NOTES ON ESSENTIAL OF IT

COMPUTER

A computer is a fast electronic device that processes the input data according to the instructions given by
the programmer/user and provides the desired information as an output.

Characteristics of Computer

1. Fast: A computer is so fast that it can perform the given task (arithmetical or logical) in few
seconds as compared to man who can spend many months for doing the same task. A computer
can process millions of instructions per second.
2. Accurate: While doing calculations, a computer is more accurate than man can make mistakes in
calculations but a computer does not make mistakes, if it is provided accurate instructions.
3. Diligence: A computer does not suffer from the human traits of tiredness and boredom. Man will
be tired and bored while doing millions of calculations but a computer, being a machine, does this
job very efficiently and without any tiredness and boredom.
4. High Memory: A computer has much more memory or storage capacity than human being. It can
store millions of data and instructions, which can be retrieved and recalled even after a number of
years. This is not possible in case of human brain.
5. No Intelligence: A computer is a machine and obviously has no intelligence of its own. Each and
every instruction must be given to the computer for doing a task. Man has an intelligence and it is
the man who invented computer and gives it all the instructions and logic to work. A computer
cannot take decisions on its own and it is the main drawback of computer.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER

According to Purpose According to the utilization of computer for different uses, computers are of
following two types:

1. General Purpose Computers: Computers that follow instructions for general requirements such as
sales analysis, financial accounting, invoicing, inventory, management information etc. are called General
Purpose Computers. Almost all computers used in offices for commercial, educational and other
applications are general purpose computers.

2. Special Purpose Computers: Computers designed from scratch to perform special tasks like
scientific applications and research, weather forecasting, space applications, medical diagnostics etc. are
called Special Purpose Computers.

According to Technology Used According to the technology used, computers are of following three
types:

1. Analog Computers: Analog computers are special purpose computers that represent and store data in
continuously varying physical quantities such as current, voltage or frequency. These computers are
programmed for measuring physical quantities like pressure, temperature, speed etc. and to perform
computations on these measurements. Analog computers are mainly used for scientific and engineering
applications. Some of the examples of analog computers are given below: (i) Thermometer: It is a simple
analog computer used to measure temperature. In thermometer, the mercury moves up or down as the
temperature varies. (ii) Speedometer: Car's speedometer is another example of analog computer where the
position of the needle on the dial represents the speed of the car.

2. Digital Computers: Digital computers are mainly general purpose computers that represent and store
data in discrete quantities or numbers. In these computers, all processing is done in terms of numeric
representation (Binary Digits) of data and information. Although the user enter data in decimal or
character form, it is converted into binary digits (0's and l's). Almost all the computers used nowadays are
digital computers and we will discuss the detailed working and components of these computers in
subsequent sections of this unit.

3. Hybrid Computers: Hybrid computers incorporate the technology of both analog and digital
computers. These computers store and process analog signals which have been converted into discrete
numbers using analog-to-digital converters.

Hybrid computers are mainly used in artificial intelligence (robotics) and computer aided manufacturing
(e.g. process control).

According to Size and Capacity

According to the size and memory/storage capacity, computers are of following four types: 1.
Supercomputer: Supercomputer is the biggest and fastest computer, which is mainly designed for
complex scientific applications. It has many CPUs (Central Processing Units - main part of computer)
which operate in parallel to make it as a fastest computer.
Ex: P ARAM 9000 and P ARAM 10000

Mainframe Computer:

Mainframe computers are very large and fast computers but smaller and slower than supercomputers.
These are used in a centralized location where many terminals (input/output devices) are connected with
one CPU and thus, allow different users to share the single CPU. They have a very high memory (several
hundred Megabytes) and can support thousands of users. They are mainly used for following applications:

Railway and Airline Reservations & Banking Applications

Minicomputer: Minicomputers are medium-scale, smaller and generally slower than mainframe
computers. Like mainframes, they have many terminals which are connected with one CPU and can
support many users. The cost of minicomputer is very less as compared to mainframe. Therefore, it is
mainly used in applications where processing can be distributed among several minicomputers rather than
using a mainframe computer

PDP-1, IBM AS/400 and DEC Micro VAX. IBM AS/400,

Microcomputer: A microcomputer is the smallest digital computer, which uses a microprocessor as its
CPU. Microprocessor is a single chip (Integrated Circuit) CPU. Microcomputer is popularly called as
Personal Computer (PC).

ARCHITECTURE OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

A complete computer installation including the central processing unit, the peripherals such as hard disk
drives, floppy disk drives, monitor, printer, mouse and operating system which are designed to work and
interact with each other and with the user is called a computer system.

The block diagram of computer is shown in figure given below

We know that the computer is a machine that processes the input data according to given set of
instructions and gives the output. Before a computer does processing, it must be given data and
instructions. After processing, the output must be displayed or printed by the computer. The unit used for
getting the data and instructions into the computer and displaying or printing output is known as an
Input/Output Unit (I/O Unit). The Input Unit is used to enter data and instructions into a computer.

There are some other common input devices like mouse, punched card, tape, joystick, scanner, modem
etc., which are explained in later part of this unit. Monitor, printer and plotter are the main peripheral
devices used as output units for the computer.

Central Processing Unit Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the main component or "brain" of a
computer, which performs all the processing of input data. Its function is to fetch, examine and then
execute the instructions stored in main memory of computer. In microcomputers, the CPU is built on a
single chip or Integrated Circuit (IC) and is called as Microprocessor. The CPU consists of following
distinct parts:

1. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): The arithmetic and logic unit of CPU is responsible for all arithmetic
operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division as well as logical operations such as less
than, equal to and greater than. Actually, all calculations and comparisons are performed in the arithmetic
logic unit.

2. Control Unit (CU): The control unit is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions
among other units of computer. It is considered as a "Central Nervous System" of computer, as it
manages and coordinates all the units of computer. It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets
them and directs the operation of the computer. It also performs the physical data transfer between
memory and the peripheral device. 3. Registers: Registers are the small high speed circuits (memory
locations) which are used to store data, instructions and memory addresses (memory location numbers),
when ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations.

4. Buses: Data is stored as a unit of eight bits (BIT stands for Binary Digit i.e. (0 or 1) in a register. Each
bit is transferred from one register to another by means of a separate wire. This group of eight wires,
which is used as a common way to transfer data between registers is known as a bus. In general terms, bus
is a connection between two components to transmit signal between them. Bus can be of three major
types viz. Data Bus, Control Bus and Address Bus. The data bus is used to move data, address bus to
move address or memory location and control bus to send control signals between various components of
a computer.

5.Memory Unit Memory Unit is that component of a computer system, which is used to store the data,
instructions and information before, during and after the processing by ALU. It is actually a work area
(physically a collection of integrated circuits) within the computer, where the CPU stores the data and
instructions. It is also known as a Main/Primary/Internal Memory. It is of following three types: (a) Read
Only Memory (ROM pronounced as “Ra-om”) (b) Random Access Memory (RAM pronounced as "R-
aem") (c) Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor Memory (CMOS) (a) Read Only Memory: Read
Read only Memory

Only Memory is an essential component of the memory unit. We know that the computer, being a
machine, itself has no intelligence or memory and requires the instructions which are given by man.
Whenever the computer is switched on, it searches for the required instructions. The memory, which has
these essential instructions, is known as Read Only Memory (ROM). This memory is permanent and is
not erased when system is switched off. As appears with its name, it is read type of memory i.e. it can be
read only and not be written by user/programmer. The memory capacity of ROM varies from 64 KB to
256 KB (1 Kilobyte = 1024 bytes) depending on the model of computer. ROM contains a number of
programs (set of instructions). The most important program of ROM is the Basic Input Output System
(BIOS, pronounced as "bye-os") which activates the hardware (physical components of computer) such as
keyboard, monitor, floppy disk etc. in communicating with the system and application software (set of
instructions or programs). Types of ROM: There are many types of ROM available for microcomputers
like Mask ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM and EAPROM.

Random Access Memory: Random Access Memory (RAM) is another important component of Memory
Unit. It is used to store the data and instructions during the Definitions Mask ROM: Mask ROM is the
basic ROM chip. In this type of ROM, the information is stored at the time of its manufacturing. So, it
cannot be altered or erased later on. PROM: PROM stands for Programmable Read Only Memory. In this
type of ROM, the information is stored by programmers after its manufacturing. It cannot be altered or
erased later on. EPROM: EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. It is similar to
PROM, but its information can be erased later on by ultra violet light and it can be reprogrammed.
EEPROM: EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. It is similar to
EPROM, but its information can be erased by using a high voltage current. EAPROM: EAPROM stands
for Electrically Alterable Read Only Memory. As compared to EPROM and EEPROM, the information
stored in EAPROM can be altered later.

GENERATIOS OF COMPUTER

The first generation of computers (1946-1954) was marked by the use of vacuum tubes or valves for
their basic electronic component. Although these computers were faster than earlier mechanical
devices, they had many disadvantages. First of all, they were very large in size. They consumed too much
power and generated too much heat, when used for even short duration of time.

1. ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator) It was the first electronic computer using
vacuum tubes. - 1946
2. EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator) It was the first stored-program
computer. - 1949
3. EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) It was successor of EDSAC. - 1951
4. IAS machine (Princeton's Institute of Advanced Studies) It was a new version of the EDVAC, built
by von Neumann. 1952
SECOND GENERATION COMPUTER

The second generation of computers (1954-64) was marked by the use of transistors in place of vacuum
tubes. Transistors had a number of advantages over the vacuum tubes. As transistors were made from
pieces of silicon, they were more compact than vacuum tubes. The second generation computers,
therefore, were smaller in size and less heat generated than first generation computers

It was in 1964, when it was discovered that a number of transistors could be sealed up into a tiny
package, called an Integrated Circuit (IC) or a Chip. Second generation computers became out-dated
after the invention of ICs.

Examples:

PDP-l, developed by DEC was the first minicomputer.

NCR 304 (National Cash Register), was first all-transistorized computer.

THIRD GENERATION OF COMPUTER

The third generation of computers (1964-1980) was marked by the use of Integrated Circuits (ICs) in
place of transistors. ICs were more compact than transistors, as hundreds of transistors could be put on
a single small circuit. These computers removed many drawbacks of second generation computers. The
third generation computers were even smaller in size which generated less heat and required very less
power as compared to earlier two generation of computers.

The third generation computers became out-dated around the year 1978 when it was found that
thousands of ICs could be integrated onto a single chip, called LSI (Large Scale Integration).

Examples:

1. IBM 360, developed by IBM in 1964 was the first product line designed as a family.
2. PDP-8, developed by DEC in 1965 was the first mass-market minicomputer.
3. PDP-ll, developed by DEC in 1970 was the first highly successful minicomputer.
4. CRAY-l, developed by Cray in 1974 was the first supercomputer.
5. VAX, developed by DEC in 1978 was the first super minicomputer.

The fourth Generation of computer

The fourth generation of computers was marked by use of Large Scale Integrated (LSI) circuits in place of
ICs. As thousands of ICs could be put onto a single circuit, so LSI circuits are still more compact than ICs.
In 1978, it was found that millions of components could be packed onto a single circuit known as Very
Large Scale Integration (VLSI). VLSI is the latest technology of computer that led to the development of
the popular Personal Computers (PCs), also called as Microcomputers. All present day computers belong
to the fourth generation of computers.

Example:

IBM PC, developed in 1981 was the first industry standard personal computer, having Intel 8088
memory chip.

IBM PC/AT, developed in 1982 was the first advanced technology PC, having Intel 80286 memory chip.

Fifth Generation Computers

The fifth generation computers are still under research and development stage. These computers would
have artificial intelligence. They use ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) chips in place of VLSI chips. One
ULSI chip contains millions of components on a single IC. The most important feature of fifth generation
computers is that they use an artificial intelligence

Computer Languages

One man communicates with another in a language, which another man can understand. Similarly, man
communicates with computer in a language, which machine can understand. This language which
consists of a set of commands, understandable by computer directly or after translating, is known as
Computer Programming Language.

Low-level Languages:

In early days of computers, only those languages were used for programming, which could be directly
executed on computer. Languages, which computer can understand directly and are machine
dependent, are called low-level languages. For example, Machine Language and Assembly Language are
two important low-level languages. Machine language is the oldest and most difficult of all the
languages. It is also known as First Generation Language. In machine language, all the instructions are
given to computer in binary digits, and hence are directly understood by the computer. On the other
hand, assembly language is easier than machine language, and is known as Second Generation
Language.
High-level Languages: Development of applications using low level languages requires a deep
understanding of the hardware. In order to facilitate the programmers to write programs without
knowing the internal details of computer components, many languages were developed. These
languages use common English words and are translated into low-level languages before processing by
the computer.

These languages are also known as Third Generation Languages.

Example : BASIC, COBOL, FORTRAN

User-friendly Languages: Although high-level languages are simpler to codify than low-level languages,
they still require a lot of time to learn their programming syntax. Hence, these languages are beyond the
reach of many computer users (including MIS professionals), who do not want expertise in
programming. Therefore, a new category of languages have been developed which are user-friendly,
very easy to codify and simplest to learn. These languages are called as User-friendly Languages and
popularly known as 4GLs (Fourth Generation Languages).

Example : Foxbase, Foxpro, MS Access, Oracle, Sybase and Ingres

Object-oriented Languages: The languages which are based on Object Oriented Programming (OOP)
approach, are called as Object Oriented Languages. They may be classified into Fifth Generation
Languages. Object Oriented Languages are specially useful for development of GUI (Graphical User
Interface) applications.

, C++ and Object COBOL