPA gives a presentation of the current situation and uses The initial development and design of ARPAs were Stand-alone units.
computer technology to predict future situations. An ARPA assesses the risk That is they were designed to be an addition to the conventional radar unit.
of collision, and enables operator to see proposed maneuvers by own ship. All of the ARPA functions were installed on board as a separate unit but
While many different models of ARPAs are available on the market, the needed to interfaced with existing equipment to get the basic radar data. The
following functions are usually provided: primary benefits were cost and time savings. This of course was not the most
ideal situation and eventually it was the integral ARPA that gradually
1. True or relative motion radar presentation. replaced the stand-alone unit.

2. Automatic acquisition of targets plus manual acquisition. The modern integral ARPA combines the conventional radar data with the
computer data processing systems into one unit. The main operational
advantage is that both the radar and ARPA data are readily comparable.

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 ARPA DISPLAY have a much longer life than a traditional radar CRT. Although the tubes are
cheaper over their counterpart, the complexity of the signal processing
From the time radar was first introduced to the present day the radar makes it more expensive overall.
picture has been presented on the screen of a cathode ray tube. Although the
cathode ray tube has retained its function over the years, the way in which Raster-scan PPI
the picture is presented has changed considerably. From about the mid-1980s
the first raster-scan displays appeared. The radial-scan PPI was replaced by a The IMO Performance Standards for radar to provide a plan display with
raster-scan PPI generated on a television type of display. The integral ARPA an effective display diameter of 180mm, 250mm, or 340mm depending upon
and conventional radar units with a raster-scan display will gradually replace the gross tonage of the vessel. With the diameter parameters already chosen,
the radial-scan radar sets. the manufacturer has then to decide how to arrange the placement of the
digital numerical data and control status indicators. The raster-scan display
The development of commercial marine radar entered a new phase in the makes it easier for design engineers in the way auxiliary data can be written.
1980s when raster-scan displays that were compliant with the IMO
Performance Standards were introduced. Monochrome and Color CRT

The radar picture of a raster-scan synthetic display is produced on a A monochrome display is one which displays one color and black. The
television screen and is made up of a large number of horizontal lines which general monochrome television uses white as the color. This however is not
form a pattern known as a raster. This type of display is much more complex an appropriate color for the conditions under which a commercial marine
than the radial-scan synthetic display and requires a large amount of radar is viewed. Unlike a television screen, marine radar displays tend to be
memory. there are a number of advantages for the operator of a raster-scan viewed from the shorter distance and the observer has a greater
display and concurrently there are some deficiencies too. The most obvious concentration on the details of the screen and therefore is subject to
advantage of a raster-scan display is the brightness of the picture. This eyestrain. For this reason the color most common to monochrome raster-
allows the observer to view the screen in almost all conditions of ambient scan applications was green. The green phosphor provides comfortable
light. Out of all the benefits offered by a raster-scan radar it is this ability viewing by reducing eye strain and stress.
which has assured its success. Another difference between the radial-scan
and raster-scan displays is that the latter has a rectangular screen. The screen The color tube CRT differs from its monochrome counterpart in that it has
size is specified by the length of the diagonal and the width and height of the three electron guns, which are designated as red, green, and blue.
screen with an approximate ratio of 4:3. The raster-scan television tubes

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 FEATURES AND OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS FOR A MODERN RASTER SCAN RADAR AND ARPA

INTRODUCTION FEATURES

The following paragraphs describe the features and operating instructions The FR-2805 and FAR-2805 series of Radar and ARPAs are designed to
of the Furuno Heavy-Duty High Performance Raster Scan Radar and ARPA fully meet the exacting rules of the International Maritime Organization
Model FR/FAR-28x5 series. Only selected portions of the Furuno operating (IMO) for installations on all classes of vessels.
instructions are presented in this manual. For the complete operating
instructions you should contact a Furuno dealer or representative. The display unit employs a 28 inch diagonal multicolored CRT. It
provides an effective radar picture of 360 mm diameter leaving sufficient
The purpose of this section is to provide a sample of the technical space for on screen alpha-numeric data.
instructions that should be available to the officer. As a radar observer you
should thoroughly read and understand the operating instructions for the Target detection is enhanced by the sophisticated signal processing
radar units that you will be using. Operating instructing will of course differ technique such as multi-level quantization (MLQ), echo stretch, echo
not only between different radar manufactures’ but also with different average, and a built-in radar interference rejector. Audible and visual guard
models for the same manufacturer. zone alarms are provided as standard. Other ship’s movement is assessed by
trails of target echoes or by electronic plotting. The FAR-2805 series ARPA
As with all equipment, the operator should be completely familiar with further provides target assessment by historical plots, vectors and target data
the safety instructions prior to turning on the radar. There are a number of table.
dangers, warnings and cautions that should be followed by those operating
these radars. Failure to follow the appropriate safety instructions could result On screen data readouts include CPA, TCPA, range, bearing, speed/course
in serious injury or death. on up to 3 targets at a time. The ARPA functions include automatic
acquisition of up to 20 targets, or manual acquisition of 40 targets. In
addition, the ARPA features display of a traffic lane, buoys, dangerous
points, and other important reference points.

Figure 5.1 - FR-2805 Series Radar Display Unit Overview

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 GENERAL FEATURES ARPA FEATURES

• Daylight-bright high-resolution display • Acquires up to 20 targets automatically

• 28 inch diagonal CRT presents radar picture of 360 mm effective diameter • Movement of tracked targets shown by true or relative vectors (Vector
with alphanumeric data area around it length 1 to 99 min. selected in 1 min steps)

• User friendly operation by combination of tactile backlit touchpads, a • Setting of nav lines, buoy marks and other symbols to enhance navigation
trackball and rotary controls safety

• Audio-visual alert for targets in guard zone • On-screen digital readouts of range, bearing, course, speed, CPA, TCPA,
BCR (Bow Crossing Range) and BCT (Bow Crossing Time) of two targets
• Echo trail to assess targets’ speed and course by simulated afterglow out of all tracked targets.

• Electronic plotting of up to 10 targets in different symbols (This function • Audible and visual alarms against threatening targets coming into
is disabled when ARPA is activated) operator-selected CPA/TCPA limits, lost targets, two guard rings, visual
alarm against system failure and target full situation
• Electronic parallel index lines
• Electronic plotting of up to 10 targets in different symbols (This function
• Interswitch (optional) built in radar or ARPA display unit is disabled when ARPA is activated)

• Enhanced visual target detection by Echo Average, Echo Stretch, • Electronic parallel index lines
Interference Rejector, and multi-level quantization
• Interswitching (optional) built in radar or ARPA display unit
• Stylish display
• Enhanced visual target detection by Echo Average, Echo Stretch,
• Choice of 10, 25 or 50 KW output for X-band; 30 KW output for S-band, Interference Rejector, and multi-level quantization
either in the transceiver aloft (gearbox) or RF down (transceiver in bridge)
• Stylish display
• Exclusive FURUNO MIC low noise receiver
• Choice of 10,25 or 50 kW output for X-band; 30kw output for S-band,
either in the transceiver aloft (gearbox) or RF down (transceiver in bridge)

• Exclusive FURUNO MIC low noise receiver

194
 Figure 5.2 - Main Control Panel
195
 DISPLAY CONTROLS - MODE PANEL

Figure 5.3 - Mode Panel

HM OFF INDEX LINES

Temporarily erases the heading marker. Alternately shows and erases parallel index lines.

ECHO TRAILS X2 ZOOM

Shows trails of target echoes in the form of simulated afterglow. enlarges a user selected portion of picture twice as large as normal. (R-type
only)
MODE
Selects presentation modes: Head-up, Head-up/TB, North-up, Course-up, CU, TM RESET
and True Motion. Resets the heading line to 000 in course-up mode; moves own ship position
50% radius in stern direction in the true motion mode.
GUARD ALARM
Used for setting the guard alarm. INT REJECT
Reduces mutual radar interference
EBL OFFSET
Activates and deactivates off-centering of the sweep origin. RANGE RINGS
Adjusts the brightness of range rings.
BKGR COLOR
Selects the background color.

196
 DISPLAY CONTROLS - PLOTTING KEYPAD

Figure 5.4 - Plotting keypad and tuning compartment

ORIGIN MARK TARGET DATA

Show and erases the origin mark (a reference point). Displays the acquired target data.

VECTOR TRUE/REL TARGET BASED DATA

Selects true or relative vector. Own ship’s speed is measured relative to a fixed target.

VECTOR TIME AUTO PLOT

Sets vector length in time. Activates and deactivates the Auto Plotter.

RADAR MENU TRIAL

Opens and closes RADAR menus. Initiates a trial maneuver.

E-PLOT, AUTO PLOT MENU LOST TARGET

Opens and closes E-plot and AUTO PLT menus. Silences the lost target audible alarm and erases the lost target symbol.

NAV MENU HISTORY

Opens and closes NAV menu. Shows and erases past positions of tracked targets.

KEYS 0-9 MARK

Select plot symbols. Also used for entering numeric data. Enter/erase mark.

CANCEL CHART ALIGN

Terminates plotting of a specified target or all tracked targets. Used to align chart data.

ENTER VIDEO PLOT

Used to save settings on menu screen. Turns the video plotter on/off.

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 OPERATION

TURNING ON POWER The radar is initially set to previously used range and pulse width. Other
settings such as brilliance levels, VRMs, ELBs and menu option selections
The POWER switch is located at the lower right corner of the display. are also set to previous settings.
Push it to switch on the radar set. To turn off the radar, push it again; the
switch will extend. The screen shows the bearing scale and digital timer The Transmit switch toggles the radar between STANDBY and
approximately 15 seconds after power-on. The timer counts down three TRANSMIT status. The antenna stops in STANDBY status and rotates in
minutes of warm-up time. During this period the magnetron, or the TRANSMIT status.
transmitter tube, is warmed for transmission. When the timer has reached
0:00, the legend STBY appears indicating that the radar is now ready to Notes:
transmit pulses. 1. If the antenna does not rotate in TRANSMIT status, check whether the
antenna switch in the tuning compartment is in the OFF position.
In warm-up and standby condition, you will see the message BRG SIG 2. The magnetron ages with time resulting in a reduction of output power. It
MISSING. This is normal because a bearing signal is not yet generated when is highly recommended that the radar be set to STANDBY status when not
the antenna is not rotating. ON TIME and TX TIME values shown at the used for an extended period of time.
bottom of the screen are the time counts in hours and tenths of hour when the
radar has been powered on and transmitted.
CRT BRILLIANCE

TRANSMITTER ON Operate the BRILL control on the control panel of the display unit to
adjust the entire screen brightness. Note that the optimum point of
When the STANDBY status is displayed on the screen, press the Transmit adjustment varies with ambient light conditions, especially between daytime
switch labeled ST-BY/TX on the control panel of the display unit. and nighttime.

Note: The CRT brilliance should be adjusted before adjusting relative

brilliance levels on the BRILLIANCE menu to be explained later.

198
 TUNING THE RECEIVER 4. So the TUNE selector to AUTO and wait for about 10 seconds or four
scanner rotations.
Auto Tune
5. Make sure that the radar has been set to the best tuning point. This
The radar receiver is tuned automatically each time the power is turned condition is where the tuning indicator lights to about 80% of its total
on, thus there is no front panel control for tuning purpose. The tuning length.
indicator and the label AUTO TUNE at the top right corner of the display
unit show the tuning circuit is working. If the label AUTO TUNE is not 6. Push the TUNE control into the retracted position.
displayed, check that the TUNE selector in tuning compartment is the AUTO
position. Video Lockup Recovery
Manual Tune Video lockup, or picture freeze, can occur unexpectedly on digital
rasterscan radars. This is mainly caused by heavy spike noise in the power
If you are not satisfied with the current auto tune setting, follow these line and can be noticed by carefully watching the nearly invisible sweep line.
steps to fine-tune the receiver: If you suspect that the picture is not updated every scan of the antenna or no
key entry is accepted notwithstanding the apparently normal picture, do
1. Push the tune control so that it pops up. Quick Start to restore normal operation:
2. Set the TUNE selector in the tuning compartment to MAN for manual 1. Turn off the power switch and turn it on again within five seconds.
tuning.
2. Push the ST-BY switch in the tuning compartment.
3. While observing the picture on the 48 mile scale, slowly adjust TUNE
control and find the best tuning point. 3. Push the Transmit switch labeled ST-BY/TX for Transmit status.

199
 ON-SCREEN LEGENDS AND MARKERS

Figure 5.5

200
Figure 5.6 - Data display

201
 DEGAUSSING THE CRT SCREEN PRESENTATION MODES

Each time the radar is turned on, the degaussing circuit automatically This radar has the following presentation modes:
demagnetizes the CRT screen to eliminate color contamination caused by
earth’s magnetism or magnetized ship structure. Relative Motion (RM)

The screen is also degaussed automatically when own ship has made a Head-up: Unstabilized
significant course change. While being degaussed, the screen may be
disturbed momentarily with vertical lines. If you wish to degauss by manual Head-up TB: Head-up with compass-stabilized bearing scale (True
operation at an arbitrary time, open and press the Degauss switch in the Bearing)
tuning compartment.
Course-up: Compass-stabilized relative to ship’s intended course

INITIALIZING THE GYRO READOUT North-up: Compass-stabilized with reference to north)

Provided that your radar is interfaced with a gyrocompass, ship’s heading True Motion (TM)
is displayed at the top of the screen. Upon turning on the radar, align the on-
screen GYRO readout with the gyrocompass reading by the procedure North-up: Ground or sea stabilized with compass and speed inputs
shown below. Once you have set the initial heading correctly, resetting is not
usually required. However, if the GYRO readout goes wrong for some
reason, repeat the procedure to correct it. SELECTING PRESENTATION MODE

1. Open the tuning compartment and press the HOLD button. The Gyro Press the MODE key on the mode panel. Each time the MODE key is
LED lights. pressed, the presentation mode and mode indication at the upper-left corner
of the screen change cyclically.
2. Press the UP or DOWN button to duplicate the gyrocompass reading at
the on screen GYRO readout. Each press of these buttons changes the Loss of Gyro Signal: When the gyro signal is lost, the presentation mode
readout by 0.1-degree steps. To change the readout quickly, hold the UP automatically becomes head-up and the GYRO readout at the screen top
or DOWN button for over two seconds. shows asterisks(***.*). The message SET HDG appears at the upper of the
screen. This warning stays on when the gyro signal is restored, to warn the
3. Press the HOLD switch when the on screen GYRO readout has matched operator that the readout may be unreadable. Press the MODE key to select
the gyrocompass reading. The Gyro LED goes out. another presentation mode (the asterisks are erased at this point). Then, align
the GYRO readout with the gyrocompass reading and press the CANCEL
Note: The HOLD button is used to disengage the built-in gyro interface from key to erase the message SET HDG.
the gyrocompass input in the event that you have difficulty in fine-adjusting
the GYRO readout due to ship’s yawing, for example. When initializing the
GYRO readout at a berth (where the gyrocompass reading is usually stable),
you may omit steps 1 and 3 above.

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Head-up Mode (Figure 5.7) Course-up Mode (Figure 5.8)

A display without azimuth stabilization in which the line connecting the An azimuth stabilized display in which a line connecting the center with
center with the top of the display indicates own ship’s heading. the top of the display indicates own ship’s intended course (namely, own
The target pips are painted at their measured distances and in their ship’s previous heading just before this mode has been selected). Target pips
directions relative to own ship’s heading. are painted at their measured distances and in their directions relative to the
intended course which is maintained at the 0° position while the heading
A short line on the bearing scale is the north marker indicating compass marker moves in accordance with ship’s yawing and course changes. This
north. A failure of the gyro input will cause the north marker to disappear mode is useful to avoid smearing of picture during course change. After a
and the GYRO readout to show asterisks (***.*) and the message SET HDG course change, press the (CU, TM RESET) key to reset the picture
appears on the screen. orientation if you wish to continue using the course up mode.

Figure 5.7 - Head-up Mode Figure 5.8 - Course-up Mode

203
Head-up TB (True Bearing) Mode (Figure 5.9) North-up Mode (Figure 5.10)

Radar echoes are shown in the same way as in the head-up mode. The In the north-up mode, target pips are painted at their measured distances
difference from normal head-up presentation lies in the orientation of the and in their true (compass) directions from own ship, north being maintained
bearing scale. The bearing scale is compass stabilized, that is, it rotates in UP of the screen. The heading marker changes its direction according to the
accordance with the compass signal, enabling you to know own ship’s ship’s heading.
heading at a glance.
If the gyrocompass fails, the presentation mode changes to head-up and
This mode is available only when the radar in interfaced with a the north marker disappears. Also, the GYRO readout shows asterisks
gyrocompass. (***.*) and the message SET HDG appears on the screen.

Figure 5.9 - Head-up TB (True Bearing) Mode

Figure 5.10 - North-up Mode

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True Motion Mode (Figure 5.11)

Own ship and other moving objects move in accordance with their true
courses and speeds. All fixed targets, such as landmasses, appear as
stationary echoes.

When own ship reaches a point corresponding to 75% of the radius of the
display, the own ship is automatically reset to a point of 50% radius opposite
to the extension of the heading marker passing through the display center.
Resetting can be made at any moment before the ship reaches the limit by
pressing the (CU, TM RESET) key. Automatic resetting is preceded by a
beep sound.

If the gyrocompass fails, the presentation mode is changed to the head-up

mode and the north marker disappears. The GYRO readout at the top of the
screen shows asterisks (***.*) and the message SET HDG appears on the
screen.
Figure 5.11 - True Motion Mode

205
 SELECTING THE RANGE SCALE Presetting Pulsewidths 1 and 2

The display range scale is changed in 13 steps on the R-type (11 steps on Pulsewidth 1 and 2 can be preset on the Pulsewidth 1 and 2 menus. Shown
the IMO-type) by pressing the (+) and (-) keys. The selected range scale and below are examples of the pulsewidth setup procedure:
range ring interval are shown at the upper left corner on the screen.
1. To enable selection of S1 (0.07 microseconds) and S2 (0.15
The display range can be expanded by 75% (100% in R-type) in any microseconds) pulsewidth on the 0.5 nm range on an X-band model,
direction by using the off-centering control. select S1 at 0.5 nm on the PULSEWIDTH 1 menu and M1 at 3 nm on the
PULSEWIDTH 2 menu.

SELECTING THE PULSEWIDTH 2. To enable selection of S2 (0.15 microseconds) and M1 (0.3 microseconds)
pulsewidth on the 3 nm range on an X-band model, select S2 at 3 nm in
The pulse width in use is displayed at the upper-left position of the screen the PULSEWIDTH 1 menu and M1 at 3 nm in the PULSEWIDTH 2
using the abbreviations shown in the table above. menu.

Appropriate pulse widths are present to individual range scales and A longer pulse provides an increased detection range, but with reduced
function keys. Therefore, you are not usually required to select them. If you discrimination. If you need discrimination in preference to detection, choose
are not satisfied with the current pulsewidth settings, however, it is possible a shorter pulse.
to change them by the radar menu operation shown below.
Example: To select S1 (0.07us) as Pulsewidth 1 for the 0.5 nm range, display
You can choose the pulsewidth 1 or 2 on the scales 0.5 to 24 nm ranges on the PULSEWIDTH 1 menu following the steps shown above and hit the (2)
X-band models and 0.75 to 24 nm ranges on S-band models. key to choose “2 0.5 NM>” Further hit the (2) key until the menu option
“S1” is highlighted to the right of “2 0.5” NM.”
The display range can be expanded by 75% (100% in R-type) in any
direction by using the off-centering control.
ADJUSTING THE SENSITIVITY
Selecting Pulsewidth 1 or 2
The GAIN control (see Figure 5.14) is used to adjust the sensitivity of the
receiver, and thus the intensity of echoes as they appear on the screen. It
1. Press the RADAR MENU key on the plotting keypad to show the
should be adjusted so that speckled background noise is just visible on the
FUNCTION menu.
screen.
2. Press the (1) key to select (or highlight) PLUSEWIDTH 1 or 2 as
To become acquainted with the way the GAIN control works, try rotating
appropriate.
it between fully counterclockwise and clockwise positions while observing
the radar picture. You will notice that clockwise rotation increases the echo
3. Press the (1) key to select menu item 1 PULSEWIDTH.
intensity level. A low gain setting results in the loss of weak echoes and a
reduced detection range. If you turn the GAIN control too far clockwise for
4. Press the ENTER key to conclude your selection followed by the RADAR
an excessive gain setting, desired echoes will be masked in the strong
MENU key to close the FUNCTION menu.
background noise.

206
 SUPPRESSING SEA CLUTTER SUPPRESSING PRECIPITATION CLUTTER

In rough weather conditions returns from the sea service are received over In adverse weather conditions, clouds, rain, or snow produce a lot of
several miles around own ship and mask close targets. This situation can be spray-like spurious echoes and impairs target detection over a long distance.
improved by properly adjusting the A/C SEA (Anti-clutter sea) control (see This situation can be improved by using a function key provided that it is
Figure 5.15). programmed. If the function key fails to offer a favorable suppression of the
rain clutter, adjust the A/C RAIN control (see Figure 5.16) on the front
control panel.
Automatic Anti-clutter Control
The A/C RAIN control adjusts the receiver sensitivity as the A/C SEA
The easiest way to suppress the service clutter is to use the automatic control does but rather in a longer time period (longer range). Clockwise
control. Press the A/C AUTO key (see Figure 5.15) next to the EBL rotary rotation of this control increases the anti-clutter effect.
control at the left corner on the control panel. Use of a function key is also a
good method for reducing sea clutter. For this purpose, presetting is required.
Consult a Furuno representative. INTERFERENCE REJECTOR

Manual Anti-clutter Control Mutual radar interference may occur in the vicinity of another shipborne radar
operating in the same frequency band (9GHz for X-band, 3 GHz for S-band). It
From the fully counterclockwise position, slowly turn the A/C SEA is seen on the screen as a number of bright spikes either in irregular patterns or in
control clockwise. For optimum target detection, you should leave speckles the form of usually curved spoke-like dotted lines extending from the center to
of the surface return slightly visible. the edge of the picture. The type of interference can be reduced by activating the
interference rejector circuit.
The ant-clutter sea control is often referred to as STC (Sensitivity Time
Control) which decreases the amplification of the receiver immediately after The interference rejector is a kind of signal correlation circuit. It
a radar pulse id transmitted, and progressively increases the sensitivity as the compares the received signals over successive transmissions and suppresses
range increases. randomly occurring signals. There are three levels of interference rejection
depending on the number of transmissions that are correlated. These are
A common mistake is to over adjust the A/C SEA control so that the indicated by the legends lR1, lR2 and lR3 at the upper left position of the
surface clutter is completely removed. By rotating the control fully screen.
clockwise, you see how dangerous this can be; a dark zone is created near
the center of the screen and close-in targets can be lost. This dark zone is Press the INT REJECT key to activate the interference rejector circuit.
even more dangerous if the gain has not been properly adjusted. Always Successive presses of the key increase the effect of interference rejection, up
leave a little surface clutter visible on the screen. If no surface clutter is to level 3. A fourth press deactivates the interference rejector. Switch off the
observed (on very calm water), set the control at the fully counterclockwise interference rejector when no interference exists; otherwise weak targets
position. may be lost.

Note: For stable reception of certain types of radar beacons (racons) or

SART (Search and Rescue Radar Transponder) as required by SOLAS 1974
as amended 1988 (GMDSS), it is recommended to turn the interference
rejector off.

207
 MEASURING THE RANGE (Figure 5.12) MEASURING THE BEARING (Figure 5.13)

Use the fixed range rings to obtain a rough estimate of the range to the Use the Electronic Bearing Lines (EBL) to take bearings of a target. There
target. They are concentric solid circles about own ship, or the sweep origin. are two EBLs, No.1 and No.2 which are toggled by successive presses of the
The number of rings is automatically determined by the selected range scale EBL ON key. Each EBL is a straight dashed line extending out from the own
and their interval is displayed at the upper left position of the screen. Press ship position up to the circumference of the radar picture. The fine dashed
the RINGS key on the mode panel to show the fixed range rings if they are line is the No.1 EBL and the course dashed one is the No.2 EBL.
not displayed. Successive presses of the RINGS key gradually increase their
brightness in 4 steps and fifth press erases the range rings.

Figure 5.12 - Measuring the range Figure 5.13 - Measuring the bearing

Use the Variable Range Markers (VRM) for more accurate measurement Press the ELB ON key to display either of the EBLs. Successive presses of
of the range of the target. There are two VRMs, No.1 and No.2, which the EBL ON key toggle the active ELB between No.1 and No.2 and the currently
appear as dashed rings so that you can discriminate them from the fixed active EBL readout is circumscribed by >... <.
range rings. The two VRMs can be distinguished from each other by
different lengths of dashes. Rotate the EBL rotary control clockwise or counterclockwise until the
active EBL bisects the target of interest, and read its bearing at the lower left
Press the VRM ON key to display either of the VRMs. Successive presses corner of the screen. The EBL readout is affixed by “R” (relative) if it is
of the VRM ON key toggle the active VRM between No.1 and No.2 and the relative to own ship’s heading, T (true) if it is referenced to the north, as
currently active VRM readout is circumscribed by >.....<. determined by RADAR 2 menu settings.

Align the active VRM with the inner edge of the target of interest and read Each EBL carries a range marker, or a short line crossing the EBL at right
its distance at the lower right corner of the screen. Each VRM remains at the angles and its distance from the EBL origin is indicated at the VRM readout
same geographical distance when you operate the RANGE+ or RANGE- whether or not the corresponding VRM is displayed. The range marker
key. This means that the apparent radius of the VRM ring changes in changes its position along the EBL with the rotation of the VRM control.
proportion to the selected range scale. Press the VRM OFF key to erase each
VRM. Press the EBL OFF key to erase each EBL.

208
 COLLISION ASSESSMENT BY OFFSET EBL

The origin of the EBL can be placed anywhere with the trackball to enable 4. After waiting for a few minutes (at least 3 minutes), operate the EBL
measurement of range and bearing between any targets. This function is also control until the EBL bisects the target at the new position (A’). The EBL
useful for assessment of the potential risk of collision. To assess possibility readout shows the target ship’s course, which may be true or relative
of collision: depending on the settings on the RADAR 2 menu.

1. Press the EBL ON key to display or activate an EBL (No.1 or 2). If relative motion is selected, it is also possible to read CPA by using a
VRM as shown in figure 5.14. If the EBL passes through the sweep origin
2. Place the cursor (+) on a target of interest (A in the illustrated example) by (own ship) as illustrated in figure 5.15, the target ship is on a collision
operating the trackball. course.

3. Press the EBL OFFSET key on the mode panel, and the origin of the 5. To return the EBL origin to the own ship’s position, press the EBL
active EBL shifts to the cursor position. Press the EBL OFFSET key again OFFSET key again.
to anchor the EBL origin.

Figure 5.14 - Evaluating target ship’s course and CPA in relative motion mode Figure 5.15 - Target ship on collision course

209
MEASURING RANGE AND BEARING BETWEEN TWO TARGETS SETTING A GUARD ZONE (GUARD ALARM)

Press the EBL OFFSET key, and place the origin of No.1 EBL, for The guard zone (guard alarm) feature should never be relied upon as the
example, on a target of interest (target 1 in figure 5.16) by operating the sole means for detecting the risk of potential collision. The operator of a ship
trackball. is not relieved of the responsibility to keep visual lookout for avoiding
collisions, whether or not the radar is in use.
Turn the EBL control until the EBL passes through another target of
interest (target 2). A guard zone (guard alarm) may be set to alert the navigator to targets
(ships, landmasses, etc.) entering a certain area with visual and audible
Turn the VRM control until the range marker aligns with target 2. The alarms.
active VRM readout at the lower right corner of the screen indicates the
distance between the two targets. The guard zone (guard alarm) has a fixed width of 0.5 nm in the radial
direction and is adjustable only within 3.0 to 6.0 nm from own ship. The
You can repeat the same procedure on third and fourth targets (targets 3 guard zone (guard alarm) can be set to any sector angle between 0° and 360°
and 4) by using No.2 EBL and No. 2 VRM. in any direction.

Bearing is shown relative to own ship with suffix “R” or as a true bearing To set the guard zone (guard alarm):
with suffix “T” depending on EBL relative/true settings on the RADAR 2
menu. To return the EBL origin to the own ship position, press the EBL 1. Place the cursor (+) at point “A” using the trackball and press the GUARD
OFFSET key again. ALARM key on the mode panel (left key group). The message SET
GUARD appears at the bottom right corner of the screen.

2. Move the cursor (+) to point “B” and press the GUARD ALARM key.
Then, a guard zone (guard alarm) as illustrated is created and the label
GUARD appears instead of SET GUARD at the lower right corner of the
screen.

Note: If you wish to create a guard zone (guard alarm) having a 360°
coverage around own ship, set point “B” in almost the same direction
(approx. +/-3°) as point “A” and press the GUARD ALARM key.

SILENCING AUDIBLE ALARM, REACTIVATING GUARD

ALARM

A target entering the guard zone produces both visual (flashing) and
audible (beeping) alarms. To silence the audible alarm, press the GUARD
ALARM key, and the label GUARD ACK replaces GUARD on the display.

This will deactivate the audible alarm but will not stop the flashing of the
target in the guard zone. To reactivate the audible alarm, press the GUARD
Figure 5.16 - Measuring range and bearing between two targets ALARM key again.

210
 DISABLING GUARD ZONE (GUARD ALARM) ECHO STRETCH

Hold the GUARD ALARM key depressed for at least 3 seconds. On long ranges target echoes tend to shrink in the bearing direction,
making them difficult to see. On short and medium ranges such as 1.5, 3 and
Note: The guard alarm is given to targets having a certain level of echo 6 nautical mile scales, the same size targets get smaller on the screen as they
strength. This level does not always imply a landmass, reef, ships or other approach the own ship. These are due to inherent property of the radiation
surface objects but can mean returns from the sea surface or precipitation. pattern produced by the antenna. To enhance target video, use the echo
Properly adjust the GAIN, A/C SEA, and A/C RAIN controls to reduce stretch function. There are two types: echo stretch 1 for long range detection
noise to avoid generation of guard alarm against false target detection. and echo stretch 2 on 1.5-6 nautical mile scales.

To activate the echo stretch:

INWARD AND OUTWARD GUARD ALARMS
1. Press the RADAR MENU key on the plotting keypad to show the
On the R-type, an inward or outward guard alarm can be selected on the FUNCTIONS menu.
RADAR 2 menu. On the IMO type, only the inward guard alarm is available.
The inward guard alarm generates visual and audible warnings when a target 2. Press the (2) key to select 2 ECHO STRETCH.
enters the guard zone from any direction. The outward guard alarm is
produced when a target leaves the guard zone. 3. Press (2) until Echo Stretch option 1, 2 or OFF as desired is highlighted.

4. Press the ENTER key to conclude your selection followed by the RADAR
OFF-CENTERING MENU key to close the FUNCTIONS menu.

Own ship position, or sweep origin, can be displaced to expand the view Notes:
field without switching to a larger range scale. On the R-type, the sweep 1. If the 1.5 nm range is preset for pulsewidth of S1 (0.08 microseconds) or
origin can be off centered to a point specified by the cursor, up to 100% of S2 (0.2 microseconds), and the 3nm scale for S2 (0.2), the echo stretch
the range in use in any direction. On the IMO type, the sweep origin can be function is not available on these range scales.
off centered to the cursor position, but not more than 75% of the range in 2. The echo stretch function magnifies not only small target pips but also
use; if the cursor is set beyond 75% of the range scale, the sweep origin will returns from sea surface, rain and radar interference. For this reason make
be off centered to the point of 75% of the limit. This feature is not available sure these types of interference have been sufficiently suppressed before
on the longest range scale. activating this function.

To off center the radar picture:

ECHO AVERAGING
1. Place the cursor at a position where you wish to move the sweep origin by
operating the trackball. The echo average feature effectively suppresses sea clutter. Echoes
received from stable targets such as ships appear on the screen at almost the
2. Press the OFF CENTER key. Then, the sweep origin is off centered to the same position every rotation of the antenna. On the other hand, unstable
cursor position. echoes such as sea clutter appear at random positions.
3. To cancel off centering, press the OFF CENTER key again. To distinguish real target echoes from sea clutter, this radar performs scan-
to-scan correlation. Correlation is made by storing and averaging echo
The picture cannot be off centered in the true motion mode. signals over successive picture frames.If an echo is solid and stable, it is
presented in its normal intensity. Sea clutter is averaged over successive

211
scans resulting in the reduced brilliance, making it easier to discriminate real ELECTRONIC PLOTTING AID (E-PLOT)
targets from sea clutter.
A maximum of 10 operator selected targets can be plotted electronically
To properly use the echo average function, it is recommended to first (manually) to assess their motion trend. Five past positions can be displayed
suppress sea clutter with the A/C SEA control and then to do the following: for each of the plotted targets. If you enter a 6th plot on a certain target, the
oldest plot (past position) will be erased.
1. Press the RADAR MENU key on the plotting keypad to show the
functions menu. A vector appears when you enter a second plot for the target and is
updated each time a new plot is entered. The vector shows the target motion
2. Press the (3) key to select 3 ECHO STRETCH. trend based on its latest two plots.
3. Press (3) until echo average option 1, 2 or OFF as desired is highlighted. Alphanumeric readouts at the upper right hand corner of the screen show
range, bearing, course, speed, CPA, and TCPA of the last plotted target.
OFF: No averaging effect
• Helps distinguish targets from sea clutter and suppresses brilliance of It should be noted that the vector and alphanumeric data are not updated
unstable echoes in real time, but only when you enter a new plot.
• Distinguishes small stationary targets such as navigation buoys
• Stably displays distant targets Note: EPA requires own speed input (automatic or manual) and a compass
signal. The vector and data are updated on real time between plot entries, but
4. Press the ENTER key to conclude your selection followed by the RADAR do not neglect to plot a new position over a long period of time. Otherwise,
MENU key to close the FUNCTIONS menu. the accuracy will be reduced. Note that the plots will be lost when the
compass fails; start the plotting exercise again.
Echo averaging uses scan to scan signal correlation technique based on
the true motion over the ground of each target. Thus, small stationary targets Plotting a Target
such as buoys will be shown while suppressing random echoes such as sea
clutter. True echo average is not however effective for picking up small To perform electronic plotting:
targets running at high speeds over the ground.
1. Place the cursor (+) on a target of interest by operating the trackball.
Echo average is inoperable when a gyrocompass signal is not available. If
you wish to use this feature without a gyrocompass signal, consult a Furuno 2. Select a desired plot symbol by pressing one of the plot symbol keys on
representative. the plotting keypad.
Manual speed entry is done at menu item 6 SHIP’S SPEED on the 3. Press the ACQ key on the operator control panel, and the selected plot
FUNCTIONS menu which is accessed by pressing the RADAR MENU key. symbol is marked at the cursor position.
CAUTION: Do not use the Echo Average feature under heavy pitching and 4. Watching the EPA time (TIM xx:xx) shown at the upper right margin of
rolling; loss of true targets can result. the screen, wait for at least 30 seconds. Place the cursor (+) on the target
at its new location, select the same plot symbol for the target and press the
ACQ key. The plot symbol moves to the new target position and previous
position is marked by a small dot.

5. To acquire other targets, repeat the above steps selecting different plot
symbols.

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Note: If a target once plotted is not plotted again within 10 minutes, the Reading the Target Data
warming “UPDATE PLOT NO” will appear on the upper right margin of the
screen and the plot symbol of the target flashes. If you want to continue Press the corresponding plot symbol key, and the following target data is
plotting this target, reacquire it within five minutes. Otherwise, the target displayed.
will be regarded as a “lost target” and its plot symbol and target data will be
erased. The larger the plotting interval, the less accurate the plotted target RNG/BRG: (Range/Bearing): Range and bearing from own ship to last
data. Plotting of each target should normally be made every 3 or 6 minutes as plotted target with suffix “T” or “R” plot symbol.
far as possible.
CSE/SPD: (Course/Speed): Course and speed are displayed for the last
When a target has been plotted more than once, the radar calculates its plotted target with suffix “T” or “R” plot symbol.
motion rend and automatically displays a vector on the target.
CPA/TCPA: CPA is a closest range the target will approach to own ship.
True or Relative Vector TCPA is the time to CPA. Both are automatically calculated. TCPA is
counted up to 99.9 minutes and beyond this., it is indicated as TCPA >*99.9
True vectors can be displayed relative to own ship’s heading (Relative) or MIN.
with reference to the north (True). Press the VECTOR TRUE/REL key to
select the proper indication. This feature is available in all presentation BCR/BCT: BCR (Bow Cross Range) is the range at which target will cross
modes (gyrocompass must be working correctly). The current vector mode is own ship’s bow. BCT (Bow Cross Time) is the estimated time at which target
indicated at the upper right corner of the screen. will cross own

Vector Time Terminating Target Plotting

Vector time (or the length of vectors) can be set to 30 sec, 1, 2, 3, 6, 12, 15 With E-plot you can plot up to 10 targets. You may wish to terminate
or 30 minutes and the selected vector time is indicated at the upper right plotting of less important targets to newly plot other threatening targets.
corner of the screen. Press the VECTOR TIME key until the desired vector
time is reached. The vector tip shows an estimated position of the target after By Symbol: To terminate plotting of a certain target, press the corresponding
the selected vector time elapses. It can be valuable to extend the vector plot symbol key. Then press the CANCEL key.
length to evaluate the risk of collision with any target.
With Trackball: Place the cursor (+) on a target which you do not want to be
Target Data tracked any longer by operating the trackball and press the CANCEL key.

The radar calculates motion trends (range, bearing, course, speed, CPA, All Targets: To terminate plotting of all targets at once, press and hold the
and TCPA) of all plotted targets. CANCEL key until all plot symbols and marks disappear in about 3 seconds.

In head up and head up true bearing modes, target bearing, course and Entering Own Ship’s Speed
speed shown in the upper right target data field become true (suffix “T”) or
relative (suffix “R”) to own ship in accordance with true/relative vector EPA requires an own ship speed input and compass signal. The speed can
setting. In north up, course up, and true motion modes, the target data field be entered from a speed log (automatic) or through the plotting keypad
always displays true bearing, true course and speed over the ground or (manual).
through the water.

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Automatic Speed Input Manual Speed Input

1. Press the RADAR MENU key on the plotting keypad to show the If the radar is not interfaced with a speed log, or the speed log does not
functions menu, feed correct speed enter the ship’s speed as follows:

2. Press the (6) key to select menu item 6 SHIP’S SPEED. 1. Press the RADAR MENU key on plotting keypad to show the
FUNCTIONS menu.
3. Press the (6) key to select (or Highlight) LOG option.
2. Press the (6) key to select menu 6 SHIP’S SPEED.
4. Press the ENTER key to confirm your selection followed by the RADAR
MENU key to close the FUNCTIONS menu. The ship’s speed readout at 3. Press the (6) key to select menu 6 SHIP’s SPEED.
the screen top shows own ship’s speed fed from the speed log preceded by
the label “LOG”. 4. Press the ENTER key to confirm selection. At this point, “MAN+XX.KT”
appears at the bottom of the FUNCTIONS menu.
Notes:
1. IMO Resolution A.823(19) for ARPA recommends that a speed log to be 5. Enter the ship speed by hitting corresponding numeric keys followed by
interfaced with an ARPA should be capable of providing through-the-water the ENTER without omitting leading zeros, if any. As an example, if the
speed data. ship speed is 8 knots, punch (0) (8) (ENTER).
2. Be sur not to select LOG when a speed log is not connected. If the log
signal is not provided, the ship’s speed readout at the screen top will be 6. Press the RADAR MENU key to close FUNCTIONS menu. The ship
blank. speed displayed at the screen top shows own ship speed entered by the
label “MAN”.

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 TARGET TRAILS (ECHO TRAILS)

Echo trails are simulated afterglow of target echoes that represent their Selection of monochrome or gradual shading requires almost the same
movements relative to own ship or true movements with respect to true north operation as for true or relative trails setup procedure described above except
in a single tone or gradual shading depending on the settings on the RADAR that you should:
1 menu.
• Press the (7) key to select menu item 7 TRAIL GRAD (graduation) in
True or Relative Trails step 4, and

You may display echo trails in true or relative motion. Relative trails show • Press the (7) key to select (or highlight) GGL (single tone) or MULT
relative movements between targets and own ship. True motion trails require (multiple shading) option in step 5.
a gyrocompass signal and own ship speed input to cancel out own ship’s
movement and present true target movements in accordance with their over Displaying and Erasing Echo Trails
the ground speeds and courses.
Press the ECHO TRAILS key to activate or deactivate the echo trails
Refer to the automatic and manual speed input procedures for entering feature.
own ship’s speed information.
Each press of the ECHO TRAILS key within 5 seconds cyclically
Note: When true trail is selected on the RM mode, the legend TRUE TRAIL changes echo trail length (time) to 30 seconds, 1, 3, 6, 15, and 30 minutes,
appears in red. No true relative selection on TM, it is only TRUE TRAIL on continuous echo trailing and OFF. The current echo trail setting is displayed
TM mode. at the lower right corner of the screen.

To select true or relative echo trail presentation: Suppose that “3 MIN” has just been selected. If the ECHO TRAILS key is
hit more than 5 seconds later, echo trails are removed from the display
1. Press the RADAR MENU key on the plotting keypad to show the (memory) still alive with echo trail timer count going on). Next hitting of the
FUNCTIONS menu. key calls out the echo trails on the screen. To proceed to longer plot intervals,
successively push the ECHO TRAILS key with a hit and release action. The
2. Press the (0) key to show the SYSTEM SETTING 1 menu. larger the echo trail length, the larger the larger the echo trail plot interval.

3. Press the (2) key to show the RADAR 1 menu. Note: Holding the ECHO TRAILS key depressed for about 3 seconds will
cause a loss of echo trail data so far stored in an in memory.
4. Press the (6) key to select menu item 6 TRAIL REF.
Resetting Echo Trails
5. Press the (6) key to select (or highlight) REL (Relative) or TRUE option.
To reset (or clear) the echo trail memory, hold the ECHO TRAILS key
6. Press the ENTER key to confirm your selection followed by the RADAR depressed for about 3 seconds. Echo trails are cleared and the trailing
MENU key to close the menu. process restarts from time count zero at current echo trail plot interval. When
memory assigned to echo trailing becomes the echo trail timer at the lower
Trail Gradation right corner of the screen freezes and the oldest trails are erased to show the
latest trails.
Echo trails may be shown in monotone or gradual shading. Gradual
shading paints the trails getting thinner with time just like the afterglow on
an analog PPI radar.

215
 PARALLEL INDEX LINES ANCHOR WATCH

Parallel index lines are useful for keeping a constant distance between The anchor watch feature helps you monitor whether own ship is dragged
own ship and coastline or a partner ship when navigating. Index lines are by wind and/or tide while at anchor. This feature requires ship position data
drawn in parallel with the No. 2 EBL (no. 2 EBL must be active). The from a suitable radio navigational aid. Provided that own ship’s physical data
orientation of the index lines is controlled with the EBL control and the has been entered, an own ship mark can be displayed when the anchor watch
intervals between the lines adjusted with the VRM rotary control (provided feature is activated. The message “ANCHOR WATCH ERR” appears in red
that No. 2 VRM is active). when position data is not inputted.

Maximum number of the index line can be set the initial Setting menu: 2, Notes:
3, or 6. 1. The own ship mark is available on the R-type radar only; unavailable on
the IMO type.
Displaying and Erasing the Index Lines 2. The own ship mark is created with data on own ship’s length, width, radar
antenna location, etc. To display an own ship mark, ask your nearest Furuno
1. Press the INDEX LINES key if the index lines are not already shown. representative.

2. Make sure that the No. 2 EBL is active and orient the index lines in a Activating Anchor Watch
desired direction with the EBL rotary control.
To set up the anchor watch feature:
3. To erase the index lines, press the INDEX LINES key again.
1. On the ANCHOR WATCH menu, press the (2) key to select menu item 2
Adjusting Index Line Intervals ANCHOR WATCH OFF/ON.

1. Press the RADAR MENU key on the plotting keypad to show the 2. Further press the (2) key to select (or highlight) ON, followed by the
FUNCTIONS menu. ENTER key to conclude your selection. The label WATCH appears at the
lower left corner of the screen.
2. Press the (7) key to select menu item 7 INDEX LINES.
3. Press the (3) key to select menu item 3 ALARM OFF/ON. Further press
3. Press the (7) key to select or (highlight) No. 2 VRM or MAN (manual) the (3) key to select (or highlight) ON or OFF, followed by the ENTER
option. key to conclude your selection. (This operation determines whether to
activate the anchor watch audible alarm).
4. Press the ENTER key to conclude your selection.
Alarm range setting
5. If you have selected MAN in step 3 above, “MAN=XX.XX NM” appears
at the bottom of the functions menu. Enter a desired line interval by Press the (4) key to select menu item 4 ALARM RANGE on the
hitting numeric keys followed by the ENTER key without omitting ANCHOR WATCH menu. Enter a desired alarm range between 0.1 and
leading zeroes, if any. There are six index lines but the number of lines 9.999 nautical miles with numeric keys and press the ENTER key to
visible on the screen may be less than six depending on the line setting conclude your key input.
interval.
An anchor watch alarm circle thus established shows up as a red circle on
6. If you have selected NO. 2 VRM in step 3 above, make sure that the No. 2 the screen. When own ship is dragged out of this alarm circle, an audible
VRM is active and adjust the spacing between the index lines by alarm is generated and the on screen label ANCHOR WATCH turns red.
operating the VRM control.
To silence the audible alarm, press the AUDIO OFF key on the control
7. Press the RADAR MENU key to close the functions menu. panel.

216
Showing Drag Line To use the origin mark:

Press the (5) key to select menu item 5 HISTORY on the ANCHOR 1. Place the cursor (+) at a point where you want to place a reference mark
WATCH menu. Further press the (5) key to select ON, followed by the by operating the trackball.
ENTER key to conclude your selection.
2. Press the ORIGIN MARK key on the plotting keypad. The origin mark
A drag line, or a series of dots along which own ship was carried by wind appears at the cursor position of which range and bearing are indicated at
and water current, appears as illustrated below. During the first 50 minute the lower left section of the screen.
period, dots or own ship’s past positions are plotted every minute. When 50
dots have been plotted in 50 minutes, the plot interval becomes 2 minutes 3. To measure the range and bearing to a target of interest from the origin
and up to 25 dots are plotted during the succeeding 50 minute period. Next, mark, move the cursor to the target of interest. Then, the range and
the dot interval becomes 4 minutes and the maximum number of dots will be bearing from the origin mark to the target are shown at the target data
12. display.

Anchor Watch in Standby or Transmit Status 4. To erase the origin mark, press the ORIGIN MARK key once again.

On the R-type the anchor watch feature is available in either STANDBY Zoom
or TRANSMIT status.
The zoom function is available on the R-type radar only to enlarge an area
On the IMO type the anchor watch feature is available only in STANDBY of interest.
status.
1. Place the cursor (+) close to the point of interest by operating the
Origin Mark trackball.

You can mark any dangerous point, prominent target or a particular 2. Press the X2 ZOOM key. The area around the cursor and own ship is
reference point using the origin mark feature. This mark is geographically enlarged twice as large as the original size and the label ZOOM appears at
fixed. the lower left corner of the screen.

3. To cancel zoom, press the X2 ZOOM key again.

Note: The zoom feature is inoperative when the display is off centered.

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 MARKERS

Heading Marker Stern Marker

The heading marker indicates the ship’s heading in all presentation The stern marker (a dot-and-dash line) appears opposite to the heading
modes. It appears at zero degrees on the bearing scale in head up mode, in marker. This marker can be displayed on the R type only provided that the
any direction depending on the ship orientation in north up and true motion STERN MARK ON is selected on the RADAR 2 menu.
modes.

Temporarily Erasing Heading Marker Menu Keys

To temporarily extinguish the heading marker to look at targets existing Three menu keys are provided on the plotting keypad: RADAR MENU,
dead ahead of own ship, press the HM OFF key on the mode panel. This E-AUTO PLOT MENU and NAV MENU keys.
heading marker reappears when the key is released.
RADAR MENU: Permits setting of basic radar parameters.
North Marker
E, AUTO PLOT MENU: Provides a choice of standard or large size of
The north marker appears as a short dashed line. In the head up mode, the plotting symbols for plot.
north marker moves around the bearing scale in accordance with the
compass signal. NAV MENU: Provides a choice of navigation data for on screen display.
Also select display for the Video Plotter.

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 FUNCTION KEYS

The four function keys (#1-4) on the control panel (figure 5.17) work like Suppose that you have been navigating along a coast for hours and now
the auto dialing feature of a telephone, instantly calling out desired settings you are approaching a harbor, your final destination. You will have to adjust
to perform specially assigned functions. The function keys provide optimum your radar to change from the settings for coastal navigation to those for
radar settings for a specific purpose with a single key operation. harbor approach. Every time your navigating environment or task changes,
you must adjust the radar, which can be a nuisance in a busy situation.
Each function key can be assigned a combination of particular radar Instead of changing radar settings case by case, it is possible to assign the
settings that will be most suited to your specific navigating purpose, and an function keys to provide optimum settings for often encountered situations.
adhesive label (such as BUOY, HARBOR, COAST or the like) is usually
attached to the key top for easy identification of the assigned purpose. The radar’s internal computer offers several picture setup options to be
assigned to each function key for your specific navigating requirements. For
The individual function keys are preset, or programed, for the following instance, one of the functions keys may be assigned the buoy detecting
purposes by qualified service personnel at the time of installation using the function and labeled BUOY on the key top. If you press this key, the radar
procedures described in the succeeding paragraphs; will be instantly set for optimum detection of navigation buoys and similar
objects and the label BUOY is shown at the left margin of the screen. If you
Function key #1: Picture setup re-press the same key, the radar returns to the previous settings.
Function keys #2 and #3: Picture setup and specific operation
Function key #4: Specific operation or watch alarm

Figure 5.17 - Function keys

219
 The radar’s internal computer offers several picture setup options to be Watch Alarm
assigned to each function key for your specific navigating requirements. For
instance, one of the functions keys may be assigned the buoy detecting The watch alarm sounds an external buzzer selected time intervals to help
function and labeled BUOY on the key top. If you press this key, the radar you keep regular watch of the radar picture for safety or other purposes. This
will be instantly set for optimum detection of navigation buoys and similar feature can be assigned to function key #4 with a choice of alarm intervals of
objects and the label BUOY is shown at the left margin of the screen. If you 3, 6, 10, 12, 15 and 20 minutes.
re-press the same key, the radar returns to the previous settings.
Provided that function key #4 is assigned the watch alarm feature, just
The picture setup options assignable to any of the function keys are shown press function key #4 to activate the feature. The label WATCH appears at
in the table below. the lower left corner of the screen associated with a watch alarm timer
counts down from the initial value (namely, “12:00”).
LABEL DESCRIPTION
RIVER Optimum setting for navigation on river. When an audible watch alarm is released the preset time interval has
elapsed, the screen label WATCH turns red and the watch alarm timer
BUOY Optimum setting for detecting navigation buoys, small
freezes at “0:00”.
vessels and other small surface objects.
SHIP Optimum setting for detecting vessels. To silence the alarm, press the AUDIO key. The label WATCH turns to
normal color and the watch alarm timer is reset to the initial value and starts
SHORT Optimum setting for short range detection using a range
the count down sequence again.
scale of 6 nm or larger.
CRUISING For cruising using a range scale of 1.5 nm or larger. If you press the AUDIO OFF key before the selected time interval is
reached, the watch alarm timer is reset to the initial value and starts the
HARBOR Optimum setting for short range navigation in a harbor
countdown sequence again.
area using a range scale of 1.5 nm or less.
COAST For coastal navigation using a range of 12 nm or less. EPA Menu
OCEAN Transoceanic voyage using a range scale of 12nm or
EPA menu appears by pressing the E, AUTO PLOT MENU key. You can
larger.
set the following items.
ROUGH SEA Optimum setting for rough weather or heavy rain.
1. COLLISION ALARM: You can set CPA and TCPA for the tracked target.
Each picture setup option defines a combination of several radar settings Refer to 2.12 setting CPA/TCPA alarm range. Note that TCPA setting is
for achieving optimum setup for a particular navigating situation. Those available over one minute.
involved are interference rejector, echo stretch, echo average, automatic ant
clutter, pulsewidth and noise rejector settings. 2. MARK SIZE: Change the size of the plotting.

Adjusting these features on a function key menu changes the original 3. PLOT NO.: Displays or hides plot number inside of the plot symbol
function key settings. To restore the original settings for a particular function (circle and square).
key, it is necessary to display the relevant function key menu and select
appropriate menu options. 4. TARGET DATA: Selects target vector mode between TRUE or REL.
Selection of REL provides the target mode in REL on HU and HU TB.
Note: Function key presetting requires a good knowledge of optimum radar
settings. If you want to change the original function key settings, consult
your Furuno representative or dealer.

220
 NAVIGATION INFORMATION

Menu and Navigation Data Display Suppressing Second-trace Echoes

Various navigation data can be displayed on the radar screen. The data In certain situations, echoes from very distant targets may appear as false
includes, depending on whether appropriate information is fed into the radar, echoes (second trace echoes) on the screen. This occurs when the return
own ship position, cursor position, waypoint data, wind data, water current echo is received one transmission cycle later, that is, after a next radar pulse
data, depth data, water temperature, rudder angle, rate of turn and navigation has been transmitted.
lane.
To activate or deactivate the second trace echo rejector:
Note that data not directly related with the radar presentation is not
available. Shown below id a typical navigational data display. 1. Press the RADAR MENU key on the plotting keypad to show the
FUNCTIONS menu.
1. Press the NAV MENU key on the plotting keypad to show the NAV
INFORMATION menu. 2. Press the (8) key to select menu item 8: 2ND ECHO REJ.

2. Select navigation data input device and press the ENTER key to confirm 3. Further press the (8) key to activate (ON) or deactivate (OFF) the second
your selection. trace echo rejector.

3. Also, set other nav data parameters as appropriate referring to the 4. Press the ENTER key to conclude selection followed by the RADAR
operation flow diagram (not shown). MENU key to close the FUNCTIONS menu.

4. Press the NAV MENU key to close the NAV INFORMATION menu.

Notes:
1. Own ship position display requires an input from an EPFS (elest rouis
position fixing system) such as a GPS receiver or a Loran-C receiver. Such
an EPFS should be of the type which provides output data in accordance
with IEC 1162.
2. When the sensor in use changes (ex. from GPS or DGPS), the name of
sensor in the own ship call turns red, and EPFS label appears. To erase, press
the CANCEL key.

221
Adjusting Relative Brilliance Levels of Screen Data Set and Drift (Set and Rate)

You can adjust relative brilliance levels of various marks and Set the direction in which a water current flows, can be manually entered
alphanumeric readouts displayed on the screen by following the steps shown on 0.1 - degree steps. Drift (rate), the speed of the tide, can also be entered
below: manually in 0.1 knot steps.

1. Press the RADAR MENU key on the plotting keypad to show the Set and drift corrections are beneficial for increasing the accuracy of the
FUNCTIONS menu. vectors and target data. The correction is best made in the head up mode with
true vector, watching landmasses, or other stationary targets. If they have
2. Press the (9) key to show the BRILLIANCE menu. vectors, set and drift values should be adjusted until they lose vectors.
Note: Set and drift correction is available on selecting the water tracking
3. Select a desired menu item by pressing the corresponding numeric key. As mode only.
an example, press (4) if you want to change the brilliance of echo trails.
Proceed as follows to enter set and drift (rate):
4. Further press the same numeric key as you pressed in step 3 above to
select or highlight a desired brilliance level. 1. Press the RADAR MENU key on the plotting keyboard to show the
FUNCTIONS 1 menu.
5. Press the ENTER key to conclude your selection followed by the RADAR
MENU key to close the FUNCTIONS menu. 2. Press the (8) key to select menu item 8; SET, DRIFT.

3. Further press the (8) key to select OFF or MAN option.

OFF: No correction against set and drift.

MAN: Manual entry of set and drift data.

4. If OFF is selected, press the ENTER key.

5. If you have selected MAN in step 3 above, the highlight cursor will
advance one line down requesting you to enter SET xxx.x .Enter the value
of set in degrees by hitting numeric keys without omitting leading zeroes,
if any, and press the ENTER key.

6. The highlight cursor will then advance to the next line DRIFT xx.x KT.
Enter the value of drift in knots by hitting numeric keys without omitting
leading zeroes, if any, and press the ENTER key. Set and drift have the
same effect on own ship and all targets.

7. Press the RADAR MENU key to close the menu.

222
 OPERATION OF ARPA

GENERAL KEYS USED FOR ARPA

The FAR-2805 series with ARP-25 board provide the full ARPA The Auto Plotter uses the keys on the plotting keypad on the right side of
functions complying with IMO A. 823 and IEC-60872-1 as well as the radar screen and two keys on the control panel. Below is a brief
complying with the radar performance MSC.64(67) Annex 4. description of these keys.

CANCEL: Terminates tracking of a single target specified by the trackball if

PRINCIPAL SPECIFICATIONS the key is pressed with a hit-and-release action. If the key is held depressed
for about 3 seconds, tracking of all targets is terminated.
Acquisition and Tracking
ENTER: Registers menu options selected.
Automatic acquisition of up to 20 targets plus manual acquisition of 20
targets, or fully manual acquisition of 40 targets between 0.1 and 32 nm (0.1 VECTOR TRUE/REL: Selects a vector length of 30s 1, 2, 3, 6, 12, 15 or
and 24 nm depending on initial setting) 30min.

Automatic tracking of all acquired targets between 0.1 and 32 nm (0.1 and TARGET DATA: Displays data on one of tracked targets selected by the
24 nm depending on initial setting) trackball.

Vectors TARGET BASED SPEED: Own ship’s speed is measured relative to a fixed
target.
Vector length: 30 sec, 1, 2, 3, 6, 12, 15, 30 min.
AUTO PLOT: Activates and deactivates the ARPA functions.
Orientation: True velocity or relative velocity
TRIAL: Shows consequences of own ship’s speed and course against all
Motion trend: Displayed within 20 scans, full accuracy within 60 scans tracked targets.
after acquisition.
LOST TARGET: Silences the lost target aural alarm and erases the lost target
Past positions: Choice of 5 or 10 past positions at intervals of 30 sec, symbol.
1,2,3 or 6 min.
HISTORY: shows and erases pat positions of tracked targets.
Alarms: Visual and audible alarms against targets violating CPA/
TCPA limits, lost targets, targets crossing guard zone ACQ: (on control panel): Manually acquires a target.
(guard ring), system failure and target full status.
AUDIO OFF: (on control panel): Silences aural alarm.
Trial maneuver: Predicted situation appears in 1 min after selected delay
(1-60 minutes).

223
 ARPA MENU OPERATION Entering Own Ship’s Speed

Various parameters or the Auto Plotter are set on the ARPA 1 and ARPA 2 The ARPA requires own ship’s speed and heading data. Of these, the
menus. To do this, follow the steps shown below: speed data can be entered automatically from a speed log, navaid, or
manually through the numeric keys or based on a selected reference target
1. Press the AUTO PLOT key if the Auto Plotter is not yet activated. Note (such as a buoy or other prominent stationary target).
that the label ARPPA appears in the upper right box on the screen.
Automatic Speed Input
2. Press the E, AUTO PLOT MENU key to show the ARPA 1 menu.
1. Press the RADAR MENU key on the plotting keypad to show the
3. Press the (0) key once if you wish to go to the ARPA 2 menu. FUNCTIONS menu.

4. Select a desired menu item by pressing the corresponding numeric key. 2. Press the (6) key to select menu item 6 SHIP’S SPEED.

5. Select a menu option by pressing the same numeric key as pressed in step 3. Press the (6) key to select (or highlight) LOG option.
3 above. If there is more than one option on the current menu item, you
may need to press the numeric key several times. Press it until the desired 4. Press the ENTER key to conclude your selection followed by the RADAR
option is highlighted. (Note that certain menu items will prompt you to MENU key to close the FUNCTIONS menu. The ship’s speed readout at
enter numeric data or to define points on the radar screen with the the top of the screen shows own ship’s speed fed from the speed log
trackball). preceded by the label “LOG”.

6. Press the ENTER key to register settings. 5. When the speed log is used, select speed reference to either of SEA or
GND (ground) on the ARPA 2 menu.
7. Press the E, AUTO PLOT MENU key to close the menu.
Notes:
1. IMO Resolution A.823:1995 for ARPA recommends that a speed log to be
START UP PROCEDURE interfaced with an ARPA should be capable of providing through the water
speed data rather than over the ground speed.
Activating the ARPA 2. Be sure not to select LOG when a speed log is not connected. If the log
signal is not provided, the ship speed readout at the top of the screen will be
To activate the ARPA: blank. In the event of a log error, you can continue plotting by entering a
manual speed.
1. Adjust the A/C RAIN, A/C SEA and GAIN controls for proper radar 3. If a log signal interval becomes more than 30 seconds with the ship’s
picture. speed 5 knots or more, the radar regards the speed log is in trouble and LOG
FAIL appears, reading xx.xKT. For R-type, if no speed input is present for 3
2. Press the AUTO PLOT key. The label ARPA appears in the box at the minutes at below 0.1 knots, the radar regards the log is in failure.
upper right on the screen.

224
Manual Speed Input To establish target based speed:

To manually enter the ship’s speed with the numeric keys: 1. Select a small fixed island or any radar prominent point located at 0.2 to
24 nm from own ship.
1. Press the RADAR MENU key on the plotting keypad to show the
FUNCTIONS menu. 2. Place the cursor (+) on the target by operating the trackball.

2. Press the key (6) to select menu item 6 SHIP’S SPEED. 3. Press the TARGET BASED SPEED key. the reference target mark
appears at the cursor position and the own ship data label changes from
3. Press the key (6) to select (or highlight) MAN option. “LOG”, “NAV” or “MENU” to “REF”. Note that it takes one minute
before a new speed is displayed.
4. Press the ENTER key to conclude your selection. At this point,
“MAN=xx.xKT” appears at the bottom of the FUNCTIONS menu. Notes:
1. When the reference target is lost or goes out of the acquisition range, the
5. Enter the ship speed by hitting corresponding numeric keys followed by reference target mark blinks and the speed reads “xx.x.”
the ENTER key without omitting leading zeroes, if any. As an example, if 2. When all targets are deleted, the reference target mark is also deleted and
the ship speed is 8 knots, press (0)(8) ENTER. For 4.5 knots, (0)(4)(5) the target based speed becomes invalid. the speed is indicated in KTBT
ENTER. where BT means Bottom Track (speed over ground).
3. The vector of the reference target can be displayed by menu operation
6. Press the RADAR MENU key to close the FUNCTIONS menu. The ship (Auto Plot 1 menu).
speed readout at the screen top shows own ship’s speed you entered
preceded by the label “MANU”. Cancelling Target Based Speed

Target Based Speed To cancel the target based speed, just press the TARGET BASED SPEED
key. The speed is shown by LOG, NAV* or MANUAL as selected
The use of target based speed is recommended when: previously. (NAV only on R-type).

1. The speed log is not operating properly. or not connected to the radar. Deactivating the ARPA

2. The vessel has no device which can measure ship’s leeward movement To deactivate the ARPA, just press the AUTO PLOT key. Target plotting
(doppler sonar, speed log, etc.) though leeward movement cannot be symbols and the on-screen label ARPA will disappear.
disregarded.
Note: Even when the ARPA is turned off, target tracking still goes on until
If you select target based speed, the Auto Plotter calculates own ship’s the radar id turned off.
speed relative to a fixed reference target.

Note: When the target based speed is adopted, automatically or manually AUTOMATIC ACQUISITION
entered ship’s speed is disregarded.
The ARPA can acquire up to 40 targets (20 automatically and 20
manually or all 40 manually). If AUTO ACQ is selected after more than 20
targets have been manually acquired, only the remaining capacity of targets
can be automatically acquired. For example, when 30 targets have been
acquired manually, then the ARPA is switched to AUTO ACQ. Only 10

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targets can be acquired automatically. A target just acquired automatically is 2. Press the (2) key to select menu item 2 AUTO ACQ AREA.
marked with a broken square and a vector appears about one minute after
acquisition indicating the target’s motion trend. Three minutes after 3. Further press the (2) key to select (or highlight) menu option 3, 6 nautical
acquisition, the initial tracking stage is finished and the target becomes ready miles.
for stable tracking. At this point, the broken square mark changes to a solid
circle. (Targets automatically acquired are distinguished from those acquired 4. Press the ENTER key to confirm your selection followed by the E, AUTO
manually, displayed by bold symbol). PLOT MENU key to close the ARPA 1 menu.

Enabling and Disabling Auto Acquisition To set auto acquisition areas with trackball:

1. Press the E, AUTO PLOT key if the ARPA is not yet activated. Note that 1. Press the E, AUTO PLOT MENU key to show the ARPA 1 menu.
the label ARPA appears in the box at the upper right on the screen.
2. Press the (2) key to select menu item 2 AUTO ACQ AREA.
2. Press the E, AUTO PLOT MENU key to show the ARPA 1 menu.
3. Further press the (2) key to select (or highlight) SET option.
3. Press the (1) key to select menu item 1 AUTO ACQ.
4. Press the ENTER key to conclude your selection. At this point the AUTO
4. Further press the (1) key to select (or highlight) ON (enable auto ACQ SETTING menu is displayed at the screen bottom.
acquisition) or OFF (disable auto acquisition) as appropriate.
5. Press the (2) key to select menu item 2 1/2 and press the ENTER key.
5. Press the ENTER key to conclude your selection followed by the E,
AUTO PLOT MENU key to close the AUTO PLOT 1 menu. Note that the 6. Place the cursor at the outer counterclockwise corner of the area and press
label AUTO+MAN is displayed in the box at the upper right on the screen the ENTER key.
when auto acquisition is enabled; MAN when auto acquisition is disabled.
7. Place the cursor at the clockwise edge of the area and press the ENTER
Note: When the ARPA has acquired 20 targets automatically, the message key.
AUTO TARGET FULL is displayed in the box at the right hand side of the
screen. Note: If you wish to create an auto acquisition area having a 360 degree
coverage around own ship, set point B in almost the same direction (approx.
Setting Auto Acquisition Areas +/-3) as point A and press the ENTER key.

Instead of limits lines, auto acquisition areas are provided in the system. 8. Repeat steps 5 and 7 above if you want to set another auto acquisition area
There are two setting methods: with the trackball.

3, 6 Nautical Miles: Two predefined auto acquisition areas; one between 9. Press the (1) key followed by the E, AUTO PLOT MENU key to close the
3.0 and 3.5 nautical miles and the other between 5.5 and 6.0 nautical miles. ARPA 1 menu.

SET: Two sector shaped or full circle auto acquisition areas set by using An auto acquisition area like the example shown above appears on the
the trackball. display. Note that each auto acquisition area has a fixed radial extension
width of 0.5 nautical miles.
To activate two predefined auto acquisition areas (3 & 6 NM):
Note that the auto acquisition areas are preserved in an internal memory
1. Press the E, AUTO PLOT MENU key to show the ARPA 1 menu. of the ARPA even when auto acquisition is disabled or the ARPA is turned
off.

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Terminating Tracking of Targets the plot symbol changes to a solid mark. If acquisition fails, the target plot
symbol blinks and disappears shortly.
When the ARPA has acquired 20 targets automatically, the message
AUTO TARGET FULL is displayed in the box at right hand side of the Notes:
screen and no more auto acquisition occurs unless targets are lost. You may 1. For successful acquisition, the target to be acquired should be within 0.1
find this message before you set an auto acquisition area. Should this to 32 nautical miles from own ship and not obscured by sea or rain clutter.
happen, cancel tracking of less important targets or perform manual 2. When you have acquired 40 targets manually, the message MAN
acquisition. TARGET FULL is displayed at the screen bottom. Cancel tracking of non
threatening targets if you wish to acquire additional targets manually.
Individual Targets

Place the cursor (+) on a target to cancel tracking by operating the CHANGING PLOT SYMBOL SIZE
trackball. Press the CANCEL key.
You may also choose plot symbol size. To choose a large or standard size
All Targets for all plot symbols:

Press and hold the CANCEL key down more than 3 seconds. In the 1. Press the E, AUTO PLOT MENU key on the plotting keypad followed by
automatic acquisition mode, acquisition begins again. the keys (0) to show the ARPA 2 menu.

Discrimination Between Landmass and True Targets 2. Press the (3) key to select 3 MARK SIZE.

A target is recognized as a landmass and thus not acquired if it is 800 3. Further press the (3) key to select (or highlight) STANDARD or LARGE
meters or more in range or bearing direction. as appropriate.

4. Press the ENTER key to conclude your selection followed by the E,

MANUAL ACQUISITION AUTO PLOT MENU key to close the ARPA 2 menu.

In auto acquisition mode (AUTO ACQ ON), up to 20 targets can be

manually acquired in addition to 20 auto acquired targets. When auto ADJUSTING BRILLIANCE OF PLOT MARKS
acquisition is disabled (AUTO ACQ OFF), up to 40 targets can be manually
acquired and automatically tracked. 1. Press the RADAR MENU key on the plotting keypad to show the
FUNCTIONS menu.
To manually acquire a target:
2. Press the (9) key to show the BRILLIANCE menu.
1. Place the cursor (+) on a target of interest by operating the trackball.
3. Press the (7) key to select 7 PLOT BRILL.
2. Press the ACQ key on the control panel. The selected plot symbol is
marked at the cursor position. 4. Further press the (7) key to select (or highlight) a desired brilliance level.

Note that the plot symbol is drawn by broken lines during the initial tracking 5. Press the ENTER key to confirm your selection followed by the RADAR
stage. A vector appears in about one minute after acquisition indicating the MENU key to close the FUNCTION menu.
target’s motion trend. If the target is consistently detected for three minutes,

227
 Figure 5.18 - ARPA Symbols
228
Figure 5.19 - ARPA Symbols (continued)

229
 DISPLAYING TARGET DATA

The Auto Plotter calculates motion trends (range, bearing, course, speed, RNG/BRG: Range and bearing from own ship to the selected target with
CPA and TCPA) of all plotted targets suffix “T” (True) or “R” (Relative).

In head up and head up true bearing modes, target bearing, course and CSE/SPD: Course and speed are displayed for the selected target with suffix
speed shown in the upper right target data field become true (suffix “T”) or “T” or “R”.
relative (suffix “R”) to own ship in accordance with the true/relative vector
setting. In north up, course up and true motion modes, the target data field CSE/SPD: CPA (Closest Point of Approach) is the closest range a target will
always displays true bearing, true course and speed over the ground. approach to own ship. TCPA is the time to CPA. Both CPA and TCPA are
automatically calculated. When a target ship has passed clear of own ship,
Place the cursor on the desired target and press the TARGET DATA key CPA is prefixed with an asterisk such as, CPA * 1.5NM. TCPA is counted to
on the plotting keypad. Data on the selected target is displayed at the upper 99.9 min and beyond this, it reads TCPA.*99.9MIN.
right corner of the screen. A typical target data display is shown in figure
5.20. BCR/BCT: Bow crossing range is a range of a target which will pass dead
ahead of own ship at a calculated distance. BCT is the time when BCR
occurs.

Figure 5.20 - Target Data

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 MODE AND LENGTH OF VECTORS

True or Relative Vector

Target vectors can be displayed relative to own ship’s heading (relative) or

with reference to the north (true).

Press the VECTOR TRUE/REL key to select true or relative vectors. This
feature is available in all presentation modes (gyrocompass must be working
correctly). The current vector mode is indicated at the upper right corner of
the screen.

True Vector
Figure 5.22 - Relative vectors in head-up mode
In the true motion mode, all fixed targets such as land, navigational marks
and ships at anchor remain stationary on the radar screen with vector length Vector Time
zero. But in the presence of wind and/or current, true vectors appear on fixed
targets representing the reciprocal of set and drift affecting own ship unless Vector time (or length of vectors) can be set to 30 seconds, 1, 2, 3, 6, 12,
set and drift values are properly entered (see figure 5.21). 15 or 30 minutes and the selected vector time is indicated at the upper right
corner of the screen.

Press the VECTOR TIME key to select desired vector time. The vector tip
shows an estimated position of the target after the selected vector time
elapses. It can be valuable to extend the vector length to evaluate the risk of
collision with any target.

PAST POSITIONS

The ARPA displays equally time spaced dots marking the past positions
of any targets being tracked.

Figure 5.21 - True vectors in head-up mode

A new dot is added every minute (or at preset time intervals) until the
present number is reached. If a target changes it speed, the spacing will be
Relative Vector uneven. If it changes the course, its plotted course will not be a straight line.

Relative vectors on targets which are not moving over the ground such as Displaying and Erasing Past Positions
land, navigational marks and ships at anchor will represent the reciprocal of
own ship’s ground track. A target of which vector extension passes through To display past positions, press the HISTORY key to display past
own ship is on the collision course. (See figure 5.22 - dotted lines are for positions of targets being tracked. The label HISTORY appears at the upper
explanation only). right corner of the screen.

To erase past positions, press the HISTORY key again.

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Selecting the Number of Dots and Past Position Intervals CAUTION: The CPA/TCPA alarm feature should never be relied upon as the
sole means for detecting the risk of collision. The navigator is not relieved of
1. Press the E, AUTO PLOT MENU key on the plotting keyboard to show the responsibility to keep visual lookout for avoiding collisions, whether or
the ARPA 1 menu. not the radar or other plotting aid is in use.

2. Press the (7) key to select menu item 7 HISTORY POINTS. To set the CPA/TCPA alarm ranges:

3. Further press the (7) key to select a desired number of past positions (5, 1. Press the E, AUTO PLOT MENU key on the plotting keypad to show the
10, 20, 30, 100, 150 or 200). The IMO-type has the selection of only 5 or ARPA 1 menu.
10.
2. Press the (6) key to select menu item 6 CPA, TCPA SET. At this point, a
4. Press the ENTER key to confirm your selection. highlight cursor appears at the “CPAx.xNM” field.

5. Press the (8) key to select menu item 8 HISTORY INTERVAL. 3. Enter the CPA alarm range in nautical miles (max 9.9 min) without
omitting leading zeroes, if any, and press the ENTER key. The highlight
6. Further press the (8) key to select a desired past position plot interval (30 cursor now moves to the:TCPAxx.xMIN” field.
seconds, 1, 2, 3 or 6 minutes).
4. Enter the TCPA alarm limit in minutes (max.99.0 min) without omitting
7. Press the ENTER key to conclude your selection. leading zeroes, if any, and press the ENTER key.

8. Press the E, AUTO PLOT MENU key to close the menu. 5. Press the E, AUTO PLOT MENU key to close the menu.

Silencing CPA/TCPA Aural Alarm

SETTING CPA/TCPA ALARMS RANGES
Press the AUDIO OFF key to acknowledge and silence the CPA/TCPA aural
The ARPA continuously monitors the predicted range at the CPA and alarm.
predicted time to CPA (TCPA) of each tracked target to own ship.
The warning label COLLISION and the flashing of the triangle plot
When the predicted CPA of any target becomes smaller than a preset CPA symbol and vector remain on the screen until the dangerous situation is gone
alarm range and its predicted TCPA less than a preset TCPA alarm limit, the or you intentionally terminate tracking of the target by using the CANCEL
ARPA releases an aural alarm and displays the warning label COLLISION key.
on the screen. In addition, the ARPA symbol changes to a triangle and
flashes together with its vector. Setting a Guard Zone

Provided that this feature is used correctly, it will help prevent the risk of When a target transits the operator-set guard zone, the buzzer sounds and
collision by alerting you to threatening targets. It is important that GAIN, A/ the indication GUARD RING appears at the screen bottom. The target
C SEA, A/C RAIN and other radar controls are properly adjusted. causing the warning is clearly indicated with an inverted flashing triangle.

CPA/TCPA alarm ranges must be set up properly taking into CAUTION: The Guard Zone (Guard Ring) should never be relied upon as a
consideration the size, tonnage, speed, turning performance and other sole means for detecting the risk of collision. The navigator is not relieved of
characteristics of own ship. the responsibility to keep a visual lookout for avoiding collisions, whether or
not the radar or other plotting aid is in use.

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Activating the Guard Zone Deactivating the Guard Zone

No. 1 Guard Zone is available between 3 and 6 nm with a fixed range 1. Press the E, AUTO PLOT MENU key on the plotting keyboard to show
depth of 0.5 nm. No. 2 GZ may be set anywhere when No. 1 GZ is valid. the ARPA 1 menu.

To set and activate the guard zone: 2. Press the (3) key to select menu item 3 GUARD RING.

1. Press the E, AUTO PLOT MENU key on the plotting keyboard to show 3. Further press the (3) key to select (or highlight) OFF to deactivate the
the ARPA 1 menu. guard zone.

2. Press the (3) key to select menu item 3 GUARD RING. 4. Press the ENTER key to conclude your selection followed by the E,
AUTO PLOT MENU key to close the ARPA 1 menu.
3. Further press the (3) key to select (or highlight) ON to activate the guard
zone. Silencing the Guard Zone Audible Alarm

4. Press the ENTER key to conclude your selection. Press the AUDIO OFF key to acknowledge and silence the guard zone
audible alarm.
5. Press the (4) key to select menu item 4 GUARD RING SET. At this point
the GUARD SETTING menu is displayed at the screen bottom. Operational Warnings

6. Press the (2) key and enter key. (2) (2) (ENTER) when setting the no. 2 There are six main situations which cause the Auto Plotter to trigger
ring. visual and aural alarms:

7. Place the cursor at the outer left corner of the area (point 1) and press the • CPA/TCPA alarm
ENTER key.
• Guard zone alarm
8. Place the cursor at the right edge of the area (point 2) and press the • Lost target alarm
ENTER key.
• Target full alarm for manual acquisition
Note: If you wish to create a guard zone having a 360-degree coverage
around own ship, set point 2 in almost the same direction (approx. +/- 3°) as • Target full alarm for automatic acquisition
point 1 and press the ENTER key. • System failures
9. Press the (1) key followed by the E, AUTO PLOT MENU key to close the The audible alarm can be set to OFF through the AUTO PLOT 2 menu.
ARPA 1 menu.

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CPA/TCPA Alarm Target Full Alarm

Visual and aural alarms are generated when the predicted CPA and TCPA When the memory becomes full, the memory full status is indicated and
of any target become less than their preset limits. Press the AUDIO OFF key the relevant indication appears on the screen and a short beep sounds.
to acknowledge and silence the CPA/TCPA aural alarm.
Manually Acquired Targets
Guard Zone Alarm
The indication “MAN TARGET FULL” appears at the screen bottom and
Visual and audible alarms are generated when a target transmits the a short beep tone sounds when the number of manually acquired targets
operator-set guard zone. Press the AUDIO OFF key to acknowledge and reaches 20 or 40 depending on whether auto acquisition is activated or not.
silence the guard zone audible alarm.
Automatically Acquired Targets
Lost Target Alarm
The indication “AUTO TARGET FULL” appears at the screen bottom and
When the system detects a loss of a tracked target, the target symbol a short beep tone sounds when the number of automatically acquired targets
becomes a flashing diamond. and the label “LOST” appears at the screen reaches 20.
bottom. At the same time, an aural alarm is produced for one second.
System Failure Alarm
Press the LOST TARGET key to acknowledge the lost target alarm. Then,
the lost target mark disappears. When the ARP board receives no signal input from the radar or external
equipment, the screen shows both “SYSTEM FAIL” associated with an
indication denoting offending equipment, also releasing an aural alarm. The
missing signals are denoted as shown below:

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 TRIAL MANEUVER To perform a trial maneuver:

Trial simulates the effect on all tracked targets against own ship’s 1. Press the E, AUTO PLOT MENU key on the plotting keypad followed by
maneuver without interrupting the updating of target information. the (0) key to show the ARPA 2 menu.

There are two types of trial maneuvers: STATIC and DYNAMIC. 2. Press the (2) key to select 2 TRIAL MANEUVER.

Dynamic Trial Maneuver 3. Further press the (2) key to select (or highlight) STATIC or DYNAMIC
trial maneuver option as appropriate.
A dynamic trial maneuver displays predicted positions of the tracked
targets and own ship. You enter own ship’s intended speed and course with a 4. Press the ENTER key to conclude your selection followed by the E,
certain “delay time”. Assuming that all tracked targets maintain their present AUTO PLOT MENU key to close the ARPA 2 menu.
speeds and courses, the targets’ and own ship’s future movements are
simulated in one second increments indicating their predicted positions in 5. Press the VECTOR TRUE/REL key to select true or relative vector.
one minute intervals.
6. Press the TRIAL key. The TRIAL DATA SETTING menu appears at the
The delay time represents the time lag from the present time to the time screen bottom associated with the current own ship’s speed and course
when own ship will actually start to change her speed and/or course. You readouts.
should therefore take into consideration own ship’s maneuvering
characteristics such as rudder delay, turning delay and acceleration delay. Note: The second line reads (STATIC MODE) in the event of a static trial
This is particularly important on large vessels. How much the delay is set the maneuver.
situation starts immediately and ends in a minute.
7. Enter own ship’s intended speed, course and delay time in the following
Note that once a dynamic trial maneuver is initiated, you cannot alter own manner:
ship’s trial speed, course or delay time until the trial maneuver is terminated.
Speed: Set with the VRM control.
Static Trial Maneuver Course: Set with the EBL control.
Delay time: Enter in minutes by hitting numeral keys. This is the time
A static trial maneuver displays only the final situation of the simulation. after which own ship takes a new situation, not the time the
If you enter the same trial speed, course and delay time under the same simulation begins. Change the delay time according to own
situation as in the aforementioned example of dynamic trial maneuver, the ship loading condition, etc.
screen will instantly show position OS7 for own ship, position A7 for target
A and position B7 for target B, omitting the intermediate positions. Thus, the 8. Press the TRIAL key again to start a trial maneuver.
static trial maneuver will be convenient when you wish to know the
maneuver result immediately. Trial maneuver takes place in three minutes with the letter “T” displayed
at the bottom of the screen. If any tracked target is predicted to be on a
Note: For accurate simulation of ship movements in a trial maneuver, own collision course with own ship (that is, the target ship comes within preset
ship’s characteristics such as acceleration and turning performance should be CPA/TCPA limits), the target plot symbol changes to a triangle and flashes.
properly set in initial settings at the time of installation. If this happens, change own ship’s trial speed, course or delay time to obtain
a safe maneuver. The trial maneuver is automatically terminated and the
normal radar picture is restored three minutes later.

Terminating Trial Maneuver

Press the TRIAL key again at any time.

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 CRITERIA FOR SELECTING TARGETS FOR TRACKING trackball. Automatic acquisition is done in the acquisition areas when a
target is detected 5-7 times continuously depending upon the congestion.
The FURUNO ARPA video processor detects targets in midst of noise Tracking is achieved when the target is clearly distinguishable on the display
and discriminates radar echoes on the basis of their size. Target whose echo for 5 out of 10 consecutive scans whether acquired automatically or
measurements are greater than those of the largest ship in range or tangential manually. Targets not detected in 5 consecutive scans become “lost targets”.
extent are usually land and are displayed only as normal radar video. All
smaller ship sized echoes which are less than this dimension are further Quantization
analyzed and regarded as ships and displayed as small circles superimposed
over the video echo. The entire picture is converted to a digital from called “Quantized Video”.
A sweep range is divided into small segments and each range elements is “1”
When a target is first displayed, it is shown as having zero true speed but if there is radar echo return above a threshold level, or “0” if there is no
develops a course vector as more information is collected. In accordance return.
with the International Maritime Organization Automatic Radar Plotting Aid
requirements, an indication of the motion trend should be available in 1 The digital radar signal is then analyzed by a ship sized echo
minute and full vector accuracy in 3 minutes of plotting. The FURUNO discriminator. As the antenna scans, if there are 5 consecutive radar pulses
ARPAs comply with these requirements. with l’s indicating an echo presence at the exact same range, a target “start”
is initiated. Since receiver noise is random, it is not three bang correlated,
Acquisition and Tracking and it is filtered out and not classified as an echo.

A target which is hit by 5 consecutive radar pulses is detected as a radar

echo. Manual acquisition is done by designing a detected echo with the

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 RADAR OBSERVATION

GENERAL Bearing Resolution

Bearing resolution is the ability of the radar to display as separate pips the
Minimum Range echoes received from two targets which are at the same range and close
together. It is proportional to the antenna length and reciprocally
The minimum range is defined by the shortest distance at which, using a proportional to the wavelength. The length of the antenna radiator should be
scale of 1.5 or 0.75 nm, a target having an echoing area of 10 square meters chosen for a bearing resolution better than 2.5° (IMO Resolution). This
is still shown separate from the point representing the antenna position. condition is normally satisfied with a radiator of 1.2 meters (4 feet) or longer
in the X band. The S band radar requires a radiator of about 12 feet (3.6
It is mainly dependent on the pulse length, antenna height, and signal meters) or longer.
processing such as main bang suppression and digital quantization. It is good
practice to use a shorter range scale as far as it gives favorable definition or Range Resolution
clarity of picture. The IMO Resolution A. 477 (XII) and IEC 936 require the
minimum range to be less than 50m. All FURUNO radars satisfy this Range resolution is the ability to display as separate pips the echoes
requirement. received from two targets which are on the same bearing and close to each
other. This is determined by pulselength only. Practically, a 0.08
Maximum Range microsecond pulse offers the discrimination better than 25 meters as do so
with all Furuno radars.
The maximum detecting range of the radar, Rmax, varies considerably
depending on several factors such as the height of the antenna above the Test targets for determining the range and bearing resolution are radar
waterline, the height of the target above the sea, the size, shape and material reflectors having an echo area of 10 square meters.
of the target, and the atmospheric conditions.
Bearing Accuracy
Under normal atmospheric conditions, the maximum range is equal to the
radar horizon or a little shorter. The radar horizon is longer than the optical One of the most important features of the radar is how accurately the
one about 6% because of the diffraction property of the radar signal. It bearing of a target can be measured. The accuracy of bearing measurement
should be noted that the detection range is reduced by precipitation (which basically depends on the narrowness of the radar beam. However, the
absorbs the radar signal). bearing is usually taken relative to the ship’s heading, and thus, proper
adjustment of the heading marker at installation is an important factor in
X-Band and S-Band ensuring bearing accuracy. To minimize error when measuring the bearing of
a target, put the target echo at the extreme position on the screen by selecting
In fair weather, the above equation does not give a significant difference a suitable range.
between X and S band radars. However, in heavy precipitation condition, an
S band radar would have better detection than X band. Range Measurement
Radar Resolution Measurement of the range to a target is also a very important function of
the radar. Generally, there are two means of measuring range: the fixed range
There are two important factors in radar resolution: bearing resolution and rings and the variable range marker (VRM). The fixed range rings appear on
range resolution. the screen with a predetermined interval and provide a rough estimate of the
range to a target. The variable range marker’s diameter is increased or
decreased so that the marker touches the inner edge of the target, allowing
the operator to obtain more accurate range measurements.

237
 FALSE ECHOES Virtual Image

A relatively large target close to your ship may be represented at two

Occasionally echo signals appear on the screen at positions where there is positions on the screen. One of them is the true echo directly reflected by the
no target or disappear even if there are targets. They are, however, target and the other is a false echo which is caused by the mirror effect of a
recognized if you understand the reason why they are displayed. Typical large object on or close to your ship. If your ship comes close to a large
false echoes are shown below. metal bridge, for example, such a false echo may temporarily be seen on the
screen.
Multiple Echoes
Shadow Sectors
Multiple echoes occur when a transmitted pulse returns from a solid
object like a large ship, bridge, or breakwater. A second, a third or more Funnels, stacks, masts, or derricks in the path of the antenna block the
echoes may be observed on the display at double, triple or other multiples of radar beam. If the angle subtended at the scanner is more than a few degrees,
the actual range of the target. Multiple reflection echoes can be reduced and a non-detecting sector may be produced. Within this sector targets cannot be
often removed by decreasing the gain (sensitivity) or properly adjusting the detected.
A/C SEA control.

Sidelobe Echoes SEARCH AND RESCUE TRANSPONDER (SART)

Every time the radar pulse is transmitted, some radiation escapes on each A Search and Rescue Transponder (SART) may be triggered by any X-
side of the beam, called “sidelobes”. If a target exists where it can be Band (3 cm) radar within a range of approximately 8 nautical miles. Each
detected by the side lobe as well as the main lobe, the side echoes may be radar pulse received causes it to transmit a response which is swept
represented on both sides of the true echo at the same range. Side lobes show repetitively across the complete radar frequency band. When interrogated, it
usually only on short ranges and from strong targets. They can be reduced first sweeps rapidly (0.4 microseconds) through the band before beginning a
through careful reduction of the gain or proper adjustment of the A/C SEA relatively slow sweep (7.5 microseconds) through the back band to the
control. starting frequency. This process is repeated for a total of twelve complete
cycles. At some point in each sweep, the SART frequency will match that of
the interrogating radar and be within the pass band of the radar receiver. If
the STRT is within range, the frequency match during each of the 12 slow

238
 POST-IT NOTE METHOD OF RADAR CONTACT THREAT AND ASPECT ASSESSMENT
Contributed by Mr. Eric K. Larsson

Rapid radar plotting has been useful for the ocean mariner, but has always
been viewed as a burden by the coastal or inland mariner. Some common
complaints are listed below:

• I don’t have a reflection plotter!

• I don’t stay on course long enough to plot a target!

• I don’t have time to plot - I’m the only one in the wheelhouse and I
have to steer!

Many of these statements are valid, but if one does not use radar plotting
or some other form of systematic observation, as required by the Rules of the
Road, that person is missing out on vital information and they are putting
themselves and their vessel in an unfavorable position. When the U.S. Coast
Guard N-VIC on radar training for tugboat captains, mates and pilots was
issued, it was felt that some sort of useful, practical training should be added
to the plotting requirements that have always been part of radar courses.
Because most of the individuals affected by the N-VIC were on tugs or
towboats, that practical method of plotting or observation had been geared to
the equipment found on board those vessels.
Figure 5.23
Radar on tugs have small screens and are usually a raster scan head up
unstabilized type display. there is no reflection plotter. Because of limited
space and time constraints, transfer plotting is not practical. Experience
shows that without use, plotting skills deteriorate. To keep these skills sharp,
post-it notes and the use of echo trails or the plot feature on certain radar “I don’t stay on course long enough to plot a targets this statement the
units can be used to substitute for plotting with pencils and rulers. Other question is asked, “Do you stay on course for 3 minutes?” The answer is
variations have been utilized in the past such as tongue depressor or a plastic usually “Yes.” The plot feature allows the operator to note the time the target
overlay but the post-it note method seems to be quicker and easier to use. It began tracking and choose a time interval that is appropriate for the vessel,
also deals with the four complaints stated above. the range scale used on the radar and the speed of the vessel.
“I don’t have a reflection plotter.” In exchange for a reflection plotter, the In figure 5.24, our vessel is moving at a speed of 8 knots. A time interval
plot feature on certain small screen radars allows the operator to view the of 3 minutes is selected. Using the 6 minute rule, a vessel moving 8 miles in
relative track of the target at selected intervals of 15, 30 or 60 seconds or 60 minutes will move 0.8 miles in 6 minutes (1/10 the time and 1/10 the
more A continuous track of the target with a timer that counts up in seconds distance). In order to find the distance traveled in 3 minutes, the distance for
can also be selected. In figure 5.23, a continuous echo trail has been selected 6 minutes is cut in half and a vessel moving 0.8 miles in 6 minutes will move
and allowed to run for 3 minutes. This is the equivalent of a three minute 0.4 miles in 3 minutes (1/2 the time and 1/2 the distance).

239
 The radar range scale in use is 3 miles. A distance of 0.4 miles is Assume in this example (figure 5.25) that our course is 270 degrees at a
measured on the radar using the Variable Range Marker (VRM). Place the speed of 8 knots. To obtain the course and speed of the target place the
post-it note parallel to the heading flasher and the upper left or right corner corner with the first mark on the post-it note at the beginning of the target
touching the 0.4nm VRM. Mark the post-it note at the corner and at the start trail or plot echo parallel to the heading flasher. Observe the direction of a
point of the heading flasher. This measured distance on the pot-it note is the line that would connect the second mark on the post-it note with the target.
equivalent of a 3-minute segment of our vessel’s movement. It is the This line indicates the course of the target (indicated by a red line). The
equivalent of the “er” vector in rapid radar plotting. speed of the target over the 3-minute time period can be compared with the
distance we would travel over 3 minutes as indicated by the two marks on
the post-it note.

Figure 5.24 Figure 5.25

Repeat the process for the other corner/side of the post-it note. Once If you drew a line drawn from the second mark to the target at the end of a
made, the post-it note will work for that range scale and speed, and can be 3 minute interval you can determine the targets course relative to our
stuck to the side of the radar ready for use at any time. Other scales can be heading of 270 degrees. The dashed EBL line shown above is parallel to the
mode for different speeds or ranges as needed. This process only takes a few line drawn from the post-it note to the target position at minute 3.00. It has to
seconds and can be done “on the spot.” be read in the direction from the post-it note to the target (hence the solid
line in the direction of 260). With our heading of 270 degrees the relative
“I don’t have time to plot - I’m the only one in the wheelhouse and I have bearing will read 260 degrees. If you add 260 and 270 (530) and then
to steer!” The echo trail allows the single officer in the wheelhouse to subtract 360 the target’s true course is found to be 170 degrees.
“systematically observe” the movement of vessels. The echo trails alone,
however will not give the officer much more information than which targets This is shown on the compass rose in figure 5.26.
are collision threats. The post-it note will allow the officer to obtain more
information. This includes the aspect of the target as well as the ability to The length of the line is a little shorter than the distance between marks on
obtain the approximate course and speed of the target. the post-it note. This length could be measured at about 0.35nm in three

240
 Figure 5.26

minutes which translates to about 7 knots. This line is the equivalent of the
target course and speed vector “em” in rapid radar plotting.
Figure 5.27

A second example is shown in figure 5.27 for a target on a reciprocal

course at a speed approximately equal to our own.

Because of the valid statements listed above about the ability to reflection
plot, and rules of the road requirement to plot, a practical method of plotting
needs to be used. It is hoped the pot-it method will assist the mariner in his
efforts to “systematically observe” all targets.

241
CHAPTER 6 - MANEUVERING BOARD MANUAL

PART ONE
OWN SHIP AT CENTER

243
 EXAMPLE 1
CLOSEST POINT OF APPROACH
Situation: Solution:
Other ship M is observed as follows: (1) Plot and label the relative positions M1, M2, etc. The direction of the line
M1 M4 through them is the direction of relative movement (DRM): 130˚.
(2) Measure the relative distance (MRM) between any two points on M1M4.
M1 to M4 = 4,035 yards. Using the corresponding time interval (0920 - 0908 =
Time Bearing Range (yards) Rel. position 12m), obtain the speed of relative movement (SRM) from the Time, Distance,
0908........................ 275˚ 12,000 M1 and Speed (TDS) scales: 10 knots.
0913........................ 270˚ 10,700 M2 (3) Extend M1M4. Provided neither ship alters course or speed, the successive
0916........................ 266˚.5 10,000 M3 positions of M will plot along the relative movement line. Drop a perpendicular
0920........................ 260˚ 9,000 M4 from R to the relative movement line at M5. This is the CPA: 220˚, 6,900 yards.
(4) Measure M1M5: 9,800 yards. With this MRM and SRM obtain time inter-
val to CPA from TDS scale: 29 minutes. ETA at CPA= 0908 + 29 = 0937.

Required: Answer:
(1) Direction of Relative Movement (DRM). (1) DRM 130˚.
(2) Speed of Relative Movement (SRM). (2) SRM 10 knots.
(3) Bearing and range at Closest Point of Approach (CPA). (3) CPA 220˚, 6,900 yards.
(4) Estimated time of Arrival at CPA. (4) ETA at CPA 0937.

244
OWN SHIP AT CENTER

EXAMPLE 1

Scale: Distance 2:1 yd.

245
 EXAMPLE 2
COURSE AND SPEED OF OTHER SHIP
Situation: Solution:
Own ship R is on course 150˚, speed 18 knots. Ship M is observed as follows: (1) Plot M1, M2, M3, and R. Draw the direction of relative movement line
(RML) from M1 through M3. With the distance M1 M3 and the interval of time
Time Bearing Range (yards) Rel. position between M1 and M3, find the relative speed (SRM) by using the TDS scale: 21
1100........................ 255˚ 20,000 M1 knots. Draw the reference ship vector er corresponding to the course and speed
1107........................ 260˚ 15,700 M2 of R. Through r draw vector rm parallel to and in the direction of M1 M3 with a
1114........................ 270˚ 11,200 M3 length equivalent to the SRM of 21 knots. The third side of the triangle, em, is
the velocity vector of the ship M: 099˚, 27 knots.

Required: Answer:
(1) Course and speed of M. (1) Course 099˚, speed 27 knots.

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EXAMPLE 2

Scale: Speed 3:1;

Distance 2:1 yd.

247
 EXAMPLE 3
COURSE AND SPEED OF OTHER SHIP USING RELATIVE PLOT AS RELATIVE VECTOR
Situation: (4) Complete the vector diagram (speed triangle) to obtain the true vector em
Own ship R is on course 340˚, speed 15 knots. The radar is set on the 12-mile of ship M. The length of em represents the distance (2.5 nautical miles) traveled
range scale. Ship M is observed as follows: by ship M in 6 minutes, indicating a true speed of 25 knots.

Time Bearing Range (mi.) Rel. position

1000........................ 030˚ 9.0 M1 Note:
1006........................ 025˚ 6.3 M2 In some cases it may be necessary to construct own ship’s true vector origi-
nating at the end of the segment of the relative plot used directly as the relative
Required: vector. The same results are obtained, but the advantages of the conventional
(1) Course and speed of M. vector notation are lost.

Solution:
(1) Plot M and M2. Draw the relative movement line (RML) from M1 through Answer:
M2. (1) Course 252˚, speed 25 knots.
(2) For the interval of time between M1 and M2, find the distance own ship R
travels through the water. Since the time interval is 6 minutes, the distance in Note:
nautical miles is one-tenth of the speed of R in knots, or 1.5 nautical miles. Although at least three relative positions are needed to determine whether the
(3) Using M1M2 directly as the relative vector rm, construct the reference ship relative plot forms a straight line, for solution and graphical clarity only two rel-
true vector er to the same scale as rm (M1 - M2), or 1.5 nautical miles in length. ative positions are given in examples 3, 6, and 7.

248
OWN SHIP AT CENTER

EXAMPLE 3

Scale: 12-mile range setting

249
 EXAMPLE 4
CHANGING STATION WITH TIME, COURSE, OR SPEED SPECIFIED
Situation: (4) By measurement, the length of r3 m is an SRM of 11.5 knots and the MRM
Formation course is 010˚, speed 18 knots. At 0946 when orders are received from M2 to M3 is 2,300 yards. The required maneuver time MRM/r3 m = 6 min-
to change station, the guide M bears 140˚, range 7,000 yards. When on new sta- utes.
tion, the guide will bear 240˚, range 6,000 yards.
Answer:
(1) Course 062˚, speed 27 knots.
Required: (2) Speed 21 knots, time 25 minutes.
(1) Course and speed to arrive on station at 1000. (3) Course 330˚, speed 13.8 knots.
(2) Speed and time to station on course 045˚. Upon arrival on station orders (4) Time 6 minutes.
are received to close to 3,700 yards.
(3) Course and minimum speed to new station. Explanation:
(4) Time to station at minimum speed. In solution step (1) the magnitude (SRM) of the required relative speed vector
(r1m) is established by the relative distance (M1M2) and the time specified to
complete the maneuver (14m). In solution step (2), however, the magnitude
Solution: (12.1 knots) of the resulting relative speed vector (r2m) is determined by the dis-
(1) Plot M1 140˚, 7,000 yards and M2 240˚, 6,000 yards from R. Draw em cor- tance from the head of vector em along the reciprocal of the DRM to the point
responding to course 010˚ and speed 18 knots. The distance of 5.0 miles from where the required course (045˚) is intersected. Such intersection also establish-
M1 to M2 must be covered in 14 minutes. The SRM is therefore 21.4 knots. Draw es the magnitude (21 knots) of vector er2. The time (25m) to complete the ma-
r1m parallel to M1 M2 and 21.4 knots in length. The vector er1 denotes the re- neuver is established by the SRM (12.1 knots) and the relative distance (5
quired course and speed: 062˚, 27 knots. miles).
(2) Draw er2, course 045˚, intersecting r1m the relative speed vector at the 21- In solution step (3) the course, and minimum speed to make the guide plot
knot circle. By inspection r2m is 12.1 knots. Thus the distance M1M2 of 5.0 miles along M2M3 are established by the shortest true vector for own ship’s motion
will be covered in 24.6 minutes. that can be constructed to complete the speed triangle. This vector is perpendic-
(3) To m draw a line parallel to and in the direction of M2M3. Drop a perpen- ular to the relative vector (r3 m).
dicular from e to this line at r3. Vector er3 is the course and minimum speed re- In solution step (4) the time to complete the maneuver is established by the
quired to complete the final change of station: 330˚, 13.8 knots. relative distance (2,300 yards) and the relative speed (11.5 knots).

250
OWN SHIP AT CENTER

EXAMPLE 4

Scale: Speed 3:1;

Distance 1:1 yd.

251
 EXAMPLE 5
THREE-SHIP MANEUVERS
Situation: (4) From r draw rn. This vector is the direction and speed of N relative to R.
Own ship R is in formation proceeding on course 000˚, speed 20 knots. The From N1 draw a DRM line of indefinite length parallel to and in the direction of
guide M bears 090˚, distance 4,000 yards. Ship N is 4,000 yards ahead of the rn. From R drop a perpendicular to this line. At CPA, N bears 069˚, 5,200 yards
guide. from R.
(5) The intersection of the DRM line from N1 and the line NMN3 is N2, the
Required: point at which N resumes formation course and speed. Maximum range of N
R and N are to take new stations starting at the same time. N is to take station from R is the distance RN2, 6,500 yards.
4,000 yards on the guide’s starboard beam, using formation speed. R is to take
N’s old station and elects to use 30 knots. Answer:
(1) N’s course and time to station. (1) N’s course 090˚, time 6 minutes.
(2) R’s course and time to station. (2) R’s course 017˚, time 14 minutes.
(3) CPA of N and R to guide. (3) CPA of N to M 2,850 yards at 045˚. R to M 2,850 yards at 315˚.
(4) CPA of R to N. (4) CPA of N to R 5,200 yards at 069˚.
(5) Maximum range of R from N. (5) Range 6,500 yards.

Solution Key:
Solution: (1) Solutions for changing station by own ship R and ship N are effected sep-
(1) Plot R, M1, M2, and N1. Draw em. From M1 plot N’s new station NM, bear- arately in accordance with the situation and requirements. The CPAs of N and
ing 090˚, distance 4,000 yards. From M2 plot N3 bearing 090˚, distance 4,000 R to guide are then obtained.
yards (N’s final range and bearing from M). Draw N1NM, the DRM of N relative (2) Two solutions for the motion of ship N relative to own ship R are then ob-
to M. From m, draw mn parallel to and in the direction of N1NM intersecting the tained: relative motion while N is proceeding to new station and relative motion
20-knot speed circle at n. N’s course to station is vector en: 090˚. Time to station after N has taken new station and resumed base course and speed.
N1NM/mn is 6 minutes.
(2) To m, draw a line parallel to and in the direction of M1M2 intersecting the Explanation:
30-knot speed circle at r. R’s course to station is vector er: 017˚. Time to station In solution step (4) the movement of N in relation to R is parallel to the direc-
M1M2/rm is 14 minutes. tion of vector rn and from N1 until such time that N returns to base course and
(3) From M1 drop a perpendicular to N1NM. At CPA, N bears 045˚, 2,850 speed. Afterwards, the movement of N in relation to R is parallel to vector rm
yards from M. From R drop a perpendicular to M1M2. At CPA, R bears 315˚, and from N2 toward that point, N3, that N will occupy relative to R when the ma-
2,850 yards from M. neuver is completed.

252
OWN SHIP AT CENTER

EXAMPLE 5

Scale: Speed 3:1;

Distance 1:1 yd.

253
 EXAMPLE 6
COURSE AND SPEED TO PASS ANOTHER SHIP AT A SPECIFIED DISTANCE
Situation 1: knots. Draw the relative speed vector r1m parallel to M1M2 and 16.5 knots in
Own ship R is on course 190˚, speed 12 knots. Other ship M is observed as length. The velocity vector of M is em: 287˚, 10 knots.
follows: (3) Plot M3 bearing 153˚, 13,000 yards from R. With R as the center describe
Time Bearing Range (yards) Rel. position a circle of 3,000 yards radius, the desired distance at CPA. From M3 draw a line
1730................... 153˚ 20,000 M1 tangent to the circle at M4. This places the relative movement line of M(M3M4)
1736................... 153˚ 16,700 M2 the required minimum distance of 3,000 yards from R. Through m, draw r2m
parallel to and in the direction of M3M4 intersecting the 12-knot circle (speed of
Required: R) at r2. Own ship velocity vector is er2: course 212˚, speed 12 knots.
(1) CPA. (4) Measure the relative distance (MRM), M2M3: 3,700 yards. From the TDS
(2) Course and speed of M. scale determine the time interval between 1736 and the time to change to new
course using M2M3, 3,700 yards, and an SRM of 16.5 knots: 6.7 minutes. Mea-
Situation 2: sure the relative distance M3M4: 12,600 yards. Measure the relative speed vector
It is desired to pass ahead of M with a CPA of 3,000 yards. r2m: 13.4 knots. Using this MRM and SRM, the elapsed time to CPA after
changing course is obtained from the TDS scale: 28 minutes. The time of CPA
Required: is 1736 + 6.7 + 28 = 1811.
(3) Course of R at 12 knots if course is changed when range is 13,000 yards.
(4) Bearing and time of CPA. Note:
If M’s speed was greater than R’s, two courses would be available at 12 knots
Solution: to produce the desired distance.
(1) Plot M1 and M2 at 153˚, 20,000 yards and 153˚, 16,700 yards, respectively,
from R. Draw the relative movement line, M1M2, extended. Since the bearing is Answer:
steady and the line passes through R, the two ships are on collision courses. (1) M and R are on collision courses and speeds.
(2) Draw own ship’s velocity vector er1 190˚, 12 knots. Measure M1M2, the (2) Course 287˚, speed 10 knots.
relative distance traveled by M from 1730 to 1736: 3,300 yards. From the TDS (3) Course 212˚.
scale determine the relative speed, SRM, using 6 minutes and 3,300 yards: 16.5 (4) Bearing 076˚, time of CPA 1811.

254
OWN SHIP AT CENTER

EXAMPLE 6

Scale: Speed 2:1;

Distance 2:1 yd.

255
 EXAMPLE 7
COURSE AND SPEED TO PASS ANOTHER SHIP AT A SPECIFIED
DISTANCE USING RELATIVE PLOT AS RELATIVE VECTOR
Situation 1: (3) Using M1M2 directly as the relative vector r1 m, construct the reference
Own ship R is on course 190˚, speed 12 knots. Other ship M is observed as ship true vector er1 to the same scale as r1 m (M1M2), or 1.2 nautical miles in
follows: length.
Time Bearing Range (mi.) Rel. position (4) Complete the vector diagram (speed triangle) to obtain the true vector em
1730................... 153˚ 10.0 M1 of ship M. The length of em represents the distance (1.0 nautical miles) traveled
1736................... 153˚ 8.3 M2 by ship M in 6 minutes, indicating a true speed of 10 knots.
(5) Plot M3 bearing 153˚, 6.5 nautical miles from R. With R as the center de-
scribe a circle of 1.5 nautical miles radius, the desired distance at CPA. From
Required: M3 draw a line tangent to the circle at M4. This places the relative movement line
(1) CPA. of M (M3M4) the required minimum distance of 1.5 nautical miles from R.
(2) Course and speed of M. (6) Construct the true vector of ship M as vector e'm', terminating at M3. From
e' describe a circle of 1.2 miles radius corresponding to the speed of R of 12
Situation 2: knots intersecting the new relative movement line (M3M4) extended at point r2.
It is desired to pass ahead of M with a CPA of 1.5 nautical miles. Own ship R true vector required to pass ship M at the specified distance is vector
e'r2: course 212˚, speed 12 knots.
Required: (7) For practical solutions, the time at CPA may be determined by inspection
(3) Course of R at 12 knots if course is changed when range is 6.5 nautical or through stepping off the relative vectors by dividers or spacing dividers. Thus
miles. the time of CPA is 1736 + 6.5 + 28 = 1811.
(4) Bearing and time of CPA.
Note:
Solution: If the speed of ship M is greater than own ship R, there are two courses avail-
(1) Plot M1 and M2 at 153˚, 10.0 nautical miles and 153˚, 8.3 nautical miles, able at 12 knots to produce the desired distance.
respectively from R. Draw the relative movement line, M1M2, extended. Since
the bearing is steady and the line passes through R, the two ships are on collision Answer:
courses. (1) M and R are on collision courses and speeds.
(2) For the interval of time between M1 and M2, find the distance own ship R (2) Course 287˚, speed 10 knots.
travels through the water. Since the time interval is 6 minutes, the distance in (3) Course 212˚.
nautical miles is one-tenth of the speed of R in knots, or 1.2 nautical miles. (4) Bearing 076˚, time of CPA 1811.

256
OWN SHIP AT CENTER

EXAMPLE 7

Scale: 12-mile range setting

257
 EXAMPLE 8
COURSE AT SPECIFIED SPEED TO PASS ANOTHER SHIP AT MAXIMUM
AND MINIMUM DISTANCES
Situation: speed of M is indicated by the length of the vectors r1 m and r2 m: 26 knots. From
Ship M on course 300˚, speed 30 knots, bears 155˚, range 16 miles from own the TDS scale the times required to reach M2 and M'2 are found: 15.6 minutes
ship R whose maximum speed is 15 knots. and 36.6 minutes, respectively.
(4) Bearings are determined by inspection. M2 bears 180˚ relative because
Required: own ship’s course is along vector er1 for maximum CPA. M'2 bears 000˚ relative
(1) R’s course at 15 knots to pass M at (a) maximum distance (b) minimum when own ship’s course is er2 for minimum passing distance.
distance.
(2) CPA for each course found in (1).
(3) Time interval to each CPA. Note:
(4) Relative bearing of M from R when at CPA on each course. This situation occurs only when own ship R is (1) ahead of the other ship and
(2) has a maximum speed less than the speed of the other ship. Under these con-
Solution: ditions, own ship can intercept (collision course) only if R lies between the
(1) Plot M1 155˚, 16 miles from R. Draw the vector em 300˚, 30 knots. With slopes of M1M2 and M1M'2. Note that for limiting courses, and only for these,
e as the center, describe a circle with radius of 15 knots, the speed of R. From CPA occurs when other ship is dead ahead or dead astern. The solution to this
m draw the tangents r1 m and r2 m which produce the two limiting courses for problem is applicable to avoiding a tropical storm by taking that course which
R. Parallel to the tangents plot the relative movement lines through M1. Course results in maximum passing distance.
of own ship to pass at maximum distance is er1: 000˚. Course to pass at mini-
mum distance is er2: 240˚.
(2) Through R draw RM2 and RM'2 perpendicular to the two possible relative Answer:
movement lines. Point M2 bearing 180˚, 14.5 miles is the CPA for course of (1) Course (a) 000˚; (b) 240˚.
000˚. Point M'2 bearing 240˚, 1.4 miles is the CPA for course 240˚. (2) CPA (a) 180˚, 14.5 miles; (b) 240˚, 1.4 miles.
(3) Measure M1M2: 6.8 miles, and M1M'2: 15.9 miles. M must travel these rel- (3) Time (a) 16 minutes; (b) 37 minutes.
ative distances before reaching the CPA on each limiting course. The relative (4) Relative bearing (a) 180˚; (b) 000˚.

258
OWN SHIP AT CENTER

EXAMPLE 8

Scale: Speed 3:1;

Distance 2:1 mi.

259
 EXAMPLE 9
COURSE CHANGE IN COLUMN FORMATION ASSURING LAST SHIP IN
COLUMN CLEARS
Situation: D4’s movement of 3,000 yards at 27 knots to the turning point requires 3 min-
Own ship D1 is the guide in the van of a destroyer unit consisting of four de- utes, 20 seconds. During this interval there is a 12 knot true speed differential
stroyers (D1, D2, D3, and D4) in column astern, distance 1,000 yards. D1 is on between D4 and the formation guide M. Thus to establish the relative position
station bearing 090˚, 8 miles from the formation guide M. Formation course is of D4 to M at the instant D4 turns, advance D4 to D4' (3m 20S x 12 knots = 1,350
135˚, speed 15 knots. The formation guide is at the center of a concentric circu- yards). With D4' as a center, describe a CPA circle of radius 9,000 yards. Draw
lar ASW screen stationed on the 4-mile circle. a line from M1 tangent to this circle. This is the relative movement line required
The destroyer unit is ordered to take new station bearing 235˚, 8 miles from for D4 to clear the screen by 1,000 yards. Draw a line to m parallel to M1M2 in-
the formation guide. The unit commander in D1 decides to use a wheeling ma- tersecting the 27-knot circle at r1. This point determines the initial course, er1:
neuver at 27 knots, passing ahead of the screen using two course changes so that 194˚.2.
the CPA of his unit on each leg is 1,000 yards from the screen. (2) Plot the final relative position of M at M3 bearing 055˚, 8 miles from D1.
Draw a line from M3 tangent to the CPA circle and intersecting the first relative
Required: movement line at M2. Draw a line to m parallel to and in the direction of M2M3.
(1) New course to clear screen commencing at 1000. The intersection of this line and the 27-knot circle at r2 is the second course re-
(2) Second course to station. quired, er2: 252˚.8.
(3) Bearing and range of M from D1 at time of coming to second course. (3) Bearing and range of M2 from D1 is obtained by inspection: 337˚ at 11,250
(4) Time of turn to second course. yards.
(5) Time D1 will reach new station. (4) Time interval for M to travel to M2 is M1M2/r1m = 7.8 miles/23.2 knots =
20.2 minutes. Time of turn 1000 + 20 = 1020.
Solution: (5) Time interval for the second leg is M2M3/r2m = 8.8 miles/36.5 knots =14.2
(1) Plot own ship D1 at the center on course 135˚ with the remaining three minutes. D1 will arrive at new station at 1034.
destroyers in column as D2, D3, D4. (D2 and D3 not shown for graphical clar-
ity.) Distance between ships 1,000 yards. Plot the formation guide M at M1 bear- Answer:
ing 270˚, 8 miles from D1. Draw em, the speed vector of M. It is required that (1) Course 194˚.
the last ship in column, D4, clear M by 9,000 yards (screen radius of 4 miles plus (2) Course 253˚.
1,000 yards). At the instant the signal is executed to change station, only D1 (3) Bearing 337˚, range 11,250 yards.
changes both course and speed. The other destroyers increase speed to 27 knots (4) Time 1020.
but remain on formation course of 135˚ until each reaches the turning point. (5) Time 1034.

260
OWN SHIP AT CENTER

EXAMPLE 9

Scale: Speed 3:1;

Distance 1:1 mi.

261
 EXAMPLE 10
DETERMINATION OF TRUE WIND
Situation: ew is the true wind vector of 135˚, 20 knots (wind’s course and speed). The true
A ship is on course 240˚, speed 18 knots. The relative wind across the deck is wind, therefore, is from 315˚.
30 knots from 040˚ relative.
Answer:
Required: True wind from 315˚, speed 20 knots.
Direction and speed of true wind.

Solution: Note:
Plot er, the ship’s vector of 240˚, 18 knots. Convert the relative wind to ap- As experienced on a moving ship, the direction of true wind is always on the
parent wind by plotting rw 040˚ relative to ship’s head which results in a true same side and aft of the direction of the apparent wind. The difference in direc-
direction of 280˚T. Plot the apparent wind vector (reciprocal of 280˚T, 30 knots) tions increases as ship’s speed increases. That is, the faster a ship moves, the
from the end of the vector er. Label the end of the vector w. The resultant vector more the apparent wind draws ahead of true wind.

262
OWN SHIP AT CENTER

EXAMPLE 10

Scale: Speed 3:1

263
 EXAMPLE 11a
DESIRED RELATIVE WIND
(First Method)

Situation: ab. This produces the angular relationship between the direction from which the
An aircraft carrier is proceeding on course 240˚, speed 18 knots. True wind true wind is blowing and the launch course. In this problem the true wind should
has been determined to be from 315˚, speed 10 knots. be from 32˚ off the port bow (328˚ relative) when the ship is on launch course
and speed. The required course and speed is thus 315˚ + 32˚ = 347˚, 21 knots.
Required:
Determine a launch course and speed that will produce a relative wind across Answer:
the flight deck of 30 knots from 350˚ relative (10˚ port). Course 347˚, speed 21 knots.

Solution:
Set a pair of dividers for 30 knots using any convenient scale. Place one end Note:
of the dividers at the origin e of the maneuvering board and the other on the 350˚ As experienced on a moving ship, the direction of true wind is always on the
line, marking this point a. Set the dividers for the true wind speed of 10 knots same side and aft of the direction of the apparent wind. The difference in direc-
and place one end on point a, the other on the 000˚ line (centerline of the ship). tions increases as ship’s speed increases. That is, the faster a ship moves, the
Mark this point on the centerline b. Draw a dashed line from origin e parallel to more the apparent wind draws ahead of true wind.

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EXAMPLE 11a

Scale: Speed 3:1

265
 EXAMPLE 11b
DESIRED RELATIVE WIND
(Second Method)

Situation: ing from this intersection to the center of the arc is the direction of the ship’s
A ship is on course 240˚, speed 18 knots. True wind has been determined to true vector.
be from 315˚, speed 10 knots. (5) From e at the center of the plotting sheet, strike an arc of radius equal to
21 knots. From w at the head of the true wind vector, strike an arc of radius equal
Required: to 30 knots. Label intersection r. This intersection is to the right of the direction
Determine a course and speed that will produce a wind across the deck of 30 from which the true wind is blowing.
knots from 350˚ relative (10˚ port). (6) Alternatively, the ship’s true (course-speed) vector can be constructed by
drawing vector er parallel to the direction established in (4) and to the magni-
Solution: tude also established in (4). On completing the vector triangle, the direction of
(1) A preliminary step in the desired relative wind solution is to indicate on the relative wind is 10˚ off the port bow.
the polar plotting sheet the direction from which the true wind is blowing. The
direction of the true wind is along the radial from 315˚. Answer:
(2) The solution is to be effected by first finding the magnitude of the required Course 346˚, speed 21 knots.
ship’s true (course-speed) vector; knowing the true wind (direction-speed) vec-
tor and the magnitude (30 knots) of the relative wind vector, and that the ship’s Note:
course should be to the right of the direction from which the true wind is blow- If the point of the compass had been set at a point on the 30-knot circle 10˚
ing, the vector triangle can then be constructed. counterclockwise from the radial extending in the direction from which the true
(3) Construct the true wind vector ew. wind is blowing in (4), the same magnitude of the ship’s true vector would have
(4) With a pencil compass adjusted to the true wind (10 knots), set the point been obtained. However, the direction established for this vector would have
of the compass on the 30-knot circle at a point 10˚ clockwise from the intersec- been for a 30-knot wind across the deck from 10˚ off the starboard bow.
tion of the 30-knot circle with the radial extending in the direction from which
the wind is blowing. Strike an arc intersecting this radial. That part of the radial
from the center of the plotting sheet to the intersection* represents the magni-
tude of the required ship’s true vector (21 knots). The direction of a line extend- * Use that intersection closest to the center of the polar diagram.

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EXAMPLE 11b

Scale: Speed 3:1

267
 EXAMPLE 11c
DESIRED RELATIVE WIND
(Third Method)

Situation: ing from the center of the arc to the intersection with the radial is the direction
A ship is on course 240˚ speed 18 knots. True wind has been determined to of the ship’s true vector.
be from 315˚ speed 10 knots. (5) From e at the center of the plotting sheet, strike an arc of radius equal to
21 knots. From w at the head of the true wind vector, strike an arc of radius equal
Required: to 30 knots. Label intersection r. This intersection is to the right of the direction
Determine a course and speed that will produce a wind across the deck of 30 from which the true wind is blowing.
knots from 350˚ relative (10˚ port). (6) Alternatively, the ship’s true (course-speed) vector can be constructed by
drawing vector er parallel to the direction established in (4) and to the magni-
Solution: tude also established in (4). On completing the vector triangle, the direction of
(1) A preliminary step in the desired relative wind solution is to indicate on the relative wind is 10˚ off the port bow.
the polar plotting sheet the direction toward which the true wind is blowing. The
direction of the true wind is along the radial from 315˚. Answer:
(2) The solution is to be effected by first finding the magnitude of the required Course 346˚, speed 21 knots.
ship’s true (course-speed) vector; knowing the true wind (direction-speed) vec-
tor and the magnitude (30 knots) of the relative wind vector, and that the ship’s Note:
course should be to the right of the direction from which the true wind is blow- If the point of the compass had been set at a point on the 30-knot circle 10˚
ing, the vector triangle can then be constructed. counterclockwise from the radial extending in the direction from which the true
(3) Construct the true wind vector ew. wind is blowing in (4), the same magnitude of the ship’s true vector would have
(4) With a pencil compass adjusted to the true wind (10 knots), set the point been obtained. However, the direction established for this vector would have
of the compass on the 30-knot circle at a point 10˚ clockwise from the intersec- been for a 30-knot wind across the deck from 10˚ off the starboard bow.
tion of the 30-knot circle with the radial extending in the direction toward which
the wind is blowing. Strike an arc intersecting this radial. That part of the radial
from the center of the plotting sheet to the intersection* represents the magni-
tude of the required ship’s true vector (21 knots). The direction of a line extend- * Use that intersection closest to the center of the polar diagram.

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EXAMPLE 11c

Scale: Speed 3:1

269
 PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF MANEUVERING BOARD SOLUTIONS
The foregoing examples and their accompanying illustrations are based upon Allowance must be made for those tactical characteristics which vary widely
the premise that ships are capable of instantaneous changes of course and speed. between types of ships and also under varying conditions of sea and loading.
It is also assumed that an unlimited amount of time is available for determining Experience has shown that it is impractical to solve for the relative motion that
the solutions. occurs during a turn and that acceptable solutions can be found by eye and men-
In actual practice, the interval between the signal for a maneuver and its exe- tal estimate.
cution frequently allows insufficient time to reach a complete graphical solu- By careful appraisal of the PPI and maneuvering board, the relative move-
tion. Nevertheless, under many circumstances, safety and smart seamanship ment of own ship and the guide during a turn can be approximated and an esti-
both require prompt and decisive action, even though this action is determined mate made of the relative position upon completion of a turn. Ship’s
from a quick, mental estimate. The estimate must be based upon the principles characteristic curves and a few simple thumb rules applicable to own ship type
of relative motion and therefore should be nearly correct. Course and speed can serve as a basis for these estimates. During the final turn the ship can be brought
be modified enroute to new station when a more accurate solution has been ob- onto station with small compensatory adjustments in engine revolutions and/or
tained from a maneuvering board. course.

EXAMPLE 12
ADVANCE, TRANSFER, ACCELERATION, AND DECELERATION
Situation: quire about 75 seconds and will produce an off-set of about 600 yards. During
Own ship R is a destroyer on station bearing 020˚, 8,000 yards from the guide the turn, M will advance 625 yards (11/4 minutes at 15 knots). Plotting this ap-
M. Formation course is 000˚, speed 15 knots. R is ordered to take station bearing proximate off-set distance on the maneuvering board gives a new relative posi-
120˚, 8,000 yards from guide, using 25 knots. tion of M3 at the time the initial turn is completed. Similarly, a new off-set
position at M4 is determined where R should order a left turn to formation course
Required: and reduction of speed to 15 knots.
(1) Course to new station.
(2) Bearing of M when order is given to resume formation course and speed. Draw a line to m parallel to and in the direction of M3M4 and intersecting the
(3) Time to complete the maneuver. 25-knot speed circle at r. Vector er is the required course of 158˚.
(2) When M reaches point M4 bearing 299˚, turn left to formation course using
Solution: 30˚ rudder and slow to 15 knots.
(1) Plot R at the center with M1 bearing 200˚, 8,000 yards and M2 bearing (3) Time to complete the maneuver is M3M4/SRM + 2.5 minutes = 11,050
300˚, 8,000 yards. Draw the guide’s speed vector em 000˚, 15 knots. yards/39.8 knots + 2.5 minutes = 11 minutes.
By eye, it appears R will have to make a turn to the right of about 150˚, accel-
erating from 15 to 25 knots during the turn. Prior to reaching the new station a
reverse turn of about the same amount and deceleration to 15 knots will be re- Answer:
quired. Assume that R averages 20 knots during each turn. (1) Course 158˚.
Using 30˚ rudder at 20 knots, a DD calibration curve indicates approximately (2) Bearing 299˚.
2˚ turn per second and a 600 yard tactical diameter. Thus, a 150˚ turn will re- (3) Time 11 minutes.

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EXAMPLE 12

Scale: Speed 3:1;

Distance 1:1 yd.

271
 COLLISION AVOIDANCE
Numerous studies and the inventive genius of man have provided the mariner ed, however, the information it does provide the mariner can be of inestimable
with adequate means for virtually eliminating collisions at sea. One of the most value in forewarning him of possible danger.
significant of these is radar. However, radar is merely an aid, and is no substitute
for good judgment coupled with good seamanship. Its use grants no special li- The following example is a practical problem encountered in the approaches
cense in applying the Rules of the Road in a given situation. Properly interpret- to many of the world’s busy ports.

EXAMPLE 13
AVOIDANCE OF MULTIPLE CONTACTS
Situation: contacts appear safe enough to merely track on the scope. A is closing, but too
Own ship is proceeding toward a harbor entrance about 30 miles to the south- slowly to be of concern for several hours. B is overtaking at a very slow rate. C
east. Own ship’s course 145˚, speed 15 knots. Visibility is estimated to be 2 should cross well clear astern in about an hour. D is harmless and needs only
miles. Numerous radar contacts are being made. At the present time, 2235, six cursory checks.
pips are being plotted on the PPI scope.

Problems: CPA Time Course Speed

(1) By visual inspection of the PPI (Fig. 1), which of the contacts appear dan- (2) Ship F ... 1,700 yds. 2258 069˚ 7.5 knots
gerous and require plotting on a maneuvering board? (Radar is set on 20-mile Ship E ... 1,900 yds. 2338 182˚ 14.0 knots
range scale.)
(2) After plotting the contacts selected in (1), what are their CPA’s, true (3) Change course to 180˚, maintain 15 knots.
courses and speeds? (Fig. 2 is an example.)
(3) Assume the PPI plots indicate all contacts have maintained a steady
course and speed during your solution in (2). What maneuvering action, if any, CPA Time
do you recommend? (Fig. 2 shows one possibility.) (4) Ship F ... 6,300 yds. 2250
(4) Assume that you maneuver at 2238 and all other ships maintain their Ship E ... 17,700 yds. (Both own ship and E are now
courses and speeds. What are the new CPA’s of the dangerous contacts in (2) on about the same course with
above? (Fig. 2 shows a possible solution.) E drawing very slowly astern.
(5) Assume that all ships maintain course and speed from 2238 until 2300. CPA thus has little meaning.)
What will be the PPI presentation at 2300? (Fig. 3 is an example.)
(6) At what time would you return to original course and speed or make other
changes? (5) See Fig. 3. D has faded from the scope.
(6) With F well clear at 2300, a return to original course appears desirable.
Solutions: Apparently A, B, and C also are making the same approach and should cause no
(1) Ships E and F look dangerous. Their bearings are almost steady and range trouble. The intentions of E are unknown but you have about an hour’s time be-
is decreasing rapidly. F will reach the center in about one half hour. All other fore convergence.

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EXAMPLE 13 Figure 1

PPI SCOPE (20-mile scale)

273
 OWN SHIP AT CENTER

EXAMPLE 13 Figure 2

Scale: Speed 2:1;

Distance 3:1 yd.

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OWN SHIP AT CENTER

EXAMPLE 13 Figure 3

PPI SCOPE (20-mile scale)

275
 EXAMPLE 14
AVOIDANCE OF MULTIPLE CONTACTS WITHOUT FIRST DETERMINING
THE TRUE COURSES AND SPEEDS OF THE CONTACTS
Situation: during the time interval of the relative plot (relative vector), 6 minutes. Vector
Own ship R is on course 000˚, speed 20 knots. With the relative motion pre- er, having a speed of 20 knots, is drawn 2.0 miles in length in true direction
sentation radar set at the 12-mile range setting, radar contacts are observed as 000˚; vector er', having a speed of 15 knots, is drawn 1.5 miles in length in true
follows: direction 065˚.
Time 1000 (2) Draw a dashed line between r and r'.
Bearing Range (mi.) Rel. position (3) For Contacts A, B, and C, offset the initial plots (A1, B1, and C1) in the
Contact A 050˚ 9.0 A1 same direction and distance as the dashed line r-r'; label each such offset plot r'.
Contact B 320˚ 8.0 B1 (4) In each relative plot, draw a straight line from the offset initial plot, r',
Contact C 235˚ 8.0 C1 through the final plot (A2 or B2 or C2). The lines r'A2, r'B2, and r'C2 represent the
new RML’s which would result from a course change to 065˚ and speed change
Time 1006 to 15 knots at time 1006.
Bearing Range (mi.) Rel. position
Contact A 050˚ 7.5 A2 Answer:
Contact B 333˚ 6.0 B2 (1) New DRM of Contact A 280˚.
Contact C 225˚ 6.0 C2 New DRM of Contact B 051˚.
New DRM of Contact C 028˚.
Required: (2) Inspection of the new relative movement lines for all contacts indicates
(1) Determine the new relative movement lines for contacts A, B, and C which that if all contacts maintain course and speed, all contacts will plot along their
would result from own ship changing course to 065˚ and speed to 15 knots at respective relative movement lines at safe distances from own ship R on course
time 1006. 065˚, speed 15 knots.
(2) Determine whether such course and speed change will result in desirable
or acceptable CPA’s for all contacts.
Explanation:
Solution: The solution method is based upon the use of the relative plot as the relative
(1) With the center of the radarscope as their origin, draw own ship’s true vec- vector as illustrated in Example 4. With each contact maintaining true course
tors er and er' for the speed in effect or to be put in effect at times 1000 and and speed, the em vector for each contact remains static while own ship’s vector
1006, respectively. Using the distance scale of the radar presentation, draw each is rotated about e to the new course and changed in magnitude corresponding to
vector of length equal to the distance own ship R will travel through the water the new speed.

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OWN SHIP AT CENTER

EXAMPLE 14

Scale: 12-mile range setting

277
 EXAMPLE 15
DETERMINING THE CLOSEST POINT OF APPROACH FROM THE GEOGRAPHICAL PLOT
Situation: Answer:
Own ship is on course 000˚, speed 10 knots. The true bearings and ranges of (1) CPA 001˚, 2.2 miles.
another ship are plotted from own ship’s successive positions to form a geo-
graphical (navigational) plot:
Explanation:
Time Bearing Range (mi.) True position This solution is essentially a reversal of the procedure in relative motion so-
0200 074˚ 7.3 T1 lutions in which, from the relative plot and own ship’s true vector, the true vec-
0206 071˚ 6.3 T2 tor of the other ship is determined. See Example 3.
0212 067˚ 5.3 T3

Required: Notes:
(1) Determine the Closest Point of Approach. (1) Either the time 0200, 0206, or 0212 plots of the other ship can be used as
the origin of the true vectors of the vector diagram. Using the time 0200 plot as
Solution: the origin and a time interval of 6 minutes for vector magnitude, the line per-
(1) Since the successive timed positions of each ship of the geographical plot pendicular to the extended relative movement line would be drawn from the
indicate rate of movement and true direction of travel for each ship, each line time 0206 plot of own ship.
segment between successive plots represents a true velocity vector. Equal spac- (2) A practical solution for CPA in the true motion mode of operation of a ra-
ing of the plots timed at regular intervals and the successive plotting of the true dar is based on the fact that the end of the Interscan (electronic bearing cursor)
positions in a straight line indicate that the other ship is maintaining constant moves from the point, at which initially set, in the direction of own ship’s course
course and speed. at a rate equivalent to own ship’s speed. With the contact at this point, initially,
(2) The solution is essentially a reversal of the procedure in relative motion the contact moves away from the point in the direction of its true course at a rate
solutions in which, from the relative plot and own ship’s true vector, the true equivalent to its speed. Thus, as time passes, a vector triangle is being continu-
vector of the other ship is determined. Accordingly, the true vectors from the ously generated. At any instant, the vertices are the initial point, the position of
two true plots for the same time interval, 0206-0212 for example, are subtracted the contact, and the end of the Interscan. The side of the triangle between the
to obtain the relative vector ( rm = em – er ) . end of the Interscan and the contact is the rm vector, the origin of which is at the
(3) The relative (DRM-SRM) vector rm is extended beyond own ship’s 0212 end of the Interscan.
position to form the relative movement line (RML). The CPA is found by setting the end of the Interscan at the contact, and, after
(4) The closest point of approach (CPA) is found by drawing a line from own the vector triangle has been generated, extending the rm vector beyond own
ship’s 0212 plot perpendicular to the relative movement line. ship’s position of the PPI.

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OWN SHIP AT CENTER

EXAMPLE 15

Scale: Distance: 1:1 mi.

279
 EXAMPLE 16
COURSE AND SPEED BETWEEN TWO STATIONS, REMAINING WITHIN A
SPECIFIED RANGE FOR SPECIFIED TIME INTERVAL ENROUTE
Situation: at an SRM of 13.6 knots. Through m draw r1 m 13.6 knots in length, parallel to
Own ship R is on station bearing 280˚, 5 miles from the guide M which is on and in the direction M1M3. Vector er1 is 147˚.5, 16.2 knots.
course 190˚, speed 20 knots. (2) Measure M2M3, 10.3 miles, which requires an SRM of 20.6 knots for one
half hour. Through m draw r2 m. Vector er2 is 125˚.5, 18.2 knots.
Required: (3) By inspection, M2 bears 226˚ from R at 1600.
At 1500 proceed to new station bearing 055˚, 20 miles, arriving at 1630. Re-
main within a 10-mile range for 1 hour. The commanding officer elects to pro- Answer:
ceed directly to new station adjusting course and speed to comply. (1) Course 148˚, speed 16.2 knots.
(1) Course and speed to remain within 10 miles for 1 hour. (2) Course 126˚, speed 18.2 knots.
(2) Course and speed required at 1600. (3) Bearing 226˚.
(3) Bearing of M at 1600.
Explanation:
Since own ship R must remain within 10 miles of the guide for 1 hour, M must
Solution: not plot along M1M2 farther than M2 prior to 1600. The required magnitudes of
(1) Plot the 1500 and 1630 positions of M at M1 and M3, respectively. Draw the relative speed vectors for time intervals 1500 to 1600 and 1600 to 1630 to-
the relative motion line, M1M3, intersecting the 10-mile circle at M2. Draw em. gether with their common direction are combined with the true vector of the
Measure M1M2: 13.6 miles. The time required to transit this distance is 1 hour guide to obtain the two true course vectors for own ship.

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OWN SHIP AT CENTER

EXAMPLE 16

Scale: Speed 3:1;

Distance 2:1 mi.

281
 EXAMPLE 17
COURSE AT MAXIMUM SPEED TO OPEN RANGE TO A SPECIFIED DISTANCE
IN MINIMUM TIME
Situation: (2) SRM is 30.5 knots. MRM is 7.5 miles. Time to complete the maneuver:
Own ship R has guide M bearing 240˚, range 12 miles. The guide is on course 14.8 minutes.
120˚, speed 15 knots. Own ship’s maximum speed is 30 knots. (3) Upon reaching the 18-mile range circle, M is dead astern of R bearing
222˚.6.
Required:
Open range to 18 miles as quickly as possible. Answer:
(1) Course at 30 knots. (1) Course 043˚.
(2) Time to complete the maneuver. (2) Time 15 minutes.
(3) Bearing of guide upon arrival at specified range. (3) Bearing 223˚.

Solution: Explanation:
The key to this solution is to find that relative position (M') of the guide that For R to open or close to a specified range in minimum time, R must travel
could exist before the problems starts in order to be able to draw the RML the shortest geographical distance at maximum speed. The shortest distance is
through the given relative position (M1) and M' to intersect the specified range along the radius of a circle centered at the position occupied by M at the instant
circle. R reaches the specified range circle.
(1) Plot R and M1. About R describe a circle of radius 18 miles. Draw em. On In the “opening range” problem, determine hypothetical relative positions of
the reciprocal of M’s course plot M' 9 miles from R. M and R that could exist before the problem starts. Referring to the geograph-
ical plot, assume R starts from position R' and proceeds outward along some ra-
Speed of M dius 18 miles in length on an unknown course at 30 knots. If M moves toward
---------------------------- × 18 miles = 9 miles its final position at M2 along the given course of 120˚, speed 15 knots, it should
Speed of R
arrive at M2 the instant R reaches the 18-mile circle. At this instant, the problem
Draw a line through M' and M1 and extend it to intersect the 18-mile range conditions are satisfied by R being 18 miles distant from M. However, own
circle at M2. ship’s course required to reach this position is not yet known. During the time
Through m draw rm parallel to and in the direction M1M2. The intersection of interval R opens 18 miles at 30 knots, M moves 9 miles at 15 knots from M' on
rm and the 30-knot speed circle is the course required to complete the maneuver M’s track. This provides the needed second relative position of M' from R', 9
in minimum time. Vector er is 042˚.6, 30 knots. miles bearing 300˚. This position is then transferred to the relative plot.

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OWN SHIP AT CENTER

EXAMPLE 17

Scale: Speed 3:1;

Distance 2:1 mi.

283
 EXAMPLE 18
COURSE AT MAXIMUM SPEED TO CLOSE RANGE TO A SPECIFIED DISTANCE
IN MINIMUM TIME
Situation: (2) SRM is 23.6 knots. MRM is 8.3 miles. Time to complete the maneuver:
Own ship R has the guide M bearing 280˚, range 10 miles. The guide is on 21.1 minutes.
course 020˚, speed 15 knots. Own ship’s maximum speed is 24 knots. (3) Upon reaching the 2-mile range circle, M is dead ahead of R on a bearing
309˚.8.
Required:
Close range to 2 miles as quickly as possible. Answer:
(1) Course at 24 knots. (1) Course 310˚.
(2) Time to complete the maneuver. (2) Time 21 minutes.
(3) Bearing of guide upon arrival at the specified range. (3) Bearings 310˚.

Solution:
The key to this solution is to find that relative position (M') of the guide that Explanation:
could exist after the problem starts in order to be able to draw the RML through For R to open or close to a specified range in minimum time, R must travel
the given relative position (M1) and M' to intersect the specified range circle. the shortest geographical distance at maximum speed. The shortest distance is
(1) Plot R and M1. About R describe a circle of radius 2 miles. Draw em. On along the radius of a circle centered at the position occupied by M at the instant
M’s course plot M' 1.25 miles from R. R reaches the specified range circle.
In the “closing range” problem, determine hypothetical relative positions of
M and R that could exist after the problem ends. Referring to the geographical
Speed of M plot, assume R starts from position R1 and proceeds inward along some radius
----------------------- × 2 miles = 1.25 miles on an unknown course at 24 knots. If M moves toward its final position at M2
Speed of R
along the given course 020˚, speed 15 knots, it should arrive at M2 the instant R
reaches the 2-mile circle. At this instant the problem conditions are satisfied al-
though the solution for own ship’s course is not yet known. Assume that R con-
Draw a line through M' and M1. The intersection of this line and the 2-mile range tinues on the same course and speed through the 2 miles to the center of the
circle is M2. circle while M moves away from the center on course 020˚, speed 15 knots.
To m draw a line parallel to and in the direction M1M2. The intersection of this During the time interval R moves these 2 miles at 24 knots, M opens 1.25 miles.
line and the 24-knot speed circle is the course required to complete the maneu- This provides the needed second relative position of M' from R': 1.25 miles,
ver in minimum time. Vector er is 309˚.8, 24 knots. bearing 020˚. This position is then transferred to the relative plot.

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OWN SHIP AT CENTER

EXAMPLE 18

Scale: Speed 3:1;

Distance 1:1 mi.

285
 EXAMPLE 19
COURSE AT MAXIMUM SPEED TO REMAIN WITHIN A SPECIFIED RANGE
FOR MAXIMUM TIME
Situation: (4) Drop a perpendicular from R to M1M2. CPA is 148˚.9, 3.1 miles.
Ship M bears 110˚, 4 miles from R. M is on course 230˚, 18 knots. Maximum
speed of R is 9 knots.
Note:
Required: When R’s speed is equal to or greater than that of M, a special case exists in
Remain within a 10-mile range of M for as long as possible. which there is no problem insofar as remaining within a specified range.
(1) Course at maximum speed.
(2) Bearing of M upon arrival at specified range.
(3) Length of time within specified range. Answer:
(4) CPA. (1) Course 221˚.
(2) Bearing 221˚.
Solution: (3) Time 79 minutes.
(1) Plot R and M. About R describe circles of radius 9 knots and range 10 (4) CPA 149˚, 3.1 miles.
miles. Draw em. On M’s course, plot M' 20 miles from R.
Speed of M
----------------------- × 10 miles = 20 miles Explanation:
Speed of R As in the “closing range” problem, example 18, determine hypothetical rela-
tive positions of M and R that could exist after the problem ends. Referring to
Draw a line through M' and M1. The intersection of the 10-mile range circle and the geographical plot, assume R starts from position R1 and proceeds inward
M'M1 is M2, the point beyond which the specified or limiting range is exceeded. along some radius on an unknown course at 9 knots. M is on course 230˚ at 18
Through m draw rm parallel to and in the direction M1M2. The intersection of knots. At the instant M passes through M2, R reaches the 10-mile limiting range
rm and the 9-knot speed circle is the course required for R, at 9 knots, to remain at R2. At this instant the problem conditions are satisfied although the solution
within 10 miles of M. Vector er is 220˚.8, 9 knots. is not yet known. Assume that R continues on the same course and speed the 10
(2) Upon arrival at limiting range at M2, M is dead ahead of R bearing 220˚.8. miles to the center of the circle while M moves away from the center on course
(3) The time interval within specified range is: 230˚, speed 18 knots. During the time interval R closes 10 miles at 9 knots, M
opens 20 miles at 18 knots. This provides the needed second relative position of
M1 M2 12 miles M' from R', 20 miles bearing 230˚. This position is then transferred to the rela-
------------- = ------------------ = 78.8 minutes tive plot.
rm 9.1 knots

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EXAMPLE 19

Scale: Speed 2:1;

Distance 2:1 mi.

287
 EXAMPLE 20
COURSE AT MAXIMUM SPEED TO REMAIN OUTSIDE OF A SPECIFIED
RANGE FOR MAXIMUM TIME
Situation: (3) The time interval outside of specified range is:
Ship M bears 020˚, 14 miles from own ship R. M is on course 210˚, speed 18
knots. Maximum speed of R is 10 knots. M M 1 2 6.3 miles
------------
- = --------------------- = 34.2 minutes
r1m 11.1 knots
Required:
Remain outside a 10-mile range from M for as long as possible.
(1) Course at maximum speed. Note:
(2) Bearing of M upon arrival at specified range. Own ship can remain outside the limiting range indefinitely if M1 falls outside
(3) Time interval before reaching specified range. the area between two tangents drawn to the limiting range circle from M'.

Answer:
Solution: (1) Course 176˚.
(1) Plot R and M1. About e and R, describe circles of radius 10 knots and 10 (2) Bearing 356˚.
miles. Draw em. On the reciprocal of M’s course, plot M' 18 miles from R. (3) Time 34 minutes.

Speed of M Explanation:
---------------------------- × 10 miles = 18 miles To determine a course to remain outside of a given range for maximum time,
Speed of R
determine hypothetical relative positions of M and R that could exist before the
problem starts. Referring to the geographical plot, assume R starts from posi-
Draw a line through M' and M1 intersecting the 10-mile range circle at M2 and tion R' and proceeds outward along some radius on an unknown course at 10
M3. knots. If M moves toward its final position at M2 along the given course 210˚,
To m draw a line parallel to and in the direction of M1M2 intersecting the 10- speed 18 knots, it should arrive at M2 the instant R reaches the 10 mile circle at
knot speed circle at r1 and r2. M2 and er1 are selected for use in completing the R2. At this instant the problem conditions are satisfied although the solution for
solution. M2 is the first point at which limiting range is reached and r1m is the own ship’s course is not yet known. During the time interval required for R to
minimum relative speed vector which gives the maximum time. Vector er1 is move from R' to R2, 10 miles at 10 knots, M moves from M' to M2, 18 miles at
175˚.9, 10 knots. 18 knots along the given course 210˚. This provides the needed second relative
(2) Upon arrival at limiting range at point M2, M is dead astern of R bearing positions. M' bears 030˚, 18 miles from R'. This position is then transferred to
355˚.9. the relative plot.

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EXAMPLE 20

Scale: Speed 2:1;

Distance 2:1 mi.

289
 USE OF A FICTITIOUS SHIP
The examples given thus far have been confined to ships that have either main- (2) start and finish its run at times and positions determined by the conditions
tained constant courses and speeds during a maneuver or else have engaged in a established in the problem.
succession of such maneuvers requiring only repeated application of the same For example, the course and speed of advance of a ship zig-zagging are con-
principles. When one of the ships alters course and/or speed during a maneuver, sidered to be the constant course and speed of a fictitious ship which departs
a preliminary adjustment is necessary before these principles can be applied. from a given position at a given time simultaneously with the actual ship, and
This adjustment consists, in effect, of substituting a fictitious ship for the arrives simultaneously with the actual ship at the same final position. The prin-
ship making the alteration. This fictitious ship is presumed to: ciples discussed in previous examples are just as valid for a fictitious ship as for
(1) maintain a constant course and speed throughout the problem (this is the an actual ship, both in the relative plot and speed triangle. A geographical plot
final course and speed of the actual ship). facilitates the solution of problems of this type.

EXAMPLE 21
ONE SHIP ALTERS COURSE AND/OR SPEED DURING MANEUVER
Situation: Construct a geographical plot with initial position M1. Plot M1 and M2, M’s
At 0630 ship M bears 250˚, range 32 miles. M is on course 345˚, speed 15 0630-0730 travel along course 345˚, distance 15 miles. Plot MF1, the fictitious
knots but at 0730 will change course to 020˚ and speed to 10 knots. ship’s initial position, on bearing 200˚, 10 miles from M2. MF1 to MF2 is the fic-
titious ship’s 0630-0730 travel.
Required:
Own ship R takes station 4 miles on the starboard beam of M using 12 knots Transfer the relative positions of M1 and MF1 to the relative plot. MF1MF3 is
speed. the required DRM and MRM for problem solution. Draw rm2 parallel to and in
(1) Course to comply. the direction of MF1MF3. The intersection of rm2 and the 12-knot speed circle
(2) Time to complete maneuver. is the course, er: 303˚, required by R in changing stations while M maneuvers.
(2) The time to complete the maneuver is obtained from the TDS scale using
Solution: fictitious ship’s MRM from MF1 to MF3 and the SRM of rmf.
The key to this solution is to determine the 0630 position of a fictitious ship
that by steering course 020˚, speed 10 knots, will pass through the actual ship’s
0730 position. In this way the fictitious ship travels on a steady course of 020˚ Answer:
and speed 10 knots throughout the problem. (1) Course 303˚.
(1) Plot R, M1, and M3. Draw em1 and em2/emf. (2) Time 2 hours 29 minutes.

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EXAMPLE 21

Scale: Speed 2:1;

Distance 4:1 mi.

291
 EXAMPLE 22
BOTH SHIPS ALTER COURSE AND/OR SPEED DURING MANEUVER
Situation: the fictitious ship’s vector, emf1. To mf1 construct the SRM vector parallel to
At 0800 M is on course 105˚, speed 15 knots and will change course to 350˚, MF1 MF2 and 13.8 knots in length. Vector er1 is the required course of 040˚.)
speed 18 knots at 0930. Own ship R is maintaining station bearing 330˚, 4 miles (2) To find the two legs of R’s 0800-1200 track, use a relative plot. Draw er2,
from M. R is ordered to take station bearing 100˚, 12 miles from M, arriving at own ship’s speed vector which is given as 105˚, 15 knots. At this stage of the
1200. solution, disregard M and consider own ship R to maneuver relative to a new
fictitious ship. Own ship on course 040˚, 10.8 knots from part (1) is the fictitious
Required: ship used. Label vector er1 as emf2, the fictitious ship’s vector. From point r2
(1) Course and speed for R to comply if maneuver is begun at 0800. draw a line through mf2 extended to intersect the 15-knot speed circle at r3.
(2) Course for R to comply if R delays the course change as long as possible Draw er3, the second course of 012˚ required by R in changing station.
and remains at 15 knots speed throughout the maneuver. (3) To find the time on each leg draw a time line from r2 using any convenient
(3) Time to turn to course determined in (2). scale. Through r3 draw r3X. Through r1 draw r1Y parallel to r3X. Similar trian-
gles exist; thus, the time line is divided into proportional time intervals for the
Solution: two legs: XY is the time on the first leg: 1 hour 22 minutes. The remainder of
Since the relative positions of R and M at the beginning and end of the ma- the 4 hours is spent on the second leg.
neuver and the time interval for the maneuver are given, the solution for (1) can
be obtained directly from a geographical plot. Solve the remainder of the prob- Answer:
lem using a relative plot. (1) Course 040˚, 10.8 knots.
(1) Using a geographical plot, lay out M’s 0800-1200 track through points M1, (2) Course 012˚.
M2, and M3. Plot R1 and R3 relative to M1 and M3, respectively. The course of (3) Time 0922.
040˚ from R1 to R3 can be measured directly from the plot. R will require a speed
of 10.8 knots to move 43.4 miles in 4 hours.
(This solution can be verified on the relative plot. First, using a geographical Note:
plot, determine the 0800 position of a fictitious ship, MF1, such that by depart- In the above example, an alternative construction of the time line as defined
ing this point at 0800 on course 350˚, 18 knots it will arrive at point MF2 simul- in the glossary is used so that the line can be drawn to a convenient scale. The
taneously with the maneuvering ship M. MF1 bears 141˚, 41.7 miles from M1. proportionality is maintained by constructing similar triangles. See Note with
Transfer the positions of M1 and MF1 to the relative plot. Plot R and M2. Draw example 24.

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EXAMPLE 22

Scale: Speed 2:1;

Distance 4:1 mi.

293
 EXAMPLE 23
COURSES AT A SPECIFIED SPEED TO SCOUT OUTWARD ON PRESENT
BEARING AND RETURN AT A SPECIFIED TIME
Situation: Answer:
Own ship R is maintaining station on M which bears 110˚, range 5 miles. For- (1) Course 328˚.
mation course is 055˚, speed 15 knots. (2) Course 072˚.
(3) Time 1811.
Required: (4) Distance 21.7 miles.
Commencing at 1730, scout outward on present bearing and return to present
station at 2030. Use 20 knots speed.
(1) Course for first leg. Explanation:
(2) Course for second leg. Since own ship R returns to present station, relative distances out and in are
(3) Time to turn. equal. In going equal distances, time varies inversely as speed:
(4) Maximum distance from the guide.

Solution: time (out) relative speed (in) r m (in)

1
(1) Plot R and M1. Draw em. The DRM “out” is along the bearing of M from ------------------- = -------------------------------------- = ------------------
-
time (in) relative speed (out) r 2 m (out)
R. The DRM “in” is along the bearing of R from M. Through m draw a line par-
allel to the DRM’s intersecting the 20-knot circle at r1 and r2. Vector r1m is the
DRM “out”. Vector er1 is 327˚.8, the course “out”.
(2) Vector r2m is the DRM “in”. Vector er2 is 072˚, the course “in”. Therefore, the time out part of the specified time (3h) is obtained by simple pro-
(3) To find the time on each leg, draw a time line from r1 using any convenient portion or graphically.
scale. Through r2 draw r2X. Through m draw mY parallel to r2X. Similar trian- As defined in the glossary, the time line is the line joining the heads of vectors
gles exist; thus, the time line is divided into proportional time intervals for the er1 and er2. This line is divided by the head of vector em into segments inversely
two legs. XY is the time on the first leg, 41 minutes. The remainder of the time proportional to the times spent by own ship R on the first (out) and second (in)
is spent on the second leg returning to station. legs. In the above example an alternative construction is used so that the line can
(4) Range of M when course is changed to “in” leg is 21.7 miles. Initial range be drawn to a convenient scale. The proportionality is maintained by construct-
+ (r1m x time on “out” leg). ing similar triangles.

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EXAMPLE 23

Scale: Speed 2:1;

Distance 2:1 mi.

295
 EXAMPLE 24
COURSES AND MINIMUM SPEED TO CHANGE STATIONS WITHIN
A SPECIFIED TIME, WHILE SCOUTING ENROUTE
Situation: (2) Vectors r1 and r2 lie on the 17.2 knot circle which is the minimum speed
Own ship R bears 130˚, 8 miles from the guide M which is on course 040˚, to complete the maneuver.
speed 12 knots. (3) From r2 lay off a 4.5 hour time line using any convenient scale. Draw r1X.
Draw mfY parallel to r1X. The point Y divides the time line into parts that are
Required: inversely proportional to the relative speeds r2mf and r1mf. XY the time “in” is
Proceed to new station bearing 060˚, 10 miles from the guide, passing through 51 minutes. Yr2 the time “out” is 3 hours 39 minutes. Time on each leg may also
a point bearing 085˚, 25 miles from the guide. Complete the maneuver in 4.5 be determined mathematically by the formula MRM/SRM=time.
hours using minimum speed.
(1) First and second courses for R.
(2) Minimum speed. Answer:
(3) Time to turn to second course. (1) First course 049˚, second course 317˚.
(2) Speed 17.2 knots.
Solution: (3) Time 3 hours and 39 minutes.
(1) Plot M1, M2 and M3. Draw em. From m draw lines of indefinite length par-
allel to and in the direction of M1M2 and M2M3. Assume that a fictitious ship,
MF, departs M1 simultaneously with M and proceeds directly to M3 arriving at Note:
the same time as M which traveled through M2 enroute. The fictitious ship cov- The time line, as defined in the glossary, is the line joining the heads of vec-
ers a relative distance of 10.5 miles in 4.5 hours. SRM of the fictitious ship is tors er1 and er2 and touching the head of the fictitious ship vector emf. This time
2.3 knots. To m draw mfm 2.3 knots in length parallel to and in the direction of line is divided by the head of the fictitious ship vector into segments inversely
M1M3. Vector emf is the true course and speed vector of the fictitious ship. With proportional to the times spent by the unit on the first and second legs.
mf as a pivot, rotate a straight line so that it intersects the two previously drawn In the above example, an alternative construction of the time line is used so
lines on the same speed circle. The points of intersection are r1 and r2. Vector that the line can be drawn to a convenient scale. The proportionality is main-
er1 is the course out: 049˚. Vector er2 is the course in: 316˚.9. tained by constructing similar triangles.

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EXAMPLE 24

Scale: Speed 2:1;

Distance 3:1 mi.

297
 EXAMPLE 25
COURSE, SPEED, AND POSITION DERIVED FROM BEARINGS ONLY
Situation: (6) From Y draw a line through P2 until it intersects B1 at Z.
Own ship is on course 090˚, speed 15 knots. The true bearings of another ship (7) From head of own ship’s vector er1, draw a line parallel to YZ. This estab-
are observed as follows: lishes the DRM on the original course and speed. The head of the em vector of
Time Bearing ship M lies on the line drawn parallel to YZ. It is now necessary to find the DRM
1300 010˚ following a course and/or speed change by own ship. The intersection of the two
lines drawn in the direction of relative movement from the heads of own ship’s
1430 358˚ vector establishes the head of vector em.
1600 341˚ (8) Following course and speed change made to produce a good bearing drift,
three more bearings are plotted; the new direction of relative movement is ob-
At 1600 own ship changes course to 050˚ and increases speed to 22 knots. The tained following the procedure given in steps (3) through (7). The lines drawn
following bearings of ship M are then observed: in the directions of relative movement from the heads of vector er1 and er2 in-
tersect at the head of the vector em. Ship M is on course 170˚ at 10 knots.
Time Bearing (9) From relative vector r2m, the SRM is found as 28.4 knots during the sec-
ond set of observations.
1630 330˚
(10) Compute the relative distance traveled during the second set of observa-
1730 302˚ tions (MRM 56.8 mi.).
1830 274˚.5 (11) On the line ZY for the second set of observations, lay off the relative dis-
tance ZA. From A draw a line parallel to B4 until it intersects B6. Label this point
Required: B. This is the position of M at the time of the last bearing.
(1) Course and speed of ship M.
(2) Distance of M at time of last bearing. Answer:
(1) Course 170˚, speed 10 knots.
(2) Position of M at 1830: 274˚.5 at 61 miles.
Solution:
(1) Draw own ship’s vector er1.
(2) Plot first three bearings and label in order observed, B1, B2, and B3. Note:
(3) At any point on B1, construct perpendicular which intersects B2 and B3. These procedures are based on bearings observed at equal intervals. For un-
Label these points P1, P2, and P3. equal intervals, use the following proportion:
(4) Measure the distance P1 to P2 and plot point X at the same distance from
P2 towards P3. Time difference between B 1 and B 2 Time difference between B 2 and B 3
(5) From X draw a line parallel to B1 until it intersects B3. Label this intersec- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- .
tion Y. Distance from P 1 to P 2 Distance from P 2 to X

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EXAMPLE 25

Scale: Speed 3:1;

Distance 10:1 mi.

299
 EXAMPLE 26
LIMITING LINES OF APPROACH
(single ship)

Situation: (5) Plot advanced position along own ship’s course and speed vector.
Own ship R’s course and speed is 000˚, 20 knots. At 0930, both sonar and ra- (6) Plot Torpedo Danger Zone (10,000 yard circle) around advanced position.
dar report a contact bearing 085˚, distance 22,500. At 0931, radar loses contact (7) From “r”, describe an arc with a radius of 15 nautical miles (the assumed
and at 0932 sonar loses contact. Last known position was 085˚, distance 20,000. quiet speed of the submarine).
Datum error is 1,000 yards. (8) Draw the tangent vector “eMq” until it intersects the edge of the maneu-
vering board plotting circle. Do this on both sides of the ship’s head. The true
Required: bearing of the tangent lines are the limiting lines of approach.
(1) Advanced position. (9) Parallel the tangent vectors “eMq” until they are tangent to the Torpedo
(2) Limiting lines of approach for submarine with maximum quiet speed of Danger Zone to complete the plotting picture.
15 knots.
Answer:
Solution: (1) Advanced position = 4,444 yards.
(1) Plot R at center of maneuvering board and draw the vector “er” 000˚, 20 (2) Left side limiting line = 310˚.
knots. Right side limiting line = 050˚.
(2) Plot datum position from own ship (085˚, 20,000 yards). Limiting lines of approach = 310˚ - 050˚.
(3) Plot datum error (circle of radius 1,000 yards) around datum.
(4) Compute own ship’s advanced position using the formula:
Notes:
(1) Limiting lines of approach are read clockwise.
(2) This example assumes the submarine maintains a constant speed through-
Torpedo Firing Range 10,000 yds out the approach.
----------------------------------------------------- × Vessel Speed = -------------------------- × 20 kts = 4,444 yds (3) The submarine and torpedo data were chosen for example purposes and
Torpedo Speed 45 kts
should NOT be used as real estimates. Consult appropriate intelligence publica-
tions for correct data.

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EXAMPLE 26

Scale: Speed 1:1;

Distance 1:1 mi.

301
 EXAMPLE 27a
CONES OF COURSES
Solution: 1

Situation:
Own ship R is on course 000˚, 15 knots. At 1600, submarine M is reported
bearing 325˚, 40 miles from R. Maximum assumed speed for M is 10 knots. RM 40 miles
(2) ''t 1 '' = -------------- = ------------------------- = 2 hrs 17 mins
''rm 1 '' 17.5 knots
Required:
(1) Courses at 10 knots the submarine M will steer to intercept R.
(2) Time of the first and last intercept opportunities for submarine M against
R at the assumed speed of 10 knots. T 1 = 1600 + ''t 1 '' = 1817

Solution:
(1) Plot the 1600 position of the submarine M 325˚, 40 miles from R. Draw
the vector “er” 000˚, 15 knots. From M, draw a DRM line to R and from “r”
draw the vector “rm” parallel and in the same direction as the DRM. With “e” RM 40 miles
''t 2 '' = -------------- = -------------------- = 5 hrs 43 mins
as the center, describe an arc with radius of 10 knots, the assumed speed of M. ''rm 2 '' 7 knots
The points em1 and em2 where the arc intersects the “rm” vector, define the
courses at 10 knots that the submarine will steer to intercept R. Courses between
“em1” and “em2” are lower assumed speed intercepts and “emL”, the perpendic-
ular line from R to “rm”, is the course for the lowest possible assumed speed at T 2 = 1600 + ''t 2 '' = 2143
which the submarine can move and still intercept R.
(2) Parallel the “em1” and “em2” lines as vectors to the 1600 position at M and
extend “er” until it crosses these vectors; the area enclosed by these 3 vectors
represents the true geographic area through which the submarine will move at
or below 10 knots to intercept R. The elapsed times to the first (“t1”) and the last Note:
(“t2”) intercept opportunities is obtained by dividing the relative distance at If the submarine’s position involves an error (i.e., datum error) and a main
1600 (RM) by the respective relative speed (“rm1” and “rm2”). body or convoy formation is present (with an associated Torpedo Danger Zone
(TDZ) around it) the DRM from M to R becomes tangential lines drawn from
Answer: “r” with a high speed and low speed leg corresponding to a forward or aft DRM
(1) Courses 024˚ to 086˚. on the formation.

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EXAMPLE 27a

Scale: Speed 3:1;

Distance 10:1 mi.

303
 EXAMPLE 27b
CONES OF COURSES
Solution: 2

Situation: (2)
Own ship R is on course 000˚, 15 knots. At 1600, submarine M is reported
bearing 325˚, 40 miles from R. Maximum assumed speed for M is 10 knots. RM 40 miles
''t 1 '' = -------------- = ------------------------- = 2 hrs 17 mins
''rm 1 '' 17.5 knots
Required:
(1) Courses at 10 knots the submarine M will steer to intercept R.
(2) Time of the first and last intercept opportunities for submarine M against
R at the assumed speed of 10 knots. T 1 = 1600 + ''t 1 '' = 1817

Solution:
(1) Plot the 1600 position of the submarine M 325˚, 40 miles from R. Draw
the vector “er” 000˚, 15 knots. From M, draw a DRM line to R and from “r”
draw the vector “rm” parallel and in the same direction as the DRM. With “e” RM 40 miles
''t 2 '' = -------------- = -------------------- = 5 hrs 43 mins
as the center, describe an arc with radius of 10 knots, the assumed speed of M. ''rm 2 '' 7 knots
The points EM1 and EM2 where the arc intersects the “rm” vector, define the
courses at 10 knots that the submarine will steer to intercept R. Courses between
“em1” and “em2” are lower assumed speed intercepts and “em2”, the perpendic-
ular line from R to “rm”, is the course for the lowest possible assumed speed at T 2 = 1600 + ''t 2 '' = 2143
which the submarine can move and still intercept R.
(2) Parallel the “em1” and “em2” lines as vectors to the 1600 position at M and
extend “er” until it crosses these vectors; the area enclosed by these 3 vectors
represents the true geographic area through which the submarine will move at
or below 10 knots to intercept R. The elapsed times to the first (“t1”) and the last Note:
(“t2”) intercept opportunities is obtained by dividing the relative distance at If the submarine’s position involves an error (i.e., datum error) and a main
1600 (RM) by the respective relative speed (“rm1” and “rm2”). body or convoy formation is present (with an associated Torpedo Danger Zone
(TDZ) around it) the DRM from M to R becomes tangential lines drawn from
Answer: “r” with a high speed and low speed leg corresponding to a forward or aft DRM
(1) Courses 024˚ to 086˚. on the formation.

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EXAMPLE 27b

Scale: Speed 3:1;

Distance 10:1 mi.

305
 EXAMPLE 28
EVASIVE ACTION AGAINST A TARGET MOVING AT SLOW SPEED
Situation: T0 = time of detection of the enemy.
A vessel possessing a speed advantage is always capable of taking evasive ac-
tion against a slow-moving enemy. It may be necessary to take evasive action The accuracy of determination of the position of the enemy, assumed to be
against a slow-moving enemy. For example, when a surface vessel is attempting within the datum error zone, (r) is also verified. Then the minimum divergence
to evade attack by a submarine. from the enemy (d) is determined (e.g., 2 - 3 times the range of fire of torpedoes
or 1.5 to 2 times the sonar detection range). Adding up the selected values, with
Required: a radius of:
The essence of the problem is to find the course for the maneuvering ship at
which no matter how the enemy maneuvers he will not be able to come any clos-
er than distance D (Torpedo/Missile Danger Zone) to the maneuvering ship. In
D1 = r + S + d,
order to accomplish this, the maneuvering ship should press the slow-moving
enemy at a relative bearing greater than critical. we have a circle about the initial position of the enemy K0.
Constructing a tangent to this circle from the position of the maneuvering ship
Solution: (point M0) and, constructing a speed triangle at the point of tangency, we obtain
Evasive action is graphically calculated in the following manner. The posi- the course of the maneuvering vessel Km1 or Km2 which the latter must steer in
tion of the slow-moving enemy vessel K0 is plotted on a maneuvering board and order to avoid meeting the enemy.
the distance it travels from the moment of detection to the beginning of evasive
action is calculated:
Note:
S = Vk ( T1 – T0 ) As a rule, the point of turn to the previous course after taking evasive action
is not calculated and the turn is usually executed after the bearing on the point
where T1 = time at which evasive action begins; of detection of the slow-moving enemy vessel changes more than 90˚.

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EXAMPLE 28

Scale: Speed 1:1;

Distance 1:1 mi.

307
 PART TWO
GUIDE AT CENTER

309
 EXAMPLE 29
CHANGING STATION WITH TIME, COURSE, OR SPEED SPECIFIED
Situation: vector diagram, the vector em1 denotes the required course and speed: 062˚, 27
Formation course is 010˚, speed 18 knots. At 0946 when orders are received knots.
to change station, the guide R bears 140˚, range 7,000 yards. When on new sta- (2) Draw em2, course 045˚, intersecting the relative speed vector rm1 at the
tion, the guide will bear 240˚, range 6,000 yards. 21-knot circle. The length rm2 is 12.1 knots. Thus the relative distance M1M2 of
10,000 yards will be covered in 24.6 minutes.
Required: (3) Plot M3 060˚, 3,700 yards from R after closing. Through r draw a line par-
(1) Course and speed to arrive on station at 1000. allel to and in the direction of M2M3. Drop a perpendicular from e to this line at
(2) Speed and time to station on course 045˚. Upon arrival on station orders m3. Vector em3 is the course and minimum speed required to complete the final
are received to close to 3,700 yards. change of station: 330˚, 13.8 knots.
(3) Course and minimum speed to new station. (4) By measurement, the length of rm3 is an SRM of 11.5 knots; the distance
(4) Time to station at minimum speed. from M2 to M3 is 2,300 yards. M2M3/rm3 is the required maneuver time: 6 min-
utes.

Solution: Answer:
(1) Plot M1 320˚, 7,000 yards and M2 060˚, 6,000 yards from R. Draw er cor- (1) Course 062˚, speed 27 knots.
responding to course 010˚ and speed 18 knots. The relative distance of 10,000 (2) Speed 21 knots, time 25 minutes.
yards from M1 to M2 must be covered in 14 minutes. SRM is therefore 21.4 (3) Course 330˚, speed 13.8 knots.
knots. Draw rm1 parallel to M1M2, and 21.4 knots in length. On completing the (4) Time 6 minutes.

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EXAMPLE 29

Scale: Speed 3:1;

Distance 1:1 yd.

311
 EXAMPLE 30
THREE-SHIP MANEUVERS
Situation: (3) From R drop a perpendicular to N1NR. At CPA, N bears 045˚, 2,850 yards
Own ship M is in formation proceeding on course 000˚, speed 20 knots. The from R. From R drop a perpendicular to M1M2. At CPA, M bears 315˚, 2,850
guide R bears 090˚, distance 4,000 yards. Ship N is 4,000 yards ahead of the yards from R.
guide. (4) In relation to M, N travels from N1 to N2 to N3. Plot N3 bearing 135˚, 5,700
yards from M1. From point m draw the relative speed vector mn. Draw a relative
Required: movement line from N1 parallel to and in the same direction as mn. When N ar-
M and N are to take new stations starting at the same time. N is to take station rives on new station and returns to base course the relative speed between M and
4,000 yards on the guide’s starboard beam using formation speed. M is to take N is the same as rm. From N3 draw a relative movement line parallel to and in
N’s old station and elects to use 30 knots. the same direction as rm. These lines intersect at N2. From M1 drop a perpendic-
(1) N’s course and time to station. ular to line N1N2. At CPA, N bears 069˚, 5,200 yards from M.
(2) M’s course and time to station. (5) The point at which N resumes formation course and speed N2, is the max-
(3) CPA of M and N to guide. imum range of N from M; 6,500 yards.
(4) CPA of M to N.
(5) Maximum range of M from N. Answer:
(1) N’s course 090˚, time 6 minutes.
(2) M’s course 017˚, time 14 minutes.
Solution: (3) CPA: N to R 2,850 yards at 045˚; M to R 2,850 yards at 315˚.
(1) Plot R at the center with M1 at 270˚, 4,000 yards; M2 and N1 at 000˚, 4,000 (4) CPA of N to M 5,200 yards at 069˚.
yards. Draw er 000˚, 20 knots. From R plot N’s new station NR, bearing 090˚, (5) Range 6,500 yards.
distance 4,000 yards. In relation to R, N moves from N1 to NR. From r, draw a
line parallel to and in the direction of N1 NR and intersecting the 20-knot speed Explanation:
circle at n. N’s course to station is vector en: 090˚. Time to station N1 NR/rn is In solution step (4), the movement of N in relation to M is parallel to the di-
6 minutes. rection of vector mn and from N1 until such time that N returns to base course
(2) In relation to R, M moves from M1 to M2. From r, draw rm parallel to and and speed. Afterwards, the movement of N in relation to M is parallel to vector
in the direction of M1M2 and intersecting the 30-knot speed circle at m. M’s rm and from N2 toward that point, N3, that N will occupy relative to M when the
course to station is vector em: 017˚. Time to station M1M2/rm is 14 minutes. maneuver is completed.

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EXAMPLE 30

Scale: Speed 3:1;

Distance 1:1 yd.

313
 EXAMPLE 31
COURSE AND SPEED TO PASS ANOTHER SHIP AT A SPECIFIED DISTANCE
Situation: the requirement of passing with a CPA of 3,000 yards from R. From r draw a
At 1743 own ship M is on course 190˚, speed 12 knots. Another ship R is ob- line parallel to and in the same direction as M1M2, intersecting the 12-knot speed
served bearing 153˚, 13,000 yards on course 287˚, speed 10 knots. It is desired circle at m. Draw em, own ship’s vector 212˚, 12 knots.
to pass ahead of R with a CPA of 3,000 yards. (2) From R drop a perpendicular to M2. When own ship reaches M2, R will
bear 076˚. Measure the relative distance M1M2, 12,600 yards, and the relative
Required: speed vector rm, 13.4 knots. Using this distance and speed, the elapsed time to
(1) Course of M at 12 knots. CPA is obtained from the TDS scale: 28 minutes. The time at CPA is 1743 + 28
(2) Bearing of R and time at CPA. = 1811.

Solution:
(1) Plot R at the center of M1 bearing 333˚, 13,000 yards from R. Draw the Answer:
other ship’s vector er 287˚, 10 knots. With R as a center, describe a circle of ra- (1) Course 212˚.
dius 3,000 yards. From M1 draw a line tangent to the circle at M2. This satisfies (2) Bearing 076˚, time at CPA 1811.

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EXAMPLE 31

Scale: Speed 2:1;

Distance 2:1 yd.

315
 EXAMPLE 32
COURSE AT SPECIFIED SPEED TO PASS ANOTHER SHIP AT MAXIMUM
AND MINIMUM DISTANCES
Situation: speed of M is indicated by the length of the vectors rm1 and rm2: 26 knots. From
Ship R on course 300˚, speed 30 knots, bears 155˚, range 16 miles from own the TDS scale the times required to reach M2 and M'2 are found: 15.6 minutes
ship M whose maximum speed is 15 knots. and 36.6 minutes, respectively.
(4) Bearings are determined by inspection. R bears 180˚ relative because own
Required: ship’s course is along vector em1 for maximum CPA. R bears 000˚ relative when
(1) M’s course at 15 knots to pass R at (a) maximum distance, (b) minimum own ship’s course is em2 for minimum passing distance.
distance.
(2) CPA for each course found in (1).
(3) Time interval to each CPA. Note:
(4) Relative bearing of R from M when at CPA on each course. This situation occurs only when own ship M is (1) ahead of the other ship and
(2) has a maximum speed less than the speed of the other ship. Under these con-
Solution: ditions, own ship can intercept (collision course) only if R lies between the
(1) Plot M1 335˚, 16 miles from R. Draw the vector er 300˚, 30 knots. With e slopes of M1M2 and M1M'2. Note that for limiting courses, and only for these,
as the center, draw a circle with radius of 15 knots, the speed of M. From r draw CPA occurs when other ship is dead ahead or dead astern. The solution to this
the tangents rm1 and rm2 which produce the two limiting courses for M. Parallel problem is applicable to avoiding a tropical storm by taking that course which
to the tangents plot the relative movement lines from M1. Course of own ship to results in maximum passing distance.
pass at maximum distance is em1: 000˚. Course to pass at minimum distance is
em2: 240˚.
(2) Through R draw RM2 and RM'2 perpendicular to the two possible relative Answer:
movement lines. R bearing 180˚, 14.5 miles from M2 is the CPA for course of (1) Course (a) 000˚; (b) 240˚.
000˚. R bearing 240˚, 1.4 miles from M'2 is the CPA for course 240˚. (2) CPA (a) 180˚, 14.5 miles; (b) 240˚, 1.4 miles.
(3) Measure M1M2: 6.8 miles, and M1M'2: 15.9 miles. M must travel these rel- (3) Time (a) 16 minutes; (b) 37 minutes.
ative distances before reaching the CPA on each limiting course. The relative (4) Relative bearing (a) 180˚; (b) 000˚.

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GUIDE AT CENTER

EXAMPLE 32

Scale: Speed 3:1;

Distance 2:1 mi.

317
 EXAMPLE 33
COURSE CHANGE IN COLUMN FORMATION ASSURING LAST SHIP IN
COLUMN CLEARS
Situation: knots while D4 advances to the turning point at 27 knots. The distance is equal
Own ship D1 is the guide in the van of a destroyer unit consisting of four de- to:
stroyers (D1, D2, D3, and D4) in column astern, distance 1,000 yards. D1 is on
Speed of R
station bearing 090˚, 8 miles from the formation guide R. Formation course is ------------------------- × 3, 000 yards = 1, 666 yards
135˚, speed 15 knots. The formation guide is at the center of a concentric circu- Speed of D4
lar ASW screen stationed on the 4-mile circle.
The destroyer unit is ordered to take new station bearing 235˚, 8 miles from Draw a circle of radius 9,000 yards about the advanced position of the guide
the formation guide. The unit commander in D1 decides to use a wheeling ma- R'. Draw a line from D1 (the turning point) tangent to the circle. This is the rel-
neuver at 27 knots, passing ahead of the screen using two course changes so that ative movement line required for D4 to clear the screen by 1,000 yards on the
the CPA of his unit on each leg is 1,000 yards from the screen. first leg. Draw a line from r parallel to this line and intersecting the 27-knot cir-
cle at m1. This produces em1, the initial course of 194˚.2.
Required: (2) Plot the final relative position of D1 at D1' bearing 235˚, 8 miles from R.
(1) New course to clear screen commencing at 1000. Draw a line from D1' tangent to the 9,000 yard circle and intersecting the first
(2) Second course to station. relative movement line at D1". Draw a line parallel to and in the direction of
(3) Bearing and range of R and D1 at time of coming to second course. D1"D1' from r. The intersection of this line and the 27-knot circle at m2 is the
(4) Time of turn to second course. second course required, em2 252˚.8.
(5) Time D1 will reach new station. (3) Bearing and range of R from D1" is 337˚ at 11,250 yards.
(4) Time interval for D1 to travel to D1" is: D1D1"/rm1 = 7.8 miles/23.2 knots
= 20.2 minutes. Time of turn 1000 + 20 = 1020.
Solution: (5) Time interval for the second leg is: D1"D1'/rm2 = 8.8 miles/36.5 knots =
(1) Plot the formation guide R at the center. Plot own ship D1 bearing 090˚, 8 14.2 minutes. D1 will arrive at new station at 1034.
miles from R. Plot the remaining three destroyers in column astern of D1, dis-
tance between ships 1,000 yards. Draw er, the speed vector of R, 135˚, 15 knots. Answer:
It is required that the destroyer column clear R by a minimum of 9,000 yards (1) Course 194˚.
(screen radius of 4 miles plus 1,000 yards). At the instant the signal is executed, (2) Course 253˚.
only D1 changes both course and speed. The other destroyers increase speed to (3) Bearing 337˚, range 11,250 yards.
27 knots but remain on formation course of 135˚ until each reaches the turning (4) Time 1020.
point. Advance R along the formation course the distance R would move at 15 (5) Time 1034.

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EXAMPLE 33

Scale: Speed 3:1;

Distance 1:1 mi.

319
 PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF MANEUVERING BOARD SOLUTIONS
The foregoing examples and their accompanying illustrations are based upon Allowance must be made for those tactical characteristics which vary widely
the premise that ships are capable of instantaneous changes of course and speed. between types of ships and also under varying conditions of sea and loading.
It is also assumed that an unlimited amount of time is available for determining Experience has shown that it is impractical to solve for the relative motion that
the solutions. occurs during a turn and that acceptable solutions can be found by eye and men-
In actual practice, the interval between the signal for a maneuver and its exe- tal estimate.
cution frequently allows insufficient time to reach a complete, graphical solu- By careful appraisal of the PPI and maneuvering board, the relative move-
tion. Nevertheless, under many circumstances, safety and smart seamanship ment of own ship and the guide during a turn can be approximated and an esti-
both require prompt and decisive action, even though this action is determined mate made of the relative position upon completion of a turn. Ships’
from a quick, mental estimate. The estimate must be based upon the principles characteristic curves and a few simple thumb rules applicable to own ship type
of relative motion and therefore should be nearly correct. Course and speed can serve as a basis for these estimates. During the final turn the ship can be brought
be modified enroute to new station when a more accurate solution has been ob- onto station with small compensatory adjustments in engine revolutions and/or
tained from a maneuvering board. course.

EXAMPLE 34
ADVANCE, TRANSFER, ACCELERATION, AND DECELERATION
Situation: 75 seconds and will produce a transfer of about 600 yards. During the turn, R
Own ship M is a destroyer on station bearing 020˚, 8,000 yards from the guide will advance 625 yards (11/4 minutes at 15 knots). Plotting this approximate off-
R. Formation course is 000˚, speed 15 knots. M is ordered to take station bearing set distance on the maneuvering board gives a new relative position of M3 at the
120˚, 8,000 yards from guide, using 25 knots. time the initial turn is completed. Similarly, a new off-set position at M4 is de-
termined where a left turn to formation course and reduction of speed to 15
Required: knots should be ordered.
(1) Course to new station.
(2) Bearing of R when order is given to resume formation course and speed. Draw a line from r parallel to M3M4 and intersecting the 25-knot speed circle
(3) Time to complete the maneuver. at m. Vector em is the required course of 158˚.
(2) When M reaches point M4 with R bearing 299˚, turn left to formation
Solution: course using 30˚ rudder and slow to 15 knots.
(1) Plot R at the center with M1 bearing 020˚, 8,000 yards and M2 bearing (3) Time to complete the maneuver is M3M4/SRM + 2.5 minutes = 11,050
120˚, 8,000 yards. Draw guide’s vector, er, 000˚, 15 knots. yards/39.8 knots + 2.5 minutes = 11 minutes.
By eye, it appears M will have to make a turn to the right of about 150˚, ac-
celerating from 15 to 25 knots during the turn. Prior to reaching the new station
a reverse turn of about the same amount and deceleration to 15 knots will be re- Answer:
quired. Assume that M averages 20 knots during each turn. (1) Course 158˚.
Using 30˚ rudder at 20 knots, a DD calibration curve indicates approximately (2) Bearing 299˚.
2˚ turn per second and a 600 yard diameter. Thus, a 150˚ turn will require about (3) Time 11 minutes.

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EXAMPLE 34

Scale: Speed 3:1;

Distance 1:1 yd.

321
 MANEUVERING BY SEAMAN’S EYE
In many circumstances it is impossible to use a maneuvering board in the solution fishtail, it will drop back about 700 yards. Approximate distances for any
of relative movement problems. When the distance between old and new stations is amount of course change can be computed if desired; however, the above quan-
short and well abaft the beam, it may be impractical to attempt to complete the the- tities used as thumb rules should be sufficient. Repeated application of either
oretically required turns and travel along an M1M2 path. In such cases, a reduction will produce larger “drop backs” and also offer the advantage of not using ex-
in speed, fishtailing, or various modifications of a fishtail may be required. cessive sea room.
In the following example, it is assumed that a destroyer type ship is proceed-
ing at formation speed and using standard rudder which yields a perfect turning If it is desired to move laterally as well as fall back, a turn of 45˚ to one side
circle of 1,000 yards diameter and 3,150 yards circumference. It is also assumed only and then immediate return to original course will produce a 300 yard trans-
that a 13% reduction in speed is produced by large turns. fer and a 200 yard drop back.
Based upon these assumptions, a ship using a 45˚ fishtail either side of for- If time is not a consideration and the relative movement line is relatively very
mation course will fall behind old station by about 400 yards. By using a 60˚ short, a reduction in speed may prove most desirable.

EXAMPLE 35

Situation: Any combination of course changes in an attempt to travel a line from M1 to

Own ship M is on formation course 225˚, speed 15 knots, with guide R bear- M2 will result in own ship falling far astern of the new station. Even a simple
ing 000˚, 3,000 yards. 360˚ turn will drop own ship back 3,600 yards, almost twice the desired move-
ment.
Required:
Take station 2,000 yards broad on the port beam of the guide. By fishtailing 60˚ to either side using courses of 165˚ and 285˚ three times per
side, own ship will drop straight back approximately 2,000 yards, within 150
Solution: yards of station. Final adjustment to station can be effected by normal station
An attempt to solve this problem by normal maneuvering board procedures keeping maneuvers such as rapidly shifting the rudder between maximum posi-
will prove impractical. M2 is directly astern of M1 at a distance of 2,150 yards. tions or reduction in engine revolutions.

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CHANGING STATIONS BY
FISHTAIL METHOD

EXAMPLE 35

323
 EXAMPLE 36
FORMATION AXIS ROTATION—GUIDE IN CENTER
Situation: 330˚ relative to the initial formation axis. Draw er corresponding to guide’s
The formation is on course 240˚, speed 15 knots. The formation axis is 130˚. course 240˚ and speed 15 knots.
The guide is in station Zero and own ship is in station 6330. The OTC rotates (2) Plot own ship’s new position M2 oriented to the new axis. The original sta-
the formation axis to 070˚. Stationing speed is 20 knots. tion assignments are retained, except the stations are now relative to the new ax-
is.
Required: (3) Draw the direction of relative movement line (DRM) from M1 through M2.
(1) Course at 20 knots to regain station relative to the new formation axis, (4) Through r draw a line in the direction of relative movement intersecting
070˚. the 20-knot circle at m.
(5) Own ship’s true vector is em: course 293˚, speed 20 knots.
Solution:
(1) Mark the initial and new formation axes at 130˚ and 070˚, respectively.
Plot the guide’s station in the center (station Zero) and label as R. Plot own Answer:
ship’s initial position M1 on circle 6 in a direction from the formation center (1) Course 293˚ to regain station relative to the new axis.

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 GUIDE AT CENTER

EXAMPLE 36

Scale: Speed 3:1;

Distance 1:1 thousands of yds.

325
 EXAMPLE 37
FORMATION AXIS ROTATION—GUIDE OUT OF CENTER
FORMATION CENTER KEPT IN CENTER OF PLOT
Situation: formation axis. Draw er corresponding to guide’s course 275˚ and speed 18
The formation is on course 275˚, speed 18 knots. The formation axis is 190˚. knots.
The guide is in station 3030 and own ship is in station 7300. The OTC rotates (2) Plot the guide’s new station R2 oriented to the new formation axis; plot
the formation axis to 140˚. Stationing speed is 20 knots. own ship’s new station S2 oriented to the new formation axis.
(3) Measure the bearings and distances of S1 and S2 from R1 and R2, respec-
Required: tively.
(1) Course at 20 knots to regain station relative to the new formation axis, (4) From the center, plot the bearing and distance of S1 from R1 as M1 and the
140˚. bearing and distance of S2 from R2 as M2.
(5) Since the line from M1 to M2 represents the required DRM for own ship to
regain station relative to the new axis, draw a line through r in the direction of
Solution: relative movement.
(1) Mark the initial and new formation axes at 190˚ and 140˚, respectively. (6) Own ship’s true vector is em: course 291˚, speed 20 knots.
Plot the guide’s initial station R1 on circle 3 in a direction from the formation
center 30˚ relative to the initial formation axis. Plot own ship’s initial station S1 Answer:
on circle 7 in a direction from the formation center 300˚ relative to the initial (1) Course 291˚ to regain station relative to the new axis.

326
GUIDE OUT OF CENTER

EXAMPLE 37

Scale: Speed 3:1;

Distance 1:1 thousands of yds.

327
 EXAMPLE 38
FORMATION AXIS ROTATION—GUIDE OUT OF CENTER
Situation: (3) Shift the initial position of own ship’s station at M1 in the direction and
The formation is on course 275˚, speed 18 knots. The formation axis is 190˚. distance of the fictitious shift of the guide to its position relative to the new axis.
The guide is in station 3030 and own ship is in station 7300. The OTC rotates Mark the initial position so shifted as M2.
the formation axis to 140˚. Stationing speed is 20 knots. (4) Draw the direction of relative movement lines (DRM) from M2 through
M3.
Required: (5) Through r draw a line in the direction of relative movement intersecting
(1) Course at 20 knots to regain station relative to the new formation axis, the 20-knot circle at m.
140˚. (6) Own ship’s true vector is em: course 291˚, speed 20 knots.

Solution:
(1) Mark the initial and new formation axes at 190˚ and 140˚, respectively. Answer:
Plot the guide’s station R1 on circle 3 in a direction from the formation center (1) Course 291˚ to regain station relative to the new axis.
30˚ relative to the initial formation axis. Plot own ship’s station M1 on circle 7
in a direction from the formation center 300˚ relative to the initial formation ax- Explanation:
is. Draw er corresponding to guide’s course 275˚ and speed 18 knots. Since the guide does not actually move relative to the initial formation center
(2) Plot the guide’s station, R2, oriented to the new formation axis. Plot own while maintaining course and speed during the formation maneuver, all initial
ship’s position M3 oriented to the new axis. The original station assignments are positions of stations in the formation must be moved in the same direction and
retained, except the stations are now relative to the new axis. distance as the fictitious movement of the guide to its new position.

328
GUIDE OUT OF CENTER

EXAMPLE 38

Scale: Speed 3:1;

Distance 1:1 thousands of yds.

329
 EXAMPLE 39
COURSE AND SPEED BETWEEN TWO STATIONS, REMAINING WITHIN A
SPECIFIED RANGE FOR SPECIFIED TIME INTERVAL ENROUTE
Situation: at an SRM of 13.6 knots. Through r draw rm1 13.6 knots in length, parallel to
Own ship M is on station bearing 280˚, 5 miles from the guide R on formation and in the direction M1M3. Vector em1 is 147˚.5, 16.2 knots.
course 190˚, speed 20 knots. (2) Measure M2M3, 10.3 miles, which requires an SRM of 20.6 knots for one
half hour. Through r draw rm2. Vector em2 is 125˚.5, 18.2 knots.
Required: (3) By inspection, R bears 226˚ from M2 at 1600.
At 1500 own ship M is ordered to proceed to new station bearing 055˚, 20
miles, arriving at 1630 and to remain within a 10-mile range for 1 hour. The Answer:
commanding officer elects to proceed directly to new station, adjusting course (1) Course 148˚, speed 16.2 knots.
and speed as necessary to comply with the foregoing requirements. (2) Course 126˚, speed 18.2 knots.
(1) Course and speed to remain within 10 miles for 1 hour. (3) Bearing 226˚.
(2) Course and speed required at 1600.
(3) Bearing of R at 1600. Explanation:
Since own ship M must remain within 10 miles of the guide for 1 hour, M
Solution: must not plot along M1M2 farther than M2 prior to 1600. The required magni-
(1) Plot the 1500 and 1630 positions of M at M1 and M3, respectively. Draw tudes of the relative speed vectors for time intervals 1500 to 1600 and 1600 to
the relative motion line, M1M3, intersecting the 10-mile circle at M2. Draw er. 1630 together with their common direction are combined with the true vector of
Measure M1M2: 13.6 miles. The time required to transit this distance is 1 hour the guide to obtain the two true course vectors for own ship.

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GUIDE AT CENTER

EXAMPLE 39

Scale: Speed 3:1;

Distance 2:1 mi.

331
 EXAMPLE 40
COURSE AT MAXIMUM SPEED TO OPEN RANGE TO A SPECIFIED
DISTANCE IN MINIMUM TIME
Situation: (3) Upon reaching the 18-mile range circle, R is dead astern of M bearing
Own ship M has guide R bearing 240˚, range 12 miles. The guide is on course 222˚.6.
120˚, speed 15 knots. Own ship’s maximum speed is 30 knots.
Answer:
Required: (1) Course 043˚.
Open range to 18 miles as quickly as possible. (2) Time 15 minutes.
(1) Course at 30 knots. (3) Bearing 223˚.
(2) Time to complete the maneuver.
(3) Bearing of guide upon arrival at specified range. Explanation:
For M to open or close to a specified range in minimum time, M must travel
the shortest geographical distance at maximum speed. The shortest distance is
Solution: along the radius of a circle centered at the position occupied by R at the instant
The key to this solution is to find that relative position (M') of the guide that M reaches the specified range circle.
could exist before the problem starts in order to be able to draw the RML In the “opening range” problem, determine hypothetical relative positions of
through the given relative position (M1) and M' to intersect the specified range M and R that could exist before the problem starts. Referring to the geograph-
circle. ical plot, assume M starts from position M' and proceeds outward along some
(1) Plot R and M1. About R describe a circle of radius 18 miles. Draw er. radius 18 miles in length on an unknown course at 30 knots. If R moves toward
Along R’s course plot M' 9 miles from R. its final position at R2 along the given course of 120˚, speed 15 knots, it should
arrive at R2 the instant M reaches the 18-mile circle. At this instant, the problem
Speed of R conditions are satisfied by M being 18 miles distant from R. However, own
---------------------------- × 18 miles = 9 miles
Speed of M ship’s course required to reach this position is not yet known. During the time
interval M opened 18 miles at 30 knots, R moved 9 miles at 15 knots from R' to
Draw a line through M' and M1 and extend it to intersect the 18-mile range R2.
circle at M2.
From r draw rm parallel to and in the direction M1M2. The intersection of rm Speed of M
and the 30-knot speed circle is the course required to complete the maneuver in ---------------------------- × 18 miles = 9 miles
Speed of R
minimum time. Vector em is 042˚.6, 30 knots.
(2) SRM is 30.5 knots. MRM is 7.5 miles. Time to complete the maneuver: This provides the needed second relative position of M' from R', 9 miles bear-
14.8 minutes. ing 120˚. This position is then transferred to the relative plot.

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GUIDE AT CENTER

EXAMPLE 40

Scale: Speed 3:1;

Distance 2:1 mi.

333
 EXAMPLE 41
COURSE AT MAXIMUM SPEED TO CLOSE RANGE TO A SPECIFIED DISTANCE IN MINIMUM TIME
Situation: (2) SRM is 23.6 knots. MRM is 8.3 miles. Time to complete the maneuver:
Own ship M has the guide R bearing 280˚, range 10 miles. The guide is on 21.1 minutes.
course 020˚, speed 15 knots. Own ship’s maximum speed is 24 knots. (3) Upon reaching the 2-mile range circle, R is dead ahead of M on a bearing
309˚.8.
Required:
Close range to 2 miles as quickly as possible. Answer:
(1) Course at 24 knots. (1) Course 310˚.
(2) Time to complete the maneuver. (2) Time 21 minutes.
(3) Bearing of guide upon arrival at the specified range. (3) Bearing 310˚.

Solution: Explanation:
The key to this solution is to find that relative position (M') of the guide that Referring to the geographical plot, assume M starts from position M1 and
could exist after the problem starts in order to be able to draw the RML through proceeds inward along some radius on an unknown course at 24 knots. If R
the given relative position (M1) and M' to intersect the specified range circle. moves toward its final position at R2 along the given course 020˚, speed 15
(1) Plot R and M1. About R describe a circle of radius 2 miles. Draw er, knots, it should arrive at R2 the instant M reaches the 2-mile circle. At this in-
guide’s speed vector 020˚, 15 knots. On reciprocal of R’s course plot M' 1.25 stant the problem conditions are satisfied although the solution for own ship’s
miles from R. course is not yet known. Assume that M continues on the same course and speed
through the 2 miles to M' at the center of the circle while R moves away from
Speed of R the center on course 020˚, speed 15 knots. During the time interval that M
---------------------------- × 2 miles = 1.25 miles
Speed of M moves these 2 miles at 24 knots, R opens 1.25 miles.

Draw a line through M' and M1. The intersection of this line and the 2-mile Speed of R
range circle is M2. ---------------------------- × 2 miles = 1.25 miles
Speed of M
From r draw a line parallel to and in the direction M1M2. The intersection of
this line and the 24-knot speed circle at m is the course required to complete the This provides the needed second relative position of M' from R': 1.25 miles,
maneuver in minimum time. Vector em 309˚.8, 24 knots. bearing 200˚. This position is then transferred to the relative plot.

334
GUIDE AT CENTER

EXAMPLE 41

Scale: Speed 3:1;

Distance 1:1 mi.

335
 EXAMPLE 42
COURSE AT MAXIMUM SPEED TO REMAIN WITHIN A SPECIFIED RANGE
FOR MAXIMUM TIME
Situation: (4) Drop a perpendicular from R to M1M2. CPA is 148˚.9, 3.1 miles.
Ship R bears 110˚, 4 miles from M. R is on course 230˚, 18 knots. Maximum
speed of M is 9 knots. Note:
When M’s speed is equal to or greater than that of R, a special case exists in
Required: which there is no problem insofar as remaining within a specified range.
Remain within a 10-mile range of R for as long as possible.
(1) Course at maximum speed. Answer:
(2) Bearing of R upon arrival at specified range. (1) Course 221˚.
(3) Length of time within specified range. (2) Bearing 221˚.
(4) CPA. (3) Time 79 minutes.
(4) CPA 149˚, 3.1 miles.
Solution:
(1) Plot R at the center and M1 bearing 290˚, 4 miles from R. About R describe Explanation:
arcs of radius 9 knots and 10 miles. Draw er 230˚, 18 knots. Along the recipro- As in the “closing range” problem, example 39, determine hypothetical rela-
cal of R’s course, plot M' 20 miles from R. tive positions of M and R that could exist after the problem ends. Referring to
the geographical plot, assume M starts from position M1 and proceeds inward
Speed of R along some radius on an unknown course at 9 knots. R is on course 230˚ at 18
---------------------------- × 10 miles = 20 miles
Speed of M knots. At the instant R passes through R2, M reaches the 10-mile limiting range
at M2. At this instant the problem conditions are satisfied although the solution
Draw a line through M' and M1. The intersection of M'M1 and the 10-mile is not yet known. Assume that M continues on the same course and speed for 10
range circle is M2, the point beyond which the specified or limiting range is ex- miles to the center of the circle while R moves away from the center on course
ceeded. Through r draw a line parallel to and in the direction M1M2. The inter- 230˚, speed 18 knots. During the time interval M closes 10 miles toward the cen-
section of this line at point m on the 9-knot speed circle is the required course ter, R opens 20 miles at 18 knots.
to remain within 10 miles of R. Vector em is 220˚.8, 9 knots.
(2) Upon arrival at limiting range at M2, R is dead ahead of M bearing 220˚.8. Speed of R
---------------------------- × 10 miles = 20 miles
(3) The time interval within specified range is: Speed of M
M1M2 12 miles
--------------
- = ---------------------- = 78.8 minutes This then gives us the needed second relative position of R' from M', 20 miles
rm 9.1 knots bearing 230˚. This position is then transferred to the relative plot.

336
GUIDE AT CENTER

EXAMPLE 42

Scale: Speed 2:1;

Distance 2:1 mi.

337
 EXAMPLE 43
COURSE AT MAXIMUM SPEED TO REMAIN OUTSIDE OF A SPECIFIED
RANGE FOR MAXIMUM TIME
Situation: Note:
Ship R bears 020˚, 14 miles from own ship M. R is on course 210˚, speed 18 Own ship can remain outside the limiting range indefinitely if M1 falls outside
knots. Maximum speed of M is 9 knots. the area between two tangents drawn to the limiting range circle from M' and if
R remains on the same course and speed.
Required:
Remain outside a 10-mile range from R for as long as possible.
(1) Course at maximum speed. Answer:
(2) Bearing of R upon arrival at specified range. (1) Course 184˚.
(3) Time interval before reaching specified range. (2) Bearing 004˚.
(3) Time 30 minutes.
Solution:
(1) Plot R at the center and M1 bearing 200˚, 14 miles from R. About R, de- Explanation:
scribe circles of radius 9 knots and 10 miles. Draw er 210˚, speed 18 knots. To determine a course to remain outside of a given range for maximum time,
Along R’s course, plot M' 20 miles from R. determine hypothetical relative positions of M and R that could exist before the
problem starts. Referring to the geographical plot, assume M starts from posi-
Speed of R tion M' and proceeds outward along some radius on an unknown course at 9
---------------------------- × 10 miles = 20 miles
Speed of M knots. If R moves toward its final position R2 along the given course 210˚, speed
18 knots, it should arrive at R2 the instant M reaches the 10-mile circle at M2. At
Draw a line through M' and M1 intersecting the 10-mile range circle at M2. this instant the problem conditions are satisfied although the solution for own
Through r draw a line parallel to and in the direction of M1M2 intersecting the ship’s course is not yet known. During the time interval required for M to move
9-knot speed circle at m. Completion of the speed triangle produces em, the re- from M' to M2, 10 miles at 9 knots, R moves from R' to R2, 20 miles at 18 knots
quired course of 184˚.2 at 9 knots. along the given course 210˚.
(2) Upon arrival at limiting range at point M2, R is dead astern of M bearing
004˚.2. Speed of R
---------------------------- × 10 miles = 20 miles
(3) The time interval outside of specified range is: Speed of M
M1M2 5.2 miles This provides the needed second relative position, M' bearing 210˚, 20 miles
--------------
- = ------------------------- = 30 minutes
rm 10.7 knots from R'. This position is then transferred to the relative plot.

338
GUIDE AT CENTER

EXAMPLE 43

Scale: Speed 2:1;

Distance 2:1 mi.

339
 USE OF A FICTITIOUS SHIP
The examples given thus far in PART TWO have been confined to ships that (2) start and finish its run at times and positions determined by the conditions
have either maintained constant courses and speeds during a maneuver or else established in the problem.
have engaged in a succession of such maneuvers requiring only repeated appli-
cation of the same principles. When one of the ships alters course and/or speed For example, the course and speed of advance of a ship zig-zagging are con-
during a maneuver, a preliminary adjustment is necessary before these princi- sidered to be the constant course and speed of a fictitious ship which departs
ples can be applied. from a given position at a given time simultaneously with the actual ship, and
This adjustment consists, in effect, of substituting a fictitious ship for the arrives simultaneously with the actual ship at the same final position. The prin-
ship making the alteration. This fictitious ship is presumed to: ciples discussed in previous examples are just as valid for a fictitious ship as for
(1) maintain a constant course and speed throughout the problem (this is the an actual ship, both in the relative plot and speed triangle. A geographical plot
final course and speed of the actual ship). facilitates the solution of this type.

EXAMPLE 44
ONE SHIP ALTERS COURSE AND/OR SPEED DURING MANEUVER
Situation: position of the fictitious ship bearing 200˚, 10 miles from R1. By measurement,
At 0630 ship R bears 250˚, range 32 miles. R is on course 345˚, speed 15 knots F bears 304˚, 8.8 miles from R. Transfer this position to a relative plot with R at
but at 0730 will change course to 020˚ and speed to 10 knots. the center.
Plot own ship at M1 bearing 070˚, 32 miles from R. Draw erf, the fictitious
Required: ship’s vector, 020˚, 10 knots. Lay off own ship’s final position, M2, 4 miles
Own ship M take station 4 miles ahead of R using 12 knots speed. ahead of F along its final course 020˚. Draw the relative movement line M1M2
(1) Course to comply. and, parallel to it, construct the relative speed vector from rf to its intersection
(2) Time to complete maneuver. with the 12-knot circle at m. This produces em the required course of 316˚.
(2) The time to complete the maneuver can be obtained from the TDS scale
Solution: using MRM of 36.4 miles and SRM of 11.8 knots which gives a time of 3.1
Determine the 0630 position of a fictitious ship F that, by steering course 020˚ hours.
at speed 10 knots, will pass through the 0730 position simultaneously with the
actual ship. In this way the fictitious ship travels on a steady course of 020˚,
speed 10 knots throughout the problem. Answer:
(1) Construct a geographical plot with R and R1 the 0630 and 0730 positions (1) Course 316˚.
respectively of ship R moving along course 345˚ at 15 knots. Plot F, the 0630 (2) Time 3 hours 6 minutes.

340
GUIDE AT CENTER

EXAMPLE 44

Scale: Speed 2:1;

Distance 4:1 mi.

341
 EXAMPLE 45
BOTH SHIPS ALTER COURSE AND/OR SPEED DURING MANEUVER
Situation: center. Plot own ship’s 1200 position at M3 bearing 100˚, 12 miles from F. Draw
At 0800 R is on course 105˚, speed 15 knots and will change course to 350˚, the fictitious ship’s vector erf1 350˚, 18 knots. From rf1, construct the relative
speed 18 knots at 0930. Own ship M is maintaining station bearing 330˚, 4 miles speed vector parallel to M1M3 and 13.8 knots in length. (MRM of 55.2 miles/4
from R. M is ordered to take station bearing 100˚, 12 miles from R, arriving at hours = 13.8 knots.) Draw em1, the required course of 040˚, 10.8 knots.
1200. (2) To find the two legs of M’s 0800-1200 track, use a relative plot. Draw em2,
own ship’s vector which is given as 105˚, 15 knots. At this stage of the solution,
Required: disregard R and consider own ship M to maneuver relative to a new fictitious
(1) Course and speed for M to comply if maneuver is begun at 0800. ship. Own ship on course 040˚, 10.8 knots from part (1) is the fictitious ship
(2) Course for M to comply if M delays the course change as long as possible used. Label vector em1 as erf2, the fictitious ship’s vector. From point m2 draw
and remains at 15 knots speed throughout the maneuver. a line through rf2 extended to intersect the 15-knot speed circle at m3. Draw em3,
(3) Time to turn to course determined in (2). the second course of 012˚ required by M in changing station.
(3) To find the time on each leg draw a time line from m2 using any conve-
nient scale. Through m3 draw m3X. Through m1 draw m1Y parallel to m3X. Sim-
Solution: ilar triangles exist; thus, the time line is divided into proportional time intervals
Since the relative positions of R and M at the beginning and end of the ma- for two legs. XY is the time on the first leg: 1 hour 22 minutes. The remainder
neuver and the time interval for the maneuver are given, the solution for (1) can of the 4 hours is spent on the second leg.
be obtained directly from a geographical plot. Solve the remainder of the prob-
lem using a relative plot. Answer:
(1) Using a geographical plot, lay out R’s 0800-1200 track through points R1, (1) Course 040˚, 10.8 knots.
R2, and R3. Plot M1 and M3 relative to R1 and R3, respectively. The course 040˚ (2) Course 012˚.
from M1 to M3 can be measured directly from the plot. M will require a speed of (3) Time 0922.
10.8 knots to move 43.4 miles in 4 hours.
This solution may be verified on a relative plot by means of a fictitious ship. Note:
First, using a geographical plot, determine the 0800 position of a fictitious ship In the above example, an alternative construction of the time line as defined
that, by steering 350˚, speed 18 knots, will pass through the 0930 position si- in the glossary is used so that the line can be drawn to a convenient scale. The
multaneously with R. At 0800 own ship at M1 bears 322˚, 45.7 miles from the proportionality is maintained by constructing similar triangles. See Note with
fictitious ship at F1. Transfer these positions to a relative plot, placing F at the example 47.

342
GUIDE AT CENTER

EXAMPLE 45

Scale: Speed 2:1;

Distance 4:1 mi.

343
 EXAMPLE 46
COURSES AT A SPECIFIED SPEED TO SCOUT OUTWARD ON PRESENT
BEARING AND RETURN AT A SPECIFIED TIME
Situation: (4) Range of R when course is changed to “in” leg is 21.7 miles. Initial range
Own ship M is maintaining station on the guide R which bears 110˚, range 5 + (rm1 x time on “out” leg).
miles. Formation course is 055˚, speed 15 knots.
Answer:
Required: (1) Course 328˚.
Commencing at 1730, scout outward on present bearing and return to present (2) Course 072˚.
station at 2030. Use 20 knots speed. (3) Time 1811.
(1) Course for first leg. (4) Distance 21.7 miles.
(2) Course for second leg.
(3) Time to turn. Explanation:
(4) Maximum distance from the guide. Since own ship R returns to present station, relative distances out and in are
equal. In going equal distances, time varies inversely as speed:
Solution:
(1) Plot R at the center and M1 bearing 290˚, 5 miles from R. Draw er 055˚, time (out) relative speed (in) rm 1 (in)
----------------------- = ---------------------------------------------- = --------------------
-
15 knots. The DRM “out” is along the bearing of M from R. The DRM “in” is time (in) relative speed (out) rm 2 (out)
along the bearing of R from M. Through r draw a line parallel to the DRM’s and
intersecting the 20-knot circle at m1 and m2. Vector rm1 is the DRM “out”. Vec- Therefore, the time out part of the specified time (3h) is obtained by simple pro-
tor em1 is 327˚.8, the course “out”. portion or graphically.
(2) Vector rm2 is the DRM “in”. Vector em2 is 072˚, the course “in”. As defined in the glossary, the time line is the line joining the heads of vectors
(3) To find the time on each leg, draw a time line from m1 using any conve- em1 and em2. This line is divided by the head of vector er into segments inverse-
nient scale. Through m2 draw m2X. Through r draw rY parallel to m2X. Similar ly proportional to the times spent by own ship R on the first (out) and second
triangles exist; thus, the time line is divided into proportional time intervals for (in) legs. In the above example an alternative construction is used so that the line
the two legs. XY is the time on the first leg, 41 minutes. The remainder of the can be drawn to a convenient scale. The proportionality is maintained by con-
time is spent on the second leg returning to station. structing similar triangles.

344
GUIDE AT CENTER

EXAMPLE 46

Scale: Speed 2:1;

Distance 2:1 mi.

345
 EXAMPLE 47
COURSES AND MINIMUM SPEED TO CHANGE STATIONS WITHIN A
SPECIFIED TIME, WHILE SCOUTING ENROUTE
Situation: tion are m1 and m2. Vector em1 is the course out: 049˚. Vector em2 is the course
Own ship M bears 130˚, 8 miles from the guide R which is on course 040˚, in: 316˚.9.
speed 12 knots. (2) Points m1 and m2 lie on the 17.2 knot circle which is the minimum speed
to complete the maneuver.
Required: (3) From m2 lay off a 4.5 hour time line using any convenient scale. Draw
Proceed to new station bearing 060˚, 10 miles from the guide, passing through m1X. Draw rfY parallel to m1X. The point Y divides the time line into parts that
a point bearing 085˚, 25 miles from the guide. Complete the maneuver in 4.5 are inversely proportional to the relative speeds rfm1 and rfm2. XY the time “in”
hours using minimum speed. is 51 minutes. Ym2 the time “out” is 3 hours 39 minutes. Time on each leg may
(1) First and second courses for M. also be determined mathematically by the formula MRM/SRM = time.
(2) Minimum speed.
(3) Time to turn to second course. Answer:
(1) First course 049˚, second 317˚.
Solution: (2) Speed 17.2 knots.
(1) Plot M1, M2 and M3 at 130˚, 8 miles; 085˚, 25 miles; and 060˚, 10 miles (3) Time 3 hours and 39 minutes.
from R, respectively. Draw er 040˚, 12 knots. From r draw lines of indefinite
length parallel to and in the direction of M1M2 and M2M3. Assume that a ficti- Note:
tious ship, F, departs M1 simultaneously with M and proceeds directly to M3 ar- The time line, as defined in the glossary, is the line joining the heads of vec-
riving at the same time as M which traveled through M2 enroute. The fictitious tors em1 and em2 and touching the head of the fictitious ship vector erf. This time
ship covers a relative distance of 10.5 miles in 4.5 hours. SRM of the fictitious line is divided by the head of the fictitious ship vector into segments inversely
ship is 2.3 knots. Through r draw rrf, the relative speed vector, 2.3 knots parallel proportional to the times spent by the unit on the first and second legs.
to and in the direction of M1M3. Vector erf is the true course and speed vector In the above example, an alternative construction of the time line is used so
of the fictitious ship. With rf as a pivot, rotate a straight line so that it intersects that the line can be drawn to a convenient scale. The proportionality is main-
the two previously drawn lines on the same speed circle. The points of intersec- tained by constructing similar triangles.

346
GUIDE AT CENTER

EXAMPLE 47

Scale: Speed 2:1;

Distance 3:1 mi.

347
 EXAMPLE 48
LIMITING LINES OF APPROACH
Situation: (3) Construct Limiting Lines of Snorkel Approach (LLSNA).
A circular formation of ships 4 miles across, with guide R the center is pro- (4) Construct Limiting Lines of Surfaced Approach (LLSA).
ceeding on course 000˚, 15 knots. An enemy torpedo firing submarine is sus-
pected to be in a position some distance ahead of the formation with a maximum Solution:
speed capability corresponding to modes of operation of: (1) Plot R at the center of the maneuvering board and draw the vector “er”
000˚, 15 knots. Construct the TDZ for the assumed effective torpedo firing
Submerged (SU) speed: 5 knots range (e.g., 5 miles) and torpedo speed (e.g., 30 knots). From “r” describe an
Quiet (Q) speed: 8 knots arc (with radius of 5 knots), the assumed submerged speed. Draw the tangent
Snorkel (SN) speed: 10 knots vector “emsu” to the arc and parallel this vector to the TDZ. By extending the
Surfaced (S) speed: 12 knots parallel vector until it intersects the formation course vector, the other limiting
line to the TDZ can be constructed (the area enclosed by the Limiting Lines of
Note: Submerged Approach (LLSUA) and the aft perimeter of the TDZ defines the
The maximum speeds above were chosen for example purposes and should submarine Danger Zone). Solutions (2) through (4) use the similar construction
NOT be used as real estimates. Consult appropriate intelligence publications on principles as in solution (1) to construct the LLQA, LLSNA and LLSA using
individual submarines for correct speeds. their respective assumed speeds.

Required: Note:
(1) Construct Limiting Lines of Submerged Approach (LLSUA). This construction assumes the submarine maintains a constant speed through-
(2) Construct Limiting Lines of Quiet Approach (LLQA). out the approach.

348
GUIDE AT CENTER

EXAMPLE 48

Scale: Speed 2:1;

Distance 4:1 mi.

349
 EXAMPLE 49
TORPEDO DANGER ZONE (TDZ)
Situation:
A circular formation of ships 4 miles across, with guide R at the center is pro- Maximum Effective Torpedo
ceeding on course 000˚, at 15 knots. An enemy torpedo carrying submarine is
Firing Range × Formation Speed
suspected of being in the area with weapon parameters of: Advanced Position = -----------------------------------------------------------------------
Torpedo Speed
Maximum effective torpedo firing range: 5 miles
Speed: 30 knots Label this position AP and plot the formation around AP. Construct the TDZ
outer boundary by plotting points at a distance equal to the maximum effective
Required: torpedo firing range (e.g., 5 miles) from the perimeter of the formation. The area
Torpedo Danger Zone (TDZ) enclosed is the TDZ relative to the formation in its original position around R.

Solution: Note:
Plot R at the center of the maneuvering board. Calculate the formation’s ad- The torpedo range and speed were chosen for example purposes only and
vanced position (i.e., R’s future position along the formation direction of ad- should not be used as real estimates. Consult appropriate intelligence publica-
vance if a torpedo is fired when R was located at board center) by: tions on individual submarine torpedoes for correct ranges and speeds.

350
GUIDE AT CENTER

EXAMPLE 49

Scale: Speed 3:1;

Distance 2:1 mi.

351
 EXAMPLE 50
MISSILE DANGER ZONE (MDZ)
Situation: Solution:
A circular formation of ships 4 miles across with guide R at the center is pro- Plot R at the center of the maneuvering board. Since the enemy’s missile trav-
ceeding on course 000˚ at 15 knots. An enemy missile carrying submarine is els at 40 times the formation’s speed, the formation will not appreciably ad-
suspected of being in the area with weapon parameters of: vance during the missile’s time of flight. The missile’s maximum effective
firing range (20 miles) is added to the perimeter of the formation and plotted
Maximum effective missile firing range: 20 miles around the formation. The area enclosed is the MDZ.
Speed: 600 mph
Note:
The missile range and speed were chosen for example purposes only and
Required: should not be used as real estimates. Consult appropriate intelligence publica-
Missile Danger Zone (MDZ) tions on individual submarine missiles for correct ranges and speeds.

352
GUIDE AT CENTER

EXAMPLE 50

Scale: Speed 3:1;

Distance 8:1 mi.

353
 Space is provided for user’s insertion of example according to his needs

Situation: Solution:

Required: Answers:

354
 Scale: Speed :1;
Distance :1 thousands of yds.

355
 Space is provided for user’s insertion of example according to his needs

Situation: Solution:

Required: Answers:

356
 Scale: Speed :1;
Distance :1 thousands of yds.

357
 Space is provided for user’s insertion of example according to his needs

Situation: Solution:

Required: Answers:

358
 Scale: Speed :1;
Distance :1 thousands of yds.

359
 Space is provided for user’s insertion of example according to his needs

Situation: Solution:

Required: Answers:

360
 Scale: Speed :1;
Distance :1 thousands of yds.

361
 Space is provided for user’s insertion of example according to his needs

Situation: Solution:

Required: Answers:

362
 Scale: Speed :1;
Distance :1 thousands of yds.

363
 Space is provided for user’s insertion of example according to his needs

Situation: Solution:

Required: Answers:

364
 Scale: Speed :1;
Distance :1 thousands of yds.

365
 APPENDIX A
EXTRACT FROM REGULATION 12, CHAPTER V OF THE IMO-SOLAS (1974) CONVENTION AS AMENDED TO 1983

THE REQUIREMENT TO CARRY RADAR AND ARPA

Ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards constructed on or after 1 3. Ships constructed before 1 September 1984, that are not tankers,
September 1984 and ships of 1600 gross tonnage and upwards constructed as follows:
before 1 September 1984 shall be fitted with a radar installation. (a) If of 40,000 gross tonnage and upwards, by 1 September
Ships of 1000 gross tonnage and upwards shall be fitted with two radar 1986;
installations, each capable of being operated independently of the other. (b) If of 20,000 gross tonnage and upwards, but less than
Facilities for plotting radar readings shall be provided on the navigating 40,000 gross tonnage, by 1 September 1987;
bridge of ships required by paragraph (g) or (h) to be fitted with a radar (c) If of 15,000 gross tonnage and upwards, but less than
installation. In ships of 1600 gross tonage and upwards constructed on or 20,000 gross tonnage, by 1 September 1998.
after 1 September 1984, the plotting facilities shall be at least as effective as (ii) Automatic radar plotting aids fitted prior to 1 September 1984 which
a reflection plotter. do not fully conform to the performance standards adopted by the
An automatic radar plotting aid shall be fitted on: organization may, at the discretion of the administration, be retained until 1
1. Ships of 10,000 gross tonnage and upwards, constructed on or January 1991.
after 1 September 1984; (iii) the administration may exempt ships from the requirements of this
2. Tankers constructed before 1 September 1984 as follows: paragraph, in cases where it considers it unreasonable or unnecessary for
(a) If of 40,000 gross tonnage and upwards, by 1 January such equipment to be carried, or when the ships will be taken permanently
1985; out of service within two years of the appropriate implementation date.
(b) If of 10,000 gross tonnage and upwards, but less than
40,000 gross tonnage, by 1 September 1986;

367
 EXTRACT FROM IMO RESOLUTIONS A222(VII), A278(VII), A477(XII)
Performance Standards for Navigational Radar equipment installed before 1 September 1984

INTRODUCTION

The radar equipment required by Regulation 12 of Chapter V should The equipment should be provided with at least five ranges, the smallest
provide an indication in relation to the ship of the position of other surface of which is not more than 1 nautical mile and the greatest of which is not less
craft and obstructions of buoys, shorelines and navigational marks in a than 24 nautical miles. The scales should preferably of 1:2 ratio. Additional
manner which will assist in avoiding collision and navigation. ranges may be provided.

It should comply with the following minimum requirements: Positive indication should be given of the range of view displayed and the
interval between range rings.
Range Performance
Range Measurement
The operational requirement under normal propagation conditions, when
the radar aerial is mounted at a height of 15 meters above sea level, is that The primary means provided for range measurement should be fixed
the equipment should give a clear indication of: electronic range rings. There should be at least four range rings displayed on
each of the ranges mentioned in paragraph 2(c)(ii), except that on ranges
Coastlines: below 1 nautical mile range rings should be displayed at intervals of 0.25
At 20 nautical miles when the ground rises to 60 meters, nautical mile.
At 7 nautical miles when the ground rises to 6 meters.
Fixed range rings should enable the range of an object, whose echo lies on
Surface objects: a range ring, to be measured with an error not exceeding 1.5 per cent of the
At 7 nautical miles a ship of 5,000 gross tonnage, whatever her maximum range of the scale in use, or 70 meters, whichever is greater.
aspect,
At 2 nautical miles an object such as a navigational buoy having an Any additional means of measuring range should have an error not
effective echoing area of approximately 10 square meters, exceeding 2.5 per cent of the maximum range of the displayed scale in use,
At 3 nautical miles a small ship of length 10 meters. or 120 meters, whichever is the greater.

Minimum Range Heading Indicator

The surface objects specified in paragraph 2(a) (ii) should be clearly The heading of the ship should be indicated by a line on the display with a
displayed from a minimum range of 50 meters up to a range of 1 nautical maximum error not greater than +/- 1°. The thickness of the display heading
mile, without adjustment of controls other than the range selector. line should not be greater than 0.5°.

Display Provision should be made to switch off the heading indicator by a device
which cannot be left in the “heading marker off” position.
The equipment should provide a relative plan display of not less than 180
mm effective diameter.

368
Bearing Measurement Performance Check

Provision should be made to obtain quickly the bearing of any object Means should be available, while the equipment is used operationally, to
whose echo appears on the display. determine readily a significant drop in performance relative to a calibration
standard established at the time of installation.
The means provided for obtaining bearings should enable the bearing of a
target whose echo appears at the edge of the display to be measured with an Anti-clutter Devices
accuracy of +/- 1° or better.
Means should be provided to minimize the display of unwanted responses
Discrimination from precipitation and the sea.

The equipment should display as separate indications, on the shortest Operation

range scale provided, two objects on the same azimuth separated by not
more than 50 meters in range. The equipment should be capable of being switched on and operated from
the main display position.
The equipment should display as separate indications two objects at the
same range separated by not more than 2.5° in azimuth. Operational controls should be accessible and easy to identify and use.

The equipment should be designed to avoid, as far as is practicable, the After switching on from the cold, the equipment should become fully
display of spurious echoes. operational within 4 minutes.

Roll A standby condition should be provided from which the equipment can be
brought to a fully operational condition within 1 minute.
The performance of the equipment should be such that when the ship is
rolling +/- 10° the echoes of the targets remain visible on the display. Interference

Scan After installation and adjustment on board, the bearing accuracy should
be maintained without further adjustment irrespective of the variation of
The scan should be continuous and automatic through 360° of azimuth. external magnetic fields.
The target data rate should be at least 12 per minute. The equipment should
operate satisfactorily in relative wind speeds of 100 knots. Sea or Ground Stabilization

Azimuth Stabilization Sea or ground stabilization, if provided, should not degrade the accuracy
of the display below the requirements of these performance standards, and
Means should be provided to enable the display to be stabilized in the view ahead on the display should not be unduly restricted by the use of
azimuth by a transmitting compass. The accuracy of alignment with the this facility.
compass transmission should be within 0.5 with a compass rotation rate of 2
r.p.m. Siting of the Aerial

The equipment should operate satisfactorily for relative bearings when the The aerial system should be installed in such a manner that the efficiency
compass control is inoperative or not fitted. of the display is not impaired by the close proximity of the aerial to other
objects. In particular, blind sectors in the forward direction should be
avoided.

369
 Performance Standards for Navigational Radar equipment installed on or after 1 September 1984

Application Minimum Range

This Recommendation applies to all ships’ radar equipment installed on The surface objects specified in paragraph 3.1.2 should be clearly
or after 1 September 1984 in compliance with Regulation 12, Chapter V of displayed from a minimum range of 50 meters up to a range of 1 nautical
the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974, as amended. mile, without changing the setting of controls other than the range selector.

Radar equipment installed before 1 September 1984 should comply at Display

least with the performance standards recommended in resolution
A.222(VII). The equipment should without external magnification provide a relative
plan display in the head up unstabilized mode with an effective diameter of
General not less than:
180 millimeters on ships of 500 gross tonnage and more but less than
The radar equipment should provide an indication, in relation to the ship, 1600 gross tonnage;
of the position of the other surface craft and obstructions and of buoys,
shorelines and navigational marks in a manner which will assist in 250 millimeters on ships of 1600 gross tonnage and more but less than
navigation and in avoiding collision. 10000 gross tonnage;
340 millimeters in the case of one display and 250 millimeters in the
All radar installations case of the other on ships of 10000 gross tonnage and upwards.

All radar installations should comply with the following minimum Note: Display diameters of 180, 250 and 340 millimeters correspond
requirements. respectively to 9, 12 and 16 inch cathode ray tubes.

Range performance The equipment should provide one of the two following sets of range
scales of display:
The operational requirement under normal propagation conditions, when 1.5, 3, 6, 12, and 24 nautical miles and one range scale of not less than
the radar antenna is mounted at a height of 15 meters above sea level, is that 0.5 and not greater than 0.8 nautical miles; or
the equipment should in the absence of clutter give a clear indication of:
1, 2, 4, 8, 16, and 32 nautical miles.
Coastlines:
Additional range scales may be provided.
At 20 nautical miles when the ground rises to 60 meters
At 7 nautical miles when the ground rises to 6 meters. The range scale displayed and the distance between range rings should be
clearly indicated at all times.
Surface objects:
At 7 nautical miles a ship of 5000 gross tonage, whatever her aspect
At 3 nautical miles a small ship of 10 meters in length
At 2 nautical miles an object such as a navigational buoy having an
effective echoing area of approximately 10 square meters.

370
Range measurement Discrimination

Fixed electronic range rings should be provided for range measurements The equipment should be capable of displaying as separate indications on
as follows: a range scale of 2 nautical miles or less, two similar targets at a range of
Where range scales are provided in accordance with paragraph 3.3.2.1, between 50% and 100% of the range scale in use, and on the same azimuth,
on the range scale of between 0.5 and 0.8 nautical miles at least two separated by not more than 50 meters in range.
range rings should be provided and on each of the other range scales six
range rings should be provided; or The equipment should be capable of displaying as separate indications
two small similar targets both situated at the same range between 50 per cent
Where range scales are provided in accordance with paragraph 3.3.2.2, and 100% of the 1.5 or 2 mile range scales, and separated by not more than
four range rings should be provided on each of the range scales. 2.5° in azimuth.

A variable electronic range marker should be provided with a numeric Roll or pitch
readout of range.
The performance of the equipment should be such that when the ship is
The fixed range rings and the variable range marker should enable the rolling or pitching up to +/- 10° the range performance requirements of
range of an object to be measured with an error not exceeding 1.5 per cent of paragraphs 3.1 and 3.2 continue to be met.
the maximum range of the scale in use, or 70 meters, whichever is greater.
Scan
It should be possible to vary the brilliance of the range rings and the
variable range marker and to remove them completely from the display. The scan should be clockwise, continuous and automatic through 360° of
azimuth. The scan rate should be not less than 12 r.p.m. The equipment
Heading indicator should operate satisfactorily in relative wind speed of up to 100 knots.

The heading indicator of the ship should be indicated by a line on the Azimuth stabilization
display with a maximum error not greater than +/- 1° .The thickness of the
displayed heading line should not be greater than 0.5°. Means should be provided to enable the display to be stabilized in
azimuth by a transmitting compass. The equipment should be provided with
Provision should be made to switch off the heading indicator by a device a compass input to enable it to be stabilized in azimuth. The accuracy of
which cannot be left in the “heading marker off” position. alignment with the compass transmission should be within 0.5° with a
compass rotation rate of 2 r.p.m.
Bearing measurement
The equipment should operate satisfactorily in the unstabilized mode
Provision should be made to obtain quickly the bearing of any object when the compass control is inoperative.
whose echo appears on the display.
Performance check
The means provided for obtaining bearing should enable the bearing of a
target whose echo appears at the edge of the display to be measured with an Means should be available, while the equipment is used operationally, to
accuracy of +/-° or better. determine readily a significant drop in performance relative to a calibration
standard established at the time of installation, and that the equipment is
correctly tuned in the absence of targets.

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Anti-clutter devices Sea or ground stabilization (true motion display)

Suitable means should be provided for the suppression of unwanted Where sea or ground stabilization is provided the accuracy and
echoes from sea clutter, rain and other forms of precipitation, clouds and discrimination of the display should be at least equivalent to that required by
sandstorms. It should be possible to adjust manually and continuously the these performance standards.
anti-clutter controls. Anti-clutter controls should be inoperative in the fully
anti-clockwise positions. In addition, automatic anti-clutter controls may be The motion of the trace origin should not, except under manual override
provided; however, they must be capable of being switched off. conditions, continue to a point beyond 75 per cent of the radius of the
display. Automatic resetting may be provided.
Operation
Antenna system
The equipment should be capable of being switched on and operated from
the display position. The antenna system should be installed in such a manner that the design
efficiency of the radar system is not substantially impaired.
Operational controls should be accessible and easy to identify and use.
Where symbols are used they should comply with the recommendations of Operation with radar beacons
the organization on symbols for controls on marine navigational radar
equipment. All radars operating in the 3cm band should be capable of operating in a
horizontally polarized mode.
After switching on from cold the equipment should become fully
operational within 4 minutes. It should be possible to switch off those signal processing facilities which
might prevent a radar beacon from being shown on the radar display.
A standby condition should be provided from which the equipment can be
brought to an operational condition within 15 seconds. Multiple radar installations

Interference Where two radars are required to be carried they should be so installed
that each radar can be operated individually and both can be operated
After installation and adjustment on board, the bearing accuracy as simultaneously without being dependent upon one another. When an
prescribed in these performance standards should be maintained without emergency source of electrical power is provided in accordance with the
further adjustment irrespective of the movement of the ship in the earth’s appropriate requirements of Chapter II-1 of the 1974 SOLAS convention,
magnetic field. both radars should be capable of being operated from this source.

Where two radars are fitted, interswitching facilities may be provided to

improve the flexibility and overall radar installation. They should be so
installed that failure of either radar would not cause the supply of electrical
energy to the other radar to be interrupted or adversely affected.

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 APPENDIX B
GLOSSARY AND ABBREVIATIONS

across-the-scope inclusion of an attenuator in the circuitry or by placing an absorbing

A radar contact whose direction of relative motion is perpendicular to device in the path of the wave.
the direction of the heading flash indicator of the radar. Also called
LIMBO CONTACT. automatic frequency control (AFC)
An electronic means for preventing drift in radio frequency or
advance maintaining the frequency within specified limits. The AFC maintains
The distance a vessel moves in its original direction after the helm is put the local oscillator of the radar on the frequency necessary to obtain a
over. constant or near constant difference in the frequency of the radar echo
(magnetron frequency) and the local oscillator frequency.
AFC
Automatic frequency control. azimuth
While this term is frequently used for bearing in radar applications, the
aerial term azimuth is usually restricted to the direction of celestial bodies
Antenna. among marine navigators.

afterglow azimuth-stabilized PPI

The slowly decaying luminescence of the screen of the cathode-ray tube See STABILIZED PPI.
after excitation by an electron beam has ceased. See PERSISTENCE.
beam width
amplify The angular width of a radar beam between half-power points. See
To increase the strength of a radar signal or echo. LOBE.

antenna bearing
A conductor or system of conductors consisting of horn and reflector The direction of the line of sight from the radar antenna to the contact.
used for radiating or receiving radar waves. Also called AERIAL. Sometimes called AZIMUTH although in marine usage the latter term
is usually restricted to the directions of celestial bodies.
anti-clutter control
A means for reducing or eliminating interferences from sea return and bearing cursor
weather. The radial line inscribed on a transparent disk which can be rotated
manually about an axis coincident with the center of the PPI. It is used
apparent wind for bearing determination. Other lines inscribed parallel to the radial
See RELATIVE WIND. line have many useful purposes in radar plotting.

ARPA blind sector

Automatic radar plotting aid. A sector on the radarscope in which radar echoes cannot be received
because of an obstruction near the antenna. See SHADOW SECTOR.
attenuation
The decrease in the strength of a radar wave resulting from absorption, cathode-ray tube (CRT)
scattering, and reflection by the medium through which it passes The radarscope (picture tube) within which a stream of electrons is
(waveguide, atmosphere) and by obstructions in its path. Also directed against a fluorescent screen (PPI). On the face of the tube or
attenuation of the wave may be the result of artificial means, such as the screen (PPI), light is emitted at the points where the electrons strike.

373
challenger datum
See INTERROGATOR. In Anti-submarine Warfare (ASW), the last known position of an enemy
submarine at a specified time. (Lacking other knowledge this is the position
circle spacing and time of torpedoing.)
The distance in yards between successive whole numbered circles.
Unless otherwise designated, it is always 1,000 yards. definition
The clarity and fidelity of the detail of radar images on the radarscope.
clutter A combination of good resolution and focus adjustment is required for
Unwanted radar echoes reflected from heavy rain, snow, waves, etc., good definition.
which may obscure relatively large areas on the radarscope.
distance circles
cone of courses Circles concentric to the formation center, with radii of specified
Mathematically calculated limits, relative to datum, within which a distances, used in the designation of main body stations in a circular
submarine must be in order to intercept the torpedo danger zone. formation. Circles are designated by means of their radii, in thousands
of yards from the formation center.
contact double stabilization The stabilization of a Heading-Upward PPI display to
Any echo detected on the radarscope not evaluated as clutter or as a North. The cathode-ray tube with the PPI display stabilized to North is
false echo. rotated to keep ship’s heading upward.

contrast down-the-scope
The difference in intensity of illumination of the radarscope between A radar contact whose direction of relative motion is generally in the
radar images and the background of the screen. opposite direction of the heading flash indicator of the radar.

corner reflector DRM

See RADAR REFLECTOR. Direction of relative movement. The direction of movement of the
maneuvering ship relative to the reference ship, always in the direction
CPA of M1→ M2→ M3→...
Closest point of approach.
duct
course A layer within the atmosphere where refraction and reflection results in
Direction of actual movement relative to true north. the trapping of radar waves, and consequently their propagation over
abnormally long distances. Ducts are associated with temperature
cross-band racon inversions in the atmosphere.
A racon which transmits at a frequency not within the marine radar
frequency band. To be able to use this type of racon, the ship's radar EBL
receiver must be capable of being tuned to the frequency of the cross- Electronic bearing line.
band racon or special accessory equipment is required. In either case,
the radarscope will be blank except for the racon signal. See IN-BAND echo
RACON. The radar signal reflected back to the antenna by an object; the image of
the reflected signal on the radarscope. Also called RETURN.
CRT
Cathode-ray tube. echo box
A cavity, resonant at the transmitted frequency which produces an
crystal artificial radar target signal for tuning or testing the overall performance
A crystalline substance which allows electric current to pass in only one of a radar set. The oscillations developed in the resonant cavity will be
direction. greater at higher power outputs of the transmitter.

374
echo box performance monitor gain (RCVR) control
An accessory which is used for tuning the radar receiver and checking A control used to increase or decrease the sensitivity of the receiver
overall performance by visual inspection. An artificial echo as received (RCVR). This control, analogous to the volume control of a broadcast
from the echo box will appear as a narrow plume from the center of the PPI. receiver, regulates the intensity of the echoes displayed on the
The length of this plume as compared with its length when the radar is radarscope.
known to be operating at a high performance level is indicative of the
current performance level. geographical plot
A plot of the actual movements of objects (ships) with respect to the
face earth. Also called NAVIGATIONAL PLOT.
The viewing surface (PPI) of a cathode-ray tube. The inner surface of heading flash An illuminated radial line on the PPI for indicating own ship’s
the face is coated with a fluorescent layer which emits light under the heading on the bearing dial. Also called HEADING MARKER.
impact of a stream of electrons. Also called SCREEN.
heading-upward display
fast time constant (FTC) circuit See UNSTABILIZED DISPLAY.
An electronic circuit designed to reduce the undesirable effects of
clutter. With the FTC circuit in operation, only the nearer edge of an in-band racon
echo having a long time duration is displayed on the radarscope. The A racon which transmits in the marine radar frequency band, e.g., the 3-
use of this circuit tends to reduce saturation of the scope which could be centimeter band. The transmitter sweeps through a range of frequencies
caused by clutter. within the band to insure that a radar receiver tuned to a particular
frequency within the band will be able to detect the signal. See CROSS-
fictitious ship BAND RACON.
An imaginary ship, presumed to maintain constant course and speed,
substituted for a maneuvering ship which alters course and speed. intensity control
fluorescence Emission of light or other radiant energy as a result of and only A control for regulating the intensity of background illumination on the
during absorption of radiation from some other source. An example is radarscope. Also called BRILLIANCE CONTROL.
the glowing of the screen of a cathode-ray tube during bombardment by
a stream of electrons. The continued emission of light after absorption interference
of radiation is called PHOSPHORESCENCE. Unwanted and confusing signals or patterns produced on the radarscope
by another radar or transmitter on the same frequency, and more rarely,
formation axis by the effects of nearby electrical equipment or machinery, or by
An arbitrarily selected direction from which all bearings used in the atmospheric phenomena.
designation of main body stations in a circular formation are measured.
The formation axis is always indicated as a true direction from the interrogator
formation center. A radar transmitter which sends out a pulse that triggers a transponder.
An interrogator is usually combined in a single unit with a responsor,
formation center which receives the reply from a transponder and produces an output
The arbitrarily selected point of origin for the polar coordinate system, suitable for feeding a display system; the combined unit is called an
around which a circular formation is formed. It is designated “station INTERROGATOR-RESPONSOR.
Zero”.
IRP
formation guide Image retaining panel.
A ship designated by the OTC as guide, and with reference to which all
ships in the formation maintain position. The guide may or may not be kilohertz (kHz)
at the formation center. A frequency of one thousand cycles per second. See MEGAHERTZ.
FTC Fast time constant.

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limbo contacts north-upward display
See ACROSS-THE-SCOPE. See STABILIZED DISPLAY.

limited lines of approach NRML

Mathematically calculated limits, relative to the force, within which an New relative movement line.
attacking submarine must be in order that it can reach the torpedo
danger zone paint
lobe Of the three-dimensional radiation pattern transmitted by a directional The bright area on the PPI resulting from the brightening of the sweep
antenna, one of the portions within which the field strength or power is by the echoes. Also, the act of forming the bright area on the PPI by the
everywhere greater than a selected value. The half-power level is used sweep.
frequently as this reference value. The direction of the axis of the major
lobe of the radiation pattern is the direction of maximum radiation. See persistence
SIDE LOBES. A measure of the time of decay of the luminescence of the face of the
cathode-ray tube after excitation by the stream of electrons has ceased.
maneuvering ship (M) Relatively slow decay is indicative of high persistence. Persistence is the
Any moving unit except the reference ship. length of time during which phosphorescence takes place.
MCPA Minutes to closest point of approach.
phosphorescence
megacycle per second (Mc) Emission of light without sensible heat, particularly as a result of, but
A frequency of one million cycles per second. The equivalent term continuing after, absorption of radiation from some other source. An
MEGAHERTZ (MHz) is now coming into more frequent use. example is the glowing of the screen of a cathode-ray tube after the
beam of electrons has moved to another part of the screen. It is this
megahertz property that results in the chartlike picture which gives the PPI its
A frequency of one million cycles per second. See KILOHERTZ. principal value. PERSISTENCE is the length of time during which
phosphorescence takes place. The emission of light or other radiant
microsecond energy as a result of and only during absorption of radiation from some
One millionth of 1 second. other source is called FLUORESCENCE.

microwaves plan position indicator (PPI)

Commonly, very short radio waves having wavelengths of 1 millimeter to The face or screen of a cathode-ray tube on which radar images appear in
30 centimeters. While the limits of the microwave region are not clearly correct relation to each other, so that the scope face presents a chartlike
defined, they are generally considered to be the region in which radar representation of the area about the antenna, the direction of a contact or
operates. target being represented by the direction of its echo from the center and its
range by its distance from the center.
minor lobes
Side lobes. plotting head
Reflection plotter.
missile danger zone
An area which the submarine must enter in order to be within maximum polarization
effective missile firing range. The orientation in space of the electric axis, of a radar wave. This
MRM Miles of relative movement. The distance along the relative electric axis, which is at right angles to the magnetic axis, may be either
movement line between any two specified points or times. Also called horizontal, vertical, or circular. With circular polarization, the axis
RELATIVE DISTANCE. rotate, resulting in a spiral transmission of the radar wave. Circular
polarization is used for reducing rain clutter.
nanosecond
One billionth of 1 second.

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PPI radar reflector
Plan position indicator. A metal device designed for reflecting strong echoes of impinging radar
signals towards their source. The corner reflector consists of three
pulse mutually perpendicular metal plates. Corner reflectors are sometimes
An extremely short burst of radar wave transmission followed by a assembled in clusters to insure good echo returns from all directions.
relatively long period of no transmission.
radar repeater
pulse duration A unit which duplicates the PPI display at a location remote from the
Pulse length. main radar indicator installation. Also called PPI REPEATER,
REMOTE PPI.
pulse length
The time duration, measured in microseconds, of a single radar pulse. radar transmitter
Also called PULSE DURATION. A unit of a radar set in which the radio-frequency power is generated
and the pulse is modulated. The modulator of the transmitter provides
pulse recurrence rate (PRR) the timing trigger for the radar indicator.
Pulse repetition rate.
ramark
pulse repetition rate (PRR) A radar beacon which continuously transmits a signal appearing as a
The number of pulses transmitted per second. radial line on the PPI, indicating the direction of the beacon from the
ship. For identification purposes, the radial line may be formed by a
racon series of dots or dashes. The radial line appears even if the beacon is
A radar beacon which, when triggered by a ship’s radar signal, transmits outside the range for which the radar is set, as long as the radar receiver
a reply which provides the range and bearing to the beacon on the PPI is within the power range of the beacon. Unlike the RACON, the ramark
display of the ship. The reply may be coded for identification purposes; does not provide the range to the beacon.
in which case, it will consist of a series of concentric arcs on the PPI.
The range is the measurement on the PPI to the arc nearest its center; the range markers
bearing is the middle of the racon arcs. If the reply is not coded, the Equally spaced concentric rings of light on the PPI which permit the
racon signal will appear as a radial line extending from just beyond the radar observer to determine the range to a contact in accordance with the
reflected echo of the racon installation or from just beyond the point range setting or the range of the outer rings. See VARIABLE RANGE
where the echo would be painted if detected. See IN-BAND RACON, MARKER.
CROSS-BAND RACON, RAMARK.
range selector
radar indicator A control for selecting the range setting for the radar indicator.
A unit of a radar set which provides a visual indication of radar echoes
received, using a cathode-ray tube for such indication. Besides the RCVR
cathode-ray tube, the radar indicator is comprised of sweep and Short for RECEIVER.
calibration circuits, and associated power supplies.
reference ship (R)
radar receiver The ship to which the movement of others is referred.
A unit of a radar set which demodulates received radar echoes, amplifies reflection plotter An attachment fitted to a PPI which provides a plotting
the echoes, and delivers them to the radar indicator. The radar receiver surface permitting radar plotting without parallax errors. Any mark
differs from the usual superheterodyne communications receiver in that made on the plotting surface will be reflected on the radarscope directly
its sensitivity is much greater; it has a better signal to noise ratio, and it below. Also called PLOTTING HEAD.
is designed to pass a pulse type signal.

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refraction scan
The bending of the radar beam in passing obliquely through regions of To investigate an area or space by varying the direction of the radar
the atmosphere of different densities. antenna and thus the radar beam. Normally, scanning is done by
continuous rotation of the antenna.
relative motion display
A type of radarscope display in which the position of own ship is fixed scanner
at the center of the PPI and all detected objects or contacts move relative A unit of a radar set consisting of the antenna and drive assembly for
to own ship. See TRUE MOTION DISPLAY. rotating the antenna.

relative movement line scope

The locus of positions occupied by the maneuvering ship relative to the Short for RADARSCOPE.
reference ship.
screen
relative plot The face of a cathode-ray tube on which radar images are displayed.
The plot of the positions occupied by the maneuvering ship relative to
the reference ship. screen axis
An arbitrarily selected direction from which all bearings used in the
relative vector designation of screen stations in a circular formation are measured. The
A velocity vector which depicts the relative movement of an object screen axis is always indicated as a true direction from the screen center.
(ship) in motion with respect to another object (ship), usually in motion.
screen center
relative wind The selected point of origin for the polar coordinate system, around
The speed and relative direction from which the wind appears to blow which a screen is formed. The screen center usually coincides with the
with reference to a moving point. See APPARENT WIND. formation center, but may be a specified true bearing and distance from
it.
remote PPI
Radar repeater. screen station numbering
Screening stations are designated by means of a “station number”,
resolution consisting of four or more digits. The last three digits are the bearing of
The degree of ability of a radar set to indicate separately the echoes of the screening station relative to the screen axis, while the prefixed digits
two contacts in range, bearing, and elevation. With respect to: indicate the radius of the distance circle in thousands of yards from the
range - the minimum range difference between separate contacts at screen center.
the same bearing which will allow both to appear as separate,
distinct echoes on the PPI. sea return
bearing - the minimum angular separation between two contacts at Clutter on the radarscope which is the result of the radar signal being
the same range which will allow both to appear as separate, distinct reflected from the sea, especially near the ship.
echoes on the PPI.
elevation - the minimum angular separation in a vertical plane sensitivity time control (STC)
between two contacts at the same range and bearing which will An electronic circuit designed to reduce automatically the sensitivity of
allow both to appear as separate, distinct echoes on the PPI. the receiver to nearby targets. Also called SWEPT GAIN CONTROL.

responder beacon shadow sector

Transponder beacon. A sector on the radarscope in which the appearance of radar echoes is
improbable because of an obstruction near the antenna. While both
RML blind and shadow sectors have the same basic cause, blind sectors
Relative movement line.

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 generally occur at the larger angles subtended by the obstruction. See of the electron stream from the center to the outer edge of the face of the
BLIND SECTOR. tube, the sweep will be increased in brightness at the point of travel of
the electron stream corresponding to the range of the contact from
side lobes which the echo is received. Since the sweep rotates in synchronism with
Unwanted lobes of a radiation pattern, i.e., lobes other than major lobes. the radar antenna, this increased brightness will occur on the bearing
Also called MINOR LOBES. from which the echo is received. With this increased brightness and the
persistence of the tube face, paint corresponding to the object being
speed triangle “illuminated” by the radar beam appears on the PPI.
The usual designation of the VECTOR DIAGRAM when scaled in
knots. swept gain control
SRM Speed of relative movement. The speed of the maneuvering ship Sensitivity time control.
relative to the reference ship.
TCPA
stabilized display (North-Upward) Time to closest point of approach.
A PPI display in which the orientation of the relative motion
presentation is fixed to an unchanging reference (North). This display is time line
North-Upward, normally. In an UNSTABILIZED DISPLAY, the A line joining the heads of two vectors which represent successive
orientation of the relative motion presentation changes with changes in courses and speeds of a specific unit in passing from an initial to a final
ship’s heading. See DOUBLE STABILIZATION. position in known time, via a specified intermediate point. This line also
touches the head of a constructive unit which proceeds directly from the
stabilized PPI initial to the final position in the same time. By general usage this
See STABILIZED DISPLAY. constructive unit is called the fictitious ship. The head of its vector
divides the time line into segments inversely proportional to the times
station numbering spent by the unit on the first and second legs. The time line is used in
Positions in a circular formation (other than the formation center) are two-course problems.
designated by means of a “station number,” consisting of four or more
digits. The last three digits are the bearing of the station relative to the torpedo danger zone
formation axis, while the prefixed digits indicate the radius of the An area which the submarine must enter in order to be within maximum
distance circle in thousands of yards. Thus, station 4090 indicates a effective torpedo firing range.
position bearing 90 degrees relative to the formation axis on a distance trace The luminous line resulting from the movement of the points of
circle with a radius of 4,000 yards from the formation center. impingement of the electron stream on the face of the cathode-ray tube.
See SWEEP.
STC
Sensitivity time control. transfer
The distance a vessel moves perpendicular to its initial direction in
strobe making a turn.
Variable range marker. transponder A transmitter-receiver capable of accepting the challenge
(radar signal) of an interrogator and automatically transmitting an
sweep appropriate reply. See RACON.
As determined by the time base or range calibration, the radial
movement of the stream of electrons impinging on the face of the transponder beacon
cathode-ray tube. The origin of the sweep is the center of the face of the A beacon having a transponder. Also called RESPONDER BEACON.
cathode-ray tube or PPI. Because of the very high speed of movement of
the point of impingement, the successive points of impingement appear trigger
as a continuously luminous line. The line rotates in synchronism with A sharp voltage pulse usually of from 0.1 to 0.4 microseconds duration,
the radar antenna. If an echo is received during the time of radial travel which is applied to the modulator tubes to fire the transmitter, and which

379
 is applied simultaneously to the sweep generator to start the electron up-the-scope
beam moving radially from the sweep origin to the edge of the face of A radar contact whose direction of relative motion is generally in the
the cathode-ray tube. same direction as the heading flash indicator of the radar.

true motion display variable range marker

A type of radarscope display in which own ship and other moving A luminous range circle or ring on the PPI, the radius of which is
contacts move on the PPI in accordance with their true courses and continuously adjustable. The range setting of this marker is read on the
speed. This display is similar to a navigational (geographical) plot. See range counter of the radar indicator.
RELATIVE MOTION DISPLAY.
vector
true vector A directed line segment representing direction and magnitude.
A velocity vector which depicts actual movement with respect to the
earth. vector diagram
A graphical means of adding and subtracting vectors. When the vector
true wind magnitude is scaled in knots, this diagram is usually called SPEED
True direction and force of wind relative to a fixed point on the earth. TRIANGLE.

unstabilized display (Heading-Upward) velocity vector

A PPI display in which the orientation of the relative motion A vector the magnitude of which represents rate of movement; a
presentation is set to ship’s heading and, thus, changes with changes in velocity vector may be either true or relative depending upon whether it
ship’s heading. In this Heading-Upward display, radar echoes are shown depicts actual movement with respect to the earth or the relative
at their relative bearings. A true bearing dial which is continuously set to movement of an object (ship) in motion with respect to another object
ship’s course at the 000 degrees relative bearing is normally used with (ship).
this display for determining true bearings. This true bearing dial may be
either manually or automatically set to ship’s course. When set VRM
automatically by a course input from the gyrocompass, the true bearing Variable range marker.
dial is sometimes called a STABILIZED AZIMUTH SCALE. The latter
term which appears in manufacturer's instruction books and operating VTS
manuals is more in conformity with air navigation rather than marine Vessel traffic system.
navigation usage. See DOUBLE STABILIZATION.
XMTR
Short for TRANSMITTER.

380
 APPENDIX C
RELATIVE MOTION PROBLEMS
RAPID RADAR PLOTTING PROBLEMS

1. Own ship, on course 311˚, speed 17 knots, obtains the following radar 2. Own ship, on course 000˚, speed 12 knots, obtains the following radar
bearings and ranges at the times indicated, using a radar setting of 24 miles: bearings and ranges at the times indicated, using a radar range setting of 12
Time Bearing Range (mi.) miles:
Time Bearing Range (mi.)
1136 280˚ 16.0
1142 274˚ 13.6 0410 035˚ 11.1
1148 265˚ 11.4 0416 031˚ 9.2
0422 025˚ 7.3
Required:
Required:
(1) Range at CPA.
(1) Distance at which the contact will cross dead ahead.
(2) Time at CPA.
(2) Direction of relative movement (DRM).
(3) Direction of relative movement (DRM)
(3) Speed of relative movement (SRM); relative speed.
Solution:
(4) Range at CPA.
(1) R 8.2 mi., (2) T 1204.5, (3) DRM 131˚.
(5) Bearing of contact at CPA.
(6) Relative distance (MRM) from 0422 position of contact to the CPA.
(7) Time at CPA.
(8) Distance own ship travels from the time of the first plot (0410) to the
time of the last plot (0422) of the contact.
(9) True course of the contact.
(10) Actual distance traveled by the contact between 0410 and 0422.
(11) True speed of the contact.

Solution:
Assuming that the contact maintains course and speed: (1) D 4.3. mi., (2)
DRM 234˚, (3) SRM 20 kn., (4) R 3.5 mi., (5) B 324˚, (6) MRM 6.5 mi.,
(7) T 0441, (8) D 2.4 mi., (9) C 270˚, (10) D 3.2 mi., (11) S 16 kn.

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3. Own ship, on course 030˚, speed 23 knots, obtains the following radar 4. Own ship, on course 000˚, speed 11 knots, obtains the following radar
bearings and ranges at the times indicated, using a radar range setting of 12 bearings and ranges at the times indicated, using a radar range setting of 12
miles: miles:
Time Bearing Range (mi.) Time Bearing Range (mi.)

1020 081˚ 10.8 1100 080˚ 12.0

1023 082˚ 9.2 1106 080˚ 10.8
1026 083˚ 7.7 1112 080˚ 9.6

Required: Required:
(1) Range at CPA. (1) Range at CPA.
(2) Bearing of contact at CPA. (2) Speed of relative movement (SRM); relative speed.
(3) Speed of relative movement (SRM); relative speed. (3) Time at CPA.
(4) Time at CPA. (4) True course of contact.
(5) Distance own ship travels from the time of the first plot (1020) to the
Decision:
time of the last plot (1026) of the contact; distance own ship travels
in 6 minutes. When the range to the contact decreases to 6 miles, own ship will change
course so that the contact will pass safely ahead with a CPA of 2.0 miles.
(6) True course of the contact.
(7) Actual distance traveled by the contact between 1020 and 1026. Required:
(8) True speed of the contact. (5) New course for own ship.
(9) Assuming that the contact has turned on its running lights during (6) New SRM after course change.
daylight hours because of inclement weather, what side light(s)
might be seen at CPA? Solution:
Assuming that the contact maintains course and speed: (1) Nil; risk of
Solution:
collision exists, (2) SRM 12 kn., (3) T 1200, (4) 307˚, (5) 063˚, (6) New
Assuming that the contact maintains course and speed: (1) R 1.0 mi., (2) SRM 22 kn.
B 167˚, (3) SRM 32 kn., (4) T 1041, (5) D 2.3 mi., (6) C 304˚, (7) D 2.2
mi., (8) S 22 kn., (9) starboard (green) side light.

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5. Own ship, on course 220˚, speed 12 knots, obtains the following radar 6. Own ship, on course 316˚, speed 21 knots, obtains the following radar
bearings and ranges at the times indicated, using a radar range setting of 12 bearings and ranges at the times indicated, using a radar range setting of 12
miles: miles:
Time Bearing Range (mi.) Time Bearing Range (mi.)
1206 357˚ 11.8
0300 297˚ 11.7
1212 358˚ 10.2
0306 296˚ 10.0
1218 359˚ 8.7
0312 295˚ 8.5
Required:
Required:
(1) Range at CPA.
(1) Range at CPA.
(2) Speed of relative movement (SRM); relative speed.
(2) Speed of relative movement (SRM); relative speed.
(3) True course of contact.
(3) Time at CPA.
(4) True speed of contact.
(4) True course of contact.
Decision:
Decision:
When the range to the contact decreases to 6 miles, own ship will change
When the range to the contact decreases to 6 miles, own ship will change
course so that the contact will clear ahead, in minimum time, with a CPA
course so that the contact will clear ahead, in minimum time, with a CPA
of 3 miles.
of 3.0 miles.
Required:
Required:
(5) New course for own ship.
(5) New course for own ship.
(6) New SRM after course change. Solution:
Assuming that the contact maintains course and speed:(1) R 1.1 mi., (2)
Solution:
SRM 15.5 kn., (3) C 269˚, (4) S 12.5 kn., (5) C 002˚.
Assuming that the contact maintains course and speed: (1) R 1.2 mi., (2)
SRM 16.5 kn., (3) T 0343, (4) C 161˚, (5) Come right to 290˚, (6) New
SRM 28 kn.

383
7. Own ship, on course 000˚, speed 10 knots, obtains the following radar 8. Own ship, on course 052˚, speed 15 knots, obtains the following radar
bearings and ranges at the times indicated, using a radar range setting of 12 bearings and ranges at the times indicated, using a radar range setting of 24
miles: miles:
Time Bearing Range (mi.) Time Bearing Range (mi.)

0400 010˚ 11.1 0340 052˚ 14.9

0406 010˚ 9.0 0346 052˚ 11.6
0412 010˚ 7.1 0352 052˚ 8.3

Required: Required:
(1) Range at CPA. (1) Range at CPA.
(2) Speed of relative movement (SRM); relative speed. (2) True course of contact.
(3) Time at CPA. (3) Assuming that there are no other vessels in the area and that the
contact is a large passenger ship, clearly visible at 0352, is this a
(4) True course of contact.
crossing, meeting, or overtaking situation?
(5) True speed of contact.
(4) True speed of contact.
Decision: Decision:
Own ship will change course at 0418 so that the contact will clear ahead A decision is made to change course when the range to the contact
(on own ship's port side), with a CPA of 2 miles.
decreases to 6 miles.
Required: (5) New course of own ship to clear the contact port to port with a CPA
of 3 miles.
(6) New course for own ship.
Solution:
Solution:
Assuming that the contact maintains course and speed: (1) Nil; risk of
Assuming that the contact maintains course and speed: (1) Nil., (2) SRM collision exists, (2) C 232˚, (3) Meeting, (4) S 18 kn., (5) C 119˚.
20 kn., (3) T 0433, (4) C 200˚, (5) S 10 kn., (6) C 046˚.
9. Own ship, on course 070˚, speed 16 knots, obtains the following radar 10. Own ship, on course 093˚, speed 18 knots, obtains the following radar
bearings and ranges at the times indicated, using a radar range setting of 12 bearings and ranges at the times indicated, using a radar range setting of 12
miles: miles:
Time Bearing Range (mi.) Time Bearing Range (mi.)

0306 015˚ 10.8 0452 112˚ 5.9

0312 016˚ 8.3 0458 120˚ 4.2
0318 017˚ 5.9 0504 137˚ 2.7
Required: Required:
(1) Range at CPA. (1) Range at CPA.
(2) Time at CPA. (2) Relative distance (MRM) from 0452 to 0504 position of contact.
(3) True course of the contact. (3) Speed of relative movement (SRM); relative speed.
(4) True speed of the contact. (4) Direction of relative movement (DRM).
(5) Distance own ship travels from the time of the first plot (0452) to the
Decision: time of the last plot (0504) of the contact.
When the range to the contact decreases to 5 miles, own ship will change (6) True course and speed of the contact.
speed only so that contact will clear ahead at a distance of 3 miles.
Solution:
Required:
Assuming that the contact maintains course and speed: (1) R 1.9 mi., (2)
(5) New speed of own ship. MRM 3.6 mi., (3) SRM 18 kn., (4) DRM 273˚, (5) D 3.6 mi., (6) The
contact is either a stationary object or a vessel underway but with no way
Solution: on.
Assuming that the contact maintains course and speed: (1) R 0.5 mi., (2) T
0333., (3) C 152˚, (4) S 21 kn., (5) S 31/4 kn.

385
11. Own ship, on course 315˚, speed 11 knots, obtains the following radar 12. Own ship, on course 342˚ speed 11 knots, (half speed), obtains the
bearings and ranges at the times indicated, using a radar range setting of 24 following radar bearings and ranges at the times indicated, using a radar
miles: range setting of 12 miles:
Time Bearing Range (mi.) Time Bearing Range (mi.)

0405 319˚ 17.8 0906 287˚ 12.0

0417 320˚ 15.6 0912 287˚ 10.2
0429 321˚ 13.4 0918 288˚ 8.4

Required: Required:
(1) Range at CPA. (1) Range at CPA.
(2) True course and speed of the contact. (2) True course of the contact.

Decision: (3) True speed of the contact.

When the range to the contact decreases to 8 miles, own ship will change (4) Is this a crossing, meeting, or overtaking situation?
course so that the contact will pass safely to starboard with a CPA of 3
miles. Decision:
Own ship is accelerating to full speed of 18 knots and will change course
Required: at 0924 when the speed is 15 knots so that the contact will clear astern
(3) New course for own ship. with a CPA of 2 miles.

Solution: Required:

Assuming that the contact maintains course and speed: (1) R 1.6 mi., (2) (5) New course for own ship.
The contact is either stationary or a vessel with little or no way on. (3) C
303˚. Solution:
Assuming that the contact maintains course and speed: (1) R 0.5 mi., (2)
C 067˚, (3) S 15 kn., (4) Crossing, (5) C 006˚.

386
13. Own ship, on course 350˚, speed 18 knots, obtains the following radar 14. Own ship, on course 330˚, speed 20 knots, obtains the following radar
bearings and ranges at the times indicated, using a radar range setting of 12 bearings and ranges at the times indicated, using a radar range setting of 12
miles: miles:
Time Bearing Range (mi.) Time Bearing Range (mi.)

0200 030˚ 10.0 0608 300˚ 12.0

0203 029˚ 8.7 0614 300˚ 10.0
0206 028˚ 7.4 0620 300˚ 8.0

Required: Required:
(1) Range at CPA. (1) Range at CPA.
(2) True course of the contact. (2) Time at CPA.
(3) True speed of the contact. (3) True course of the contact.

Decision: (4) True speed of the contact.

When the range to the contact decreases to 6 miles, own ship changes (5) What danger, if any, would be present if own ship maintained course
course to 039˚. and speed and contact changed course to 120˚ at 0620?

Required: Decision:

(4) New range at CPA. Assume that the contact maintains its original course and speed and that
own ship's speed has been reduced to 11.5 knots when the range to the
(5) Describe how the new time at CPA would be computed. contact has decreased to 6 miles.
(6) New time at CPA.
Required:
(7) At what bearing and range to the contact can own ship safely resume
(6) New range at CPA.
the original course of 350˚ and obtain a CPA of 3 miles?
(7) Will the contact pass ahead or astern of own ship?
(8) What would be the benefit, if any, of bringing own ship slowly back
to the original course of 350˚ once the point referred to in (7) above
Solution:
is reached?
(1) Nil; risk of collision exists. (2) T 0644, (3) C 045˚, (4) S 10.5 kn., (5)
Solution: None, (6) R 2.0 mi., (7) Ahead.
Assuming that the contact maintains course and speed: (1) R 1.0 mi., (2)
C 252˚, (3) S 18.5 kn., (4) R 3.0 mi., (5) Determine the original relative
speed (SRM); then using it, determine the time at Mx. Next, determine the
new SRM; then using it, determine how long it will take for the contact to
move in relative motion down the new RML from Mx to the new CPA. (6)
T 0219, (7) When the contact bears 318˚, range 3.0 miles. (8) The slow
return to the original course will serve to insure that the contact will
remain outside the 3-mile danger or buffer zone after own ship is steady
on 350˚.

387
15. Own ship, on course 022˚, speed 32 knots, obtains the following radar 16. Own ship, on course 120˚, speed 12 knots, obtains the following radar
bearings and ranges at the times indicated, using a radar range setting of 24 bearings and ranges at the times indicated, using a radar range setting of 12
miles: miles:
Time Contact A Contact B Contact C Time Contact A Contact B Contact C

0423 070˚-23.2 mi. 170˚-23.8 mi. 025˚-22.6 mi. 0300 095˚-8.7 mi. 128˚-10.0 mi. 160˚-7.7 mi.
0426 070˚-21.1 mi. 170˚-23.8 mi. 023˚-21.2 mi. 0306 093˚-7.8 mi. 128˚-8.3 mi. 164˚-7.0 mi.
0429 070˚-19.1 mi. 170˚-23.8 mi. 020˚-19.0 mi. 0312 090˚-7.0 mi. 128˚-6.6 mi. 170˚-6.3 mi.

The observations are made on a warm, summer morning. The weather is Required:
calm; the sea state is 0. From sea water temperature measurements and (1) Ranges at CPA for the three contacts.
weather reports, it is determined that the temperature of the air immediately
above the sea is 12˚ F cooler than the air 300 feet above the ship. Also, the (2) True courses of the contacts.
relative humidity immediately above the sea is 30% greater than at 300 feet (3) Which contact presents the greatest danger?
above the ship.
(4) Which contact, if any, might be a lightship at anchor?
Required:
Decision:
(1) Since the contacts are detected at ranges longer than normal, to what
do you attribute the radar's increased detection capability? When the range to contact B decreases to 6 miles, own ship will change
course to 190˚.
(2) Ranges at CPA for the three contacts.
(3) True courses of the contacts. Required:

(4) True speeds of the contacts. (5) At what time will the range to contact B be 6 miles?

(5) Which contact presents the greatest threat? (6) New CPA of contact C after course change to 190˚.

(6) If own ship has adequate sea room, should own ship come left or Solution:
right of contact A?
Assuming the contacts maintain course and speed: (1) Contact A-R 3.0
Decision: mi.; contact B-nil; contact C-R 4.3 mi., (2) contact A-C 138˚; contact B-C
329˚; contact C-C 101˚, (3) Contact B; it is on collision course, (4) None,
When the range to contact A decreases to 12 miles, own ship will change (5) T 0314, (6) R 3.2 mi.
course so that no contact will pass within 4 miles.

Required:
(7) New course for own ship.

Solution:
Assuming that the contacts maintain course and speed: (1) Super-
refraction, (2) Contact A-nil; Contact B-R 23.8 mi.; Contact C-R 9.2 mi.,
(3) Contact A-C 299˚; Contact B-C 022˚; Contact C-C 282˚, (4) Contact
A-S 30 kn; Contact B-S 32 kn.; Contact C-S 19 kn., (5) Contact A; it is on
collision course, (6) Come right, (7) C 063˚.

388
 MANEUVERING BOARD PROBLEMS

17. Own ship, on course 298˚, speed 13 knots, obtains the following radar 18. Own ship, on course 073˚, speed 19.5 knots, obtains the following radar
bearings and ranges at the times indicated, using a radar range setting of 20 bearings and ranges at the times indicated, using a radar range setting of 20
miles: miles:
Time Bearing Range (mi.) Time Bearing Range (mi.)

0639 267˚ 19.0 1530 343˚ 16.2

0651 266.5˚ 16.0 1540 343˚ 14.7
0709 265˚ 11.5 1546 343˚ 13.8
0729 261˚ 6.5 1558 343˚ 12.0
0735 255.5˚ 4.9 1606 342.5˚ 10.9
0737 252˚ 4.3 1612 341.5˚ 10.1
0741 242.5˚ 3.3 1624 339.5˚ 8.4
1632.5 336˚ 7.3
Required: 1644 328.5˚ 6.0
(1) Range at CPA as determined at 0729. 1657 315˚ 4.7

(2) Time at CPA as determined at 0729. Required:

(3) Course of other ship as determined at 0729. (1) Range at CPA as determined at 1558.
(4) Speed of other ship as determined at 0729. (2) Time at CPA as determined at 1558.
(5) Range at CPA as determined at 0741. (3) Course of other ship as determined at 1558.
(6) Time at CPA as determined at 0741. (4) Speed of other ship as determined at 1558.
(7) Course of other ship as determined at 0741. (5) Range at CPA as determined at 1624.
(8) Speed of other ship as determined at 0741. (6) Time at CPA as determined at 1624.
(7) Course of other ship as determined at 1624.
Solution:
(8) Speed of other ship as determined at 1624.
(1) R 1.0 mi., (2) T 0755, (3) C 030˚, (4) S 7.0 kn., (5) R 2.0 mi., (6) T
0749.5, (7) C 064˚, (8) S 7.0 kn. (9) Range at CPA as determined at 1657.
(10) Time at CPA as determined at 1657.
(11) Course of other ship as determined at 1657.
(12) Speed of other ship as determined at 1657.

Solution:
(1) R 0.0 mi., (2) T 1718, (3) C 098˚, (4) S 21.5 kn., (5) R 2.0 mi., (6) T
1721, (7) C 098˚, (8) S 20.0 kn., (9) R 3.7 mi., (10) T 1718, (11) C 098˚,
(12) S 18.0 kn.

389
19. Own ship, on course 140˚, speed 5 knots, obtains the following radar 20. Own ship, on course 001˚, speed 15 knots, obtains the following radar
bearings and ranges at the times indicated, using a radar range setting of 12 bearings and ranges at the times indicated, using a radar range setting of 15
miles: miles:
Time Bearing Range (mi.) Time Bearing Range (mi.)

0257 142˚ 10.5 2243 138˚ 14.0

0303 141.5˚ 8 2255 137.5˚ 12.6
0308 141˚ 6 2318 136˚ 9.9
0312 135˚ 4.5 2332 140˚ 8.0
0314 126.5˚ 4 2351 166.5˚ 5.5
0317 110.5˚ 3.2 0002.5 191.5˚ 5.0
0008 204˚ 5.1
Required: 0014 214˚ 5.1
(1) Range at CPA as determined at 0308. 0020 222˚ 4.95
0026 230˚ 4.85
(2) Time at CPA as determined at 0308.
(3) Course of other ship as determined at 0308. Required:

(4) Speed of other ship as determined at 0308. (1) Range at CPA as determined at 2318.
(5) Range at CPA as determined at 0317. (2) Time at CPA as determined at 2318.

(6) Time at CPA as determined at 0317. (3) Course of other ship as determined at 2318.

(7) Course of other ship as determined at 0317. (4) Speed of other ship as determined at 2318.
(8) Speed of other ship as determined at 0317. (5) Predicted range of other vessel as it crosses dead ahead of own ship
as determined at 2318.
Solution: (6) Predicted time of crossing ahead as determined at 2318.
(1) R 0.2 mi., (2) T 0322, (3) C 325˚, (4) S 20.0 kn., (5) R 3.0 mi., (6) T (7) Course of other ship as determined at 2351.
0320, (7) C 006˚, (8) S 20.0 kn.
(8) Speed of other ship as determined at 2351.
(9) Predicted range of other vessel as it crosses dead astern of own ship
as determined at 2351.
(10) Predicted time of crossing astern as determined at 2351.
(11) Direction of relative movement between 0002.5 and 0008.
(12) Relative speed between 0002.5 and 0008.
(13) Course of other ship as determined at 0026.
(14) Speed of other ship as determined at 0026.

Solution:
(1) R 1.2 mi., (2) T 0042, (3) C 349˚, (4) S 21.0 kn., (5) R 2.0 mi., (6) T
0056, (7) C 326˚, (8) S 21.0 kn., (9) R 5.1 mi., (10) T 2358, (11) DRM
281.5˚, (12) SRM 12.0 kn., (13) C 349˚, (14) S 21.0 kn.

390
21. Own ship, on course 196˚, speed 8 knots, obtains the following radar 22. Own ship, on course 092˚, speed 12 knots, obtains the following radar
bearings and ranges at the times indicated, using a radar range setting of 12 bearings and ranges at the times indicated, using a radar range setting of 16
miles: miles:
Time Bearing Range (mi.) Time Bearing Range (mi.)

2303 016˚ 11.0 1720 335˚ 15.0

2309 016˚ 10.0 1750 334.5˚ 11.7
2318 016˚ 8.5 1830 333˚ 7.2
2330 016˚ 6.5 1854 325.5˚ 4.5
2340 011.5˚ 4.9 1858 315.5˚ 4.0
2350 359.5˚ 3.4 1902 303.5˚ 3.6
2400 333.5˚ 2.2 1906 289.5˚ 3.4
0010.5 286˚ 2.0 1914 263.5˚ 3.3
0020 247.5˚ 2.5 1930 212.5˚ 3.8
0026 233.5˚ 3.2 1950 184.5˚ 6.8

Required: Required:
(1) Range at CPA as determined at 2318. (1) Range at CPA as determined at 1830.
(2) Time at CPA as determined at 2318. (2) Time at CPA as determined at 1830.
(3) Course of other ship as determined at 2318. (3) Course of other ship as determined at 1830.
(4) Speed of other ship as determined at 2318. (4) Speed of other ship as determined at 1830.
(5) Range at CPA as determined at 2400. (5) Course of other ship as determined at 1906.
(6) Time at CPA as determined at 2400. (6) Speed of other ship as determined at 1906.
(7) Course of other ship as determined at 2400. (7) Course of other ship as determined at 1950.
(8) Speed of other ship as determined at 2400. (8) Speed of other ship as determined at 1950.
(9) Course of other ship as determined at 0026. Solution:
(10) Speed of other ship as determined at 0026. (1) R 0.5 mi., (2) T 1935.5, (3) C 114˚, (4) S 16.0 kn., (5) C 147˚, (6) S
16.0 kn., (7) C 124˚, (8) S 20.0 kn.
Solution:
(1) R 0.0 mi., (2) T 0009, (3) C 196˚, (4) S 18.0 kn., (5) R 2.0 mi., (6) T
0006, (7) C 207˚, (8) S 18.0 kn., (9) C 196˚, (10) S 18.0 kn.

391
23. Own ship, on course 080˚, speed 12.5 knots, obtains the following radar Decision:
bearings and ranges at the times indicated, using a radar range setting of 16
miles: When the range decreases to 8.0 miles, own ship will turn to the left to
increase the CPA distance to 3.0 miles.
Time Bearing Range (mi.)
Required:
0035 038˚ 14.5
0044 038.5˚ 13.2 (5) Predicted time of change of course.
0106 040˚ 10.0 (6) Predicted bearing of other ship when own ship changes course.
Required: (7) New course for own ship.
(1) Range at CPA. (8) Time at new CPA.
(2) Time at CPA. (9) Time at which own ship is dead astern of other ship.
(3) Course of other ship. Solution:
(4) Speed of other ship. (1) R 1.0 mi., (2) T 0215, (3) C 124˚, (4) S 9.0 kn., (5) T 0120, (6) B
041.5˚, (7) C 064˚, (8) T 0200, (9) T 0204.

392
24. Own ship, on course 251˚, speed 18.5 knots, obtains the following radar Required:
bearings and ranges at the times indicated, using a radar range setting of 20
miles: (5) New direction of relative movement.
Time Bearing Range (mi.) (6) Predicted time of change of course.
(7) Predicted bearing of other ship when own ship changes course.
0327 314˚ 16.2
0337 314.5˚ 14.7 (8) Predicted range of other ship when own ship changes course.
0351 315˚ 12.6 (9) New course for own ship.
0401 315.5˚ 11.1
0413.5 315˚ 9.1 (10) Predicted new relative speed.
0422 305˚ 6.7 (11) Predicted time at which other ship is dead ahead of own ship.

Required: (As determined at 0401.) (12) Predicted range of other ship when it is dead ahead of own ship.

(1) Range at CPA. (13) Predicted time at CPA, as determined at 0422.

(2) Time at CPA. (14) Bearing of other ship when it is dead ahead of own ship's original
course.
(3) Course of other ship.
(15) Predicted time of resuming original course.
(4) Speed of other ship.
Solution:
Decision:
(1) R 1.0 mi., (2) T 0515, (3) C 222˚, (4) S 16.0 kn., (5) DRM 161˚, (6) T
Own ship will pass astern of other vessel, with a CPA of 4.0 miles and 0411, (7) B 316.5˚, (8) R 9.6 mi., (9) C 292˚, (10) SRM 19.8 kn., (11) T
new direction of relative movement perpendicular to own ship's original 0428, (12) R 5.3 mi., (13) T 0438.5, (14) B 251˚, (15) T 0438.5.
course, maintaining a speed of 18.5 knots. The original course will be
resumed when the other ship is dead ahead of this course.

393
25. Own ship, on course 035˚, speed 20 knots, obtains the following radar Decision:
bearings and ranges at the times indicated, using a radar range setting of 15
When the range decreases to 5.0 miles, own ship will change course to the
miles:
right, maintaining a speed of 20 knots, to pass the other ship with a CPA
Time Bearing Range (mi.) of 1.0 mile. Original course of 035˚ will be resumed when the other ship
is broad on the port quarter.
1900 035˚ 14.4
1906 035˚ 12.8 Required:
1915 035˚ 10.4
(5) Predicted time of change of course to the right.
1924 035˚ 8.0
1933 035˚ 5.6 (6) New course for own ship.
1941 030˚ 3.5 (7) Bearing of CPA as determined at 1935.
1947 015˚ 1.9
(8) Predicted time at 1.0 mile CPA as determined at 1935.
Required: (As determined at 1915.)
(9) Bearing of other ship when own ship commences turn to original
(1) Range at CPA. course.
(2) Time at CPA. (10) Predicted time of resuming original course.
(3) Course of other ship. Solution:
(4) Speed of other ship. (1) R 0.0 mi., (2) T 1954, (3) C 035˚, (4) S 4.0 kn., (5) T 1935, (6) C 044˚,
(7) B 314˚, (8) T 1952, (9) B 269˚, (10) T 1957.

394
26. Own ship, on course 173˚, speed 16.5 knots, obtains the following radar Required:
bearings and ranges at the times indicated, using a radar range setting of 20
miles: (7) Range at new CPA.
Time Bearing Range (mi.) (8) Time at new CPA.
(9) Direction of new relative movement line.
2125.5 221˚ 16.0
2130 220.5˚ 15.0 (10) New relative speed.
2137.5 219˚ 13.2
2142 218˚ 12.2 (11) New course of own ship.
2151.5 215.5˚ 10.0
2158 205.5˚ 8.3 Decision:
2206 185˚ 6.7 Own ship will resume original course when bearing of other vessel is the
same as the original course of own ship.
Required: (As determined at 2142.)
(1) Range at CPA. Required:
(2) Time at CPA. (12) Predicted time of resuming original course.
(3) Predicted range other ship will be dead ahead. (13) Distance displaced to right of original course line.
(4) Predicted time of crossing ahead. (14) Additional distance steamed in avoiding other vessel.
(5) Course of other ship. (15) Time lost in avoiding other vessel.
(6) Speed of other ship. Solution:
Decision: (1) R 2.5 mi., (2) T 2233, (3) R 3.0 mi., (4) T 2225.5, (5) C 120˚, (6) S
14.7 kn., (7) R 6.3 mi., (8) T 2211.5, (9) DRM 075˚, (10) SRM 23.2 kn.,
When range decreases to 10 miles own ship will change course to the (11) C 216˚, (12) T 2209.5, (13) D 3.4 mi., (14) D 1.3 mi., (15) t less than
right to bearing of stern of other vessel (assume 0.5˚ right of radar 5 min.
contact).

395
27. Own ship, on course 274˚, speed 15.5 knots, obtains the following radar Required:
bearings and ranges at the times indicated, using a radar range setting of 20
miles: (5) Predicted bearing of other ship when at a range of 6.0 miles.
(6) Predicted time when other ship is at 6.0 mile range, and own ship
Time Bearing Range (mi.) must commence action to obtain the desired CPA of 4.0 miles.

0815 008˚ 14.4 Decision:

0839 006˚ 10.1
Own ship may (1) alter course to right and maintain speed of 15.5 knots,
0853 004˚ 7.6
or (2) reduce speed and maintain course of 274˚.
Required:
Required:
(1) Range at CPA.
(7) New course if own ship maintains speed of 15.5 knots.
(2) Time at CPA.
(8) Predicted time when other vessel bears 274˚ and own ship’s original
(3) Course of other ship. course can be resumed.
(4) Speed of other ship. (9) New speed if own ship maintains course of 274˚.

Decision: (10) Predicted time when other vessel crosses ahead of own ship and
original speed of 15.5 knots can be resumed.
When the range decreases to 6.0 miles, own ship will commence action to
obtain a CPA distance of 4.0 miles, with own ship crossing astern of other Solution:
vessel.
(1) R 1.1 mi., (2) T 0935, (3) C 242˚, (4) S 20.0 kn., (5) B 002˚, (6) T
0902, (7) C 019˚, (8) T 0916, (9) S 8.2 kn., (10) T 0936.

396
28. Own ship, on course 052˚, speed 8.5 knots, obtains the following radar Own ship continues to track other ship and obtains the following radar
bearings and ranges at the times indicated, using a radar range setting of 20 bearings and ranges at the times indicated, using a radar range setting of 20
miles: miles:
Time Bearing Range (mi.) Time Bearing Range (mi.)

0542 052˚ 18.5 0559 050˚ 10.0

0544 052˚ 17.5 0604.5 043.5˚ 7.4
0549 052˚ 15.0 0606.5 040˚ 6.5
0550 052˚ 14.5 0609 034˚ 5.5

Required: Required:
(1) Range at CPA. (8) Course of other ship as determined at 0609.
(2) Time at CPA. (9) Speed of other ship as determined at 0609.
(3) Course of other ship. (10) Range at CPA as determined at 0609.
(4) Speed of other ship.
Solution:
Decision: (1) R 0.0 mi., (2) T 0619, (3) C 232˚, (4) S 21.5 kn., (5) B 052˚, (6) R 12.0
mi., (7) C 086˚, (8) C 241˚, (9) S 21.5 kn., (10) R 3.0 mi.
At 0555, own ship is to alter course to right to provide a CPA distance of
2.0 miles on own ship’s port side.

Required:
(5) Predicted bearing of other ship when own ship changes course.
(6) Predicted range of other ship when own ship changes course.
(7) New course for own ship.

397
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