Genetically Modified (GM) Plants: Questions and Answers

Download as pdf or txt
Download as pdf or txt
You are on page 1of 11

GE1713

Genetically modified (GM) plants: questions and answers

What are genetically modified (GM) plants? Is genetic modification safe? Where are GM crops grown and
eaten?

Food security is one of this century's key global challenges, as noted in our earlier report Reaping the
Benefits, and due to the scale of the challenge, we should really think carefully before we rule out any
technology that might help deal with the problem. The questions and answers given here are intended to
provide a resource to those who are interested in what GM is, how it is used, and potential future uses.

The Royal Society commissioned Ipsos MORI to find out what people want to know about GM plants, and
then drew on a panel of expert, independent scientists to answer your questions. We hope that these
answers explain the science behind GM and help you form your own view.

1. What is genetic modification (GM) of crops and how is it done?


GM is a technology that involves inserting DNA into the genome of an organism. To produce a GM
plant, new DNA is transferred into plant cells. Usually, the cells are then grown in tissue culture
where they develop into plants. The seeds produced by these plants will inherit the new DNA.

The characteristics of all living organisms are determined by their genetic makeup and its
interaction with the environment. The genetic makeup of an organism is its genome, which in all
plants and animals is made of DNA. The genome contains genes, regions of DNA that usually carry
the instructions for making proteins. It is these proteins that give the plant its characteristics. For
example, the color of flowers is determined by genes that carry the instructions for making proteins
involved in producing the pigments that color petals.

Genetic modification of plants involves adding a specific stretch of DNA into the plant’s genome,
giving it new or different characteristics. This could include changing the way the plant grows or
making it resistant to a particular disease. The new DNA becomes part of the GM plant’s genome
which the seeds produced by these plants will contain.

The first stage in making a GM plant


requires transfer of DNA into a plant cell.
One of the methods used to transfer DNA
is to coat the surface of small metal
particles with the relevant DNA fragment
and bombard the particles into the plant
cells. Another method is to use a bacterium
or virus. There are many viruses and
bacteria that transfer their DNA into a host
cell as a normal part of their life cycle. For
GM plants, the bacterium most frequently
used is called Agrobacterium tumefaciens.
The gene of interest is transferred into the
bacterium and the bacterial cells then
transfer the new DNA to the genome of the
plant cells. The plant cells that have
successfully taken up the DNA are then
grown to create a new plant. This is
possible because individual plant cells
have an impressive capacity to generate
entire plants. On rare occasions, the
process of DNA transfer can happen
without deliberate human intervention. For
example, the sweet potato contains DNA sequences that were transferred thousands of years ago,
from Agrobacterium bacteria into the sweet potato genome.

08 Readings 6 *Property of STI


Page 1 of 11
GE1713

There are other ways to change the genomes of crops, some of which are long established, such
as mutational breeding, and others of which are new, such as genome editing, but in this Q&A we
are focusing on GM as it is currently usually defined for regulatory purposes in Europe.

2. How common are genes in food?


All food from plants or animals contains genes. In cooked or processed foods, most of the DNA
has been destroyed or degraded and the genes are fragmented. Whether fresh or cooked, when
we eat food, we digest it into its constituent parts from which we make our own genes and proteins.

Each cell in a plant contains about 30,000 genes. GM usually involves adding an extra 1-10 genes.
It is estimated that we each eat many billions of genes every day, which come mainly from fresh
food.

3. How does GM differ from conventional plant breeding?


The goal of both GM and conventional plant breeding is to produce crops with improved
characteristics by changing their genetic makeup. GM achieves this by adding a new gene or genes
to the genome of a crop plant. Conventional breeding achieves it by crossing together plants with
relevant characteristics and selecting the offspring with the desired combination of characteristics,
as a result of particular combinations of genes inherited from the two parents.

08 Readings 6 *Property of STI


Page 2 of 11
GE1713

Both conventional plant breeding and GM deliver genetic crop improvement. Genetic improvement
has been a central pillar of improved agricultural productivity for thousands of years. This is
because wild plants make very poor crops. Natural selection tends to favor plants that can compete
with neighboring plants for light, water and nutrients, defend themselves from being eaten and
digested by animals, and disperse their seed over long distances. These characteristics are in
direct conflict with the goals of agriculture, which require plants to invest as many of their resources
as possible into making nutritious, easy to harvest products for human consumption. Because of
the stark contrast between what natural selection has produced and what makes a good crop, for
thousands of years we have used conventional breeding approaches to convert plants that
compete well in the wild, to plants that perform well in agriculture. The result is our modern crop
varieties, which are much higher yielding and more nutritious than their wild ancestors, but which
compete poorly in the wild.

Many genes are now known that could contribute to improving sustainable food
production. In some cases, conventional breeding will be the best way to transfer
them and in others GM might be easier or indeed the only way they can be
transferred.

New characteristics can be introduced into crops using either conventional or GM approaches. This
raises the question of when a plant breeder might choose a GM approach vs a conventional
approach.

GM can only be used to introduce a new characteristic into a crop if two requirements are met.
Firstly, it is necessary that the characteristic can be introduced by adding only a small number of

08 Readings 6 *Property of STI


Page 3 of 11
GE1713

genes, and secondly, it is necessary to know what gene or genes those are. At the time GM
technology was invented we knew much less about which plant genes do what, which greatly
restricted the number of useful applications for GM in crops.

With improvements in our knowledge about which plant genes do what, we now know many genes
that could contribute to improving sustainable food production. In some cases, conventional
breeding will be the best way to deploy these genes – that is by cross breeding with the plant that
contains the genes providing these characteristics.

In other cases, GM, where scientists take a gene and insert it directly into a plant, might be easier,
or indeed the only way they can be deployed.

There are two main reasons why GM might be preferable.

Firstly, the gene of interest might not exist in a species that can be successfully crossed with the
crop. The gene might come from an entirely different kingdom, such as a bacterium, or it might
come from a different plant species.

Secondly, today’s high yield crop lines have carefully honed combinations of genes. If a useful
gene or gene variant is discovered in a wild relative, crossing the high yield line with the wild relative
will result in mixing together the genomes of the two parents, destroying the carefully selected
combination of genes in the high yield line. Using modern molecular breeding techniques, such as
“marker assisted breeding”, it is possible to reassemble those gene combinations over a relatively
small number of generations. Nonetheless, it does take multiple generations, and therefore several
years. Furthermore, even then it is almost always the case that additional genes that are very close
to the gene of interest are also transferred. These problems can be avoided if it is possible to
introduce the gene directly into the high yield crop by genetic modification.

4. What about unforeseen consequences of GM?


There is no evidence that producing a new crop variety using GM techniques is more likely to have
unforeseen effects than producing one using conventional cross breeding.

Concerns have been expressed that simply inserting new DNA into a plant genome by GM, might
have unpredictable consequences. However, as our knowledge of genomes has increased it has
become clear that similar insertion events occur frequently in all plants. For example, some bacteria
and viruses insert new genes into the genomes of plants that they infect. We have also discovered
that plant genomes contain many so-called “jumping genes” that move around the genome, re-
inserting themselves in different places. We also know, from studying the genomes of different
members of the same species, that gain and loss of genes within species is very common too.

We have also discovered that plant genomes contain many so-called ‘jumping
genes’ that move around the genome, re-inserting themselves in different places.

Because of these processes, all new crop varieties, however they are produced can include genes
inserted in new unknown places in the genome and new genes that may not have previously been
in the food chain or come from non-plant species. This means that there may occasionally be
unforeseen consequences from both GM and non-GM crop varieties.

5. Which genes have been introduced into gm crops so far and why?
The most prominent examples include genes that make the crops resistance to insects, viruses
and herbicides.

Herbicide tolerance. The first GM characteristic to be widely adopted was resistance to a herbicide
called Roundup (or glyphosate) in soybeans. There are also varieties of herbicide tolerant crops
produced by non-GM methods. Resistance to these types of broad herbicide – which would usually
kill both weeds and crops – means that efficient weed control is possible because the herbicide

08 Readings 6 *Property of STI


Page 4 of 11
GE1713

can be applied while the crop is growing, without damaging the crop. Without herbicide-tolerant
crops, a range of different types of herbicides might be needed to clear out all the weeds before
planting the crop. Another benefit of herbicide-tolerant crops is that they can be planted into a
weedy field, because the weeds can be controlled with herbicide. This reduces the need for
ploughing, which means less soil erosion. Disadvantages are that the farmer must buy the
proprietary herbicide to match the herbicide tolerant crop, and this type of control runs counter to
attempts to reduce the dependency of agriculture on chemical inputs.

Insect resistance. The bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) produces a group of proteins known
as the Bt toxin, which are toxic for certain insects, but do not harm beneficial insects or other
animals. Bacillus thuringiensis is used as an insecticide spray in organic farming. Genes for several
Bt toxins have been introduced into many crops by GM. For example, over 90% of the cotton
planted in the USA, India, China, Australia and South Africa are GM varieties containing Bt toxin
genes. Over the last 20 years, it is estimated that the application of 450,000 tons of insecticide has
been avoided due to the use of Bt toxin genes in crops.

Bacillus thuringiensis is used as an insecticide spray in organic farming. Genes for


several Bt toxins have been introduced into many crops by GM.

Virus resistance. GM has been used to resurrect the papaya industry of Hawaii as papaya ringspot
virus almost destroyed its plantations in the 1990s. There are no known papaya varieties with
natural resistance to this virus but by adding a gene to the papaya from the virus itself, resistant
papaya strains were created. Today 77% of Hawaiian papaya farmers grow GM papaya.

6. What GM crops are currently being grown and where?


In 2015, GM crops were grown in 28 countries and on 179.7 million hectares – that is over 10% of
the world’s arable land and equivalent to seven times the land area of the UK. The USA, Brazil and
Argentina are the leading producers. There are currently no GM crops being grown commercially
in the UK although scientists are carrying out controlled trials.

The GM crops grown commercially included: potato (USA), squash/pumpkin (USA) alfalfa (USA),
aubergine (Bangladesh), sugar beet (USA, Canada), papaya (USA and China), oilseed rape (4
countries), maize (corn) (17 countries), soya beans (11 countries) and cotton (15 countries).

GM crops were first introduced in the USA in 1994 with the Flavr Savr tomato, which had been
genetically modified to slow its ripening process, delaying softening and rotting.

The farming of GM crops has massively increased since the mid-1990s. In 1996, just 1.7 million
hectares (MHa) were planted with GM crops globally but by 2015, 179.7 million hectares of GM
crops were grown, accounting for over 10% of the world’s arable land.

The top GM crop grown in 2015 was soybean (92.1 MHa), followed by maize (53.6 Mha), then
cotton (24 Mha) and oilseed rape (canola) (8.5 Mha) (Figure 4). This represents 83% of the world
production of soybean, and 75% of production of cotton. GM crops made up 29% of the world’s
maize produce, and almost a quarter of the world’s oilseed rape that year.

Among the countries growing GM crops, the USA (70.9 Mha), Brazil (44.2 Mha), Argentina (24.5
Mha) India (11.6 Mha) and Canada (11 Mha) are the largest users. Within Europe, five EU countries
grow GM maize – Spain, Portugal, Czech Republic, Romania and Slovakia. Spain is the leading
country (0.1 Mha). In Africa, GM crops are grown in South Africa (2.3 MHa), Burkino Faso (0.4
Mha) and Sudan (0.1Mha), with the main crop being GM cotton.

7. Where are GM crops being eaten?


The main GM crops, maize (corn) and soybean, are used mostly for feeding animals. Meat, milk
and eggs from animals fed with GM crops are eaten by people in many countries including the UK.
GM crops are also used in many processed foodstuffs eaten around the world including cooking

08 Readings 6 *Property of STI


Page 5 of 11
GE1713

oils and other ingredients. The main GM foods eaten in a fresh state are alfalfa, squash and papaya
in the USA; tomato, papaya and sweet pepper in China, and aubergine in Bangladesh. There are
no fresh GM fruit or vegetables approved for consumption by humans in the EU.

The consumption of GM crops varies between countries. Tens of millions of tonnes of GM maize
and soybean are exported from North and South America to other parts of the world where there
is a shortage of inexpensive plant protein for animal feed. For example, about two-thirds of all
protein-based animal feed in the EU comes from soy, of which about 70% is imported, and over
90% of that is produced from GM soybeans. Meat, milk and eggs from animals fed with GM crops
is eaten in many countries including the UK. In the UK, meat, milk or eggs labelled as organic will
be from animals that have been fed non-GM feed. Of the UK supermarkets, only Waitrose commits
to ensuring non-GM feed is used to produce its eggs, chicken, turkey, farmed fish and New Zealand
lamb.

GM crops are also used in processed foods including cooking oils, specialist starch (often added
to foods like coatings and batters) and other food ingredients. For example, cooking oil, sauces,
biscuits and other confectionary made from or containing GM crops – which must be labelled as
such – are available in UK supermarkets.

A GM virus-resistant variety of papaya is widely grown in the USA and China and is exported to
other countries including Japan.

8. Is it safe to eat GM crops?


Yes. There is no evidence that a crop is dangerous to eat just because it is GM. There could be
risks associated with the specific new gene introduced, which is why each crop with a new
characteristic introduced by GM is subject to close scrutiny. Since the first widespread
commercialization of GM produce 18 years ago there has been no evidence of ill effects linked to
the consumption of any approved GM crop.

Before any food produced using GM technology is permitted onto the market, a variety of tests
have to be completed. The results from these tests, including results from animal feeding trials, are
considered by the authorities responsible for determining the safety of each new GM product (see
Q18). This makes new GM crop varieties at least as safe to eat as new nonGM varieties, which are
not tested in this way.

There have been a few studies claiming damage to human or animal health from specific foods
that have been developed using GM. The claims were not about the GM method itself, but about
the specific gene introduced into the crop, or about agricultural practices associated with the crop,
such as herbicide treatments. The statistical analysis and methodology of these studies have been
challenged. All reliable evidence produced to date shows that currently available GM food is at
least as safe to eat as non-GM food.

An animal feeding trial of GM tomatoes modified to produce high levels of antioxidants showed the
GM tomatoes reduced the levels of cancer. This is not because the tomatoes are GM, but rather
because they produce antioxidants, which are known to reduce cancer.

9. Could eating GM food have an effect on my genes?


No. Eating GM food will not affect a person’s genes. Most of the food we eat contains genes,
although in cooked or processed foods, most of the DNA has been destroyed or degraded and the
genes are fragmented. Our digestive system breaks them down without any effect on our genetic
make-up. Our own genes are made by our bodies from the building blocks that we obtain from
digesting any food. This is true of food from GM and non-GM sources.

Most plants or animal cells contain about 30,000 genes, and most GM crops contain an additional
1 – 10 genes in their cells.

08 Readings 6 *Property of STI


Page 6 of 11
GE1713

Humans have always eaten DNA from plants and animals. Most plants or animal cells contain
about 30,000 genes, and most GM crops contain an additional 1-10 genes in their cells. We all eat
DNA in our diets, mainly from fresh food and the composition of DNA in GM food is the same as
that in non-GM food.

Processing food by cooking leads to the partial or complete breakdown of the DNA molecules,
whatever their origin. Likewise, most DNA that is eaten is broken down by our digestive systems,
but small quantities of fragmented DNA can pass into the bloodstream and organs without having
any known effect.

10. Have GM crops caused damage to the environment?


Crops do not damage the environment simply because they are GM. Some farming practices, such
as the overuse of herbicides resulting in the excessive eradication of wild plants from farmland
have been shown to harm the environment. These problems are similar for non-GM and GM crops.

In a large farm scale evaluation of herbicide tolerant GM crops conducted in the UK between 1999
and 2006 it was shown that when weed control is particularly effective insect biodiversity is reduced.
It did not matter whether or not the crop was GM- the important factor was how many weeds
remained in the crop. Damage to wildlife can be reduced if a small amount of agricultural land is
set aside for biodiversity.

A related issue is the growing problem of weeds becoming resistant to herbicides, due to the
overuse of those herbicides. Herbicide tolerant crops, whether GM or non-GM, can cause this
problem because repeated growth of the same herbicide tolerant crop involves repeated use of the
same herbicide. One solution is the rotation of crops resistant to different herbicides, or rotation of
herbicide use with use of other weed control strategies.

The use of GM crops resistant to insects through introduction of the gene for Bt toxin has
environmental benefits. For example, GM insect resistant cotton has substantially reduced the
application of more environmentally damaging insecticides, with consequent environmental
benefits and health benefits for cotton farmers.

Damage to wildlife can be reduced if a small amount of agricultural land is set aside for biodiversity.

However, just like herbicide resistant weeds, insect pests can develop resistance to insecticides
whether they are produced in the crop itself by GM or sprayed onto the crop. This problem is less
frequent if a rotation of different insect control procedures is used.

11. If we grow GM crops will they cross breed with other plants?
Yes. GM crops may cross breed with closely related plants. This includes non–GM varieties of the
same crop and wild relatives of the crop. For GM crops approved by regulators the consequences
of cross breeding have been assessed and judged not to be a risk to health or the environment.

Both non-GM crops and GM crops can cross breed with closely related plants. Cross breeding
between crops and their wild relatives could cause problems if this results in the wild relative
acquiring characteristics that might make it more weedy and invasive. For example, herbicide
resistant weeds could be produced if a herbicide tolerant crop, GM or non-GM, were to breed with
weedy relatives. Their offspring might be resistant to the herbicide if they inherit the tolerance gene
from the crop. Other herbicides would then have to be used to control these weeds.

12. What can be done to prevent cross breeding of GM crops?


Research has been conducted aimed at making GM plants that cannot reproduce. There are
various ways to do this, but the highest profile has been Genetic Use Restriction Technologies
(GURTs) or ‘terminator seed’ technology. The seeds from these GM plants would be prevented
from germinating, so if they breed with wild relatives there would be no viable offspring. However,

08 Readings 6 *Property of STI


Page 7 of 11
GE1713

this technology would also prevent farmers from being able to save seeds to plant in future years.
There has been an international moratorium on the use of terminator seeds since 2000.

Genetic use restriction technology (GURT) is based on the prevention of seed germination and was
patented in the 1990s by the US government and licensed by commercial companies including
Monsanto. The technology was never shown to work reliably in practice. The concept became
known as ‘terminator seed’ technology since the plants would not be able to produce fertile seeds.
In 2000 the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity introduced an international
moratorium on the use of GURTs because of concern about the potential economic effect on
farmers, who would not be able to save seed for future planting.

Saving seeds is not legal for either GM or non-GM crops where license restrictions are in place. In
addition, farmers and gardeners alike will be familiar with F1 hybrid varieties, made by crossing
together diverse parents, from which seed cannot be usefully saved because they don’t breed true.

Saving seeds is not legal for either GM or non-GM crops where license restrictions are in place.

13. GM crops have only been around for 20 years, might there still be unexpected and untoward side
effects?
Yes, there could be unexpected side effects from any new crop variety, GM or non-GM, as well as
with any new agricultural practices. Risk assessment and appropriate testing of all new crops, along
with on-going monitoring should mitigate the risks.

GM crops are more extensively tested than non-GM varieties before release (see Q14) both for
their environmental effects and as foods. They also tend to have fewer genetic differences from
their predecessor than new non-GM varieties.

14. How are GM crops regulated?


GM crops cannot be grown, either for experiments or commercial farming, without approval by the
appropriate regulatory agency, in the UK by DEFRA. The movement of GM crops or food between
countries is also regulated. Details of this process vary from country to country, but the same
objectives underlie all regulation; that the novel GM crop is safe for human or animal health and
the environment.

All applications to develop a GM crop within the EU are assessed using the same regulatory
system. This involves the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), the regulatory authorities of
independent member states and, finally, approval by the central European authorities in Brussels.
A recent change has given final responsibility for local implementation back to member states, who
can now decide whether to opt out from cultivation of a GM crop that was authorized at the EU
level. The assessment covers details supplied by the applicant, including the particular GM method
used, information about the inserted DNA and characteristics of the plant, and results from animal
feeding trials, where appropriate.

Applications also include an environmental assessment, which examines the possible interactions
between the GM crop and factors like soil and other organisms in the ecosystem.

Since 1992, the EU has approved 2404 experimental GM field trials for research. In comparison,
over the same time there have been 18,381 GM trials for research in the USA. In crops for
commercial use, there is only one GM crop, an insect resistant maize variety, that is grown
commercially in the EU and no GM crops have yet been approved for human consumption as fresh
fruit or vegetable. In comparison there have been 117 commercial releases in the USA since 1992
and in other countries outside Europe. For example, since 1995 there have been 3 permits for
commercial releases in China, 41 in Brazil and 93 in Canada. Regulatory systems differ around the
world. While EU regulations focus on the technique used to modify the crop, other systems, like
the Canadian system, focus on the characteristics of the crop produced. In other regions, including
many countries in Africa, biosafety regulation is still being developed.

08 Readings 6 *Property of STI


Page 8 of 11
GE1713

15. Who is paying for GM crop development and who owns the technology?
The discoveries that enabled GM technology were largely made by public sector scientists. They
went on to develop the technology further, as did scientists in the commercial sector. The public
and private sectors, along with charities, own GM methods and plants and continue to invest in GM
research and crop development. They take out patents on discoveries and techniques. Most current
GM methods and GM crop varieties are owned by companies.

Owners of intellectual property, such as patents and registered varieties, can insist on payment of
a license or royalty fee by other users of their proprietary technology. These patents also ensure
that the science and technology behind an invention are available for anybody to read. This
framework also applies to drug development, and to other discovery- or invention-dependent
products, including increasingly to non-GM crops. Conventional non-GM crops may also have
license agreements and restrictions on saving seed.

Patents give rights to the companies that develop new crops. Farmers who buy seed protected by
some types of patent must sign an agreement not to sell or save seed from these crops – so they
are obliged to buy fresh seeds every year.

GM crop research is also funded by national research agencies and by charities, such as the Bill
and Melinda Gates Foundation, where patents are held for the public good. Public, private and
charity sectors can work closely together.

Farmers who buy seed protected by some types of patent must sign an agreement not to sell or
save seed from these crops – so they are obliged to buy fresh seeds every year.

Patent holders may choose to release their GM varieties without charge for public benefit. Golden
rice – the GM rice being developed as a source of vitamin A - will be available free of charge in
regions of the developing world where people are suffering from vitamin A deficiency.

Some of the early GM patents have expired or will soon expire. This may mean farmers will be able
to save some GM seed for re-planting, or that other companies can make cheaper versions of the
crops. The outcome is uncertain because of standard varietal protection on some of the seed and
the potential need for new regulatory approvals if a GM trait is used in a conventional breeding
programme.

16. Are there examples where GM has not delivered the promised improvements in crops?
Yes, there are cases where a GM crop has not delivered the intended improvements such as
increased crop yields or virus resistance. The same problems arise with conventional breeding
approaches.

Some of the first GM herbicide-resistant soybean varieties had lower yields than non-GM varieties,
in spite of the promise of better yields with better weed control. The new DNA for herbicide
resistance was transferred into low yielding varieties that were available when the GM project was
started. Some farmers still adopted these GM varieties because they were able to control weeds
with less labour and energy than with the conventional variety.

Another crop that has been slow to deliver its promise is GM rice produced for the “Golden Rice”
project. This initiative aims to address vitamin A deficiency in some parts of the world by adding
genes to the rice to improve its nutritional content. But the first varieties did not work well enough
and would not have adequately bolstered vitamin A in the diets of populations needing it. Improved
varieties are now undergoing field trials.

A frequent criticism of GM is that it has failed to deliver more than herbicide tolerance, insect
resistance and a few examples of disease resistance. This is because these uses are based on
genes available 20 years ago. With increasing knowledge of gene function, new GM crops with

08 Readings 6 *Property of STI


Page 9 of 11
GE1713

other characteristics are being developed and some of these are close to becoming available to
farmers (see Q17). Of course among these new applications, there are likely to be failures as well
as successes.

17. What new GM crops are being developed?


GM crops are being developed to be more disease-resistant, to have enhanced nutritional value,
increased drought tolerance and improved uptake of nutrients such as nitrogen. They are being
tested in the laboratory or in contained field trials – in which plants are grown in an area to prevent
spread into the environment.

Crop disease is a big problem for farmers and GM can be used to produce disease resistant plants.
Disease resistance genes from wild relatives can be transferred into commercial crops using GM.
For example, there have recently been very promising field trials of a GM blight-resistant potato. A
gene from a wild relative in South America has been introduced which triggers the potatoes’
immune system to recognize blight. The potatoes have not been commercialized yet and would be
labelled GM if they were in supermarkets.

GM can also be used to enhance the nutritional value of crops in the human or animal diet. The
Golden Rice project, to make rice a source of vitamin A, is one such example. The World Health
Organization estimates that up to half a million children become blind every year due to Vitamin A
deficiency and Vitamin A deficiency can also reduce resilience to infection. Golden Rice is in field
trials in the Philippines and Bangladesh and is completing the regulatory requirements in these two
countries.

GM crops are also being developed to help decrease pollution of rivers and seas. One such crop
aims to reduce the environmental impact of manure. Cereal and grain-based animal feed often
contains seeds with high levels of a compound called phytic acid, which passes into manure
undigested. This can contaminate soil and waterways like rivers with phosphate, which harms fish
and aquatic life. GM has been used to produce seeds low in phytic acid content so that this pollution
risk could be reduced.

There are other long-term GM projects that aim to produce nitrogen fixing cereals (plants that will
harness nitrogen from the air as a nutrient), improve the efficiency of photosynthesis and produce
perennial crops that would not need planting each year. Examples of both medium and long-term
projects are described in more detail in a recent report by the Council for Science and Technology.

18. What methods other than genetic improvement can improve crop performance?

Crop genetic improvement, by GM or conventional approaches, is only one of many methods that
can be used to improve crop performance. Others involve improvements in farm practices,
irrigation, drainage, and herbicide, pesticide and fertilizer use. Better food storage and
transportation to reduce waste can also play their part in securing a reliable supply of foodstuffs.

Remote sensing combined with computer technology is leading to better prediction


and prevention of disease epidemics.

Genetic methods to improve sustainable increases in yield are very attractive because seed can
easily be distributed to producers. It is also an attractive commercial target, because seed is a
definable product that can be traded.

Other developments include the use of GPS (global positioning systems) in what is called precision
agriculture, so that fertilizers and pesticides are applied only where they are needed and in the right
amounts. Remote sensing combined with computer technology is leading to better prediction and
prevention of disease epidemics. And robots are being developed that could selectively kill the
weeds growing among crop plants.

08 Readings 6 *Property of STI


Page 10 of 11
GE1713

New understanding of the interactions between crops and other plants or with microbes in the soil
will also inform a farmer’s choice of crop management.

None of these innovations, including GM, are exclusive of each other and although some may be
more expensive to implement than others, all could play a part in delivering sustainable agriculture
that meets global needs.

Reference
The Royal Society of London. (2016, May). Genetically modified (GM) plants: Questions and answers.
Retrieved on March 27, 2018, from The Royal Society: https://royalsociety.org/topics-
policy/projects/gm-plants/

08 Readings 6 *Property of STI


Page 11 of 11

You might also like

pFad - Phonifier reborn

Pfad - The Proxy pFad of © 2024 Garber Painting. All rights reserved.

Note: This service is not intended for secure transactions such as banking, social media, email, or purchasing. Use at your own risk. We assume no liability whatsoever for broken pages.


Alternative Proxies:

Alternative Proxy

pFad Proxy

pFad v3 Proxy

pFad v4 Proxy