Part Two: Participatory Communication in

Development and Humanitarian Contexts

Photo: An elderly woman engages Forum Theatre actors in discussion

during a community show for the “Be a Man” campaign (© Irene
Kulabako/HCP Uganda, Courtesy of Photoshare, Uganda, 2006)

9
 Participatory Communication Participatory communication initiatives create
Participatory communication has been defined opportunities for people to articulate their
as “a dynamic, interactional, and transformative views, identify common concerns, and seek
process of dialogue between people, groups, and solutions from within their community.
institutions that enables people, both individually
and collectively, to realize their full potential and Table 1. Development communication approaches and forms
Part 2

be engaged in their own welfare” (Singhal, 2003). Approaches/Goals Forms/Channels

Participatory communication initiatives create
Public education and Mass media (print, radio,
opportunities for people to articulate their views, awareness-raising television)
identify common concerns, and seek solutions from
Advocacy and outreach Interpersonal communication
within their community. (IPC), such as home visits, group
discussions, and peer education
The teachings of Paulo Freire, the Brazilian
educator and activist, had a major influence on the “Social marketing,” or Traditional performance arts
promotion of specific such as dance, drama, poetry,
development of the participatory model. According products using marketing puppetry, and song
to Freire, the process of raising questions and or advertising techniques
engaging in dialogue sparks “critical consciousness,” Community mobilization Internet, mobile technology,
which enables the shift from reflection to action and engagement social media, and other
emerging media forms
(Freire, 1970). Since participatory communication
emerged in the 1960s, non-governmental Education entertainment (“enter- Popular media (soap operas,
educate” or “edutainment”) songs, comics)
organizations and community-based groups have led
the way in practice and innovation. Participatory communication Locally-generated media,
methods including radio, video, and
Key elements of participatory photography
communication include:
of their daily lives. The resulting locally-specific
•• Identification and prioritization of needs, goals, messages resonate with community members in
measures of change, and desired outcomes by ways that cannot be produced by non-participatory
community members methods.
•• A focus on “horizontal” interactions, such as
Participatory approaches are highly valuable
dialogue and exchange (versus “top-down” or
in development communication, or the use of
“vertical” activities)
communication to advance social development
•• An emphasis on self-representation to promote
goals. These goals may include raising awareness
collective well-being
around critical issues, improving access to
•• A focus on collaborative processes rather than information, increasing the use of available services,
on “products” or mobilizing people around a common purpose. In
•• A focus on identifying solutions and positive most of these cases, communication activities seek
models of change from within the community, to encourage certain changes in attitude or behavior
rather than applying examples from outside at the individual, family, and/or community level.
•• Explicit integration of social empowerment and Related terms include information, education
capacity-building goals and communication (IEC), information and
•• Recurring cycles of reflection and action communication for development (ICD), behavior
change communication (BCC), and communication
The strength of participatory communication
for social change.
methods lies in their inherent respect for lived
experience and local knowledge. The central role Development communication initiatives make use
of community members ensures that messages and of many different approaches, channels, and forms,
materials reflect the social and cultural dynamics often in combination with one another (Table 1).

10 Community Video for Social Change: A Toolkit

Effective development communication programs,
even those centered on the use of media or
technology, often build on existing social networks
and traditional channels of communication.
Dialogue and direct interpersonal exchange play an
especially crucial role in successful communication

Part 2
for social change programs, particularly when
they address highly sensitive issues (Cooper and
Goodsmith, 2010).

Contrasts between participatory and

non-participatory communication Members of the Awareness Theatre Group of the Cambodian
NGO Phare Ponleu Selpak perfom a skit addressing
In a highly participatory project, the community women’s rights on a train platform in Pursat province.
members most affected by the program or activity (2006, © Stéphane Janin, Courtesy of Photoshare)
make major decisions about needs, goals, and
desired outcomes. Organic, integrated processes
ensure exchange and self-representation among video screenings or radio emissions, or using role-
concerned individuals and groups. Dialogue is play techniques in peer education and training
ongoing and directly feeds back into the project’s activities. Some diffusion-oriented projects engage
growth. In participatory approaches, the circle of audience members by inviting their responses and
communication is never broken. ideas through “call-in” components or similar
methods. Several recent initiatives use interactive
Low-participation communication approaches,
media channels to foster person-to-person exchange
also called “diffusion-oriented” methods, tend to
and group mobilization; others fuse traditional
focus on changing individuals’ behavior by sending
performance forms with electronic and digital
messages to audiences in a one-way flow. They
technologies in ways that enable broad, even global
tend to focus on “products” such as television or
dissemination.
radio programs, and may reach large numbers of
people within relatively short periods of time. Low- Strict lines between participatory and diffusion
participation, diffusion-based approaches rarely models may diminish as communication programs
prioritize dialogue and community engagement, draw on their respective strengths (Tufte, 2004).
or may apply them in a limited or time-bound Decisionmaking about communication approaches
manner. In contrast, participatory initiatives “focus should be based on analysis of local needs,
on community involvement” (Morris, 2000). Most resources, and constraints as well as the critical issue
social marketing and “enter-educate” campaigns, of sustainability. Above all, program personnel
which often use mass media, exemplify diffusion- should collaborate with community members to
oriented approaches (Waisbord, 2000). While develop approaches that are appropriate, mutually-
participatory approaches are often used with reinforcing, and enabling.
smaller numbers of people, levels of exposure and
involvement are often much more intense than when Participatory communication in action
individuals are passive viewers or receivers of messages. Participatory communication can take many
different forms. Some projects center on
Fusing different forms performance modes such as drama, dance, or
Participatory and diffusion-oriented approaches storytelling; others use media, such as radio or
can intersect. Some programs integrate elements video. Many focus on interpersonal, dialogue-
of both. Examples include recording drama based activities. Table 2 identifies several major
performances by community troupes to reach wider participatory communication approaches and
audiences, holding group discussion sessions after program examples.

11
 Table 2. Participatory communication program examples
Rx for participatory communication
Form/approach Examples
The following questions can help program staff
Participatory drama, including DramAidE and Mothertongue assess the potential of participatory communication
interactive and “forum” theater (South Africa); Wan Smolbag approaches in their social development work:
approaches (South Pacific region); Sistren
Theatre (Jamaica); Tuelimishane • Is there a general lack of language-appropriate,
Part 2

(Tanzania) culturally-specific materials for local audiences on

critical issues?
Folk and traditional Phare Ponlue Selpak (Cambodia);
performance forms, such as Proyecto Payaso (Guatemala); • Is there a gap in reaching certain groups with
song, dance, puppetry, poetry, Bibi Bulak (Timor Leste) important information due to low literacy levels
and storytelling and/or the inaccessibility of available print
materials?
Participatory media, TV Maxabomba (Brazil);
including community radio and CALANDRIA (Peru); Insight • Have current outreach activities (for example, mass
participatory or community- (multi-region); Video Volunteers sensitizations, health education talks) become
based video and Radio Ujjas/Drishti Media
repetitive or dull for participants?
(India); Nutzij (Guatemala);
Maneno Mengi (Tanzania); • Are certain issues not being adequately addressed
Telemanita (Mexico); Through through existing activities and forums for
Our Eyes (multi-region)
discussion?
Participatory photography, Shooting Back (multi-region); • Are community members in general not highly
including photo-essays and PhotoVoice (multi-region); invested or engaged in program goals and
social or personal documentary Kids With Cameras (India); Binti
work Pamoja (Kenya)
activities?
• Are current activities maintaining their effect at
Participatory interpersonal Stepping Stones (multi-region); the level of awareness-raising, without noticeable
communication, including Tostan (West Africa); Community
progress toward changes in local practice and
participatory learning and action Conversations (Ethiopia)
(PLA) methods, interactive behavior?
peer education and training
techniques, and various forms of If the response to any of these questions is “yes,” then
community dialogue it is very likely that participatory communication
approaches can help revitalize community
Note: For an in-depth discussion of participatory approaches and engagement and advance program goals.
examples, see Communication, Participation and Social Change:
a review of communication initiatives addressing gender-based In the case of Through Our Eyes, the American Refugee
violence, gender norms, and harmful traditional practices in crisis- Committee (ARC) and Communication for Change
affected settings (Cooper, Goodsmith, et. al., 2010) (C4C) saw participatory media as a valuable addition
to existing sensitization and outreach activities. Even
more importantly, they felt that participatory video
could help break through the silence that surrounds
gender-based violence.

Special challenges in social

Other objectives, such as uptake of family planning
change communication
or voluntary counseling and testing services, can
As noted, most communication activities supporting be more complex to promote because of local
health and development goals encourage certain sensitivities and attitudes around issues of fertility
changes in attitudes and behaviors at the individual and family size, sexuality, and gender/power
and/or collective level. Some changes will be dynamics between partners.
relatively easy to promote, particularly when
Efforts to address
Communication efforts to address
people see them as having clear, immediate
practices that are practices that are deeply rooted in
benefits to themselves and their family. deeply rooted in cultural attitudes and beliefs face the
Such aims may include increased use of cultural attitudes greatest challenges of all because of
maternal health services, taking measures and beliefs face the
the links between individual decision-
to ensure access to clean drinking water, or greatest challenges
of all.
making, behavior change, and social
monitoring children’s nutritional status.
change within the wider community.

12 Community Video for Social Change: A Toolkit

Addressing gender-based violence, harmful
practices, and HIV/AIDS
Creating change around gender-based violence,
harmful practices, and HIV/AIDS is complex
because these issues involve private behavior, societal
perceptions of gender, sexuality and identity,

Part 2
and underlying power relations. To be effective,
communication efforts must take into account
the highly sensitive nature of these issues, the way
people make decisions, and the influences that
affect them (Izett and Toubia, 1999). For example, Sudanese refugee women listen to a weekly women’s
consider a parent who learns about oral rehydration empowerment class in Touloum camp (2008, Chad, © Micah
Albert, Courtesy of Photoshare)
solution (ORS). The parent who sees its benefits will
probably decide, without much difficulty, to adopt
this behavior. Severe diarrhea has distinct symptoms ensuring a daughter’s future. There may be economic
and can swiftly lead to death. Children’s health is motivations as well, such as the offer of bride-price.
an issue that people are likely to discuss openly. The Further, there may be very little support in the wider
parents’ decision to provide ORS will probably community for girls’ education. Because of all these
receive support from others in the community factors, the parent may find it hard to prevent an
because many people prioritize better health for early marriage from taking place.
children. Most forms of gender violence and harmful practices
In contrast, consider the example of a parent who affecting women and girls are similarly rooted in
learns that early marriage can have harmful effects— cultural attitudes or conditions of inequality in their
that pregnancy and childbirth are dangerous for communities. For these reasons, it can be difficult
a girl whose body is not yet fully developed. As a for one person to make a change on their own,
result, this parent may decide that it would be better even if they wish to. Social change around these
for the daughter to marry later on, and to continue issues begins with individuals, but must involve
her schooling in the meantime. However, a spouse the community as a whole. This is why critical
or older relative may insist on the girl being married consciousness-raising, dialogue, and reflection
very young, because it is the accepted practice—a within and across different groups are so important
way of preventing out-of-wedlock pregnancy or to the process of communication for change.

It can be difficult for one person to make a

change on their own, even if they wish to.
This is why critical consciousness-raising,
dialogue, and reflection within and across
different groups are so important to the
process of communication for change.

The field of health communication has developed

many theories of how behavior change takes place.
One important theory, the “stages of change” model,
states that people move along several stages as they
Adolescents participate in a DramAidE forum theater progress toward change (Piotrow, Kincaid et al.,
performance at a high school in KwaZulu-Natal province, 1997). (See Part 7, Monitoring and Evaluation
which has the highest HIV/AIDS prevalence in South Africa. to learn more about theories of change.) (Figure
(2000, © Patrick Coleman, Courtesy of Photoshare)
2 depicts the process of change as a winding road.

13
 Signs and potential detours reflect the internal and
external factors that can support and constrain
an individual’s progress. This model is especially
valuable because it views personal behavior change
in a social context.
Figure 2. Road to Individual Behavioral Change
During the precontemplation stage, many
Part 2

individuals are unaware of the problem.

Their views have been largely shaped by
prevailing social and cultural attitudes.
Experience or new information can
help them become aware of the need for
change, and move into the contemplation
phase. At this stage, they might begin
to question long-accepted attitudes or
cultural practices and consider taking
action. Ambivalent feelings or confusing
information can keep people from
advancing, while positive support for
their new knowledge can help them move
ahead to the preparation stage. At this
point, they have the intention to change,
and they make plans to do so.
As people gain confidence in their ability
to make decisions and embrace change,
they advance to the action stage. In this
phase, they adopt the new behavior,
or discontinue the practice that they
have come to see as harmful. They may
continue to encounter obstacles due to
social pressure and other factors, and
can benefit from the support of others
who seek to make similar changes. In
the maintenance stage, people are able
to maintain the change in behavior or
practice consistently. Individuals who
have reached this point have high levels
of self-efficacy, and may seek to actively
promote change in their community
(Izett and Toubia, 1999).
Change is not a linear process, and
Source: Izett and Toubia (1999). Learning About Social individuals and their communities can
Change: A Research and Evaluation Guidebook Using Female affect each other’s behavior. By kindling awareness,
Circumcision as a Case Study. New York: Rainbo. reflection, dialogue and action, participatory
approaches, including community video, can help
individuals and communities move from one stage of
change to the next.

14 Community Video for Social Change: A Toolkit

 Tipping the scales of convinced that it was unnecessary
and harmful. Eventually, residents of
social change one village decided to stop practicing
Female genital cutting/mutilation it. But they took it a step further.
(FGC/M) has been practiced in They visited nearby communities
many parts of Africa for centuries. and encouraged them to follow their
Although it has negative effects example. As a result, a group of 13

Part 2
on girls and women, it is a deeply- villages joined together to publicly
rooted tradition that can be very declare that they would no longer
difficult to address. practice female genital cutting/
mutilation or insist that their sons
Tostan is a Senegal-based
marry girls who had undergone it.
organization that has provided non-
More than 1,000 Senegalese villages
formal education and skills training
have now taken part in public
for rural women since 1991. The
declarations to end the practice, and
Tostan program combines literacy
Tostan has expanded its programs to
with practical and life skills. Hygiene,
several other African countries.
health, and human rights are also
important themes of the program. Tostan’s work shows that learning,
dialogue, and outreach can lead to
Ending female genital cutting/
shifts in cultural norms. The villages’
mutilation was not an original goal
public declarations against female
of Tostan’s work. Most women
genital cutting/mutilation marked the
would not even discuss it during
“tipping point” at which a critical mass
sessions on women’s health. But
of people changed their views and
as women learned more about
influenced others to change as well.
human rights and health problems
related to female genital cutting/ (Sources: Population Council, 1999; Feldman-
Jacobs and Ryniak, 2006)
mutilation, they began to discuss it
outside the sessions. Many became

References
Cooper, Chelsea, Lauren Goodsmith, Eve Lotter and Tegan Molony (2010). Communication, Participation, and Social Change: A review of
communication initiatives addressing gender-based violence, gender norms, and harmful traditional practices in crisis-affected settings. Minneapolis:
American Refugee Committee International.
Feldman-Jacobs, Charlotte and Sarah Ryniak (2006). Abandoning Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: An in-depth look at promising practices.
Population Reference Bureau: Washington, DC. Available at http://www.prb.org/pdf07/FGM-C_Report.pdf.
Freire, Paulo, The Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Seabury, 1970.
Izett, Susan and Toubia, Nahid (1999). Learning About Social Change: A Research and Evaluation Guidebook Using Female Circumcision as a Case
Study. New York: Rainbo.
Piotrow, Phyllis T., D. Lawrence Kincaid, Jose Rimon, and Ward Rinehart (1997). Health Communication: Lessons from Family Planning and
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Population Council (1999). Breakthrough in Senegal: Ending Female Genital Cutting. New York: Population Council. Available at www.
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Singhal, Arvind, Michael Cody, Everett Rogers, and Miguel Sabado (2003). Entertainment-Education and Social Change: History, Research, and
Practice. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
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16 Community Video for Social Change: A Toolkit