Concrete Dam Repair Tech PDF

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Ohio Department of Natural Resources
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DIVISION OF WATER
Division of Water Fact Sheet
Fact Sheet 94–32
Dam Safety: Concrete Repair Techniques
C
oncrete is an inexpensive, durable, strong and 1. The Dry-Pack Method: The dry-pack method can be
basic building material often used in dams for used on small holes in new concrete which have a depth
core walls, spillways, stilling basins, control tow- equal to or greater that the surface diameter. Preparation
ers, and slope protection. However, poor workmanship, of a dry-pack mix typically consists of about 1 part
construction procedures, and construction materials may portland cement and 2 1/2 parts sand to be mixed with
cause imperfections that later require repair. Any long- water. You then add enough water to produce a mortar
term deterioration or damage to concrete structures caused that will stick together. Once the desired consistency is
by flowing water, ice, or other natural forces must be reached, the mortar is ready to be packed into the hole
corrected. Neglecting to perform periodic maintenance and using thin layers.
repairs to concrete structures as they occur could result in
failure of the structure from either a structural or hydraulic 2. Concrete Replacement: Concrete replacement is re-
standpoint. This in turn may threaten the continued safe quired when one-half to one square foot areas or larger
operation and use of the dam. extend entirely through the concrete sections or where
the depth of damaged concrete exceeds 6 inches. When
Considerations this occurs, normal concrete placement methods should
Floor or wall movement, extensive cracking, improper be used. Repair will be more effective if tied in with
alignments, settlement, joint displacement, and extensive existing reinforcing steel (rebar). This type of repair will
undermining are signs of major structural problems. In require the assistance of a professional engineer experi-
situations where concrete replacement solutions are re- enced in concrete construction.
quired to repair deteriorated concrete, it is recommended
3. Replacement of Unformed Concrete: The replacement
that a registered professional engineer be retained to per-
of damaged or deteriorated areas in horizontal slabs
form an inspection to assess the concrete's overall condi-
involves no special procedures other than those used in
tion, and determine the extent of any structural damage and
good construction practices for placement of new slabs.
necessary remedial measures.
Repair work can be bonded to old concrete by use of a
Typically, it is found that drainage systems are needed to bond coat made of equal amounts of sand and cement.
relieve excessive water pressures under floors and behind It should have the consistency of whipped cream and
walls. In addition, reinforcing steel must also be properly should be applied immediately ahead of concrete place-
designed to handle tension zones and shear and bending ment so that it will not set or dry out. Latex emulsions
forces in structural concrete produced by any external with portland cement and epoxy resins are also used as
loading (including the weight of the structure). Therefore, bonding coats.
the finished product in any concrete repair procedure
4. Preplaced Aggregate Concrete: This special commer-
should consist of a structure that is durable and able to
cial technique has been used for massive repairs, par-
withstand the effects of service conditions such as weath-
ticularly for underwater repairs of piers and abutments.
ering, chemical action, and wear. Because of their complex
The process consists of the following procedures: 1)
nature, major structural repairs that require professional
Removing the deteriorated concrete, 2) forming the
advice are not addressed here.
sections to be repaired, 3) prepacking the repair area
Repair Methods with coarse aggregate, and 4) pressure grouting the
Before any type of concrete repair is attempted, it is voids between the aggregate particles with a cement or
essential that all factors governing the deterioration or sand-cement mortar.
failure of the concrete structure are identified. This is 5. Synthetic Patches: One of the most recent developments
required so that the appropriate remedial measures can be in concrete repair has been the use of synthetic materials
undertaken in the repair design to help correct the problem for bonding and patching. Epoxy-resin compounds are
and prevent it from occurring in the future. The following used extensively because of their high bonding proper-
techniques require expert and experienced assistance for ties and great strength. In applying epoxy-resin patching
the best results. The particular method of repair will depend
on the size of the job and the type of repair required. Continued on back!
mortars, a bonding coat of the epoxy resin is thoroughly In general, the concrete repair procedures discussed above
brushed onto the base of the old concrete. The mortar is should be considered on a relative basis and in terms of the
then immediately applied and troweled to the elevation quality of concrete that one wishes to achieve for their
of the surrounding material. particular construction purpose. In addition to being ad-
equately designed, a structure must also be properly con-
Before attempting to repair a deteriorated concrete sur- structed with concrete that is strong enough to carry the
face, all unsound concrete should be removed by sawing or design loads, durable enough to withstand the forces asso-
chipping and the patch area thoroughly cleaned. A sawed ciated with weathering, and yet economical, not only in
edge is superior to a chipped edge, and sawing is generally first cost, but in terms of its ultimate service. It should be
less costly than mechanical chipping. Before concrete is emphasized that major structural repairs to concrete should
ordered for placing, adequate inspection should be per- not be attempted by the owner or persons not experienced
formed to ensure that (1) foundations are properly prepared in concrete repairs. A qualified professional engineer expe-
and ready to receive the concrete, (2) construction joints are rienced in concrete construction should be obtained for the
clean and free from defective concrete, (3) forms are grout- design of large scale repair projects.
tight, amply strong, and set to their true alignment and
grade, (4) all reinforcement steel and embedded parts are Crack Repair
clean, in their correct position, and securely held in place, The two main objectives when repairing cracks in concrete
and (5) adequate concrete delivery equipment and facilities
are structural bonding and stopping water flow. For a struc-
are on the job, ready to go, and capable of completing the
tural bond, epoxy injection can be used. This process can be
placement without addition unplanned construction.
very expensive since a skilled contractor is needed for proper
Concrete Use Guidelines installation. The epoxy is injected into the concrete under
In addition to its strength characteristics, concrete must pressure, welding the cracks to form a monolithic structure.
also have the properties of workability and durability. This method of repair should not be considered if the crack is
Workability can be defined as the ease with which a given still active (moving). For a watertight seal, a urethane sealant
set of materials can be mixed into concrete and subse- can be used. This repair technique does not form a structural
quently handled, transported, and placed with a minimal bond; however, it can be used on cracks that are still active.
loss of homogeneity. The degree of workability required Cracks should be opened using a concrete saw or hand tool
for proper placement and consolidation of concrete is prior to placing the sealant. A minimum opening of 1/4 inch is
governed by the dimensions and shape of the structure and recommended since small openings are hard to fill. Urethane
by the spacing and size of the reinforcement. The concrete,
sealants can be reapplied since they are flexible materials and
when properly placed, will be free of segregation, and its
mortar is intimately in contact with the coarse aggregate, will adhere to older applications. As previously noted, all of
the reinforcement, and/or any other embedded parts or the factors causing cracking must be identified and addressed
surfaces within the concrete. Separation of coarse aggre- before repairing the concrete to prevent the reoccurrence of
gate from the mortar should be minimized by avoiding or cracks.
controlling the lateral movement of concrete during han- Any other questions, comments concerns, or fact sheet
dling and placing operations. The concrete should be de- requests, should be directed to the Division of Water at the
posited as nearly as practicable in its final position. Placing following address:
methods that cause the concrete to flow in the forms should
be avoided. The concrete should be placed in horizontal Ohio Department of Natural Resources
Division of Water
layers, and each layer should be thoroughly vibrated to Dam Safety Engineering Program
obtain proper compaction. 1939 Fountain Square, Building E-3
All concrete repairs must be adequately moist-cured to be Columbus, Ohio 43224-1336
effective. The bond strength of new concrete to old con- (614) 265-6731 (Voice) (614) 447-9503 (Fax)
http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/odnr/water/
crete develops much more slowly, and the tendency to
shrink and loosen is reduced by a long moist-curing period.
Bob Taft Governor • Samuel W. Speck Director • James R. Morris, P.E. Chief
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DIVISION OF WATER
Fact Sheet 95–38
Dam Safety: Design and Maintenance of Trashracks

for Pipe and Riser Spillways
T
he principal spillway for dams in the State of Ohio The larger the outlet conduit, the larger the trashrack opening should
can be one of several designs. The proper opera- be. In the design of a trashrack the openings should be sized so that
tion of these spillways is an important part of maintaining they measure one-half the nominal dimension of the outlet conduit.
the overall safety of the dam. Pipe and riser, drop inlet, and slant pipe
spillways are susceptible to obstruction and damage by floating Anti-vortex
debris such as leaves, branches, and logs. One device used to ensure plate
that these spillways operate correctly is a trashrack. Trashracks are
designed to keep trash and other debris from entering the spillway
and causing damage.
Common problems
Trashracks usually become plugged because the openings are too
small or the head loss at the inlet causes material and sediment to
settle out and accumulate. Small openings will cause debris such as
twigs and leaves to accumulate on the trashrack bars. This buildup
will cause progressively larger debris to accumulate against the Trashrack
bars
trashrack bars. Ultimately, this will result in the complete blockage
of the spillway inlet.
For example, if the outlet pipe is 18 inches in diameter, the trashrack
Pipe and riser spillways can also become blocked by a build up of openings should be the effective equivalent of 9 inches by 9 inches;
debris in the spillway. This type of blockage occurs when no if the outlet conduit is 3 feet by 5 feet, the trashrack openings should
trashrack is in place, or if the openings are too large. be the effective equivalent of 18 inches by 18 inches. This rule
In many spillway systems, the size of the outlet conduit is smaller applies up to a maximum trashrack opening of two feet by two feet.
than the size of the inlet. Therefore, it is incorrect to assume that For an outlet conduit with a nominal dimension of 12 inches or less,
debris which passes through the inlet will not obstruct the flow the trashrack openings should be at least 6 inches by 6 inches. This
through the outlet. Large debris, such as logs and tree limbs, can prevents large debris from passing through the inlet and blocking the
become lodged in the transitions in the spillway. This reduces the outlet conduit while allowing smaller debris (leave, sticks, etc.) to
capacity of the spillway and could cause damage. An obstructed flush through the spillway system. Another important design criteria
outlet pipe can be a major problem because removal of large debris is that the trashrack should be securely fastened to the inlet. The
from inside the spillway can be very difficult. connection must be strong enough to withstand the hydrostatic and
dynamic forces exerted on the trashrack during periods of high flow.
A partially blocked spillway reduces the capacity of the spillway
and may also create a higher than normal pool level. The combina- Fish protection
tion of these two factors can dramatically reduce the discharge/ Many owners are concerned about losing fish through trashracks
storage capacity of the dam. A reduction in the discharge/storage that have large openings. If this is a concern, a metal plate surround-
capacity of a dam increases the likelihood that the dam will be ing the riser or drop inlet which extends above and below the normal
overtopped during a severe storm event. Overtopping for even a pool level should be installed. See Figure on back of sheet. On the
short period of time can cause damage to the embankment and bottom of the plate, a metal screen should be attached and connected
possibly failure of the dam. If the dam has an emergency spillway, to the riser pipe. The solid plate at the water level will prevent the fish
a blocked principal spillway will cause more frequent flows in the and floating debris from passing over the crest of the riser. The
emergency spillway. Since emergency spillways are usually grass underwater screen will keep the fish from moving under the metal
lined channels designed for infrequent flows of short duration, plate and through the spillway. The underwater screen will not
serious damage is likely to result. become blocked because most of the debris floats on the water
surface. If this design is used, the area between the inside of the
Trashrack design cylinder and the outside of the riser must be equal to or greater than
A well-designed trashrack will stop large debris that could plug the the area inside the riser.
conduit but allow unrestricted passage of water and smaller debris.
Continued on back!
Anti-vortex devices Conclusion
An anti-vortex device can easily be incorporated into most trashrack The benefits of a properly designed and maintained trashrack
designs. A common anti-vortex device is a flat metal plate which is include the following:
placed on edge and attached to the inlet of the spillway. See Figure
below. The capacity of the spillway will be increased by equipping 1. Efficient use of the existing spillway system that will maintain
the trashrack with an anti-vortex plate. The anti-vortex plate in- the design discharge/storage capacity of the dam and prevent
creases capacity by preventing the formation of a flow inhibiting overtopping.
vortex during periods of high flow. 2. Prevention of costly maintenance items such as the removal of
debris from the spillway, repair or replacement of damaged spillway
Basic Anti-vortex Plate Design components, and the repair of erosion in emergency spillway.
3. A reduction in the amount of fish lost through the spillway
Anti-vortex system if a fish screen is used.
plate
Any questions, comments, concerns, or fact sheet requests should
Pipe riser be directed to the Division of Water at the following address:

Division of WaterDam Safety Engineering Program
Maintenance 1939 Fountain Square Drive, Building E-3
Maintenance should include periodic checks of the trashrack for Columbus, OH 43224-1336
rusted and broken sections and repairing as needed. Trashracks Voice: (614) 265-6731 Fax: (614) 447-9503
should be checked frequently during and after storm events to ensure http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/odnr/water
they are functioning properly and to remove accumulated debris.
Extreme caution should be used when attempting to remove accu-
mulated debris during periods of high flow.
Trash Rack Design With Fish Protector Screen
3/4 View Top View

Fish screen Trashrack
Trashrack bars
Trashrack skirt Anti-vortex plate
bars
Fish screen Normal
water level
flow Trashrack
flow skirt
Concrete pipe
riser with tee
section.
Reinforced
concrete
base
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DIVISION OF WATER
Fact Sheet 94–30
Dam Safety: Earth Dam Failures
O
wners of dams and operating and maintenance trolled flow of water over, around, and adjacent to
personnel must be knowledgeable of the poten- the dam. Earth embankments are not designed to be
tial problems which can lead to failure of a overtopped and therefore are particularly susceptible
dam. These people regularly view the structure and, to erosion. Once erosion has begun during overtop-
therefore, need to be able to recognize potential prob- ping, it is almost impossible to stop. A well vegetated
lems so that failure can be avoided. If a problem is earth embankment may withstand limited overtopping
noted early enough, an engineer experienced in dam if its top is level and water flows over the top and down
design, construction, and inspection can be contacted the face as an evenly distributed sheet without becom-
to recommend corrective measures, and such mea- ing concentrated. The owner should closely monitor
sures can be implemented. the reservoir pool level during severe storms.
IF THERE IS ANY QUESTION AS TO THE Seepage Failures
SERIOUSNESS OF AN OBSERVATION, AN All earth dams have seepage resulting from water
ENGINEER EXPERIENCED WITH DAMS percolating slowly through the dam and its foundation.
SHOULD BE CONTACTED. Seepage must, however, be controlled in both velocity
and quantity. If uncontrolled, it can progressively
Acting promptly may avoid possible dam failure and
erode soil from the embankment or its foundation,
the resulting catastrophic effect on downstream areas.
resulting in rapid failure of the dam. Erosion of the soil
Engineers from the Division of Water, Engineering
begins at the downstream side of the embankment,
Group of the Department of Natural Resources are
either in the dam proper or the foundation, progres-
available at any time to inspect a dam if a serious
sively works toward the reservoir, and eventually
problem is detected or if failure may be imminent.
develops a "pipe" or direct conduit to the reservoir.
Contact the division at the following address and
This phenomenon is known as "piping." Piping action
telephone number:
can be recognized by an increased seepage flow rate,
Ohio Department of Natural Resources the discharge of muddy or discolored water, sinkholes
Division of Water, Engineering Group on or near the embankment, and a whirlpool in the
1939 Fountain Square, Building E-3 reservoir. Once a whirlpool (eddy) is observed on the
Columbus, Ohio 43224 reservoir surface, complete failure of the dam will
probably follow in a matter of minutes. As with
In an emergency, call 614/265-6731 or 614/265- overtopping, fully developed piping is virtually im-
7006. possible to control and will likely cause failure.
Since only superficial inspections of a dam can
Seepage can cause slope failure by creating high
usually be made, it is imperative that owners and
pressures in the soil pores or by saturating the slope.
maintenance personnel be aware of the prominent
The pressure of seepage within an embankment is
types of failure and their telltale signs. Earth dam
difficult to determine without proper instrumentation.
failures can be grouped into three general categories:
A slope which becomes saturated and develops slides
overtopping failures, seepage failures, and structural
may be showing signs of excessive seepage pressure.
failures. A brief discussion of each type follows.
Structural Failures
Overtopping Failures
Structural failures can occur in either the embank-
Overtopping failures result from the erosive action of
ment or the appurtenances. Structural failure of a
water on the embankment. Erosion is due to uncon-
Continued on back!
spillway, lake drain, or other appurtenance may lead to erosion may result in structural failure.
failure of the embankment. Cracking, settlement, and
slides are the more common signs of structural failure Minor defects such as cracks in the embankment may be
of embankments. Large cracks in either an appurte- the first visual sign of a major problem which could lead
nance or the embankment, major settlement, and major to failure of the structure. The seriousness of all deficien-
slides will require emergency measures to ensure safety, cies should be evaluated by someone experienced in dam
especially if these problems occur suddenly. If this design and construction. A qualified professional engi-
type of situation occurs, the lake level should be neer can recommend appropriate permanent remedial
lowered, the appropriate state and local authorities measures.
notified, and professional advice sought. If the ob-
Any other questions, comments concerns, or fact
server is uncertain as to the seriousness of the problem, sheet requests, should be directed to the Division of
the Division of Water should be contacted immedi- Water at the following address:
ately. Ohio Department of Natural Resources
Division of Water
The three types of failure previously described are Dam Safety Engineering Program
often interrelated in a complex manner. For example, 1939 Fountain Square, Building E-3
uncontrolled seepage may weaken the soil and lead to Columbus, Ohio 43224-1336
a structural failure. A structural failure may shorten the (614) 265-6731 (Voice) (614) 447-9503 (Fax)
seepage path and lead to a piping failure. Surface http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/odnr/water/
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DIVISION OF WATER
Fact Sheet 99–53
Dam Safety: Embankment Instabilities
T
he dam embankment and any appurtenant dikes sibly monitoring stakes. The crack must then be moni-
must safely contain the reservoir during normal tored during future inspections. If the crack becomes
and flood conditions. Cracks, slides, and depres- longer or wider, a more serious problem such as a slide
sions are signs of embankment instability and should may be developing. Large cracks indicate serious stabil-
indicate to the owner that maintenance or repair work ity problems. If one is detected, the owner should contact
may be required. When one of these conditions is de- the Dam Safety Engineering Program and/or retain an
tected, the owner must retain an experienced profes- engineer to investigate the crack and prepare plans and
sional engineer to determine the cause of the instability. specifications for repairs. When muddy flow discharges
A rapidly changing condition or the sudden development from a crack, the dam may be close to failure. The
of a large crack, slide, or depression indicates a very emergency action plan should be initiated immediately
serious problem, and the Dam Safety Engineering Pro- and the Dam Safety Engineering Program contacted.
gram should be contacted immediately. A professional
engineer must investigate these types of embankment Slides
stability problems because a so-called “home remedy” A slide in an embankment or in natural soil or rock is
may cause greater and more serious damage to the a mass movement of material. Some typical characteris-
embankment and eventually result in unneeded expendi- tics of a slide are an arc-shaped crack or scarp along the
tures for unsuccessful repairs. top and a bulge along the bottom of the slide (see
drawing). Slides may develop because of poor soil com-
Cracks
Short, isolated cracks are commonly due to drying and Lake
shrinkage of the embankment surface and are not usually
significant. They are usually less than 1 inch wide,
propagate in various directions, and occur especially Arc-shaped
where the embankment lacks a healthy grass cover. scarp of crack
Larger (wider than 1 inch), well-defined cracks may Dam crest
indicate a more serious problem. There are generally two Slide
types of these cracks: longitudinal and transverse. Lon- Downstream
gitudinal cracks extend parallel to the crest of the em- slope
bankment and may indicate the early stages of a slide on
either the upstream or downstream slope of the embank-
ment. They can create problems by allowing runoff to Bulge Scarp
enter the cracks and saturate the embankment which in Dam fill
turn can cause instability of the embankment. Transverse Slide plane
cracks extend perpendicular to the crest and can indicate Fo u ndation
differential settlement within the embankment. Such Shallow Slide Cross Section
cracks provide avenues for seepage through the dam and
could quickly lead to piping, a severe seepage problem
that will likely cause the dam to fail. Scarp
Bulge
If the owner finds small cracks during inspection of the Slide plane
dam, he/she should document the observations, and seal Fo u ndation
the cracks to prevent runoff from saturating the embank-
ment. The documentation should consist of detailed Deep-seated Slide Cross Section
notes (including the location, length, approximate eleva-
tion, and crack width), photographs, sketches, and pos- Continued on back!
paction, the gradient of the slope being too steep for the Depressions can create low areas along the crest, cracks
embankment material, seepage, sudden drawdown of the through the embankment, structural damage to spillways or
lake level, undercutting of the embankment toe, or satu- other appurtenant structures, damage to internal drainage
ration and weakening of the embankment or foundation. systems, or general instability of the embankment. They can
also inhibit maintenance of the dam and make detection of
Slides can be divided into two main groups: shallow stability or seepage problems difficult.
and deep-seated. Shallow slides generally affect the top
2 to 3 feet of the embankment surface. Shallow slides are The owner should monitor depressions during the regular
generally not threatening to the immediate safety of the inspection of the dam. All observations should be docu-
dam and often result from wave erosion, collapsed rodent mented with detailed notes, photographs, and sketches.
burrows, or saturated top soil. Deep-seated slides are Minor depressions can be repaired by removing the vegeta-
serious, immediate threats to the safety of a dam. They tion and any unsuitable fill from the area, adding fill and then
can extend several feet below the surface of the embank- topsoil to make the embankment uniform, and finally estab-
ment, even below the foundation. A massive slide can lishing a healthy grass cover. An engineer should be retained
initiate the catastrophic failure of a dam. Deep-seated to investigate large depressions or settlement areas. Plans
slides are the result of serious problems within the and specifications may need to be prepared for its repair
embankment. depending on the findings of the investigation.
Small slides can be repaired by removing the vegeta- Importance of Inspection

tion and any unsuitable fill from the area, compacting Stability problems can threaten the safety of the dam and
suitable fill and adding topsoil to make the embankment the safety of people and property downstream. Therefore,
uniform, and establishing a healthy grass cover. If a stability problems must be detected and repaired in a timely
shallow or deep-seated slide is discovered, the Dam manner. The entire embankment should be routinely and
Safety Engineering Program should be contacted and an closely inspected for cracks, slides, and depressions. To do
engineer retained to investigate the slide. Plans and this thoroughly, proper vegetation must be regularly main-
specifications may need to be prepared for its repair tained on the embankment. Improper or overgrown vegeta-
depending on the findings of the investigation. tion can inhibit visual inspection and maintenance of the
dam. Accurate inspection records are also needed to detect
Depressions stability problems. These records can help determine if a
Depressions are sunken areas of the abutment, toe area, condition is new, slowly changing, or rapidly changing. A
or embankment surface. They may be created during rapidly changing condition or the sudden development of a
construction, or may be caused by decay of buried large crack, slide, or depression indicates a very serious
organic materials, thawing of frozen embankment mate- problem, and the Dam Safety Engineering Program must be
rial, internal erosion of the embankment, or settlement contacted immediately.
(consolidation) of the embankment or its foundation. To
a certain degree, minor depressions are common and do Any other questions, comments concerns, or fact sheet
not necessarily indicate a serious problem. (An embank- requests, should be directed to the Division of Water at
ment with several minor depressions may be described as the following address:
hummocky.) However, larger depressions may indicate Ohio Department of Natural Resources
serious problems such as weak foundation materials, Division of Water
poor compaction of the embankment during construc- Dam Safety Engineering Program
tion, or internal erosion of the embankment fill. 1939 Fountain Square, Building E-3
Columbus, Ohio 43224-1336
(614) 265-6731 (Voice) (614) 447-9503 (Fax)
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Fact Sheet 99–54
Dam Safety: Ground Cover
T
he establishment and control of proper vegetation required to prevent more serious damage to the embank-
are an important part of dam maintenance. Prop- ment. If erosion gullies are extensive, a registered profes-
erly maintained vegetation can help prevent ero- sional engineer may be required to design a more rigid
sion of embankment and earth channel surfaces, and aid repair such as riprap or concrete. Minor rills and gullies
in the control of groundhogs and muskrats. The uncon- can be repaired by filling them with compacted cohesive
trolled growth of vegetation can damage embankments material. Topsoil should be a minimum of 4 inches deep.
and concrete structures and make close inspection diffi- The area should then be seeded and mulched. Not only
cult. should the eroded areas be repaired, but the cause of the
erosion should be addressed to prevent a continued
Grass vegetation is an effective and inexpensive way to maintenance problem.
prevent erosion of embankment surfaces. If properly
maintained, it also enhances the appearance of the dam Footpaths
and provides a surface that can be easily inspected. Roots Paths from animal and pedestrian traffic are problems
and stems tend to trap fine sand and soil particles, common to many embankments. If a path has become
forming an erosion-resistant layer once the plants are established, vegetation in this area will not provide
well established. Grass vegetation may not be effective adequate protection and a more durable cover will be
in areas of concentrated runoff, such as at the contact of required unless the traffic is eliminated. Gravel, asphalt,
the embankment and abutments, or in areas subjected to and concrete have been used effectively to cover foot-
wave action. paths. Embedding railroad ties or other treated wood
beams into an embankment slope to form steps is one of
Common Problems the most successful and inexpensive methods used to
Bare Areas provide a protected pathway.
Bare areas on an embankment are void of protective
cover (e.g. grass, asphalt, riprap etc.). They are more Vehicle Ruts
susceptible to erosion which can lead to localized stabil- Vehicle ruts can also be a problem on the embankment.
ity problems such as small slides and sloughs. Bare areas Vehicular traffic on the dam should be discouraged
must be repaired by establishing a proper grass cover or especially during wet conditions except when necessary.
by installing other protective cover. If using grass, the Water collected in ruts may cause localized saturation,
topsoil must be prepared with fertilizer and then scarified thereby weakening the embankment. Vehicles can also
before sowing seed. Types of grass vegetation that have severely damage the vegetation on embankments. Worn
been used on dams in Ohio are bluegrass, fescue, ryegrass, areas could lead to erosion and more serious problems.
alfalfa, clover, and redtop. One suggested seed mixture Ruts that develop in the crest should be repaired by
is 30% Kentucky Bluegrass, 60% Kentucky 31 Fescue, grading to direct all surface drainage into the impound-
and 10% Perennial Ryegrass. Once the seed is sown, the ment. Bare and eroded areas should be repaired using the
area should be mulched and watered regularly. methods mentioned in the above sections. Constructed
barriers such as fences and gates are effective ways to
Erosion limit access of vehicles.
Embankment slopes are normally designed and con-
structed so that the surface drainage will be spread out in Improper Vegetation
a thin layer as “sheet flow” over the grass cover. When Crown vetch, a perennial plant with small pink flowers,
the sod is in poor condition or flow is concentrated at one has been used on some dams in Ohio but is not recom-
or more locations, the resulting erosion will leave rills mended (see Figure 1). It hides the embankment surface,
and gullies in the embankment slope. The erosion will preventing early detection of cracks and erosion. It is not
cause loss of material and make maintenance of the effective in preventing erosion.
embankment difficult. Prompt repair of the erosion is
Continued on back!
Maintenance
Embankments, areas adjacent to spillway structures, veg-
etated channels, and other areas associated with a dam
require continual maintenance of the vegetal cover. Removal
of improper vegetation is necessary for the proper mainte-
nance of a dam, dike or levee. All embankment slopes and
vegetated earth spillways should be mowed at least twice a
year. Reasons for proper maintenance of the vegetal cover
include unobstructed viewing during inspection, mainte-
nance of a non-erodible surface, discouragement of burrow-
ing animal habitation, and aesthetics.
Common methods for control of vegetation include the use

of weed trimmers or power brush-cutters and mowers. Chemi-
cal spraying to kill small trees and brush is acceptable if
precautions are taken to protect the local environment. Some
chemical spraying may require proper training prior to
application. Additional information can be found on the
Trees and Brush Fact Sheet.
Any other questions, comments concerns, or fact sheet
requests, should be directed to the Division of Water at the
following address:
Division of Water
Figure 1: Crown Vetch Dam Safety Engineering Program
(Source: http://www.vg.com) 1939 Fountain Square, Building E-3
Vines and woody vegetation such as trees and brush Columbus, Ohio 43224-1336
also hide the embankment surface preventing early de- (614) 265-6731 (Voice) (614) 447-9503 (Fax)
tection of cracks and erosion. Tall vegetation also pro- http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/odnr/water/
vides a habitat for burrowing animals. All improper
vegetation must be removed from the entire embankment
surface. Any residual roots that are larger than 3 inches
in diameter must be removed. All roots should be re-
moved down to a depth of at least 6 inches and replaced
with a compacted clay material; then 4 inches of topsoil
should be placed on the disturbed areas of the slope.
Finally, these areas must be seeded and mulched to
establish a proper grass cover.
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Fact Sheet 94–33
Dam Safety: Inspection of Concrete Structures
D
ams, dikes, and levees must not be thought of Cracks through concrete surfaces exposed to flowing
as part of the natural landscape, but as man- water may lead to the erosion or piping of embankment
made structures which must be designed, or foundation soils from around and/or under the
inspected, operated, and maintained accordingly. concrete structure. In this case, the cracks are not the
Routine maintenance and inspection of dams and result of a problem but are the detrimental condition
appurtenant facilities should be an ongoing process to which leads to piping and erosion. Seepage at the
ensure that structural failures do not occur which can discharge end of a spillway or outlet structure may
threaten the overall safety of the dam. The information indicate leakage of water through a crack. Proper
provided in this fact sheet pertains entirely to the underdrainage for open channel spillways with struc-
inspection of concrete structures used at dams. The tural concrete floors is necessary to control this leak-
intention is to help dam owners become more aware of age. Flows from underdrain outlets and pressure relief
common problems that are typically encountered with holes should also be observed and measured. Cloudy
concrete so that they can more readily address the flows may indicate that piping is occurring beneath or
seriousness of a particular condition whenever it arises. adjacent to the concrete structure. This could be
detrimental to the foundation support.
Structural Inspections
Concrete surfaces should be visually examined for Concrete surfaces adjacent to contraction joints and
spalling and deterioration due to weathering, unusual subject to flowing water are of special concern espe-
or extreme stresses, alkali or other chemical attack, cially in chute slabs. The adjacent slabs must be flush
erosion, cavitation, vandalism, and other destructive or the downstream one slightly lower to prevent ero-
forces. Structural problems are indicated by cracking, sion of the concrete and to prevent water from being
exposure of reinforcing bars, large areas of broken-out directed into the joint during high velocity flow. All
concrete, misalignment at joints, undermining and weep holes should be checked for the accumulation of
settlement in the structure. Rust stains that are noted silt and granular deposits at their outlets. These depos-
on the concrete may indicate that internal corrosion its may obstruct flow or indicate loss of support mate-
and deterioration of reinforcement steel is occurring. rial behind the concrete surfaces. Tapping the concrete
Spillway floor slabs and upstream slope protection surface with a hammer or some other device will help
slabs should be checked for erosion of underlying base locate voids if they are present as well as give an
material otherwise known as undermining. Concrete indication of the condition and soundness of the con-
walls and tower structures should be examined to crete. Weep holes in the concrete are used to allow free
determine if settlement and misalignment of construc- drainage and relieve excessive hydrostatic pressures
tion joints has occurred. from building up underneath the structure. Excessive
hydrostatic pressures underneath the concrete could
What to Look For cause it to heave or crack which increases the potential
Concrete structures can exhibit many different types for accelerated deterioration and undermining. Peri-
of cracking. Deep, wide cracking is due to stresses odic monitoring of the weep hole drains should be
which are primarily caused by shrinkage and structural performed and documented on a regular and routine
loads. Minor or hairline surface cracking is caused by basis to ensure that they are functioning as designed.
weathering and the quality of the concrete that was
applied. The results of this minor cracking can be the Structural cracking of concrete is usually identified
eventual loss of concrete, which exposes reinforcing by long, single or multiple diagonal cracks with ac-
steel and accelerates deterioration. Generally, minor companying displacements and misalignment. Cracks
surface cracking does not affect the structural integrity extending across concrete slabs which line open chan-
and performance of the concrete structure. nel spillways or provide upstream slope wave protec-
Continued on back!
tion can indicate a loss of foundation support resulting Preparing for an Inspection
from settlement, piping, undermining, or erosion of Before an inspection of the dam's concrete facilities
foundation soils. Piping and erosion of foundation is performed, it is recommended that a checklist be
soils are the result of inadequate underdrainage and/or developed that includes all the different components
cutoff walls. Items to consider when evaluating a of the spillway and/or outlet works. The checklist
suspected structural crack are the concrete thickness, should also include a space for logging any specific
the size and location of the reinforcing steel, the type observations about the structure and the state of its
of foundation, and the drainage provision for the struc- condition. Photographs provide invaluable records of
ture. changing conditions. A rapidly changing condition
Inspection of intake structures, trashracks, upstream
may indicate a very serious problem. If there are any
conduits, and stilling basin concrete surfaces that are
questions as to the seriousness of an observation the
below the water surface is not readily feasible during
Dam Safety Engineering Program, or a registered
a regularly scheduled inspection. Typically, stilling
professional engineer experienced with dams, should
basins require the most regular monitoring and major
be contacted.
maintenance because they are holding ponds for rock Any other questions, comments concerns, or fact sheet
and debris, which can cause extensive damage to the requests, should be directed to the Division of Water at
concrete surfaces during the dissipation of flowing the following address:
water. Therefore, special inspections of these features
should be performed at least once every five years by Ohio Department of Natural Resources
Division of Water
either dewatering the structure or when operating Dam Safety Engineering Program
conditions permit. Investigation of these features 1939 Fountain Square, Building E-3
using experienced divers is also an alternative. Columbus, Ohio 43224-1336
(614) 265-6731 (Voice) (614) 447-9503 (Fax)
In an emergency, call
(614) 265-6731 or (614) 799-9538
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Fact Sheet 93–26
Dam Safety: Lake Drains
A
lake drain is a device to permit draining a reservoir, Common Maintenance Problems
lake or pond. Division of Water Administrative Common problems often associated with the mainte-
Rule 1501:21-13-06 requires that all Class I, Class nance and operation of lake drains include the following:
II and Class III dams include a lake drain.
◆ Deteriorated and bent control stems and stem
Types of Drains guides.
Common types of drains include the following:
◆ Deteriorated and separated conduit joints.
◆ A valve located in the spillway riser.
◆ Leaky and rusted control valves and sluice gates.
◆ A conduit through the dam with a valve at either the
upstream or downstream end of the conduit. ◆ Deteriorated ladders in control towers.
◆ A siphon system (Often used to retrofit existing ◆ Deteriorated control towers.

dams). ◆ Clogging of the drain conduit inlet with sediment
◆ A gate, valve or stoplogs located in a drain control and debris.
tower. ◆ Inaccessibility of the control mechanism to
Uses of Drains operate the drain.
The following situations make up the primary uses of lake ◆ Seepage along the drain conduit.
drains:
◆ Erosion and undermining of the conduit discharge
Emergencies: Should serious problems ever occur to area because the conduit outlets significantly
threaten the immediate safety of the dam, drains may be above the elevation of the streambed.
used to lower the lake level to reduce the likelihood of dam
failure. Examples of such emergencies are as follows: ◆ Vandalism.
clogging of the spillway pipe which may lead to high lake
◆ Development of slides along the upstream slope
levels and eventually dam overtopping, development of
of the dam and the shoreline caused by lowering
slides or cracks in the dam, severe seepage through the dam
the lake level too quickly.
which may lead to a piping failure of the dam, and partial
or total collapse of the spillway system. Operation and Maintenance Tips
Maintenance: Some repair items around the lake and dam A. All gates, valves, stems and other mechanisms should
can only be completed or are much easier to perform with be lubricated according to the manufacturer’s specifi-
a lower than normal lake level. Some examples are: slope cations. If you do not have a copy of the specifications
protection repair, spillway repairs, repair and/or installa- and the manufacturing company can not be deter-
tion of docks and other structures along the shoreline, and mined, then a local valve distributor may be able to
dredging the lake. provide assistance.
Winter Drawdown: Some dam owners prefer to lower the B. The lake drain should be operated at least twice a year
lake level during the winter months to reduce ice damage to to prevent the inlet from clogging with sediment and
structures along the shoreline and to provide additional debris, and to keep all movable parts working easily.
flood storage for upcoming spring rains. Several repair Most manufacturers recommend that gates and valves
items are often performed during this winter drawdown be operated at least four times per year. Frequent
period. Periodic fluctuations in the lake level also discour- operation will help to ensure that the drain will be
age muskrat and beaver habitation along the shoreline. operable when it is needed. All valves and gates should
Muskrat burrows in earthen dams can lead to costly repairs. be fully opened and closed at least twice to help flush
out debris and to obtain a proper seal. If the gate gets
stuck in a partially opened position, gradually work the
Continued on back!
gate in each direction until it becomes fully opera- Monitoring
tional. Do not apply excessive torque as this could bend Monitoring of the lake drain system is necessary to detect
or break the control stem, or damage the valve or gate problems and should be performed at least twice a year or
seat. With the drain fully open, inspect the outlet area more frequently if problems develop. Proper ventilation
for flow amounts, leaks, erosion and anything unusual. and confined space precautions must be considered when
entering a lake drain vault or outlet pipe. Items to be
C. All visible portions of the lake drain system should be
considered when monitoring a lake drain system include
inspected at least annually, preferably during the peri-
the stem, valve, outlet pipe and related appurtenances.
odic operation of the drain. Look for and make note of
Monitoring for surface deterioration (rust), ease of opera-
any cracks, rusted and deteriorated parts, leaks, bent
tion, and leakage is important to maintain a working lake
control stems, separated conduit joints or unusual ob-
drain system. If the stem or valve appears to be inoperable
servations.
because of deterioration or if the operability of the lake
D. A properly designed lake drain should include a drain system is in question, because the valve does not
headwall near the outlet of the drain conduit to prevent completely close (seal) and allows an excessive amount of
undermining of the conduit during periods of flow. A leakage, then a registered professional engineer or
headwall can be easily retro-fitted to an existing con- manufacturer’s representative should be contacted. Photo-
duit if undermining is a problem at an existing dam. A graphs along with written records of the monitoring items
properly designed layer of rock riprap or other slope performed provide invaluable information. For further
protection will help reduce erosion in the lake drain information on evaluating the condition of the lake drain
outlet area. system see the “Spillway Conduit System Problems”, “Prob-
lems with Metal Materials”, “Problems with Plastic (Poly-
E. Drain control valves and gates should always be placed mer) Materials”, and “Problems with Concrete Materials”
upstream of the centerline of the dam. This allows the fact sheets.
drain conduit to remain depressurized except during
use, therefore reducing the likelihood of seepage through
the conduit joints and saturation of the surrounding
Conclusion
earth fill.
An operable lake drain accomplishes the following:
F. For accessibility ease, the drain control platform should
be located on shore or be provided with a bridge or 1. Makes for a safer dam by providing a method to
other structure. This becomes very important during lower the lake level in an emergency situation.
emergency situations if high pool levels exist. 2. Allows the dam owner to have greater control of
G. Vandalism can be a problem at any dam. If a lake drain the lake level for maintenance, winter drawdown
is operated by a crank, wheel or other similar mecha- and emergency situations.
nism, locking with a chain or other device, or off-site 3. Meets the requirements of the Ohio Dam Safety
storage may be beneficial. Fences or other such instal- Laws.
lations may also help to ward off vandals.
H. The recommended rate of lake drawdown is one foot or requests, should be directed to the Division of Water at
less per week, except in emergencies. Fast drawdown the following address:
causes a build-up of hydrostatic pressures in the up-
stream slope of the dam which can lead to slope failure. Ohio Department of Natural Resources
Lowering the water level slowly allows these pressures Division of Water
Dam Safety Engineering Program
to dissipate.
1939 Fountain Square, Building E-3
(614) 265-6731 (Voice) (614) 447-9503 (Fax)
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Fact Sheet 98–49
Dam Safety: Open Channel Spillways

(Earth and Rock)
O
pen channels are often used as the emergency Maintenance
spillway and sometimes as the principal spill- Maintenance should include, but not be limited to, the
way for dams. A principal spillway is used to following items:
pass normal inflows, and an emergency spillway is
designed to operate only during large flood events, •Grass-covered channels should be mowed at
usually after the capacity of the principal spillway has least twice per year to maintain a good grass
been exceeded. For dams with pipe conduit principal cover and to prevent trees, brush and weeds
spillways, an open channel emergency spillway is almost from becoming established. Poor vegetal cover
always required as a backup in case the pipe becomes can result in extensive and rapid erosion when the
clogged. Open channels are usually located in natural spillway flows. Repairs can be costly. Reseeding
ground adjacent to the dam and can be vegetated, rock- and fertilization may be necessary to maintain a
lined, or cut in rock. vigorous growth of grass. One suggested seed
mixture is 30% Kentucky Bluegrass, 60% Ken-
Design tucky 31 Fescue, and 10% Perennial Ryegrass.
Flow through an emergency spillway does not neces-
sarily indicate a problem with the dam, but high velocity •Trees and brush must be removed from the
flows can cause severe erosion and result in a perma- channel. Tree and brush growth reduces the dis-
nently lowered lake level if not repaired. Proper design charge capacity of the spillway channel. This
of an open channel spillway will include provisions for increases the lake level during large storm events
minimizing any potential erosion. One way to minimize which can lead to overtopping and failure of the
erosion is to design a flatter channel slope to reduce the dam.
velocity of the flow. Earthen channels can be protected
by a good grass cover, an appropriately designed rock •Erosion in the channel must be repaired
cover, concrete or various types of erosion control mat- quickly after it occurs. Erosion can be expected
ting. Rock-lined channels must have adequately sized in the spillway channel during high flows, and can
riprap to resist displacement and contain an appropriate also occur as a result of rainfall and runoff, espe-
geotextile fabric or granular filter beneath the rock. cially in areas of poor grass cover. Terraces or
Guide berms are often required to divert flow through drainage channels may be necessary in large spill-
open channels away from the dam to prevent erosion of way channels where large amounts of rainfall and
the embankment fill. If an open channel is used for a runoff may concentrate and have high velocities.
principal spillway, it must be rock-lined or cut in rock Erosion of the side slopes may deposit material in
due to more frequent or constant flows. the spillway channel, especially where the side
slopes meet the channel bottom. In small spill-
Ohio Administrative Code Rule 1501:21-13-04 re- ways, this can significantly reduce the discharge
quires that the frequency of use for an earth (grass-lined) capacity. This condition often occurs immediately
or a rock-lined emergency spillway be less than: after construction before vegetation becomes es-
tablished. In these cases, it may be necessary to
• Once in 50 years for Class I dams; reshape the channel to provide the necessary ca-
• Once in 25 years for Class II dams; and pacity.
• Once in 10 years for Class III dams.
•All obstructions should be kept out of the
channel. Open channel spillways often are used
for purposes other than passage of flood flows.
Continued on back!
Among these uses are reservoir access, parking Monitoring
lots, boat ramps, boat storage, pasture and crop- Open channel spillways should be monitored for erosion,
land. Permanent structures (buildings, fences, etc.) poor vegetal cover, growth of trees and brush, obstruc-
should not be constructed in these spillways. If tions, and weathering and displacement of rock. Moni-
fences, bridges or other such structures are abso- toring should take place on a regular basis and after large
lutely necessary, they should cross the spillway far flood events. It is important to keep written records of
enough upstream or downstream from the control observations. Photographs provide invaluable records of
section so that they do not interfere with the flow. changing conditions. All records should be kept in the
Construction of any structures in or across the operation, maintenance, and inspection manual for the
channel requires prior approval from the Division dam.
of Water.
Any other questions, comments concerns, or fact
•Weathering of rock channels can be a serious sheet requests, should be directed to the Division of
problem and is primarily due to freeze/thaw Water at the following address:
action. Deterioration due to the effects of sun, Ohio Department of Natural Resources
wind, rain, chemical action and tree root growth Division of Water
also occurs. Weathered rock is susceptible to ero- Dam Safety Engineering Program
sion and displacement during high flows; there- 1939 Fountain Square, Building E-3
fore, rock channels are often designed with 1 to 3 Columbus, Ohio 43224-1336
feet of earth with a grass cover over the rock (614) 265-6731 (Voice) (614) 447-9503 (Fax)
surface to help insulate the rock from the effects of http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/odnr/water/
freeze/thaw action.
Downstream View of Open Channel Spillway

impoundment
D A
M riser with trash rack
C R
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T
berm control
section
guide
outlet berm
Flow
ope n cha nne l
em erg enc y spi llwa y
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Fact Sheet 99–51
Dam Safety: Outlet (Stilling

Erosion Control Structures
Basins)
W
ater moving through the spillway of a dam tioned in the opening paragraphs, or if the discharge spill-
contains a large amount of energy. This energy way conduit does not have a headwall/endwall, then a
can cause erosion at the outlet which can lead to registered professional engineer should be contacted to
instability of the spillway. Failure to properly design, evaluate the stability of the outlet.
install, or maintain a stilling basin could lead to problems
such as undermining of the spillway and erosion of the outlet Impact Basin
channel and/or embankment material. These problems can A concrete impact basin is an energy dissipating device
lead to failure of the spillway and ultimately the dam. A located at the outlet of the spillway in which flow from
stilling basin provides a means to absorb or dissipate the the discharge conduit strikes a vertical hanging baffle.
energy from the spillway discharge and protects the spill- Discharge is directed upstream in vertical eddies by the
way area from erosion and undermining. An outlet erosion horizontal por-
control structure such as a headwall/endwall, impact basin, tion of the baffle Impact Basin
United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Recla- and by the floor
mation Type II or Type III basin, baffled chute, or plunge before flowing
pool is considered an energy dissipating device. The perfor- over the endsill.
mance of these structures can be affected by the tailwater Energy dissipa-
elevation. The tailwater elevation is the elevation of the tion occurs as
water that is flowing through the natural stream channel the discharge
downstream during various flow conditions. strikes the
baffle, thus,
A headwall/endwall, impact basin, Type II or Type III performance is
basin, and baffled chute are all constructed of concrete. not dependent
Concrete structures can develop surface defects such as on tailwater.
minor cracking, bugholes, honeycombing, and spalling. Most impact
Concrete structures can have severe structural defects such basins were de-
as exposed rebar, settlement, misalignment and large cracks. signed by the United States Department of Agriculture,
Severe defects can indicate structural instability. Natural Resources Conservation Service and the United
States Department of Interior, Bureau of Reclamation. If
Headwall/Endwall any of the severe defects that are referenced in the
A headwall/endwall located at or close to the end of the opening paragraphs are observed, a registered profes-
discharge conduit will provide support and reduce the sional engineer should be contacted to evaluate the
potential for undermining. A headwall/endwall is typically stability of the outlet.
constructed of concrete, and it should be founded on bed-
rock or have an adequate foundation footing to provide U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Reclama-
support for stability.A headwall/endwall can become dis- tion Type II and Type III Basins
placed if it is not adequately designed and is subject to
Type II and Type III basins reduce the energy of the
undermining. Displacement of the headwall/endwall can
flow discharging from the outlet of a spillway and allow
lead to separation of the spillway conduit at the joints which
the water to exit into the outlet channel at a reduced
could affect the
Headwall Endwall
velocity. Type II energy dissipators contain chute blocks
integrity of the
at the upstream end of the basin and a dentated (tooth-like)
spillway conduit.
endsill. Baffle piers are not used in a Type II basin
If a concrete
because of the high velocity water entering the basin.
structure devel-
ops the structural
defects men- Continued on back!
Type III Basin Type III energy Plunge Pool
dissipators can be A plunge pool is an energy dissipating device located at
Endsill used if the en- the outlet of a spillway. Energy is dissipated as the
Chute trance velocity of discharge flows into the plunge pool. Plunge pools are
Blocks the water is not commonly lined with rock riprap or other material to
Baffle high. They con- prevent excessive erosion of the pool area. Discharge
Piers tain baffle piers from the plunge pool should be at the natural streambed
which are located elevation. Typical problems may include movement of
on the stilling ba- the riprap, loss of fines from the bedding material and
sin apron down-
stream of the
chute blocks. Located at the end of both the Type II and Plunge Pool
Type III basins is an endsill. The endsill may be level or
sloped, and its purpose is to create the tailwater which
reduces the outflow velocity. If any of the severe defects
associated with concrete structures are observed, a regis-
tered professional engineer should be contacted to evalu-
ate the stability of the basin.
aggregate riprap
Baffled Chute base
Baffled chutes require no initial tailwater to be effective
and are located downstream of the control section. Mul- scour beyond the riprap and lining. If scour beneath the
tiple rows of baffle piers on the chute prevent excessive outlet conduit develops, the conduit will be left unsup-
acceleration of the flow and prevent the damage that ported and separation of the conduit joints and undermin-
occurs from a high discharge velocity. A portion of the ing may occur. Separation of the conduit joints and
baffled chute usually extends below the streambed eleva- undermining may lead to failure of the spillway and
tion to prevent undermining of the chute. If any of the ultimately the dam. A registered professional engineer
severe problems associated with concrete that are refer- should be contacted to ensure that the plunge pool is
enced in the opening paragraphs are observed, a regis- designed properly.
tered professional engineer should be contacted to evalu-
ate the stability of the outlet. Additional information about related topics can be
found on the following fact sheets: “Inspection of Con-
crete Structures,” “Spillway Conduit System Problems,”
Baffeled Chute Basin “Open Channel Spillways (Concrete Chutes and Weirs),”
and “Problems with Concrete Materials.”
Any questions, comments, concerns, or fact sheet re-

quests should be directed to the Division of Water at the
following address:

Baffle Division of WaterDam Safety Engineering Program
Piers 1939 Fountain Square Drive, Building E-3
Columbus, OH 43224-1336
(614) 265-6731 (Voice)
(614) 447-9503 (Fax)
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Fact Sheet 99–56
Dam Safety: Problems with Concrete Materials
V
isual inspection of concrete will allow for the thickness), and exposed rebar indicate serious concrete
detection of distressed or deteriorated areas. Prob- deterioration. If not repaired, this type of concrete dete-
lems with concrete include construction errors, rioration may lead to structural instability of the concrete
disintegration, scaling, cracking, efflorescence, erosion, structure. A registered professional engineer must pre-
spalling, and popouts. pare plans and specifications for repair of serious con-
crete deterioration. For additional information, see the
Construction Errors “Concrete Repair Techniques” fact sheet.
Errors made during construction such as adding im-
proper amounts of water to the concrete mix, inadequate Disintegration can be a result of many causes such as
consolidation, and improper curing can cause distress freezing and thawing, chemical attack, and poor con-
and deterioration of the concrete. Proper mix design, struction practices. All exposed concrete is subject to
placement, and curing of the concrete, as well as an freeze-thaw, but the concrete’s resistance to weathering
experienced contractor are essential to prevent construc- is determined by the concrete mix and the age of the
tion errors from occurring. Construction errors can lead concrete. Concrete with the proper amounts of air, water,
to some of the problems discussed later in this fact sheet and cement, and a properly sized aggregate, will be much
such as scaling and cracking. Honeycombing and more durable. In addition, proper drainage is essential in
bugholes can be observed after construction. preventing freeze-thaw damage. When critically satu-
rated concrete (when 90% of the pore space in the
Honeycombing can be recognized by exposed coarse concrete is filled with water) is exposed to freezing
aggregate on the surface without any mortar covering or temperatures, the water in the pore spaces within the
surrounding the aggregate particles. The honeycombing concrete freezes and expands, damaging the concrete.
may extend deep into the concrete. Honeycombing can Repeated cycles of freezing and thawing will result in
be caused by a poorly graded concrete mix, by too large surface scaling and can lead to disintegration of the
of a coarse aggregate, or by insufficient vibration at the concrete. Hydraulic structures are especially susceptible
time of placement. Honeycombing will result in further to freeze-thaw damage since they are more likely to be
deterioration of the concrete due to freeze-thaw because critically saturated. Older structures are also more sus-
moisture can easily work its way into the honeycombed ceptible to freeze-thaw damage since the concrete was
areas. Severe honeycombing should be repaired to pre- not air entrained. In addition, acidic substances in the
vent further deterioration of the concrete surface. surrounding soil and water can cause disintegration of
the concrete surface due to a reaction between the acid
Bugholes is a term used to describe small holes (less and the hydrated cement.
than about 0.25 inch in diameter) that are noticeable on
the surface of the concrete. Bugholes are generally Cracks
caused by too much sand in the mix, a mix that is too lean, Cracks in the concrete may be structural or surface
or excessive amplitude of vibration during placement. cracks. Surface cracks are generally less than a few
Bugholes may cause durability problems with the con- millimeters wide and deep. These are often called hair-
crete and should be monitored. line cracks and may consist of single, thin cracks, or
cracks in a craze/map-like pattern. A small number of
Disintegration and Scaling surface or shrinkage cracks is common and does not
Disintegration can be described as the deterioration of usually cause any problems. Surface cracks can be
the concrete into small fragments and individual aggre- caused by freezing and thawing, poor construction prac-
gates. Scaling is a milder form of disintegration where tices, and alkali-aggregate reactivity. Alkali-aggregate
the surface mortar flakes off. Large areas of crumbling reactivity occurs when the aggregate reacts with the
(rotten) concrete, areas of deterioration which are more cement causing crazing or map cracks. The placement of
than about 3 to 4 inches deep (depending on the wall/slab Continued on back!
new concrete over old may cause surface cracks to mospheric pressures, turbulent flow and impact energy
develop. This occurs because the new concrete will are created and will damage the concrete. If the shape of
shrink as it cures. Surface cracks in the spillway should the upper curve on the ogee spillway is not designed close
be monitored and will need to be repaired if they deterio- to its ideal shape, cavitation may occur just below the
rate further. upper curve, causing erosion. A registered professional
engineer must prepare plans and specifications for repair
Structural cracks in the concrete are usually larger than of this type of erosion if the concrete becomes severely
0.25 inch in width. They extend deeper into the concrete pitted which could lead to structural damage or failure of
and may extend all the way through a wall, slab, or other the structure.
structural member. Structural cracks are often caused by
settlement of the fill material supporting the concrete Spalling and Popouts
structure, or by loss of the fill support due to erosion. The Spalling is the loss of larger pieces or flakes of concrete.
structural cracks may worsen in severity due to the forces It is typically caused by sudden impact of something
of weathering. A registered professional engineer knowl- dropped on the concrete or stress in the concrete that
edgeable about dam safety must investigate the cause of exceeded the design. Spalling may occur on a smaller
structural cracks and prepare plans and specifications for scale, creating popouts. Popouts are formed as the water
repair of any structural cracks. For additional informa- in saturated coarse aggregate particles near the surface
tion, see the “Concrete Repair Techniques” fact sheet. freezes, expands, and pushes off the top of the aggregate
and surrounding mortar to create a shallow conical de-
Efflorescence pression. Popouts are typically not a structural problem.
A white, crystallized substance, known as efflores- However, if a spall is large and causes structural damage,
cence, may sometimes be noted on concrete surfaces, a registered professional engineer must prepare plans
especially spillway sidewalls. It is usually noted near and specifications to repair the spalling.
hairline or thin cracks. Efflorescence is formed by water
seeping through the pores or thin cracks in the concrete. Inspection and Monitoring
When the water evaporates, it leaves behind some min- Regular inspection and monitoring is essential to detect
erals that have been leached from the soil, fill, or con- problems with concrete materials. Concrete structures
crete. Efflorescence is typically not a structural problem. should be inspected a minimum of once per year. The
Efflorescence should be monitored because it can indi- inspector should also look at the interior condition of
cate the amount of seepage finding its way through thin concrete spillway conduit. Proper ventilation and con-
cracks in the concrete and can signal areas where prob- fined space precautions must be considered when enter-
lems (i.e. inadequate drainage behind the wall or deterio- ing a conduit. It is important to keep written records of the
ration of concrete) could develop. Also, water seeping dimensions and extent of scaling, disintegration, efflo-
through thin cracks in the wall will make the concrete rescence, honeycombing, erosion, spalling, popouts, and
more susceptible to deterioration due to freezing and the length and width of cracks. Structural cracks should
thawing of the water. be monitored more frequently and repaired if they are a
threat to the stability of the structure or dam. Photographs
Erosion provide invaluable records of changing conditions. A
Erosion due to abrasion results in a worn concrete rapidly changing condition may indicate a very serious
surface. It is caused by the rubbing and grinding of problem, and the Dam Safety Engineering Program
aggregate or other debris on the concrete surface of a should be contacted immediately. All records should be
spillway channel or stilling basin. Minor erosion is not a kept in the operation, maintenance, and inspection manual
problem but severe erosion can jeopardize the structural for the dam.
integrity of the concrete. A registered professional engi-
neer must prepare plans and specifications for repair of Any other questions, comments concerns, or fact sheet
this type of erosion if it is severe. requests, should be directed to the Division of Water at
the following address:
Erosion due to cavitation results in a rough, pitted Ohio Department of Natural Resources
concrete surface. Cavitation is a process in which subat- Division of Water
(614) 265-6731 (Voice) (614) 447-9503 (Fax)
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Fact Sheet 99–57
Dam Safety: Problems with Metal Materials
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orrosion is a common problem for spillway con- Conduit coating is an effective way of controlling
duits and other metal appurtenances. Corrosion is corrosion of metal conduits if used properly. It is rela-
the deterioration or breakdown of metal because tively inexpensive and extends the life of the conduit.
of a reaction with its environment. Exposure to moisture, Some examples of coatings include cement-mortar, ep-
acidic conditions, or salt will accelerate the corrosion oxy, aluminum, or polyethylene film. Asphalt (bitumi-
process. Acid runoff from strip-mined areas will cause nous) coatings are not recommended since their service
rapid corrosion of metal conduits. In these areas, con- life is usually only one or two years. Coatings must be
duits made of less corrodible materials such as concrete applied to the conduit prior to installation and protected
or plastic should be used. Soil types also factor into the to ensure that the coating is not scratched off. Coatings
amount of corrosion. Clayey soils can be more corrosive applied to conduits in service are generally not very
than sandy soils since they are poorly drained and poorly effective because of the difficulty in establishing an
aerated. Silts are somewhere in between clays and sands. adequate bond.
Some examples of metal conduits include ductile iron,
smooth steel, and corrugated metal. Corrugated metal Corrosion can also be controlled or arrested by install-
pipe is not recommended for use in dams since the ing cathodic protection. A metallic anode such as mag-
service life for corrugated metal is only 25 to 30 years, nesium (or zinc) is buried in the soil and is connected to
whereas the life expectancy for dams is much longer. In the metal conduit by wire. Natural voltage current flow-
areas of acidic water, the service life can be much less. ing from the magnesium (anode) to the conduit (cathode)
Therefore, corrugated metal spillway conduits typically will cause the magnesium to corrode and not the conduit.
need to be repaired or replaced early in the dam’s design However, sufficient maintenance funds should be allo-
life, which can be very expensive. cated for the regular inspection of this active system.
If corrosion is allowed to continue, metal conduits will

rust out. The spillway must be repaired before water
flows through the rusted out portion of the conduit and
erodes the fill material of the embankment. Continued
erosion can lead to failure of the dam. Sliplining can be
an economical and effective method of permanently
restoring deteriorated spillways. During sliplining, a
smaller diameter pipe is inserted into the old spillway
conduit and then grout is used to fill in the void between
the two pipes. If sliplining the spillway is not feasible, the
lake may need to be drained and a new spillway must be
installed. A registered professional engineer must be
retained to develop and submit plans and specifications
for any major modifications such as spillway sliplining
or replacement.
Corrosion of the metal parts of the operating mechanisms

such as lake drain valves and slu ice gates can be effectively
treated by keeping these parts lubricated and /or painted. If
Figure 1 – Example of a corrugated metal pipe the device has not been operated in several years, a qualified
and riser spillway. person (i.e. manufacturer’s representative or registered
professional engineer) should inspect it to determine its
Continued on back!
operability. Caution must be used to prevent the mecha-
nism from breaking. A registered professional engineer
may be needed to prepare plans and specifications for
repair if the device is determined to be inoperable.
Regular inspection and monitoring is essential to detect

any problems with metal materials. Coatings on metal
pipes should be inspected for scratched and worn areas.
The inspector should also look for corrosion inside the
spillway conduit. Proper ventilation and confined space
precautions must be considered when entering the spill-
way conduit system. If using cathodic protection, regular
inspections are required to verify that the system is
working properly. It is important to keep written records
of the amount of surface rust, pitting, and corrosion on
any metal surface. Areas of thin metal should be moni-
tored more frequently and repaired or replaced if they
rust out. Photographs provide invaluable records of chang-
ing conditions. A rapidly changing condition may indi-
cate a very serious problem, and the Dam Safety Engi-
neering Program should be contacted immediately. All
records should be kept in the operation, maintenance, and
inspection manual for the dam.

requests, should be directed to the Division of Water at
the following address:
Division of Water
(614) 265-6731 (Voice) (614) 447-9503 (Fax)
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Fact Sheet 99–58
Dam Safety: Problems with Plastic (Polymer) Materials

The pipe must be able to withstand the pressures from the
P
lastics are often used as spillway and lake drain
pipes in dam construction and repair. The most weight of the embankment without crushing or buckling.
common plastic pipes are high-density polyethyl- The joints must also be watertight. Not all plastic pipe
ene (HDPE) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). The advan- will meet these requirements.
tages of using plastic pipe include excellent abrasion
resistance, chemical corrosion resistance, low mainte- As with other plastic materials, ultraviolet light degra-
nance, and long life expectancy. Naturally occurring dation can be a problem. Photo-degradation can cause
chemicals in soils will not degrade plastic pipe and cause plastic to become brittle and crack. Carbon black is the
it to rot or corrode. Plastic pipes are also much easier to most effective additive to enhance the photo-degrada-
handle and install compared to heavier concrete and steel tion resistance of plastic materials. Pipes containing
pipes. carbon black can be safely stored outside in most cli-
mates for many years without damage from ultraviolet
Plastic pipes are considered flexible, and they get their exposure. Plastic pipes can be affected by liquid hydro-
strength from the material and the surrounding backfill carbons such as gasoline and oil. If hydrocarbons come
whereas rigid pipes, such as concrete, get their strength in contact with plastic pipe, they will permeate the pipe
from the material and the pipe structure. Backfill around wall causing swelling and loss of strength. However, if
plastic pipes must be properly compacted and in full the hydrocarbons are removed, the effects are reversible.
contact with the pipe. It is important to take special care
in the haunch area to prevent the pipe from lifting off the Regular inspection and monitoring is essential to detect
subgrade and disrupting vertical alignment. Symmetric any problems with plastic materials. Plastic pipes should
backfilling is also required to prevent the pipe from be inspected for deformation and cracking. The inspec-
being out of lateral alignment. tor should also look at the interior condition of the
spillway pipe. Proper ventilation and confined space
precautions must be considered when entering the spill-
Hand-Compacted way pipe system. It is important to keep written records
backfill of pipe dimensions to note deformation and the length
Pipe crown and width of cracks. Photographs provide invaluable
Haunch 1 records of changing conditions. A rapidly changing
condition may indicate a very serious problem, and the
1
Dam Safety Engineering Program should be contacted
Pipe invert immediately. All records should be kept in the operation,
maintenance, and inspection manual for the dam.
Figure 1 - Cross-section of plastic pipe in trench
requests, should be directed to the Division of Water at
When designing a new spillway system, a registered the following address:
professional engineer will be required to specify the Ohio Department of Natural Resources
correct type of pressurized plastic pipe that can be used. Division of Water
(614) 265-6731 (Voice) (614) 447-9503 (Fax)
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Fact Sheet 94–27
Dam Safety: Rodent Control
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odents such as the groundhog (woodchuck), musk- Groundhogs can be controlled by using fumigants or by
rat, and beaver are attracted to dams and reser- shooting. Fumigation is the most practical method of
voirs, and can be quite dangerous to the struc- controlling groundhogs. Around buildings or other high
tural integrity and proper performance of the embank- fire hazard areas, shooting may be preferable. Ground-
ment and spillway. Groundhog and muskrat burrows hogs will be discouraged from inhabiting the embank-
weaken the embankment and can serve as pathways for ment if the vegetal cover is kept mowed.
seepage. Beavers may plug the spillway and raise the
pool level. Rodent control is essential in preserving a Gas cartridges may be purchased at garden supply
well-maintained dam. and hardware stores. Information about the use and
availability of gas cartridges may be obtained from
Groundhog county extension offices, or the U.S. Department of
The groundhog is the largest member of the squirrel Agriculture at the following address:
family. Its coarse fur is a grizzled grayish brown with
The USDA
a reddish cast. Typical foods include grasses, clover,
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service
alfalfa, soybeans, peas, lettuce, and apples. Breeding
Wildlife Services
takes place during early spring (beginning at the age of
200 North High Street, Room 622
one year) with an average of four or five young per
Columbus, Ohio 43215
litter, one litter per year. The average life expectancy
(614) 469-5681
is two or three years with a maximum of six years.
Muskrat
Occupied groundhog burrows are easily recognized in The muskrat is a stocky rodent with a broad head, short
the spring due to the groundhog’s habit of keeping them legs, small eyes, and rich dark brown fur. Muskrats are
“cleaned out.” Fresh dirt is generally found at the mouth chiefly nocturnal. Their principal food includes stems,
of active burrows. Half-round mounds, paths leading roots, bulbs, and foliage of aquatic plants. They also feed
from the den to nearby fields, and clawed or girdled trees on snails, mussels, crustaceans, insects, and fish. Usu-
and shrubs also help identify inhabited burrows and ally three to five litters, averaging six to eight young per
dens. litter, are produced each year. Adult muskrats average
one foot in length and three pounds in weight. The life
When burrowing into an embankment, groundhogs expectancy is less than two years, with a maximum of
stay above the phreatic surface (upper surface of seepage four years. Muskrats can be found wherever there are
or saturation) to stay dry. The burrow is rarely a single marshes, swamps, ponds, lakes and streams having calm
tunnel. It is usually forked, with more than one entrance or very slowly moving water with vegetation in the water
and with several side passages or rooms from 1 to 12 feet and along the banks.
long. Muskrats make their homes by burrowing into the
banks of lakes and streams or by building “houses” of
Groundhog Control bushes and other plants. Their burrows begin from 6 to
Control methods should be implemented during early 18 inches below the water surface and penetrate the
spring when active burrows are easy to find, young embankment on an upward slant. At distances up to 15
groundhogs have not scattered, and there is less likeli- feet from the entrance, a dry chamber is hollowed out
hood of damage to other wildlife. In later summer, fall, above the water level. Once a muskrat den is occupied,
and winter, game animals will scurry into groundhog a rise in the water level will cause the muskrat to dig
burrows for brief protection and may even take up farther and higher to excavate a new dry chamber.
permanent abode during the period of groundhog hiber- Damage (and the potential for problems) is compounded
nation. where groundhogs or other burrowing animals construct
their dens in the embankment opposite muskrat dens.
Continued on back!
Muskrat Control Hunting and Trapping Regulations
Barriers to prevent burrowing offer the most practical Because hunting and trapping rules change from
protection to earthen structures. A properly constructed year to year, ODNR, Division of Wildlife authorities
riprap and filter layer will discourage burrowing. The at one of the following offices should be consulted
filter and riprap should extend at least 3 feet below the before taking any action.
water line. As the muskrat attempts to construct a burrow, Lake
Ashtabula
the sand and gravel of the filter layer caves in and thus Williams Fulton Lucas
Ottawa
Geauga
discourages den building. Heavy wire fencing laid flat Defiance
Henry
Wood
Sandusky Erie Lorain
Cuyahoga Trumbull
against the slope and extending above and below the Portage
2
Paulding Huron Medina Summit
Seneca
water line can also be effective. Eliminating or reducing
3
Putnam
★
Hancock Mahoning
aquatic vegetation along the shoreline will discourage Van Wert Wyandot Crawford Richland
Ashland
Wayne
★
Stark Columbiana
muskrat habitation. Where muskrats have inhabited the Mercer

Allen
Hardin
Carroll
area, trapping is usually the most practical method of Auglaize Marion

Morrow
Holmes
Tuscarawas
Jefferson
Knox
removing them from a pond. Shelby
Logan Union
Coshocton Harrison
1
Delaware
Darke
Licking
Eliminating a Burrow Miami
Champaign
Madison Franklin
Muskingum
Guernsey
Belmont
The recommended method of backfilling a burrow in an Clark

★
5
Fairfield Perry
Preble Montgomery
4
Monroe
embankment is mud-packing. This simple, inexpensive Greene
★
Pickaway
Morgan
Noble
Fayette
method can be accomplished by placing one or two Warren
Hocking Washington
Butler Clinton
lengths of metal stove or vent pipe in a vertical position Ross Athens
over the entrance of the den. Making sure that the pipe Hamilton
Clermont
Highland
Vinton
★
Meigs
Pike
connection to the den does not leak, the mud-pack mix- Jackson
Brown Adams Gallia

ture is then poured into the pipe until the burrow and pipe Scioto
are filled with the earth-water mixture. The pipe is Wildlife District Five
Lawrence 1076 Old Springfield Pike
removed and dry earth is tamped into the entrance. The Xenia 45385
Phone: (937) 372-9261
mud-pack is made by adding water to a 90 percent earth Wildlife District One Wildlife District Three FAX (937) 376-3011
1500 Dublin Road 912 Portage Lakes Drive
and 10 percent cement mixture until a slurry or thin Columbus 43215 Akron 44319 In Sandusky
305 East Shorline Drive
cement consistency is attained. All entrances should be Phone: (614) 644-3925
FAX (614) 644-3931
Phone: (330) 644-2293
FAX (330) 644-8403 Sandusky 44870
plugged with well-compacted earth and vegetation re- Phone: (419) 625-8062
Wildlife District Two Wildlife District Four FAX (419) 625-6272
established. Dens should be eliminated without delay 952 Lima Avenue, Box A 360 E. State Street
Findlay 45840 Athens 45701 In Fairport Harbor
because damage from just one hole can lead to failure of Phone: (419) 424-5000
FAX (419) 422-4875
Phone: (740) 594-2211
FAX (740) 592-1626
Phone: (440) 352-6100
FAX (440) 350-0250
a dam or levee.
Beaver requests, should be directed to the Division of Water at
Beaver will try to plug spillways with their cuttings. the following address:
Routinely removing the cuttings is one way to alleviate Ohio Department of Natural Resources
the problem. Trapping beaver may be done by the owner Division of Water
during the appropriate season; however, the nearest Dam Safety Engineering Program
ODNR, Division of Wildlife, District Office or state 1939 Fountain Square, Building E-3
game protector should be contacted first. Columbus, Ohio 43224-1336
(614) 265-6731 (Voice) (614) 447-9503 (Fax)
Crest
Rodent Burrow Damage
DANGEROUSLY CLOSE BURROWS
Scarp
Muskrat Burrow
Water Level Groundhog Burrow
Phreatic Surface
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Fact Sheet 94–31
Dam Safety: Seepage Through Earthen Dams
C
ontrary to popular opinion, wet areas down may develop on the surface of the embankment as
stream from dams are not usually natural internal erosion takes place. A whirlpool in the lake
springs, but seepage areas. Even if natural surface may follow and then likely a rapid and com-
springs exist, they should be treated with suspicion and plete failure of the dam. Emergency procedures, in-
carefully observed. Flows from ground-water springs cluding downstream evacuation, should be imple-
in existence prior to the reservoir would probably mented if this condition is noted.
increase due to the pressure caused by the pool of water
Seepage can also develop behind or beneath concrete
behind the dam.
structures such as chute spillways or headwalls. If the
All dams have some seepage as the impounded water concrete structure does not have a means such as weep
seeks paths of least resistance through the dam and its holes or relief drains to relieve the water pressure, the
foundation. Seepage must, however, be controlled to concrete structure may heave, rotate, or crack. The
prevent erosion of the embankment or foundation or effects of the freezing and thawing can amplify these
damage to concrete structures. problems. It should be noted that the water pressure
behind or beneath structures may also be due to infil-
Detection
tration of surface water or spillway discharge.
Seepage can emerge anywhere on the downstream
face, beyond the toe, or on the downstream abutments A continuous or sudden drop in the normal lake level
at elevations below normal pool. Seepage may vary in is another indication that seepage is occurring. In this
appearance from a "soft," wet area to a flowing "spring." case, one or more locations of flowing water are
It may show up first as an area where the vegetation is usually noted downstream from the dam. This condi-
lush and darker green. Cattails, reeds, mosses, and tion, in itself, may not be a serious problem, but will
other marsh vegetation often become established in a require frequent and close monitoring and profes-
seepage area. Another indication of seepage is the sional assistance.
presence of rust-colored iron bacteria. Due to their
Control
nature, the bacteria are found more often where water
The need for seepage control will depend on the
is discharging from the ground than in surface water.
quantity, content, and location of the seepage. Reduc-
Seepage can make inspection and maintenance diffi-
ing the quantity of seepage that occurs after construc-
cult. It can also saturate and weaken portions of the
tion is difficult and expensive. It is not usually at-
embankment and foundation, making the embank-
tempted unless the seepage has lowered the pool level
ment susceptible to earth slides.
or is endangering the embankment or appurtenant
If the seepage forces are large enough, soil will be structures. Typical methods used to control the quan-
eroded from the foundation and be deposited in the tity of seepage are grouting or installation of an up-
shape of a cone around the outlet. If these "boils" stream blanket. Of these methods, grouting is probably
appear, professional advice should be sought immedi- the least effective and is most applicable to leakage
ately. Seepage flow which is muddy and carrying zones in bedrock, abutments, and foundations. These
sediment (soil particles) is evidence of "piping," and methods must be designed and constructed under the
will cause failure of the dam. Piping can occur along a supervision of a professional engineer experienced
spillway and other conduits through the embankment, with dams.
and these areas should be closely inspected. Sinkholes
Continued on back!
Controlling the content of the seepage or preventing indicate that a more serious problem is developing.
seepage flow from removing soil particles is extremely Instrumentation can also be used to monitor seepage.
important. Modern design practice incorporates this V-notch weirs can be used to measure flow rates, and
control into the embankment through the use of cut- piezometers may be used to determine the saturation
offs, internal filters, and adequate drainage provisions. level (phreatic surface) within the embankment.
Control at points of seepage exit can be accomplished
Regular surveillance and maintenance of internal
after construction by installation of toe drains, relief
embankment and foundation drainage outlets is also
wells, or inverted filters.
required. The rate and content of flow from each pipe
Weep holes and relief drains can be installed to outlet for toe drains, relief wells, weep holes, and relief
relieve water pressure or drain seepage from behind or drains should be monitored and documented regularly.
beneath concrete structures. These systems must be Normal maintenance consists of removing all obstruc-
designed to prevent migration of soil particles but still tions from the pipe to allow for free drainage of water
allow the seepage to drain freely. The owner must from the pipe. Typical obstructions include debris,
retain a professional engineer to design toe drains, gravel, sediment, and rodent nests. Water should not
relief wells, inverted filters, weep holes, or relief holes. be permitted to submerge the pipe outlets for extended
periods of time. This will inhibit inspection and
Monitoring
maintenance of the drains and may cause them to clog.
Regular monitoring is essential to detect seepage and
prevent dam failure. Knowledge of the dam's history
is important to determine whether the seepage condi- Any other questions, comments concerns, or fact
tion is in a steady or changing state. It is important to sheet requests, should be directed to the Division of
keep written records of points of seepage exit, quantity Water at the following address:
and content of flow, size of wet area, and type of Ohio Department of Natural Resources
vegetation for later comparison. Photographs provide Division of Water
invaluable records of seepage. Dam Safety Engineering Program
All records should be kept in the operation, mainte- Columbus, Ohio 43224-1336
(614) 265-6731 (Voice) (614) 447-9503 (Fax)
nance, and inspection manual for the dam. The inspec- http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/odnr/water/
tor should always look for increases in flow and
evidence of flow carrying soil particles, which would
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Fact Sheet 99–55
Dam Safety: Spillway Conduit System Problems
M
any dams have conduit systems that serve as In addition, undermining can occur as the result of
principal spillways. These conduit systems are erosion due to inadequate energy dissipation or inad-
required to carry normal stream and small equate erosion protection at the outlet. This undermining
flood flows safely past the embankment throughout the can be visually observed at the outlet of a pipe system and
life of the structure. Conduits through embankments are can extend well into the embankment. In this case,
difficult to construct properly and can be extremely undermining can lead to other conduit problems such as
dangerous to the embankment if problems develop after misalignment, separated joints and pipe deterioration.
construction. Conduits are usually difficult to repair An extensive discussion on outlet erosion control as it
because of their location within the embankment. Also, relates to undermining of the pipe outlet can be found in
replacing conduits requires extensive excavation. In the “Outlet Erosion Control Structures” fact sheet.
order to avoid difficult and costly repairs, particular
attention should be directed to maintaining these struc- Installation of seepage control devices is required as a
tures. The most common problem noted with spillway preventative measure to control seepage along the con-
conduit systems is undermining of the conduit. This duit and undermining. Regular monitoring of conduit
condition typically results from water leaking through systems must include visual observation and notation of
pipe joints, seepage along the conduit or inadequate any undermining or any precursors. These precursors
energy dissipation at the conduit outlet. The typical usually include pipe deformation, misalignment and
causes of seepage and water leaking through pipe joints differential settlement, pipe deterioration, separated joints
include any one or a combination of the following and loss of joint material.
factors: loss of joint material, separated joints, misalign-
ment, differential settlement, conduit deterioration, and Pipe deformation
pipe deformation. Problems in any of these areas may Pipe deformations are typically caused by external
lead to failure of the spillway system and possibly dam loads that are applied on a pipe such as the weight of the
failure. embankment or heavy equipment. Collapse of the pipe
can cause failure of the joints and allow erosion of the
Undermining supporting fill. This may lead to undermining and settle-
Undermining is the removal of foundation material ment. Pipe deformation may reduce or eliminate spill-
surrounding a conduit system. Any low areas or unex- way capacity. Pipe deformation must be monitored on a
plained settlement of the earthfill in line with the conduit regular basis to ensure that no further deformation is
may indicate that undermining has occurred within the occurring, that pipe joints are intact and that no under-
embankment. As erosion continues, undermining of a mining or settlement is occurring.
conduit can lead to displacement and collapse of the pipe
sections and cause sloughing, sliding or other forms of Separated joints and loss of joint material:
instability in the embankment. As the embankment is Joint Deterioration
weakened, a complete failure of the conduit system and, Conduit systems usually have construction and/or sec-
eventually the dam may occur. tion joints. In almost every situation, the joints will have
a water stop, mechanical seal and/or chemical seal to
Seepage along the conduit from the reservoir can occur prevent leakage of water through the joint. Separation
as a result of poor compaction around the conduit. If and deterioration can destroy the watertight integrity of
seepage control devices have not been installed, the the joint. Joint deterioration can result from weathering,
seepage may remove foundation material from around excessive seepage, erosion or corrosion. Separation at a
the conduit and eventually lead to undermining. joint may be the result of a more serious condition such
Continued on back!
as foundation settlement, undermining, structural dam- due to consolidation of embankment or foundation ma-
age or structural instability. Deterioration at joints in- terials. Excessive misalignment may result in other prob-
cludes loss of gasket material, loss of joint sealant and lems such as cracks, depressions, slides on the embank-
spalling around the edges of joints. Separation of joints ment, joint separation and seepage. Both the vertical and
and loss of joint material allow seepage through the pipe. horizontal alignment of the conduit should be monitored
This can erode the fill underneath and along the conduit on a regular basis.
causing undermining, which can lead to the displacement
of the pipe sections. Separated pipe joints can be detected Monitoring and Repair
by inspecting the interior of the conduit. A regular Frequent inspection is necessary to ensure that the pipe
monitoring program is needed to determine the rate and system is functioning properly. All conduits should be
severity of joint deterioration. Joint separations should inspected thoroughly once a year. Conduits that are 24
be monitored to determine if movement is continuing. inches or more in diameter can be entered and visually
inspected with proper ventilation and confined space
Conduit Deterioration precautions. Small inaccessible conduits may be moni-
Deterioration of conduit material is normally due to the tored with video cameras. The conduits should be in-
forces of nature such as wetting and drying, freezing and spected for misalignment, separated joints, loss of joint
thawing, oxidation, decay, ultra-violet light, cavitation material, deformations, leaks, differential settlement and
and the erosive forces of water. Deterioration of pipe undermining. Problems with conduits occur most often
materials and joints can lead to seepage through and at joints, and special attention should be given to them
along the conduit and eventually failure of conduit sys- during the inspection. The joint should be checked for
tems. Additional information on deterioration can be separation caused by misalignment or settlement and
found on the “Problems with Concrete Materials”, “Prob- loss of joint-filler material. The outlet should be checked
lems with Metal Materials”, and “Problems with Plastic for signs of water seeping along the exterior surface of
(Polymer) Materials” fact sheets. the conduit. Generally, this is noted by water flowing
from under the conduit and/or the lack of foundation
Differential Settlement material directly beneath the conduit. The embankment
Removal or consolidation of foundation material from surface should be monitored for depressions or sink-
around the conduit can cause differential settlement. holes. Depressions or sinkholes on the embankment
Inadequate compaction immediately next to the conduit surface above the spillway conduit system develop when
system during construction would compound the prob- the underlying material is eroded and displaced. Photo-
lem. Differential settlement can ultimately lead to under- graphs along with written records of the monitoring
mining of the conduit system. Differential settlement items performed provide invaluable information.
should be monitored with routine inspections and docu-
mentation of observations. Effective repair of the internal surface or joint of a
conduit is difficult and should not be attempted without
Misalignment careful planning and proper professional supervision.
Various construction techniques can be applied for mi-
Alignment deviations can be an indication of move-
nor joint repair and conduit leakage, but major repairs
ment, which may or may not be in excess of design
require a plan be developed by a professional engineer
tolerances. Proper alignment is important to the struc-
experienced in dam spillway construction.
tural integrity of conduit systems. Misalignment can be
the direct result of internal seepage flows that have Any other questions, comments concerns, or fact sheet
removed soil particles or dissolved soluble rock. Mis- requests, should be directed to the Division of Water at
alignment can also result from poor construction prac- the following address:
tices, collapse of deteriorated conduits, decay of organic Ohio Department of Natural Resources
material in the dam, seismic events or normal settlement Division of Water
(614) 265-6731 (Voice) (614) 447-9503 (Fax)
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DIVISION OF WATER
Fact Sheet 94–28
Dam Safety: Trees and Brush
T
he establishment and control of proper vegetation is an These products should be painted, not sprayed, on the stumps.
important part of dam maintenance. Properly main Other instructions found on the label should be strictly followed
tained vegetation can help prevent erosion of embank- when handling and applying these materials. Only a few com-
ment and earth channel surfaces, and aid in the control of mercially available chemicals can be used along shorelines or
groundhogs and muskrats. The uncontrolled growth of veg- near water.
etation can damage embankments and concrete structures and
make close inspection difficult. Embankment Maintenance
Embankments, areas adjacent to spillway structures, vegetated
Trees and Brush channels, and other areas associated with a dam require continual
Trees and brush should not be permitted on embankment maintenance of the vegetal cover. Grass mowing, brush cutting,
surfaces or in vegetated earth spillways. Extensive root systems and removal of woody vegetation (including trees) are necessary
can provide seepage paths for water. Trees that blow down or fall for the proper maintenance of a dam, dike, or levee. All
over can leave large holes in the embankment surface that will embankment slopes and vegetated earth spillways should be
weaken the embankment and can lead to increased erosion. mowed at least once a year. Aesthetics, unobstructed viewing
Brush obscures the surface limiting visual inspection, provides during inspections, maintenance of a non-erodible surface, and
a haven for burrowing animals, and retards growth of grass discouragement of groundhog habitation are reasons for proper
vegetation. Tree and brush growth adjacent to concrete walls and maintenance of the vegetal cover.
structures may eventually cause damage to the concrete and
should be removed. Methods used in the past for control of vegetation, but are now
considered unacceptable, include chemical spraying, and burning.
Stump Removal & Sprout Prevention More acceptable methods include the use of weed whips or power
Stumps of cut trees should be removed so vegetation can be brush-cutters and mowers. Chemical spraying to first kill small trees
established and the surface mowed. Stumps can be removed and brush is acceptable if precautions are taken to protect the local
either by pulling or with machines that grind them down. All environment.
woody material should be removed to about 6 inches below the
It is important to remember not to mow when the embankment
ground surface. The cavity should be filled with well-compacted
is wet. It is also important to use proper equipment for the slope
soil and grass vegetation established.
and type of vegetation to be cut. Also, always follow the
Stumps of trees in riprap cannot usually be pulled or ground manufacturer’s recommended safe operation procedures.
down, but can be chemically treated so they will not continually
Any other questions, comments, concerns, or fact sheet
form new sprouts. Certain herbicides are effective for this
requests, should be directed to the Division of Water at the
purpose and can even be used at water supply reservoirs if following address:
applied by licensed personnel. For product information and
information on how to obtain a license, contact the Ohio Depart- Ohio Department of Natural Resources
ment of Agriculture at the following address: Division of Water
Ohio Department of Agriculture 1939 Fountain Square, Building E-3
Pesticide Regulation Columbus, Ohio 43224-1336
8995 E. Main Street (614) 265-6731 (Voice) (614) 447-9503 (Fax)
Reynoldsburg, Ohio 43068 http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/odnr/water/
Telephone Number (614) 728-6987
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DIVISION OF WATER
Fact Sheet 99–52
Dam Safety: Upstream Slope Protection
S
lope protection is usually needed to protect the rocks. The maximum rock size and weight must be large
upstream slope against erosion due to wave action. enough to break up the energy of the maximum anticipated
Without proper slope protection, a serious erosion wave action and hold the smaller stones in place. If the rock
problem known as “beaching” can develop on the upstream size is too small, it will eventually be displaced and washed
slope. away by wave action. If the riprap is sparse or if the filter or
bedding material is too small, the filter material will wash out
easily, allowing the embankment material to erode. Once the
erosion has started, beaching will develop if remedial mea-
sures are not taken. Technical Release No. 69 developed by
the USDA, Natural Resources Conservation Service can be
used to help design engineers develop a preliminary or detailed
design for riprap slope protection.
Figure 1 - Beaching
The repeated action of waves striking the embankment

surface erodes fill material and displaces it farther down the
slope, creating a “beach.” The amount of erosion depends
on the predominant wind direction, the orientation of the
dam, the steepness of the slope, water level fluctuations,
boating activities, and other factors. Further erosion can
lead to cracking and sloughing of the slope which can
extend into the crest, reducing its width. When erosion Figure 2 - Rock Riprap
occurs and beaching develops on the upstream slope of a
dam, repairs should be made as soon as possible. However, The dam owner should expect some deterioration (weath-
an erosion scarp less than 1 foot high may be stable and not ering) of riprap. Freezing and thawing, wetting and drying,
require repair. abrasive wave action, and other natural processes will
eventually break down the riprap. Its useful life varies with
The upstream face of a dam is commonly protected the characteristics of the stone used. Stone for riprap
against wave erosion by placement of a layer of rock riprap should be rock that is dense and well cemented. In Ohio,
over a layer of bedding and a filter material. Other material glacial cobbles or boulders, most limestone, and a few
such as concrete facing, soil-cement, fabri-form bags, slush types of sandstone are acceptable for riprap. Most sand-
grouted rocks, steel sheet piling, and articulated concrete stones and shales found in Ohio do not provide long-term
blocks can also be used. Vegetative protection combined protection. Due to the high initial cost of rock riprap, its
with a berm on the upstream slope can also be effective. durability should be determined by appropriate testing
procedures prior to installation. Vegetative growth within
Rock Riprap the slope protection is undesirable because it can displace
Rock riprap consists of a heterogeneous mixture of irregular stone and disturb the filter material. Heavy undergrowth
shaped rocks placed over gravel bedding and a sand filter or prevents an adequate inspection of the upstream slope and
geotextile fabric. The smaller rocks help to fill the spaces may hide potential problems. For additional information,
between the larger pieces forming an interlocking mass. The see the “Trees and Brush” fact sheet.
filter prevents soil particles on the embankment surface from
being washed out through the spaces (or voids) between the Continued on back!
Sufficient maintenance funds should be allocated for the
addition of riprap and the removal of vegetation. Severe
erosion or reoccurring problems may require a registered
professional engineer to design a more effective slope
protection.
Vegetated Wave Berm

Vegetated wave berms dissipate wave energy and protect
the slope from erosion. Berms are constructed on the
upstream slope at the normal pool level and should be no
less than 20 feet wide. This method of slope protection will
not work well where the water surface fluctuates regularly Figure 4 - Concrete facing
from normal pool. If improper or sparse vegetation is
present, the wave berm may not adequately dissipate the As with any type of slope protection, problems will
wave energy, allowing erosion and beaching to develop on develop if the concrete facing has not been properly de-
the upstream slope. Technical Release No. 56 developed signed or installed. Concrete facing often fails because the
by the USDA, Natural Resources Conservation Service wave action washes soil particles from beneath the slabs
provides design and layout information. through joints and cracks. This process is known as
undermining, which will continue until large voids are
The vegetation on the wave berm should be monitored created. Detection of voids is difficult because the voids
regularly to verify adequate growth. Sufficient funds are hidden. Failure of the concrete facing may be sudden
should be allocated for the regular maintenance of the and extensive. Concrete facing should be monitored for
vegetation. Severe erosion or reoccurring problems may cracks and open joints. Open joints should be sealed with
require a registered professional engineer to design a more plastic fillers and cracks should be grouted and sealed. For
effective slope protection. additional information, see the “Problems with Concrete
Materials” fact sheet.
Inspection and Monitoring

Regular inspection and monitoring of the upstream slope
protection is essential to detect any problems. It is impor-
tant to keep written records of the location and extent of any
erosion, undermining, or deterioration of the riprap, wave
berm or other slope protection. Photographs provide in-
valuable records of changing conditions. A rapidly chang-
ing condition may indicate a very serious problem, and the
Dam Safety Engineering Program should be contacted
immediately. All records should be kept in the operation,
Figure 3 - Vegetated wave berm maintenance, and inspection manual for the dam.
Concrete Facing Any other questions, comments concerns, or fact sheet

Concrete facing can be used if severe wave action is antici- requests, should be directed to the Division of Water at
pated, however, settlement of the embankment must be insig- the following address:
nificant to insure adequate support for the concrete facing. A Ohio Department of Natural Resources
properly designed and constructed concrete facing can be Division of Water
expensive. This slope protection should extend several feet Dam Safety Engineering Program
above and below the normal pool level. It should terminate on 1939 Fountain Square, Building E-3
a berm or against a concrete curb or header. Granular filter or Columbus, Ohio 43224-1336
(614) 265-6731 (Voice) (614) 447-9503 (Fax)
filter fabric (geotextile) is required under the concrete facing to
help reduce the risk of undermining.
I 07/08/99

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OF NATUR

Division of Water Fact Sheet

Fact Sheet 94–32

Dam Safety: Concrete Repair Techniques

Division of Water Fact Sheet

Fact Sheet 95–38

Dam Safety: Design and Maintenance of Trashracks

Ohio Department of Natural Resources

Trash Rack Design With Fish Protector Screen

3/4 View Top View

Division of Water Fact Sheet

Fact Sheet 94–30

Dam Safety: Earth Dam Failures

Division of Water Fact Sheet

Fact Sheet 99–53

Dam Safety: Embankment Instabilities

Small slides can be repaired by removing the vegeta- Importance of Inspection

Division of Water Fact Sheet

Fact Sheet 99–54

Dam Safety: Ground Cover

Common methods for control of vegetation include the use

Division of Water Fact Sheet

Fact Sheet 94–33

Dam Safety: Inspection of Concrete Structures

Division of Water Fact Sheet

Fact Sheet 93–26

Dam Safety: Lake Drains

◆ A siphon system (Often used to retrofit existing ◆ Deteriorated control towers.

Division of Water Fact Sheet

Fact Sheet 98–49

Dam Safety: Open Channel Spillways

Downstream View of Open Channel Spillway

Division of Water Fact Sheet

Fact Sheet 99–51

Dam Safety: Outlet (Stilling

Any questions, comments, concerns, or fact sheet re-

Ohio Department of Natural Resources

Division of Water Fact Sheet

Fact Sheet 99–56

Dam Safety: Problems with Concrete Materials

Division of Water Fact Sheet

Fact Sheet 99–57

Dam Safety: Problems with Metal Materials

If corrosion is allowed to continue, metal conduits will

Corrosion of the metal parts of the operating mechanisms

Regular inspection and monitoring is essential to detect

Any other questions, comments concerns, or fact sheet

Division of Water Fact Sheet

Fact Sheet 99–58

Dam Safety: Problems with Plastic (Polymer) Materials

Division of Water Fact Sheet

Fact Sheet 94–27

Dam Safety: Rodent Control

muskrat habitation. Where muskrats have inhabited the Mercer

area, trapping is usually the most practical method of Auglaize Marion

The recommended method of backfilling a burrow in an Clark

Brown Adams Gallia

Division of Water Fact Sheet

Fact Sheet 94–31