Intro To Chem Textbook PDF

Periodic Table of the Elements
1 18
Group Group
IA VIIIA
1 2 13 14 15 16 17 2
H Group Group Group Group Group Group He
1.01 IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA 4.00
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.94 9.01 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.31 IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.06 35.45 39.95
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.87 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.38 69.72 72.63 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.96 (98) 101.07 102.91 106.42 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.76 127.60 126.90 131.29
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.91 137.33 138.91 178.49 180.95 183.84 186.21 190.23 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.59 204.38 207.2 208.98 (209) (210) (222)
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn – Fl – Lv – –
(223) (226) (227) (267) (268) (271) (272) (270) (276) (281) (280) (285) (284) (289) (288) (293) (293) (294)
Metals Non-
metals
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
140.12 140.91 144.24 (145) 150.36 151.96 157.25 158.93 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.05 174.97
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
232.04 231.04 238.03 (237) (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262)
LIST OF ELEMENTS WITH THEIR SYMBOLS AND ATOMIC MASSES
Atomic Atomic Atomic Atomic
Element Symbol Number Mass Element Symbol Number Mass
Actinium Ac 89 (227) Mendelevium Md 101 (258)

Aluminum Al 13 26.98 Mercury Hg 80 200.59
Americium Am 95 (243) Molybdenum Mo 42 95.94
Antimony Sb 51 121.76 Neodymium Nd 60 144.24
Argon Ar 18 39.95 Neon Ne 10 20.18
Arsenic As 33 74.92 Neptunium Np 93 (237)
Astatine At 85 (210) Nickel Ni 28 58.69
Barium Ba 56 137.33 Niobium Nb 41 92.91
Berkelium Bk 97 (247) Nitrogen N 7 14.01
Beryllium Be 4 9.012 Nobelium No 102 (259)
Bismuth Bi 83 208.98 Osmium Os 76 190.23
Bohrium Bh 107 (272) Oxygen O 8 16.00
Boron B 5 10.81 Palladium Pd 46 106.42
Bromine Br 35 79.90 Phosphorus P 15 30.97
Cadmium Cd 48 112.41 Platinum Pt 78 195.08
Calcium Ca 20 40.08 Plutonium Pu 94 (244)
Californium Cf 98 (251) Polonium Po 84 (209)
Carbon C 6 12.01 Potassium K 19 39.10
Cerium Ce 58 140.12 Praseodymium Pr 59 140.91
Cesium Cs 55 132.91 Promethium Pm 61 (145)
Chlorine Cl 17 35.45 Protactinium Pa 91 231.04
Chromium Cr 24 52.00 Radium Ra 88 (226)
Cobalt Co 27 58.93 Radon Rn 86 (222)
Copernicium Cn 112 (285) Rhenium Re 75 186.21
Copper Cu 29 63.55 Rhodium Rh 45 102.91
Curium Cm 96 (247) Roentgenium Rg 111 (280)
Darmstadtium Ds 110 (281) Rubidium Rb 37 85.47
Dubnium Db 105 (268) Ruthenium Ru 44 101.07
Dysprosium Dy 66 162.50 Rutherfordium Rf 104 (267)
Einsteinium Es 99 (252) Samarium Sm 62 150.36
Erbium Er 68 167.26 Scandium Sc 21 44.96
Europium Eu 63 151.96 Seaborgium Sg 106 (271)
Fermium Fm 100 (257) Selenium Se 34 78.96
Flerovium Fl 114 (289) Silicon Si 14 28.09
Fluorine F 9 19.00 Silver Ag 47 107.87
Francium Fr 87 (223) Sodium Na 11 22.99
Gadolinium Gd 64 157.25 Strontium Sr 38 87.62
Gallium Ga 31 69.72 Sulfur S 16 32.06
Germanium Ge 32 72.63 Tantalum Ta 73 180.95
Gold Au 79 196.97 Technetium Tc 43 (98)
Hafnium Hf 72 178.49 Tellurium Te 52 127.60
Hassium Hs 108 (270) Terbium Tb 65 158.93
Helium He 2 4.003 Thallium Tl 81 204.38
Holmium Ho 67 164.93 Thorium Th 90 232.04
Hydrogen H 1 1.008 Thulium Tm 69 168.93
Indium In 49 114.82 Tin Sn 50 118.71
Iodine I 53 126.90 Titanium Ti 22 47.87
Iridium Ir 77 192.22 Tungsten W 74 183.84
Iron Fe 26 55.85 Uranium U 92 238.03
Krypton Kr 36 83.80 Vanadium V 23 50.94
Lanthanum La 57 138.91 Xenon Xe 54 131.293
Lawrencium Lr 103 (262) Ytterbium Yb 70 173.04
Lead Pb 82 207.2 Yttrium Y 39 88.91
Lithium Li 3 6.941 Zinc Zn 30 65.41
Lutetium Lu 71 174.97 Zirconium Zr 40 91.22
Livermorium Lv 116 (293) Element 113 — 113 (284)
Magnesium Mg 12 24.31 Element 115 — 115 (288)
Manganese Mn 25 54.94 Element 117 — 117 (293)
Meitnerium Mt 109 (276) Element 118 — 118 (294)
A mass value which is enclosed in parentheses is the mass number for the most stable isotope of an element that is laboratory produced rather than naturally
occurring.
Eleventh Edition
INTRODUCTION TO
CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES
This page intentionally left blank
Eleventh Edition
INTRODUCTION TO
CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES
H. Stephen Stoker
Weber State University
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Stoker, H. Stephen (Howard Stephen), 1939-
Introduction to chemical principles / H. Stephen Stoker. — 11th ed.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-321-81463-0
1. Chemistry. I. Title.
QD33.2.S76 2012
540—dc23
2012038211
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10—EB—16 15 14 13 12
www. pearsonhighered.com ISBN-10: 0-321-81463-0: ISBN-13: 978-0-321-81463-0

CONTENTS
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xvi
Chapter 1 The Science of Chemistry 1

1.1 Chemistry—A Scientific Discipline 1
1.2 Scientific Research and Technology 3
1.3 The Scope of Chemistry 4
1.4 How Chemists Discover Things—The Scientific Method 4
Experiments, Observations, and Data 5
Scientific Facts 6
Scientific Laws 7
Scientific Hypotheses 7
Scientific Theories 8
1.5 The Limitations of the Scientific Method 10
1.6 Application Limitations for methods of Science 11
Concepts to Remember 11 • Key Terms Listing 12
Practice Problems By Topic 12 • Multiple-Choice Practice Test 15
Chapter 2 Numbers From Measurements 17

2.1 The Importance of Measurement 17
2.2 Exact and Inexact Numbers 18
2.3 Accuracy, Precision, and Error 18
2.4 Uncertainty in Measurements 20
2.5 Significant Figures 22
2.6 Significant Figures and Mathematical Operations 27
Rounding Off Numbers 27
Operational Rules for Mathematical Operations 29
Significant Figures and Exact Numbers 33
Multiplication by a Small Whole Number 33
2.7 Expressing Numbers in Scientific Notation 35
Exponents 36
Converting from Decimal to Scientific Notation 37
Significant Figures and Scientific Notation 38
Converting from Scientific to Decimal Notation 39
Uncertainty and Scientific Notation 40
2.8 Mathematical Operations in Scientific Notation 42
Multiplication in Scientific Notation 42
Division in Scientific Notation 44
Addition and Subtraction in Scientific Notation 45
Practice Problems By Topic 49 • Multi-Concept Problems 57
Multiple Choice Practice Test 58
Chapter 3 Unit Systems and Dimensional Analysis 60

3.1 The Metric System of Units 60
SI Units 61
Metric System Prefixes 62
3.2 Metric Units of Length 63
3.3 Metric Units of Mass 64
3.4 Metric Units of Volume 65
3.5 Units in Mathematical Operations 68
v
vi Contents
3.6 Conversion Factors 68

English-to-English Conversion Factors 69
Metric-to-Metric Conversion Factors 69
Metric-to-English and English-to-Metric Conversion Factors 70
3.7 Dimensional Analysis 72
Metric-to-Metric Conversion Factor Use 72
English-to-English Conversion Factor Use 77
English-to-Metric and Metric-to-English Conversion Factor Use 78
Units Involving More Than One Type of Measurement 82
3.8 Density 83
Using Density as a Conversion Factor 86
3.9 Equivalence Conversion Factors Other than Density 88
Concentration and Dosage Relationship Conversion Factors 88
Rate Relationship Conversion Factors 89
Cost Relationship Conversion Factors 90
3.10 Percentage and Percent Error 91
Using Percentage as a Conversion Factor 92
Percent Error 95
3.11 Temperature Scales 96
Temperature Readings and Significant Figures 101
Chapter 4 Basic Concepts About Matter 111

4.1 Chemistry—The Study of Matter 111
4.2 Physical States of Matter 112
4.3 Properties of Matter 113
Physical and Chemical Properties 114
Intensive and Extensive Properties 115
4.4 Changes in Matter 116
Use of the Terms Physical and Chemical 118
4.5 Pure Substances and Mixtures 119
4.6 Heterogeneous and Homogeneous Mixtures 120
Use of the Terms Homogeneous and Heterogeneous 121
4.7 Elements and Compounds 123
4.8 Discovery and Abundance of the Elements 126
■ THE HUMAN SIDE OF CHEMISTRY 1: Joseph Priestley (1733–1804) 127
4.9 Names and Chemical Symbols of the Elements 127
■ THE HUMAN SIDE OF CHEMISTRY 2: Jöns Jakob Berzelius (1779–1848) 128
Chapter 5 Atoms, Molecules, and Subatomic Particles 140

5.1 The Atom 140
■ THE HUMAN SIDE OF CHEMISTRY 3: John Dalton (1766–1844) 141
5.2 The Molecule 143
5.3 Natural and Synthetic Compounds 146
5.4 Chemical Formulas 147
5.5 Subatomic Particles: Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons 149
Arrangement of Subatomic Particles Within an Atom 150
Charge Neutrality of an Atom 151
Size Relationships within an Atom 151
Additional Subatomic Particles 152
Contents vii
5.6 Atomic Number and Mass Number 152

Atomic Number 153
Mass Number 153
Subatomic Particle Makeup of an Atom 154
5.7 Isotopes 155
5.8 Atomic Masses 159
Relative Mass 159
Average Atom 161
Weighted Averages 162
Mass Spectrometry Experiments 165
5.9 Evidence Supporting the Existence and Arrangement of Subatomic Particles 166
Discharge Tube Experiments 166
Metal Foil Experiments 168
■ THE HUMAN SIDE OF CHEMISTRY 4: Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937) 169
Chapter 6 Electronic Structure and Chemical Periodicity 182

6.1 The Periodic Law 182
6.2 The Periodic Table 183
■ THE HUMAN SIDE OF CHEMISTRY 5: Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (1834–1907) 185
Periods and Groups of Elements 185
The Shape of the Periodic Table 187
6.3 The Energy of an Electron 188
■ THE HUMAN SIDE OF CHEMISTRY 6: Erwin Schrödinger (1887–1961) 190
6.4 Electron Shells 190
6.5 Electron Subshells 191
6.6 Electron Orbitals 193
Electron Spin 195
6.7 Electron Configurations 195
Aufbau Principle 195
Aufbau Diagram 196
Writing Electron Configurations 197
Condensed Electron Configurations 199
6.8 Electron Orbital Diagrams 201
6.9 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Law 204
6.10 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table 205
6.11 Classification Systems for the Elements 211
6.12 Chemical Periodicity 213
Metallic and Nonmetallic Character 214
Atomic Size 215
Chapter 7 Chemical Bonds 228

7.1 Types of Chemical Bonds 228
7.2 Valence Electrons and Lewis Symbols 229
■ THE HUMAN SIDE OF CHEMISTRY 7: Gilbert Newton Lewis (1875–1946) 232
7.3 The Octet Rule 233
7.4 The Ionic Bond Model 233
7.5 The Sign and Magnitude of Ionic Charge 236
Isoelectronic Species 238
7.6 Lewis Structures for Ionic Compounds 239
viii Contents
7.7 Chemical Formulas for Ionic Compounds 241

7.8 Structure of Ionic Compounds 243
7.9 Polyatomic Ions 244
7.10 The Covalent Bond Model 246
7.11 Lewis Structures for Molecular Compounds 247
7.12 Single, Double, and Triple Covalent Bonds 250
7.13 Valence Electron Count and Number of Covalent Bonds Formed 251
7.14 Coordinate Covalent Bonds 252
7.15 Resonance Structures 254
7.16 Systematic Procedures for Drawing Lewis Structures 255
7.17 Molecular Geometry 261
Electron Pairs versus Electron Groups 263
Molecules with Two VSEPR Electron Groups 263
Molecules with Three VSEPR Electron Groups 264
Molecules with Four VSEPR Electron Groups 265
7.18 Electronegativity 268
■ THE HUMAN SIDE OF CHEMISTRY 8: Linus Carl Pauling (1901–1994) 268
7.19 Bond Polarity 270
7.20 Molecular Polarity 273
Chapter 8 Chemical Nomenclature 291

8.1 Classification of Compounds for Nomenclature Purposes 291
8.2 Types of Binary Ionic Compounds 292
8.3 Nomenclature for Binary Ionic Compounds 294
Fixed-Charge Binary Ionic Compounds 295
Variable-Charge Binary Ionic Compounds 297
8.4 Chemical Formulas for Polyatomic Ions 301
8.5 Nomenclature for Ionic Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions 303
8.6 Nomenclature for Binary Molecular Compounds 306
Common Names for Binary Molecular Compounds 308
8.7 Nomenclature for Acids 309
8.8 Systematic Procedures for Using Nomenclature Rules 314
Chapter 9 Chemical Calculations: The Mole Concept

and Chemical Formulas 327
9.1 The Law of Definite Proportions 327
■ THE HUMAN SIDE OF CHEMISTRY 9: Joseph-Louis Proust (1754–1826) 328
9.2 Calculation of Formula Masses 331
9.3 Significant Figures and Formula Mass 333
9.4 Mass Percent Composition of a Compound 335
9.5 The Mole: The Chemist’s Counting Unit 337
■ THE HUMAN SIDE OF CHEMISTRY 10: Lorenzo Romano Amedeo Carlo Avogadro
(1776–1856) 339
9.6 The Mass of a Mole 341
Summary of Mass Terminology 346
9.7 Significant Figures and Avogadro’s Number 347
9.8 Relationship Between Atomic Mass Units and Gram Units 347
9.9 The Mole and Chemical Formulas 348
Contents ix
9.10 The Mole and Chemical Calculations 351

9.11 Purity of Samples 358
9.12 Empirical and Molecular Formulas 361
9.13 Determination of Empirical Formulas 362
Empirical Formulas from Direct Analysis Data 363
Empirical Formulas from Indirect Analysis Data 366
9.14 Determination of Molecular Formulas 370
Chapter 10 Chemical Calculations Involving Chemical Equations 387

10.1 The Law of Conservation of Mass 387
■ THE HUMAN SIDE OF CHEMISTRY 11: Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier (1743–1794) 388
10.2 Writing Chemical Equations 389
10.3 Chemical Equation Coefficients 390
10.4 Balancing Procedures for Chemical Equations 392
10.5 Special Symbols Used in Chemical Equations 397
10.6 Classes of Chemical Reactions 398
Synthesis Reactions 398
Decomposition Reactions 399
Single-Replacement Reactions 399
Double-Replacement Reactions 400
Combustion Reactions 401
10.7 Chemical Equations and the Mole Concept 403
10.8 Balanced Chemical Equations and the Law of Conservation of Mass 406
10.9 Calculations Based on Chemical Equations—Stoichiometry 407
10.10 The Limiting Reactant Concept 413
10.11 Yields: Theoretical, Actual, and Percent 418
10.12 Simultaneous and Sequential Chemical Reactions 421
Combining Sequential Chemical Reaction Equations into a Single Overall Chemical
Reaction Equation 423
Chapter 11 States of Matter 439

11.1 Factors that Determine Physical State 439
11.2 Property Differences among Physical States 441
11.3 The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Matter 442
11.4 The Solid State 443
11.5 The Liquid State 444
11.6 The Gaseous State 444
11.7 A Comparison of Solids, Liquids, and Gases 445
11.8 Endothermic and Exothermic Changes of State 446
11.9 Heat Energy and Specific Heat 447
Heat Energy Units 447
Specific Heat 449
11.10 Temperature Changes as a Substance is Heated 453
11.11 Energy and Changes of State 454
11.12 Heat Energy Calculations 457
11.13 Evaporation of Liquids 461
Rate of Evaporation and Temperature 462
Evaporation and Equilibrium 463
x Contents
11.14 Vapor Pressure of Liquids 464

11.15 Boiling and Boiling Points 465
Factors that Affect Boiling Point 466
11.16 Intermolecular Forces in Liquids 467
Dipole–Dipole Interactions 468
Hydrogen Bonds 468
London Forces 471
Ion–Dipole Interactions 472
Ion–Ion Interactions 472
11.17 Hydrogen Bonding and The Properties of Water 473
Vapor Pressure 473
Thermal Properties 473
Density 475
Surface Tension 477
Chapter 12 Gas Laws 488

12.1 Properties of Some Common Gases 488
12.2 Gas Law Variables 489
Pressure Readings and Significant Figures 493
12.3 Boyle’s Law: A Pressure–Volume Relationship 494
■ THE HUMAN SIDE OF CHEMISTRY 12: Robert Boyle (1627–1691) 494
12.4 Charles’s Law: A Temperature–Volume Relationship 498
■ THE HUMAN SIDE OF CHEMISTRY 13: Jacques Alexandre César Charles (1746–1823) 499
12.5 Gay-Lussac’s Law: A Temperature–Pressure Relationship 502
■ THE HUMAN SIDE OF CHEMISTRY 14: Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778–1850) 502
12.6 The Combined Gas Law 504
12.7 Avogadro’s Law 507
12.8 An Ideal Gas 511
12.9 The Ideal Gas Law 511
12.10 Modified Forms of the Ideal Gas Law Equation 516
The Molar Mass of a Gas 516
The Density of a Gas 518
Using Density to Calculate Molar Mass 519
12.11 Volumes of Gases in Chemical Reactions 520
12.12 Volumes of Gases and the Limiting Reactant Concept 523
12.13 Molar Volume of a Gas 525
Standard Temperature and Standard Pressure Conditions 527
Using Molar Volume to Calculate Density 528
12.14 Chemical Calculations Using Molar Volume 530
12.15 Mixtures of Gases 537
12.16 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 538
Chapter 13 Solutions 564

13.1 Characteristics of Solutions 564
13.2 Solubility 566
Effect of Temperature on Solubility 566
Effect of Pressure on Solubility 567
Terminology for Relative Amount of Solute in a Solution 567
Aqueous and Nonaqueous Solutions 568
Contents xi
13.3 Solution Formation 568

Factors Affecting the Rate of Solution Formation 569
13.4 Solubility Rules 569
13.5 Solution Concentrations 571
13.6 Percentage Concentration Unit 571
Using Percent Concentrations as Conversion Factors 575
13.7 Parts Per Million and Parts Per Billion Concentration Units 578
13.8 Molarity Concentration Unit 581
Using Molarity as a Conversion Factor 582
13.9 Molarity and Chemical Reactions in Aqueous Solution 588
13.10 Dilution Calculations 592
13.11 Molality Concentration Unit 596
Chapter 14 Acids, Bases, and Salts 616

14.1 Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory 616
■ THE HUMAN SIDE OF CHEMISTRY 15: Svante August Arrhenius
(1859–1927) 617
14.2 Brønsted–Lowry Acid–Base Theory 618
Generalizations about Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Brønsted-Lowry Bases 620
14.3 Conjugate Acids and Bases 621
Amphiprotic Substances 623
14.4 Mono-, Di-, and Triprotic Acids 623
14.5 Strengths of Acids and Bases 625
14.6 Salts 628
14.7 Reactions of Acids 629
Reaction with Metals 629
Reaction with Bases 629
Reaction with Carbonates and Bicarbonates 631
14.8 Reactions of Bases 631
14.9 Reactions of Salts 631
Reaction with Metals 632
Reaction with Acids 632
Reaction with Bases 633
Reaction of Salts with Each Other 633
14.10 Self-Ionization of Water 635
Ion Product Constant for Water 636
Effect of Solutes on Water Self-Ionization 636
Effect of Temperature Change on Water Self-Ionization 637
Acidic, Basic, and Neutral Solutions 638
14.11 The pH Scale 638
Integral pH Values 639
Nonintegral pH Values 640
14.12 Hydrolysis of Salts 644
Types of Salt Hydrolysis 645
Chemical Equations for Salt Hydrolysis Reactions 646
14.13 Buffers 648
Chemical Equations for Buffer Action 649
14.14 Acid–Base Titrations 651
xii Contents
Chapter 15 Chemical Equations: Net Ionic and Oxidation–Reduction 665

15.1 Types of Chemical Equations 665
15.2 Electrolytes 666
15.3 Ionic and Net Ionic Equations 667
15.4 Oxidation–Reduction Terminology 671
15.5 Oxidation Numbers 673
15.6 Redox and Nonredox Chemical Reactions 678
15.7 Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Equations 680
15.8 Oxidation Number Method for Balancing Redox Equations 681
15.9 Half-Reaction Method for Balancing Redox Equations 686
15.10 Disproportionation Reactions 692
15.11 Stoichiometric Calculations Involving Ions 696
Multiple-Choice Practice Test 707
Chapter 16 Reaction Rates and Chemical Equilibrium 710

16.1 Collision Theory 710
Molecular Collisions 711
Activation Energy 711
Collision Orientation 711
16.2 Endothermic and Exothermic Chemical Reactions 712
16.3 Factors that Influence Chemical Reaction Rates 713
Physical Nature of Reactants 714
Reactant Concentration 714
Reaction Temperature 714
Presence of Catalysts 715
16.4 Chemical Equilibrium 716
16.5 Equilibrium Mixture Stoichiometry 717
16.6 Equilibrium Constants 719
16.7 Equilibrium Position 722
16.8 Temperature Dependency of Equilibrium Constants 723
16.9 Le Châtelier’s Principle 724
Concentration Changes 724
■ THE HUMAN SIDE OF CHEMISTRY 16: Henri-Louis Le Châtelier (1850–1936) 725
Temperature Changes 726
Pressure Changes 726
Addition of a Catalyst 727
16.10 Forcing Chemical Reactions to Completion 728
Glossary 739
Answers to Odd-Numbered Practice Problems 748
Credits 763
Index 764
PREFACE
Introduction to Chemical Principles is a text for students who have had little or no previous instruction in
chemistry or whose instruction was so long ago that a thorough review is needed. The text’s purpose is to
give students the background (and confidence) needed for a subsequent successful encounter with a main
sequence, college-level, general chemistry course.
Many texts written for preparatory chemistry courses are simply watered-down versions of general
chemistry texts: They treat almost all topics found in the general chemistry course, but at a superficial
level. Introduction to Chemical Principles does not fit this mold. My philosophy is that it is better to treat
fewer topics extensively and have the student understand those topics in greater depth. I resisted the very
real temptation to include lots of additional concepts in this new edition. Instead, my focus for this edition
was on rewriting selected portions to improve the clarity of presentation.
NEW FEATURES OF THE ELEVENTH EDITION

• “Chemical Insights” are used to bridge the gap between mathematics and chemistry. This
new “insight” feature, which is appended to many of the worked-out example problems in the text that
involve calculations, focuses on the element or compound that is the subject of the calculation. These
insights give information on the subject element’s/compound’s occurrence, its properties and uses, its
relationship to the environment, its relationship to living systems (biochemistry), and so on. It is easy
for students to become so involved in the mathematics of problem solving that they completely forget
about the “realness” of the type of matter that is the subject of the calculation. There are 85 total insights
which address this “realness” issue.
• A “Student Learning Focus” feature is used as a mini study guide for students. These learning
objectives, found at the start of all sections of all chapters, “pinpoint” for the student what it is hoped
they will gain by study of the given section.
• New Worked-Out Example Problems. Nineteen of the 236 worked-out example problems in the
text are new. Worked-out-in-detail example problems with their extensive commentary constitute
one of the greatest strengths of the text.
• Extensive revision of “End-of-Chapter Problem Sets.” Although the total number of end-of-
chapter problems, which already exceeds that of most other similar texts, has not increased signifi-
cantly, almost 500 of the previous edition’s 2200 problems have been replaced with new problems.
A special effort was made to create new problems that address specifically the “core concepts” as-
sociated with a given chapter section’s subject matter. In most chapters several of the newly added
problems involve presentation of data in a “visual form” rather than in a “sentence form.” Many of the
“visual problems” involve situations where reasoning, with little or no calculation, is needed to test a
student’s grasp of a key concept.
Content changes to individual chapters. After ten successful editions of Introduction to Chemical
Principles, the need for drastic alterations in chapter ordering and chapter content does not exist. Changes
that have been made relate to “fine tuning” of the presentation of the subject matter. Among the most impor-
tant changes to this edition are the following:
• Chapters 4 and 5: The last four sections of chapter 4 of the previous edition (atoms, molecules,
and chemical formulas) has been moved to the start of Chapter 5. Material concerning unstable
nuclei previously found in chapter 5 has been deleted
• Chapter 13: Material dealing with the use of the molarity concentration unit in chemical calculations
now immediately follows the introduction of the concept of molarity. Previously this material was
found at the end of the chapter.
xiii
xiv Preface
IMPORTANT CONTINUING FEATURES IN THE ELEVENTH EDITION

1. Development of each topic starts out at ground level. Because of the varied degrees of under-
standing of chemical principles possessed by students taking a preparatory chemistry course, each
topic is developed step by step from ground level until the level of sophistication required for a
further chemistry course is attained.
2. Problem-solving pedagogy is based on dimensional analysis. Over forty years of teaching
experience suggest to me that student “troubles” in general chemistry courses are almost always cen-
tered on the inability to set up and solve problems. Whenever possible, I use dimensional analysis in
problem solving. This method, which requires no mathematics beyond arithmetic and elementary al-
gebra, is a powerful and widely applicable problem-solving tool. Most important, it is a method that
an average student can master with an average amount of diligence. Mastering dimensional analysis
also helps build the confidence that is so valuable for future chemistry courses.
3. Detailed commentary accompanies all worked-out example problems. In all chapters, one or
more worked-out example problems follow the presentation of key concepts. These examples walk
students through the thought processes involved in solving the particular type of problem. Detailed
commentary accompanies all of the steps involved in solving a problem.
4. “Answer Double Check” feature. Over half (60%) of the text’s worked-out examples are enhanced
by the feature called “answer double check.” The purpose of this feature, which is appended to the end
of the worked-out example discussion, is to encourage students to consider whether the answer they
obtain in working a problem is a reasonable answer in terms of items such as numerical magnitude,
number of significant figures present, sign convention (plus or minus), and direction of change (increase
or descrease). An unreasonable answer is often a sign that a calculator error has been made.
5. Significant-figure concepts are emphasized in all problem-solving situations. Routinely,
electronic calculators display answers that contain more digits than are needed or acceptable. In all
worked-out examples, students are reminded about these unneeded digits by the appearance of two
answers to the example: the calculator answer (which does not take into account significant figures)
and, in color, the correct answer (which is the calculator answer adjusted to the correct number of
significant figures).
6. Operation rules for standardizing uncertainty in numbers are used. Students often experi-
ence a relatively high degree of frustration when they correctly solve a problem and yet obtain an
answer that differs slightly from the one given in the answer section at the back of the book. They
want to get the exact number shown in the answer section. Most often the discrepancy is due to
differing degrees of uncertainty in the input numbers used for the calculation, for example, in mo-
lecular mass values. To minimize such frustration, operational rules have been introduced for stan-
dardizing uncertainty in input numbers. The standard mode of operation is always (1) to round all
atomic masses to hundredths before using them in molecular mass calculations, and (2) to specify
frequently used numbers, such as Avogadro’s number, molar volume, and the ideal gas constant to
four significant figures. Using these operational rules for input numbers, student answers will match
the back-of-the-book answers to the last significant digit.
7. Defined terms always appear in self-standing complete sentences. All definitions are high-
lighted in the text when they are first presented, using boldface and italic type. Each defined term
appears as a complete sentence; students are never required to deduce a definition from context. In
addition, the definitions of all terms appear in a separate glossary found at the end of the text. All
defined terms have been reexamined to see if they could be stated with greater clarity. The result is
a rewording of many defined terms. In addition, the number of defined terms has been increased.
There are 29 new or modified definitions in this new edition of the text.
8. All end-of-chapter exercises occur in matched pairs. In essence, each chapter has two inde-
pendent, but similar, problem sets. Counting subparts to problems, there are over 5000 questions
and problems available for students to use in their journey to proficient problem solving. Answers
to all of the odd-numbered problems are found at the end of the text. Thus, two problem sets exist,
one with answers and one without.
Preface xv
9. “Multiple-Choice Practice Test” feature. The emphasis in this text has always been and still is
on working problems from scratch. Some, but certainly not all instructors, use this same approach
when giving class examinations. A multiple-choice question examination is another common type
of examination given. To aid students whose examinations involve multiple-choice examinations,
a 20-question “multiple-choice practice test” in included as the last feature in each chapter. It is in-
tended that students use this feature as an aid in reviewing subject matter for an upcoming multiple-
choice examination.
10. Historical vignettes are used to address some of the “people aspects” of chemistry. These
vignettes, entitled “The Human Side of Chemistry,” are brief biographies of scientists who helped de-
velop the foundations of modern chemistry. In courses such as the one for which this text is written,
it is very easy for students to completely lose any feeling for the people involved in the development
of the subject matter they are considering. If it were not for the contributions of these people, many
of whom worked under adverse conditions, chemistry would not be the central science that it is
today.
11. Marginal notes are used extensively. The two main functions of the marginal notes are (1) to
summarize key concepts and often give help for remembering concepts or distinguishing between
similar concepts, and (2) to provide additional details, links between concepts, or historical informa-
tion about the concepts under discussion.
SUPPLEMENTS
For the Instructor
Instructor Solutions Manual (download only): (ISBN: 0321815130) by Nancy J. Gardner, California
State University–Long Beach. Contains full solutions to all of the end-of-chapter problems in the text.
TestGen Computerized Test Bank: (ISBN: 0321815319) by Pamela Kerrigan, Mount Saint Vincent.
Contains approximately 1000 multiple-choice and short-answer questions, all referenced to the text.
CourseSmart: (ISBN: 0321815149) Access your college textbook in online format at www.coursesmart.com.
For the Student

Student Solutions Manual: (ISBN: 0321815122) by Nancy J. Gardner, California State University–
Long Beach. Includes full solutions to all odd-numbered end-of-chapter problems and answers to all mul-
tiple choice practice test questions in the text.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I’d like to gratefully acknowledge the valuable contributions of my accuracy reviewer Andreas Lippert of
Weber State University.
Every effort has been made to rid this text of any typographical errors. I encourage my read-
ers who notice anything suspicious, or who have other questions or comments, to e-mail me at the
address below.
H. Stephen Stoker
e-mail: hstoker1@weber.edu
Reviewers of the Eleventh Edition of Introduction to Chemical Principles, Stoker

Joel Case Kiran Kuar
University of Wisconsin Solano Community College
Lisa Devane Kent Lau
Bladen Community College San Francisco State University
Reviewers of the Tenth Edition of Introduction to Chemical Principles, Stoker

John M. Allen, Ann van Heerden,
Indiana State University Lonestar College–CyFair
Ashton T. Griffin, Virginia Lea Miller,
Wayne Community College Montgomery College
Lisa DeVane, Douglas S. Cody,
Bladen Community College Nassau Community College
Charles Spillner, Andreas Lippert,
Solano Community College Weber State University
Todd M. Johnson,
Weber State University
xvi
C H A P T E R
1
The Science of Chemistry
1.1 Chemistry—A Scientific Discipline

1.2 Scientific Research and Technology
1.3 The Scope of Chemistry
1.4 How Chemists Discover Things—The Scientific Method
1.5 The Limitations of the Scientific Method
1.6 Application Limitations for Methods of Science
1.1 CHEMISTRY—A SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINE

Student Learning Focus: Understand the relationship of the scientific discipline called chemistry to
other scientific disciplines and be familiar with the sub-structuring that occurs with the discipline
of chemistry.
Chemistry is part of a larger body of knowledge called science. Science is the study in
which humans attempt to organize and explain, in a systematic and logical manner,
knowledge about themselves and their surroundings.
Because of the enormous scope of science, the sheer amount of accumulated
knowledge, and the limitations of human mental capacity to master such a large and
diverse body of knowledge, science is divided into smaller subdivisions called scientific
disciplines. A scientific discipline is a branch of science limited in size and scope to
make it more manageable. Examples of scientific disciplines are chemistry, astronomy,
botany, geology, physics, and zoology.
Figure 1.1 shows an organizational chart, with emphasis on chemistry, for the vari-
ous scientific disciplines. These disciplines can be grouped into physical sciences (the
study of matter and energy) and biological sciences (the study of living organisms).
Chemistry is a physical science.
Rigid boundaries between scientific disciplines do not exist. All scientific disciplines
borrow information and methods from each other. No scientific discipline is totally inde-
pendent. Environmental problems that scientists have encountered in the last two decades
1
2 Chapter 1 • The Science of Chemistry
FIGURE 1.1 An
organizational
Science
chart showing the
relationship of the Scientific Disciplines
scientific discipline
called chemistry
to other scientific
disciplines and also
the sub-structuring Physical Sciences Biological Sciences
that occurs within the Study of Matter and Energy Study of Living Organisms
discipline of chemistry.
Astronomy Geology Physics Chemistry Botany Zoology

(plants) (animals)
Astrochemistry Geochemistry Chemical Biochemistry

Physics
Analytical General Inorganic Organic Physical
Analysis Fundamental Noncarbon- Carbon- Energy

and laws containing containing changes
composition and concepts substances substances
particularly show the interdependence of the various scientific disciplines. For example,
chemists attempting to solve the problems of chemical contamination of the environment
find that they need some knowledge of geology, zoology, and botany. It is now common
to talk not only of chemists, but also of geochemists, biochemists, chemical physicists,
and so on. The middle portion of Figure 1.1 shows the overlap of the other scientific dis-
ciplines with chemistry.
Discipline overlap requires that scientists, in addition to having in-depth knowledge
of a selected discipline, also have limited knowledge of other disciplines. Discipline over-
lap also explains why a great many college students are required to study chemistry. One
or more chemistry courses are required because of their applicability to the disciplines in
which the student has more specific interest.
The body of knowledge found within the scientific discipline of chemistry is itself
vast. No one can hope to master completely all aspects of chemical knowledge. However,
the fundamental concepts of chemistry can be learned in a relatively short period of time.
The vastness of chemistry is sufficiently large that it, like most scientific disciplines,
is partitioned into subdisciplines. The lower portion of Figure 1.1 shows the five funda-
mental branches of chemistry: analytical, general, inorganic, organic, and physical. Most
of the subject matter of this textbook falls within the realm of general chemistry, the fun-
damental laws and concepts of chemistry.
The American Chemical Society (ACS) is the largest scientific organization in the
world. Examination of the names of the 33 subdivisions of ACS (see Table 1.1) further
Chapter 1 • The Science of Chemistry 3
TABLE 1.1 Names of the Divisions of the American Chemical Society
Agricultural and Food Chemistry Fluorine Chemistry

Agrochemicals Fuel Chemistry
Analytical Chemistry Geochemistry
Biochemical Technology History of Chemistry
Biological Chemistry Industrial and Engineering Chemistry
Business Development and Management Inorganic Chemistry
Carbohydrate Chemistry Medicinal Chemistry
Catalysis Science and Technology Nuclear Chemistry and Technology
Cellulose and Renewable Materials Organic Chemistry
Chemical Education Petroleum Chemistry
Chemical Health and Safety Physical Chemistry
Chemical Information Polymer Chemistry
Chemical Toxicology Polymeric Materials: Science and Engineering
Chemistry and the Law Professional Relations
Colloid and Surface Science Rubber
Computers in Chemistry Small Chemical Businesses
Environmental Chemistry
illustrates the wide diversity of subject matter and activities encompassed within the dis-
cipline of chemistry.
1.2 SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY

Student Learning Focus: Understand how the fields of basic scientific research and applied sci-
entific research differ from each other and how the concepts of applied chemical research and
technology are related.
The basic activity through which new knowledge is added to the various scientific disci-
plines, including chemistry, is that of scientific research. Scientific research is the pro-
cess of methodical investigation into a subject in order to discover new information about
the subject. There are two general types of scientific research—basic and applied. Basic
scientific research is research whose major focus is the discovery of new fundamental
information about humans and other living organisms and the universe in which they
live. The number of scientists involved in basic scientific research is small compared to
those involved in applied scientific research. Most scientists function in the area of ap-
plied scientific research. Applied chemical research is research whose major focus is the
discovery of products and processes that can be used to benefit humankind.
In many ways, basic scientific research is the precursor to applied scientific research.
The former is the lifeline that supplies the latter with new ideas on which to work. No
change in quality of life results from basic scientific research endeavors unless something
is done with the body of information that accumulates. Use of this information for the
betterment of humankind is the role of applied chemical research and the ensuing tech-
nology that results from it. Technology is the application of applied chemical research to
the production of new products to improve human survival, comfort, and quality of life.
Whether or not a given Technological advances began affecting our society more than 200 years ago, and new
piece of scientific knowl- advances still continue, at an accelerating pace, to have a major impact on human society.
edge is technologically
used for beneficial or
Both benefits and detriments can be obtained from the same piece of scientific
detrimental purposes de- knowledge, depending on the technology used to put it to work. For example, knowledge
pends on the motives of concerning the closely related structures of the naturally-occurring substances morphine
those men and women, and codeine, obtained through basic research, has led to the development of several im-
whether in industry or portant codeine-derivatives currently used in modern medicine as prescription painkillers
government, who have
the decision-making
(hydrocodone and oxycodone) as well as the synthesis of the illegal drug heroin, whose
authority. In democratic structure parallels closely that of morphine.
societies, citizens (the
voters) can influence
many technological 1.3 THE SCOPE OF CHEMISTRY
decisions. It is important
for citizens to become Student Learning Focus: Be able to list several areas in which chemistry applications are important
informed about scientific to human beings.
and technological issues.
Although chemistry is concerned with only a part of the scientific knowledge that has
been accumulated, it is in itself an enormous and broad field. Chemistry touches all parts
of our lives.
Many of the clothes we wear are made from synthetic fibers produced by chemical
processes. Even natural fibers, such as cotton or wool, are the products of naturally occur-
ring chemical reactions within living systems. Our transportation usually involves vehicles
powered with energy obtained by burning chemical mixtures such as gasoline or diesel
and jet fuels. The drugs used to cure many of our illnesses are the result of chemical re-
search. The paper on which this textbook is printed was produced through a chemical
process, and the ink used in printing the words and illustrations is a mixture of many
chemicals. Almost all of our recreational pursuits involve objects made of materials pro-
duced by chemical industries. Skis, boats, basketballs, bowling balls, musical instruments,
and television sets all contain materials that do not occur naturally, but are products of
human technological expertise.
Our bodies are a complex mixture of chemicals. The principles of chemistry are
fundamental to an understanding of all processes of the living state. Chemical secretions
(hormones) produced within our bodies help determine our outward physical character-
istics such as height, weight, and appearance. Digestion of food involves a complex series
of chemical reactions. Food itself is an extremely complicated array of chemical sub-
stances. Chemical reactions govern our thought processes and how knowledge is stored
in and retrieved from our brains. In short, chemistry runs our lives.
A formal course in chemistry can be a fascinating experience because it helps us
understand ourselves and our surroundings. We cannot truly understand or even know
very much about the world we live in or about our own bodies without being conversant
with the fundamental ideas of chemistry.
1.4 HOW CHEMISTS DISCOVER THINGS—THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Student Learning Focus: List procedural steps associated with the problem-solving approach called
the scientific method and distinguish among the terms experiment, scientific fact, scientific law,
scientific hypothesis, and scientific theory.
There is no one single correct way to do scientific research, be it basic or applied

(Sec. 1.2). Different scientists often have different approaches to solving the same
problem. However, the various approaches used always have embodied within them
a number of common characteristics that constitute the problem-solving approach
known as the scientific method.
The scientific method is a set of general procedures based on experimentation and

observation used to acquire scientific knowledge and explain natural phenomena. The
procedural steps in the scientific method are as follows:
1. Identify the problem, break it into small parts, and carefully plan procedures to ob- Although two different
tain information about all aspects of this problem. scientists rarely approach
the same problem in ex-
2. Collect data concerning the problem through observation and experimentation (see actly the same way, there
Figure 1.2). are always similarities in
3. Analyze and organize the data in terms of general statements (generalizations) that their approaches. These
summarize the experimental observations. similarities are the proce-
4. Suggest probable explanations for the generalizations. dures associated with the
scientific method.
5. Experiment further to prove or disprove the proposed explanations.
On occasion, a great discovery is made by accident, but the majority of scientific

discoveries are the result of the application of these five steps over long periods of
time. There are no instantaneous steps in the scientific method: applying them requires
considerable amounts of time. Even in those situations where luck is involved, it must
be remembered that chance favors the prepared mind. To take full advantage of an
accidental discovery, a person must be well trained in the procedures of the scientific
method.
The imagination, creativity, and mental attitude of a scientist using the scientific
method are always major factors in scientific success. The procedures of the scientific
method must always be enhanced with the abilities of a thinking scientist.
There are special vocabulary terms associated with the scientific method and its use.
This vocabulary includes the terms experiment, scientific fact, scientific law, scientific
hypothesis, and scientific theory. An understanding of the relationships among these terms
is the key to a real understanding of how to obtain chemical knowledge.
Experiments, Observations, and Data

The beginning step in the search for chemical knowledge is the identification of an as-
pect of a chemical system that needs study. After determining what other chemists have
already learned about the selected situation, a chemist sets up experiments for obtaining
FIGURE 1.2 Chemistry

is an experimental
science. Most
discoveries in
chemistry are made
through analysis of
data obtained from
experiments carried
out in laboratories.
(iStockphoto)
more information. An experiment is a well-defined, controlled procedure for obtaining

information about a system under study.
Performing an experiment involves making careful observations about a system
under study. An observation is a statement that describes something we see, hear, smell,
taste, or feel. Instrumentation is most often used as an aid in making observations.
Observations obtained while performing an experiment are called data. Such data may
be qualitative or quantitative, with the latter being preferred. Qualitative data is non-
numerical data consisting of general observations about a system under study. The ob-
servation that ice is less dense than liquid water is an example of qualitative information
about a system. Quantitative data is numerical data obtained by various measurements
on a system under study. The information that ice has a density of 0.9170 grams per cubic
centimeter at 0°C whereas liquid water has a density of 0.9999 grams per cubic centimeter
at the same temperature represents quantitative data. Quantitative observations are more
useful than qualitative ones because they can be compared with each other and trends or
patterns in information can be seen.
An experiment typically involves study of at least two quantities, that is, variables
that have changing values. Usually, the effect of change in one variable on another vari-
able, with all other variables held constant, is measured. For example, the effect that
temperature change has on the density of a fixed quantity of a gas, with pressure held
constant, can be measured.
A well-designed experiment is always performed under controlled conditions, that
is, the values of all variables are always noted, not just those that are changing. When
such is the case, the experimental data can be reproduced, if needed, by repeating the
experiment.
EXAMPLE 1.1 Distinguishing between Qualitative

and Quantitative Data
Classify each of the following pieces of information as qualitative data or quan-
titative data.
a. The patient’s high fever has reached 105.3°F.
b. The cricket is chirping more loudly tonight than last night.
c. The package of candy contains about 200 gummi bears.
SOLUTION
a. Quantitative data—the temperature was measured with a thermometer.
b. Qualitative data—no measurement was made.
c. Qualitative data—even though a number is specified, it is an estimated number
rather than a measured number.
Scientific Facts
The individual pieces of new information (data) about a system under study, obtained
by carrying out experimental procedures, are called scientific facts. A scientific fact
is a reproducible piece of data about some natural phenomenon that is obtained from
experimentation. Note the word reproducible in this definition. If a given experiment is
repeated under exactly the same conditions, the same results (scientific facts) should be
obtained. To be acceptable, all scientific facts must be verifiable by anyone who has the
time, means, and knowledge needed to repeat the experiments that led to their discovery.
It is important that scientific data be published so that other scientists have the
opportunity to critique and double-check both the data and experimental design. The
most common publication avenue is that of articles in scientific journals. Other com-
munication avenues include papers presented at scientific meetings and specialized
textbooks. Communication of research results to other scientists is as important as the
actual obtaining of the results in the laboratory.
Scientific Laws
After obtaining scientific facts through experimentation, a scientist then makes an
effort to determine ways in which the scientific facts about a given system relate both A major goal of basic
to each other and to scientific facts known about similar systems. Repeating patterns scientific research is to
often emerge among the collected scientific facts. These patterns that describe the organize scientific facts so
that relationships can be
behavior of chemical systems under specific conditions are called scientific laws. A established among them.
scientific law is a generalization that summarizes scientific facts about a natural Such relationships are
phenomenon. called scientific laws.
Do not assume that scientific laws are easy to discover. Often, many years of work
and thousands of facts are needed before the true relationships among variables in the
area under study emerge.
A scientific law is a description of what happens in a given type of experiment. No
new understanding of nature results from simply stating a scientific law. A scientific law
merely summarizes already known observations (scientific facts). A contrast exists between
A scientific law can be expressed either as a verbal statement or as a mathematical the ways in which scien-
tific facts and the results
equation. An example of a verbally stated scientific law is “If hot and cold pieces of metal
of technology (Sec. 1.2)
are placed in contact with each other, the temperature of the hot piece always decreases are shared. Scientists
and the temperature of the cold piece always increases.” publish their observations
It is important to distinguish between the use of the word law in science and its (scientific facts) as widely,
use in a societal context. Scientific laws are discovered by research (see Fig. 1.2), and re- openly, and quickly as
possible. Technological
searchers have no control over what the laws turn out to be. Societal laws, which are de-
breakthroughs, on the
signed to control aspects of human behavior, are arbitrary conventions agreed upon (in a other hand, are usually
democracy) by the majority of those to whom the laws apply. These laws can be and are kept secret by an indi-
changed when necessary. For example, the speed limit for a particular highway (a societal vidual or company until
law) can be decreased or increased for various safety or political reasons. patent rights for the new
process or product are
obtained. Even then, only
Scientific Hypotheses limited information is
released.
There is no mention in a scientific law about why the occurrence described happens. The
scientific law simply summarizes experimental observations without attempting to clarify
the reasons for the occurrence. Chemists and other scientists are not content with such
a situation. They want to know why a certain type of observation is always made. Thus,
after a scientific law is discovered, scientists work out plausible, tentative explanations of
the behavior encompassed by the scientific law. These explanations are called scientific
hypotheses. A scientific hypothesis is a model or statement that can be tested by experi-
ment, which offers an explanation for a scientific law. Note the inclusion of the concept
of testability in this definition. A scientific hypothesis is different from other kinds of
hypotheses because of the testability requirement. In other academic disciplines, such
as philosophy, hypotheses concerning the meaning of life are often considered. Such
hypotheses are not scientific hypotheses because they cannot be tested by experiment.
Once a scientific hypothesis has been proposed, experimentation begins again.
Scientists run more experiments under varied, but controlled, conditions to test the reli-
ability of the proposed explanation. The scientific hypothesis must be able to predict the
outcome of as-yet-untried experiments. The validity of the scientific hypothesis depends
upon its predictions being true.
In practice, scientists usually start with a number of alternative scientific hypotheses

for a given scientific law. Evaluation proceeds by demonstrating that certain proposals are
not valid. A successful experiment is one in which one or more of the alternative scientific
hypotheses are demonstrated to be inconsistent with experimental observation and are
thus rejected. Scientific progress is made in the same way a marble statue is: Unwanted
bits of marble are chipped away. Example 1.2 contains a simple illustration of this “chip-
ping away” principle in a scientific context.
EXAMPLE 1.2 Relating Scientific Hypotheses to Experimental Information
As a problem-solving Suppose you encounter a situation involving two unopened books with no identification
approach, the scientific on their covers and four alternative scientific hypotheses about these books, which are
method is used by many
(1) the thinner book is a chemistry textbook, (2) the thicker book is a chemistry textbook,
people who do not call
themselves scientists. An (3) both books are chemistry textbooks, and (4) neither book is a chemistry textbook.
automobile mechanic What information about the validity of these scientific hypotheses can be obtained by
uses the scientific ap- opening the thicker book and determining that it is a chemistry textbook?
proach when working on
a car. First, based on tests SOLUTION
(experimental observa- This experiment (opening the thicker book) proves scientific hypothesis 2 and disproves
tions), the automobile
mechanic deduces a
scientific hypothesis 4; it does not, however, prove that only one of the scientific hypoth-
probable cause of the eses is true. The fact that the thicker book is a chemistry textbook does not rule out the
problem (a hypothesis). possibility that the thinner book is also a chemistry textbook.
Then parts are adjusted
or replaced, and the car
is checked (more experi-
mental observations) to
see if the problem has EXAMPLE 1.3 Differentiating among Terminologies Associated
been corrected (testing
of the hypothesis). An
with the Scientific Method
experienced automobile Classify each of the following as a scientific fact, scientific law, or scientific hypothesis.
mechanic learns that cer-
tain observations almost a. The burning candle generated both heat and light.
always indicate a specific b. As a candle burns, its wax gradually disappears.
problem (a validated
hypothesis).
c. All burning candles generate heat and light.
d. Burning candles generate heat as the result of the decomposition of melted wax.
SOLUTION
a. This is a single observation, that is, a scientific fact.
b. This is a single observation, that is, a scientific fact.
c. This is a generalization based on many observations, that is, a scientific law.
d. This is a tentative testable explanation for observations, that is, a scientific
hypothesis.
Scientific Theories
As further experimentation continues to validate a particular scientific hypothesis, its
acceptance in scientific circles increases. If after extensive testing, the reliability of a
scientific hypothesis is still very high, confidence in it increases to the extent that it is ac-
cepted by the scientific community at large. After more time has elapsed and more positive
support has accumulated, the scientific hypothesis assumes the status of a scientific theory. The term theory is often
A scientific theory is a scientific hypothesis that has been tested and validated over a long misused by nonscientists
in everyday contexts. “I
period of time. The dividing line between a scientific hypothesis and a scientific theory is have a theory that such
arbitrary and cannot be precisely defined. There is no set number of supporting experi- and such is the case” is
ments that must be performed to give scientific theory status to a scientific hypothesis. a frequently heard com-
Scientific theories serve two important purposes: (1) they allow scientists to predict ment. In this case, theory
what will happen in experiments that have not yet been run, and (2) they simplify the means a “speculative
guess,” which is not what
very real problem of being able to remember all the scientific facts that have already been a theory is. The terminol-
discovered. Figure 1.3 shows the interplay that must occur between scientific hypotheses ogy unvalidated hypoth-
and experimentation before an acceptable scientific theory is obtained. esis would be closer to
Scientific theories must often undergo modification. As scientific tools, particularly what is meant.
instrumentation, become more accurate, there is an increasing probability that some ex-
perimental observations will not be consistent with all aspects of a given scientific theory.
A scientific theory inconsistent with new observations must either be modified to ac-
commodate the new results or be restated in such a way that scientists know where it is
useful and where it is not. Most scientific theories in use have known limitations. These
imperfect scientific theories are simply the best ideas anyone has found so far to describe,
explain, and predict what happens in the world in which we live. Scientific theories with
limitations are generally not abandoned until a better scientific theory is developed.
FIGURE 1.3 A
New scientific law possible sequence of
events experienced
by scientists doing
Hypothesis 1 experimental research
Hypothesis 2 Reject based on a newly
Experiment
Hypothesis 3 1 and 4 discovered scientific
Hypothesis 4 law. (1) A number of
alternative scientific
Possible Hypothesis 2 Reject hypotheses are
alternative Experiment
Hypothesis 3 3 proposed to explain the
hypotheses new scientific law; (2)
Remaining experiments are carried
possible Remaining
Hypothesis 2 hypothesis out to eliminate invalid
hypotheses scientific hypotheses;
(3) predictions are
Predictions made based on the
surviving scientific
hypothesis, and
further experiments
Exp. 1 Exp. 2 Exp. 3 Exp. 4 are carried out to test
these predictions; (4)
confirmed predictions
produce a validated
Predictions scientific hypothesis;
confirmed and (5) many more
validating experiments
give the scientific
Validated hypothesis the status of
hypothesis a scientific theory.
Many more
validating
experiments
Scientific theory
FIGURE 1.4 A General Steps in the Scientific Method

diagram showing
the central role that
experimentation plays Experiments Results (facts) Scientific law Scientific hypothesis
in the scientific method
for obtaining new
scientific information.
Further experiments (devised based on scientific hypothesis)
Positive results support Negative results lead to modification or rejection of

scientific hypothesis. hypothesis and formulation of new scientific hypothesis.
Scientific theory (follows from results that consistently support scientific hypothesis)
Further experiments (devised based on scientific theory)
Negative results lead to modification Positive results support

or qualification of scientific theory. scientific theory.
Scientific theories are Scientific facts that have been verified by repeated experiments will never be changed,
tested conceptual but the scientific theories that were invented to explain these scientific facts are subject
models (mental pictures)
to change. In this sense, scientific facts are more important than the scientific theories
that separate scientific
thinking from specula- devised to explain them. It is a mistake to believe that, by knowing all the scientific laws
tive ideas. They represent and scientific theories that are derived from experimental observations, the experimental
simplified—but not facts are not needed. New scientific theories can be developed only by people who have
exact—models that a wide knowledge of the scientific facts relating to a particular field, especially those sci-
describe various aspects
entific facts that have not been satisfactorily accounted for by existing scientific theories.
of nature.
Figure 1.4 highlights the central role that experimentation plays in the scientific
method and also summarizes the general steps, procedures, and terminology associated
with this most important pattern of action for acquiring scientific knowledge.
1.5 THE LIMITATIONS OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Student Learning Focus: Be familiar with the limitations inherent in the use of scientific-method
procedures.
Scientists do not view scientific theories or their precursors—scientific hypotheses—as

absolute truth. All scientific theories are considered provisional—subject to change in the
light of new experimental observations. There is always the chance that some future, yet-
unthought-of experiment using instrumentation that has not yet been invented will be de-
vised that disproves or places limitations on a currently well-established scientific theory.
If such were the case, the scientific theory would then be modified to take into account
the new experimental developments. In many ways, science is like a living organism: It
continues to grow and change.
Thus, inherent in the use of the scientific method is the not-often-stated concept
that “no theory can ever be proved correct by experiment.” Experiments can provide sup-
porting data for a theory, but there is always a chance that new experiments will negate
aspects of the theory. It is important that experimental design focus just as much on
disproving a theory as on providing additional supporting evidence for the theory.
FIGURE 1.5 Possible

Possible Outcomes for an
results from attempting
Experiment Designed to
to disprove a scientific
Test a Scientific Theory
theory.
Results Disprove the Results Fail to Disprove

Scientific Theory the Scientific Theory
Modification of the New experiments to

scientific theory again try to disprove
occurs and experimentation the scientific theory
to disprove the “modified” begin anew.
theory begins anew.
Theoretically, experimentation to “disprove” a theory is a never-to-be-completed

process. However, in practice, after many, many failed attempts to disprove, experimenta-
tion attempts to become infrequent and the scientific theory becomes one of the founda-
tions of the scientific discipline.
Figure 1.5 summarizes diagrammatically the preceding line of reasoning relative to
disproving a scientific theory.
1.6 APPLICATION LIMITATIONS FOR METHODS OF SCIENCE

Student Learning Focus: Be able to explain the application limitations for the methods of
science.
The testability requirement associated with scientific theories and scientific hypotheses
also has the effect of limiting the application of these theories and hypotheses to the
realm of the natural world. The methods of science are not applicable to supernatural
phenomenon. The dictionary definition for supernatural is “not of the natural world,”
that is, something that cannot be explained using scientific laws. Thus, science is not
equipped to deal with philosophical or religious questions such as “What is the purpose
of life?” or “Does the human body contain a spirit that gives it life?” Questions such as
these fall outside the realm of science because of their lack of testability using scientific
methods. This does not mean that such questions are not valid questions nor that they
are not important questions. It simply means that answers to such questions cannot be
obtained using the methodology of science.
Concepts to Remember
The following concise summaries of chapter content by section restate the major ideas (concepts) considered in
the chapter. They are a helpful study aid for students as they prepare for an upcoming examination or are review-
ing for a final comprehensive examination.
1. Science and Scientific Disciplines Science surroundings. Scientific disciplines, of which
is the study in which humans attempt to or- chemistry is one, are branches of science lim-
ganize and explain, in a systematic man- ited in size and scope to make them more
ner, knowledge about themselves and their manageable.
2. Scientific Research Scientific research is the transportation, medications, and recreational

process of methodical investigation into a subject pursuits.
in order to discover new information about the 5. Scientific Method The scientific method is a set
subject. Such research is further classified as basic of systematic procedures used to acquire knowl-
scientific research or applied scientific research. edge and explain phenomena. The terminology
The major focus of basic scientific research is the associated with the scientific method and its use
discovery of new fundamental information, and includes the terms experiment, scientific fact,
the major focus of applied scientific research is scientific law, scientific hypothesis, and scientific
the discovery of useful products and processes theory. An experiment is a well-defined, controlled
that can be used to benefit humankind. procedure for obtaining information about a sys-
3. Technology Scientific disciplines represent ab- tem under study. A scientific fact is a valid obser-
stract bodies of knowledge. Technology is the vation about some natural phenomenon obtained
physical application of scientific knowledge by carrying out experiments. A scientific law is a
to the production of new products to improve generalization that summarizes facts about natural
human survival, comfort, and quality of life. phenomena. A scientific hypothesis is a tentative
4. Scope of Chemistry The scope of chemistry is model or statement that offers an explanation for
extremely broad, and it touches every aspect of a scientific law. A scientific theory is a hypothesis
our lives. The principles of chemistry are fun- that has been tested and validated over a long pe-
damental to an understanding of all processes riod of time. A scientific law addresses how mat-
of the living state. Chemical processes produce ter behaves, and a scientific theory addresses why
the products needed for our clothes, housing, it behaves that way.
Key Terms Listing

This listing gives new terms defined in the chapter. Terms are listed alphabetically and cross-references are
given to the chapter sections where free standing complete-sentence definitions for the terms are found.
applied scientific research Sec. 1.2 quantitative data Sec. 1.4 scientific law Sec. 1.4
basic scientific research Sec. 1.2 science Sec. 1.1 scientific method Sec. 1.4
experiment Sec. 1.4 scientific discipline Sec. 1.1 scientific research Sec. 1.1
observation Sec. 1.4 scientific fact Sec. 1.4 scientific theory Sec. 1.4
qualitative data Sec. 1.4 scientific hypothesis Sec. 1.4 technology Sec. 1.2
Practice Problems By Topic

These problems are single-concept problems that are categorized by topic (chapter section) and are arranged in the same
sequence as the chapter textual material. These drill problems occur in matched pairs with the two members of a pair address-
ing the same aspect of a given topic. This matched pair arrangement creates two independent problems sets—an odd-numbered
set and an even-numbered set. Answers are given at the back of the book for the odd-numbered problem set.
SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINES (SEC. 1.1)
1.1 Indicate whether each of the following statements is b. Scientific disciplines are limited in size and scope
true or false. to the extent that subdividing of subject matter
a. Science is the study in which humans attempt to within a discipline is not necessary.
organize and explain, in a systematic and logical c. Boundaries between scientific disciplines are very rigid.
manner, knowledge about themselves and their d. Collectively, the knowledge in scientific disciplines
surroundings. constitutes the whole of scientific knowledge cur-
rently known.
1.2 Indicate whether each of the following statements is b. determination of its properties relative to use as
true or false. a bleaching agent in manufacture of paper from
a. Scientific disciplines are branches of scientific wood pulp
knowledge limited in size and scope to make c. study of its toxicity relative to its use as a food
them more manageable. additive
b. Scientific disciplines are defined in such a manner d. study of its antioxidant properties relative to its
that each discipline is totally independent of other use as a food additive
disciplines.
c. Complete mastery of all concepts within a scien- THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD (SEC. 1.4)
tific discipline is difficult (but possible) because of
limited size and scope for the discipline. 1.7 Arrange the following steps in the scientific method in
d. The scientific discipline of chemistry has some the sequence in which they normally occur.
overlap with other physical sciences but no over- a. Suggest probable explanations for generalizations
lap with biological sciences. obtained from data.
1.3 Based on information found in Figure 1.1, indicate b. Collect data concerning a problem through obser-
whether each of the following statements is true or vation and experimentation.
false. c. Identify a problem, and carefully plan procedures
a. Chemistry and botany are both classified as physi- to obtain information about all aspects of this
cal sciences. problem.
b. Inorganic chemistry is the chemistry subdiscipline d. Experiment further to prove or disprove proposed
that focuses on carbon-containing substances. explanations.
c. Physical chemistry is the chemistry subdiscipline e. Analyze and organize data in terms of gen-
that focuses on energy changes in substances. eral statements that summarize experimental
d. Physical science disciplines primarily study vari- observations.
ous aspects of living organisms. 1.8 Arrange the following terms associated with the scien-
1.4 Based on information found in Figure 1.1, indicate tific method in the order in which they are normally
whether each of the following statements is true or encountered as the scientific method is applied to a
false. problem.
a. Chemistry and zoology are both classified as bio- a. scientific law
logical sciences. b. scientific fact
b. Organic chemistry is the chemistry subdiscipline c. scientific theory
that focuses on non-carbon-containing substances. d. experiment
c. General chemistry is the chemistry subdiscipline e. scientific hypothesis
that focuses on the fundamental laws and con- 1.9 Classify each of the following hypotheses as scientific
cepts of chemistry. hypotheses or nonscientific hypotheses.
d. Biological science disciplines primarily study vari- a. In northern climates cars rust faster during the
ous aspects of matter and energy. winter months than during the summer months
because of the use of salt on roads.
b. The purpose of life for human beings is to collect
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY
as many material possessions as possible.
(SEC. 1.2)
c. Birds can perch on electrical transmission lines
1.5 Classify each of the following scientific research en- without consequences because their feet contain
deavors relating to a newly synthesized material as in- a shock-resistant material.
volving basic research or applied research. d. John Stockton is the greatest point guard in NBA
a. determination of the melting and freezing points history because he took a chemistry class during
of the material each year in high school.
b. determination of its properties relative to use as a 1.10 Classify each of the following hypotheses as scientific
motor oil additive hypotheses or nonscientific hypotheses.
c. study of its decomposition behavior at a high a. Karl Malone is the greatest power forward in NBA
temperature history because he was born in Louisiana.
d. study of its properties relative to use as a flame b. The author of this textbook is bald because he
retardant for household draperies chewed his food too fast as a child.
1.6 Classify each of the following scientific research en- c. The force of gravity exerted upon an object is re-
deavors relating to a newly synthesized material as in- lated to the color of the object.
volving basic research or applied research. d. Copper and gold do not possess the characteristic
a. determination of the electrical conductivity of the silver-gray color of other metals because they al-
material at low temperatures ways contain color-changing impurities.
1.11 Classify each of the following statements as a scientific of the listed scientific hypotheses could be eliminated
fact, scientific law, or scientific hypothesis. by determining that
a. Metal objects, when thrown out a window, always a. two balls have the same mass?
fall to the ground. b. three balls have the same mass?
b. The boiling point of water dereases with in- c. there are two masses among three balls?
creasing altitude because air is colder at higher d. there are two masses among four balls?
altitudes. 1.19 Correctly complete each of the following sentences
c. A yellow flame is always produced when table salt by placing the word qualitative or quantitative in the
is placed in the flame of a gas burner. blank.
d. Since the car will not start, its battery is probably a. The statement that the odor from the sauerkraut
dead. simmering on the stove is very strong is a
1.12 Classify each of the following statements as a scientific statement.
fact, scientific law, or scientific hypothesis. b. The observation that most geese fly south in the
a. Carbon dioxide is a gas whose density is greater winter is a observation.
than that of air. c. The determination that all except three of the
b. Analysis of a water sample showed the presence kernels in a bag of microwave popcorn popped
of 5.3 parts per million of arsenic. within 4 minutes of microwave oven operation is a
c. The boiling point of water always decreases as at- determination.
mospheric pressure decreases. d. The velocity measurement 62 miles per hour is an
d. Positive and negative particles repel each other example of data.
because of the sound waves that they emit. 1.20 Correctly complete each of the following sentences
1.13 Indicate whether each of the following pairings of by placing the word qualitative or quantitative in the
concepts is correct or incorrect. blank.
a. scientific theory — validated scientific hypothesis a. The observation that burning a newspaper leaves
b. scientific law — tentative scientific theory behind a black residue is a observation.
c. scientific fact — reproducible observation b. The statement that there are 61 students seated in
d. scientific hypothesis — generalization summariz- the lecture room is a statement.
ing scientific facts c. The determination that the thickness of an orange
1.14 Indicate whether each of the following pairings of peel is 0.35 inches is a determination.
concepts is correct or incorrect. d. The water flow rate 612 gallons per second is an
a. scientific hypothesis — tentative explanation example of data.
b. scientific law — validated scientific theory 1.21 A researcher studies the behavior of a fixed amount of
c. scientific fact — data from a well-defined a gas under constant temperature conditions with the
experiment following results:
d. scientific theory — generalization summarizing a. At a pressure of 4.0 atmospheres the gas occupies
scientific facts a volume of 2.0 liters.
1.15 Constructively criticize the statement “You needn’t b. At a pressure of 1.0 atmosphere the gas occupies a
take it too seriously; after all, it’s only a theory.” volume of 8.0 liters.
1.16 Constructively criticize the statement “The results c. At a pressure of 2.0 atmospheres the gas occupies
of the experiment do not agree with the theory. a volume of 4.0 liters.
Something must be wrong with the experiment.” d. At a pressure of 8.0 atmospheres the gas occupies
1.17 Assume that you have four pennies with unknown a volume of 1.0 liter.
mint dates and four hypotheses concerning these What generalization (scientific law) concerning the re-
dates: (1) all dates are the same; (2) two different lationship between volume and pressure, under the
dates are present; (3) three different dates are present; conditions of the experiments, can be obtained from
and (4) all dates are different. Which of the listed sci- these data?
entific hypotheses could be eliminated by determining 1.22 A researcher studies the behavior of a gas under con-
that stant temperature and constant volume conditions
a. two pennies have the same date? with the following results:
b. two pennies have different dates? a. 10.0 grams of gas exerted a pressure of 4.0
c. two of three pennies have the same date? atmospheres.
d. three pennies have different dates? b. 40.0 grams of gas exerted a pressure of 16.0
1.18 Assume that you have four red balls of equal size and atmospheres.
four hypotheses concerning the masses of the balls: c. 5.0 grams of gas exerted a pressure of 2.0
(1) each ball has a different mass; (2) there are balls atmospheres.
of two masses; (3) balls of three different masses are d. 20.0 grams of gas exerted a pressure of 8.0
present; and (4) all balls have the same mass. Which atmospheres.
What generalization (scientific law) concerning the re- 1.26 The phrase “It has been proved scientifically” is rarely
lationship between amount of gas and pressure, under used by scientists. Explain why.
the conditions of the experiments, can be obtained 1.27 Why is it useless to conduct an experiment under un-
from these data? controlled conditions?
1.23 What are the differences between a scientific law and 1.28 What are the two important purposes that scientific
a societal law? theories serve?
1.24 What is the reason for repeating experiments several 1.29 What is the difference between a qualitative observa-
times before developing a scientific law based on the tion and a quantitative observation?
experiments? 1.30 If a scientific theory is false, how will the scientific
1.25 Why is it important that scientific data be published? method, applied over time, reveal that such is the case?
Multiple-Choice Practice Test

It is intended that students use this 10-question multiple choice test on concepts covered in this chapter as an aid in reviewing
chapter subject matter when preparing for an upcoming examination. For many of the questions, there may be more than one
correct response (choice d) or no correct respons (choice e). The answers to these questions are given at the end of this section
rather than at the back of the book.
MC 1.1 The scientific discipline called chemistry is a disci- MC 1.5 Which of the following statements are examples of
pline that qualitative data?
a. is totally independent of all other scientific a. The odor from the sauerkraut simmering on the
disciplines. stove is very strong.
b. has some overlap with other physical sciences but b. The piece of ribbon is 17.2 centimeters long.
no overlap with biological sciences. c. All except three of the kernels in a bag of micro-
c. has totally rigid boundaries. wave popcorn have popped.
d. more than one correct response d. more than one correct response
e. no correct response e. no correct response
MC 1.2 Which of the following is a correct pairing of concepts? MC 1.6 Which of the following pairings of terms are
a. general chemistry; fundamental laws and concepts correct?
of chemistry a. scientific theory and validated scientific
b. inorganic chemistry; chemistry of carbon-contain- hypothesis
ing substances b. scientific law and unvalidated scientific hypothesis
c. organic chemistry; chemistry of non-carbon-con- c. fact and valid observation
taining substances d. more than one correct response
d. more than one correct response e. no correct response
e. no correct response MC 1.7 Which of the following statements concerning a
MC 1.3 Which of the following scientific research endeav- scientific theory is correct?
ors would be classified as basic research rather than applied a. It is a scientific law that has been tested and vali-
research? dated over a long period of time.
a. research on a substance’s solubility in various b. It allows scientists to predict what will happen in
solvents yet-to-be-run experiments.
b. research on a substance’s toxicity relative to its use c. It is an explanation that is considered to be abso-
as a food additive lute truth.
c. research on a substance’s magnetic properties at d. more than one correct response
low temperatures e. no correct response
d. more than one correct response MC 1.8 Which of the following statements concerning a
e. no correct response scientific law is correct?
MC 1.4 Which of the following is a correct ordering of ter- a. It is an explanation for why a given occurrence
minology as it is normally encountered in the application of happens.
the scientific method to a research problem? b. It is a generalized summary of facts about a natu-
a. scientific law, scientific hypothesis, scientific theory ral phenomenon.
b. scientific fact, scientific law, scientific hypothesis c. It is always formulated in terms of a mathematical
c. scientific law, scientific fact, scientific theory equation.
MC 1.9 Which of the following statements are examples of ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE CHOICE PRACTICE TEST
a scientific hypothesis?
a. The metal gold is a solid at room temperature. MC 1.1 e MC 1.5 a MC 1.9 b
b. The metal gold is yellow in color because of air MC 1.2 a MC 1.6 d MC 1.10 c
bubbles always present in its structure. MC 1.3 d MC 1.7 b
c. The metal gold has a density greater than that of MC 1.4 d MC 1.8 b
the metal silver.
d. more than one correct response
e. no correct response
MC 1.10 Which of the following concepts applies to both
scientific hypotheses and non-scientific hypotheses?
a. can be tested using experimental methods
b. pertains only to substances that can be seen
c. offers an explanation for several observations
C H A P T E R
2
Numbers from Measurements
2.1 The Importance of Measurement

2.2 Exact and Inexact Numbers
2.3 Accuracy, Precision, and Error
2.4 Uncertainty in Measurements
2.5 Significant Figures
2.6 Significant Figures and Mathematical Operations
2.7 Expressing Numbers in Scientific Notation
2.8 Mathematical Operations in Scientific Notation
2.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF MEASUREMENT

Student Learning Focus: Describe why measurement is important in the study of chemistry and be
able to list types of measurements chemists commonly make.
It would be extremely difficult for a carpenter to build cabinets without being able to use
tools such as hammers, saws, drills, rulers, straight edges, and T squares. They are a carpen-
ter’s “tools of the trade.” Chemists also have “tools of the trade.” Their most used tool is the
one called measurement. Measurement is the determination of the dimensions, capacity,
quantity, or extent of something. In chemical laboratories, the most common types of mea-
surements are those of mass, volume, length, time, temperature, pressure, and concentration.
Understanding measurement is indispensable in the study of chemistry. Questions
such as “how much …?”, “how long …?”, and “how many …?” simply cannot be answered
without resorting to measurements. It is the purpose of this chapter and the next to help
students acquire the necessary background to deal properly with measurement. Almost
all of the material in these two chapters is mathematical. An understanding of mathemat-
ics is a necessity for students of chemistry who want their encounters with the subject
to be successful. The following analogy is appropriate for the situation. Physical exertion
17
18 Chapter 2 • Numbers from Measurements
in sports can be fun, relaxing, and challenging for those in good physical shape. But for
those not in good physical condition, such exertion is not satisfying and may even be
downright painful (especially the day after). Being “in good shape” mathematically has
the same effect on the study of chemistry. It can cause that study to be a very satisfying
and enjoyable experience. On the other hand, a lack of the necessary mathematical skills
can cause “chemical exercise” to be somewhat painful. The message should be clear. The
contents of this chapter (and Chapter 3) must be taken very seriously. Skimming over this
material is a sure invitation to frustration and struggle with the chemical topics that follow.
2.2 EXACT AND INEXACT NUMBERS

Student Learning Focus: Be able to classify a number as an exact number or an inexact number
based on the context of its use.
In scientific work, numbers are grouped in two categories: exact numbers and inexact
numbers. An exact number is a number that has a value with no uncertainty in it; that
is, it is known exactly. Exact numbers occur in definitions (for example, there are exactly
12 objects in a dozen, not 12.01 or 12.02), in counting (for example, there can be 7 people
in a room, but never 6.99 or 7.02), and in simple fractions (for example, 1/3, 3/5, and 5/9).
An inexact number is a number that has a value with a degree of uncertainty in
it. Inexact numbers result any time a measurement is made. It is impossible to make an
exact measurement; some uncertainty will always be present. Flaws in measuring-device
construction, improper calibration of an instrument, and the skills (or lack of skills) pos-
sessed by a person using a measuring device all contribute to error (uncertainty).
2.3 ACCURACY, PRECISION, AND ERROR

Student Learning Focus: Understand how the terms precision and accuracy differ in meaning and
how systematic and random errors affect both precision and accuracy.
Two important terms relating to the uncertainties associated with measurement values
are precision and accuracy. Although these terms are used somewhat interchangeably in
nonscientific discussions, they have distinctly different meanings in science.
Precision is an indicator of how close a series of measurements on the same object
are to each other. Note that precision determination involves a series of measurements;
it is not proper to speak of the precision of a single measurement made on an object.
Accuracy is an indicator of how close a measurement (or the average of multiple mea-
surements) comes to a true or accepted value. The true value for a measurement is the
most accurate currently known value for a measured quantity.
The activity of throwing darts at a target nicely illustrates the difference between
the terms accuracy and precision (see Fig 2.1). Accuracy refers to how close the darts
FIGURE 2.1 The

difference between Good accuracy Poor accuracy Poor accuracy
precision and accuracy. Good precision Good precision Poor precision
Chapter 2 • Numbers from Measurements 19
are to the center (bull’s-eye) of the target. Precision refers to how close the darts are to True values for
each other. measurements, such
Both the precision and accuracy of a series of measurements usually relate directly as the melting point or
density of a substance,
to the actual physical measuring device used. You would expect, and it is most often the are usually tabulated in
case, that the precision and accuracy of temperature readings obtained from a thermom- reference handbooks such
eter with a scale marked in tenths of a degree would be better than readings obtained as the CRC Handbook of
from a thermometer whose scale has only degree marks. A series of readings obtained Chemistry and Physics.
from a stopwatch whose dial shows tenths of a second will usually be more precise and Such handbook values are,
however, not absolutely
accurate than readings from a stopwatch that shows only seconds. invariant. A “true value”
Both precision and accuracy depend not only on the measuring device used but may change with time as
also on the technical skill of the person making the measurement. How well can that better instrumentation is
person read the numerical scale of the instrument? How well can that person calibrate the developed for determining
instrument before its use? the measurement value.
Thus, it is possible that
Normally, high accuracy accompanies high precision. However, high precision and different editions of a
low accuracy are also possible. For example, results obtained using a poorly calibrated reference handbook will
instrument could give high precision but low accuracy. All measurements would be off by give slightly different
a constant amount as a result of the improper calibration. values for the same
Errors in measurement can be classified as either systematic errors or random measurement.
errors. A systematic error is a “constant” error associated with an experimental system
itself. Examples of systematic errors are incorrect calibration of an instrument; a flaw in
a piece of equipment, such as a chipped weight in a balance; or presence of an interfer-
ing substance within the experimental system. Systematic error produces measurement
values that are all too high or all too low compared to the true measurement value.
Systematic error affects the accuracy of measurements but not necessarily the precision
of measurements.
A random error is error caused by uncontrollable variables in an experiment. Such
error, which includes items such as momentary changes in air currents or temperature
near a sensitive instrument, is associated with all measurements. A variation in the angle
from which a measurement scale is viewed will cause random error. Random error, in
the absence of systematic error, produces some measurement values that are higher and
some measurement values that are lower than the true measurement value. Precise mea-
surements are an indication of minimal random error.
Accurate measurements have low systematic error and generally low random error.
However, it is possible to obtain accurate measurements (based on averaging) in which
high random error is present if the “highs and lows” balance each other to produce an
average that is close to the true measurement value.
EXAMPLE 2.1 Determining the Accuracy and Precision of a Series

of Measurements
Two teams of three students each visually count the number of people entering the main
gate of a football stadium in the 5-minute period just prior to kickoff. Their individual
counts are
Team A Team B
Miranda: 577 people Alyssa: 574 people
Brinley: 579 people Cassidy: 585 people
Brianna: 581 people Brandi: 593 people
An “electronic counter” indicates that 581 people passed through the gate in the desig-
nated time period.
a. Which person’s count is the most accurate?
b. Which team’s count is the most accurate?
c. Which person’s count is the most precise?
d. Which team’s count is the most precise?
SOLUTION
a. Briana’s count is the most accurate because her count is the same as the electronic count.
b. The average count of 579 for team A is closer to 581 than the average count of 584
for team B. Thus, team A made the more accurate count.
c. Because each person made only one count, the term precision does not apply.
d. Team A’s counts range from a high of 581 to a low of 577, which gives a spread of
4. Team B’s counts range from a high of 593 to a low of 574, which gives a spread
of 19. The smaller spread makes Team A’s counts more precise.
Answer Double Check: Do the “team averages” calculated in part (b) have reasonable
magnitudes? Yes. Both team averages are numbers that fall between the highest and low-
est values in the individual counts, a requirement for a correct average.
2.4 UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENTS

Student Learning Focus: Understand how uncertainty in a measurement arises and be able to
determine the proper uncertainty level for a given measurement.
Every measurement As noted in Section 2.2, every measurement carries a degree of uncertainty or error. Even
has some degree of when very elaborate and expensive measuring devices are used, some degree of uncer-
uncertainty associated tainty will be present in the measurement.
with it.
To illustrate how measurement uncertainty arises, let us consider how two different
thermometer scales, illustrated in Figure 2.2, are used to measure a given temperature.
31 31
30 30
29.2 29.25
29 29
28 28
FIGURE 2.2 Measuring

a temperature. A
portion of the degree 0 0
scale on each of the
two differently scaled
thermometers has been
magnified. Thermometer A Thermometer B
Determining the temperature involves determining the height of the mercury column in
the thermometer. The scale on the left in Figure 2.2 is marked off in one-degree inter-
vals. Using this scale, we can say with certainty that the temperature is between 29 and
30 degrees. We can further say that the actual temperature is closer to 29 degrees than
to 30 and estimate it to be 29.2 degrees. The scale on the right has more subdivisions,
being marked off in tenths of a degree rather than in degrees. Using this scale, we can
definitely say that the temperature is between 29.2 and 29.3 degrees and can estimate
it to be 29.25 degrees. Note how both temperature readings contain some digits (all
those except the last one) that are exactly known and one digit (the last one) that is
estimated. It is this last digit, the estimated one, that reflects uncertainty in the measure-
ment. Note also that the uncertainty in the second temperature reading is less than that
in the first reading—an uncertainty in the hundredths place compared to an uncertainty
in the tenths place.
Only one estimated digit is ever recorded as part of a measurement. It would be In reading a measurement
incorrect for a scientist to report that the height of the mercury column in Figure 2.2, scale, all digits known for
certain are recorded plus
as read on the scale on the right, corresponds to a temperature of 29.247 degrees. The one estimated digit. It is
value 29.247 contains two estimated digits (the 4 and the 7) and would indicate a mea- wrong to record more
surement with smaller uncertainty than is actually obtainable with that particular mea- than one estimated digit.
suring device.
The magnitude of the uncertainty in the last recorded digit in a measurement (the
estimated digit) may be indicated using a “plus–minus” notation. The following three
mass measurements illustrate this notation.
15 { 1 gram
15.3 { 0.1 gram
15.34 { 0.03 gram
The measurement 15 { 1 gram designates a mass that lies between 14 grams and 16
grams; where the mass lies within this range is not known. The measurement 15.34 { 0.03
grams designates a mass between 15.31 and 15.37 grams; where the mass lies within this
range is again not known.
Most often the uncertainty in the last recorded digit is one unit (as in the first two
mass measurements), but it may be larger (as in the third mass measurement). In this text
we will follow the almost universal practice of dropping the “plus–minus” notation if the
magnitude of the uncertainty is one unit. Thus, in the absence of “plus–minus” notation
you will be expected to assume that there is an uncertainty of one unit in the last re-
corded digit. A measurement reported simply as 27.3 inches means 27.3 { 0.1 inch. Only
in the situation where the uncertainty is greater than one unit in the last recorded digit
will the amount of the uncertainty be explicitly shown.
Example 2.2 relates measurement uncertainty to actual measuring-device scales.
EXAMPLE 2.2 Recording Measurements to the Proper Uncertainty Level
What should the recorded uncertainty be ({0.1 unit, {0.01 unit, etc.) for measurements
made using the following measuring-device scales.
a. a thermometer scale with markings in 1 degree intervals
b. a measuring cup scale with markings in 100 fluid ounce intervals
c. a ruler scale with markings in 10 centimeter intervals
d. a barometer scale with markings in 0.1 of a millimeter intervals
SOLUTION
In each case the recorded uncertainty should have one estimated digit beyond the mark-
ings on the measuring device.
a. For a scale graduated in units of one, readings should be made to the closest 0.1 of
a unit; thus, the recorded uncertainty should be {0.1 degree.
b. Since the scale markings are in 100 unit intervals, the reading should be estimated
to the closest tens unit ({10 fluid ounces).
c. For a scale graduated in units of ten, readings should be made to the closest ones
unit ({1 centimeter).
d. This time, the measurement should be made to the closest 0.01 of a unit because the
scale intervals are 0.1 unit in size ({0.01 millimeter).
Answer Double Check: Are the answers reasonable in terms of uncertainty? Yes. In each
case the recorded uncertainty is smaller, by a factor of 10, than the scale unit interval.
Scientists, when making measurements, always attempt to minimize the uncertainty

associated with the measurement. Uncertainty, however, cannot be completely eliminated.
The two most common origins for uncertainty in a measurement are the following:
1. Human error: A person’s hands have limits as to how well they can manipulate
laboratory equipment and a person’s eyes can see (read) only so well. There are
limits to how well a person can calibrate an instrument.
2. Instrument error: Instruments themselves can have imperfections (flaws) associ-
ated with their manufacture. Proper calibration of an instrument does not always
negate such manufacturing defects. Corrosion problems as well as “wear and tear”
on a heavily used instrument can also contribute to instrument error.
2.5 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

Student Learning Focus: Be able to determine the number of significant figures present in a given
measurement and also the uncertainty associated with the measurement.
The term significant Because measurements are never exact (Sec. 2.4), two types of information must be
figures is often verbalized conveyed whenever a numerical value for a measurement is recorded: (1) the magnitude
in shortened form as “sig
of the measurement and (2) the uncertainty of the measurement. The magnitude is
figs.”
indicated by the digit values. Uncertainty is indicated by the number of significant figures
recorded. Significant figures are the digits in any measurement that are known with
certainty plus one digit that is uncertain. To summarize, in equation form,
Number of significant figures = All certain digits + One uncertain digit
Determining the number of significant figures in a measurement is not always as

straightforward as Example 2.2 infers. In this example, you knew the type of instrument
used for each measurement and its limitations because you made the measurement. Quite
often when someone else makes a measurement, such information is not available. All
that is known is the reported final result—the numerical value of the measured quantity.
In this situation questions often arise about the “significance” of various digits in the mea-
surement. For example, consider the published value of the distance from the earth to
the sun, which is 93,000,000 miles. Intuition tells you that it is highly improbable that this
distance is known to the closest mile. You suspect that this is an estimated distance. To
what digit has this number been estimated? Is it to the nearest million miles, the closest
hundred thousand miles, the nearest ten thousand miles, or what?
A set of guidelines has been developed to aid scientists in interpreting the sig-
nificance of reported measurements or results calculated from measurements. Four rules
constitute the guidelines, one rule for the digits 1 through 9 and three rules for the digit 0.
A zero in a measurement may or may not be significant depending on its location in the
sequence of digits forming the numerical value for the measurement. There is a rule for
each of three classes of zeros—leading zeros, confined zeros, and trailing zeros.
Rule 1 The digits 1 through 9 inclusive (all of the nonzero digits) always count as Nonzero digits are always
significant.
significant figures.
14.232 five significant figures

3.11 three significant figures
244.6 four significant figures
Rule 2 Leading zeros are zeros that occur at the start of a number, that is, zeros that pre- Leading zeros are never
cede all nonzero digits. Located between the decimal point and the first nonzero significant.
digit, such zeros do not count as significant figures. Their function is to determine
the position of the decimal point. (The single zero often written to the left of the
decimal point is also never significant; its function is simply to draw attention to
where the decimal point is located. It is not considered to be a leading zero as it
does not help determine decimal point location.)
0.00045 two significant figures

0.0113 three significant figures
0.000000072 two significant figures
Leading zeros are always to the left of the first nonzero digit and to the right of
the decimal place.
Rule 3 Confined zeros are zeros between nonzero digits. Such zeros always count as Confined zeros are always
significant figures. significant.

6007 four significant figures
Rule 4 Trailing zeros are zeros at the end of a number. They are significant if (a) there Trailing zeros are
is a decimal point present in the number or (b) they carry overbars. Otherwise sometimes significant.
trailing zeros are not significant.
The following numbers, all containing decimal points, illustrate condition (a) of
rule 4.

4300.00 six significant figures
By condition (b), trailing zeros in numbers lacking an explicitly shown decimal point
become significant when marked with a bar above the zero(s).
36,000 five significant figures

36,000 four significant figures
36,000 three significant figures
10,020 five significant figures
Another method, more In cases involving trailing zeros where neither a decimal point nor overbar(s) is present,
convenient than rule 4, “confusion exists” because these zeros may or may not be significant. For example, it is not
for dealing with the possible to definitely know how many significant figures are present in the measurement
significance of trailing
zeros involves expressing
5600 grams (no decimal place explicitly shown). There are three possible interpretations—
the number in scientific two, three, or four significant figures—depending on the uncertainty associated with the
notation. In this notation, measurement (5600 {100, 5600 {10, and 5600 {1). Standard operating procedure in
to be presented in Section such cases, where no other information about the measurement is available, is to assume
2.7, only significant digits the largest of the uncertainties possible for the measurement. Thus, the measurement 5600
are shown.
grams contains two significant figures. Generally, then, in cases involving trailing zeros
where neither a decimal point nor overbar(s) is present, the trailing zeros are assumed to
be nonsignificant.
93,000,000 two significant figures

360,000 two significant figures
330,300 four significant figures
6310 three significant figures
EXAMPLE 2.3 Determining the Number of Significant Figures

in a Numerical Value
Determine the number of significant figures in the numerical value in each of the follow-
ing statements.
a. A wire has a diameter of 0.05082 inch.

b. The mass of the earth is 6,600,000,000,000,000,000,000 tons.
c. A hospital patient’s blood glucose level was determined to be 4850 micrograms per
milliliter of blood.
d. Normal body temperature for a chickadee is 41.0⬚C.
SOLUTION
a. There are four significant figures. The leading zero is not significant (rule 2) and the
confined zero is significant (rule 3).
b. There are two significant figures. The trailing zeros are not significant because no
decimal point or overbar notation is present (rule 4).
c. There are three significant figures. The trailing zero is not significant (rule 4).
d. There are three significant figures. The trailing zero is significant because a decimal
point is present (rule 4).
It is important to remember what is “significant” about significant figures. The num-

ber of significant figures in a measurement conveys information about the uncertainty as-
sociated with the measurement. The “location” of the last significant digit in the numerical
value for a measurement specifies the measurement’s uncertainty: Is the last significant
digit located in the hundredths, tenths, ones, or tens position, etc.? Consider the following
measurement values (with the last significant digit in color for emphasis).
4620.0 has five significant figures and an uncertainty of tenths.
4620 has three significant figures and an uncertainty in the tens place.
462,000 has three significant figures and an uncertainty in the thousands place.
All numbers obtained by measurement have uncertainty. By convention, this uncertainty
is assumed to be in the number’s final significant digit.
EXAMPLE 2.4 Determining the Number of Significant Figures and

Magnitude of Uncertainty in a Numerical Value
The monthly national sales volume for a particular automobile model was verbally re-
ported as two hundred and five thousand units. What meaning, in terms of significant
figures and magnitude of uncertainty, is conveyed by each of the following written nota-
tions for this number?
a. 205,000 b. 205,000 c. 205,000. d. 205,000
SOLUTION
a. Three significant figures are present in this number; the confined zero is significant
but the trailing zeros are not. Since the last significant digit, the 5, is located in the
fourth place to the left of the understood decimal point (the thousands place), the
uncertainty is {1000.
b. This number has four significant figures. The overbar above the first of the three
trailing zeros makes this zero significant. The last significant digit, the zero with
the overbar, occupies the hundreds place in the number. Thus, the uncertainty
is {100.
c. There are six significant figures present. Explicitly placing a decimal point at the end
of the number makes all the trailing zeros significant. The uncertainty is {1 since
the last of the trailing zeros is in the ones position.
d. With the overbar notation present on all trailing zeros, all six digits present are signif-
icant. The uncertainty is {1 since the last of the trailing zeros is in the ones position.
EXAMPLE 2.5 Uncertainty and the Number of Significant Figures

in a Measurement
A particular type of chemical balance is designed to display masses with an uncertainty of
{0.001 gram. How many significant figures should be reported when weighing samples
with each of the following approximate masses on this balance?
a. approximately 25 grams
b. approximately 2 grams
c. approximately 1 gram
d. approximately 2/10 gram
SOLUTION
a. Five significant figures—there will be two digits to the left of the decimal point
(24 or 25) and three digits after the decimal point. 25.035 gram would be a possible
mass value.
b. Four significant figures—there will be one digit to the left of the decimal point
(1 or 2) and three digits after the decimal point. 1.993 gram would be a possible
mass value.
c. Three or four significant figures depending upon whether the actual mass is greater
or less than one. 1.014 gram and 0.991 gram would be possible mass values.
d. Three significant figures—the digit to the left of the decimal point is a zero that is
not significant. 0.211 gram would be a possible mass value.
Answer Double Check: Are the answers reasonable in terms of the number of recorded
digits? Yes. Each of the masses has three digits after the decimal point, a requirement for
a measurement where the uncertainty is {0.001.
Figure 2.3 summarizes, in diagram form, the four rules used in determining how
many significant figures a measured number possesses.
Significant
Figures
The digits in a measurement known with
certainty plus one estimated digit.
Nonzero Digits The Digit Zero

The digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, Zeros may or may not be
and 9 are always significant. significant, depending on
whether they mark the decimal
point or indicate a measured
value.
Leading Zeros Confined Zeros Trailing Zeros

Zeros located at the beginning Zeros located between Zeros located at the end of a
of a number are NEVER nonzero digits are ALWAYS number are significant if the
significant. significant. number has an explicitly
shown decimal point or the
zeros carry overbars.
FIGURE 2.3 The

rules for determining 0.0050007000
how many significant
figures are present in a Not significant Significant Significant because
measured number. of decimal point
2.6 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES AND MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS

Student Learning Focus: Be able to round off a measured value to a specified number of significant
figures. Be able to determine the allowable number of significant figures in a calculated result
obtained from measured values.
When measurements are added, subtracted, multiplied, or divided, consideration must be

given to the number of significant figures in the computed result. Mathematical opera-
tions should not increase (or decrease) the uncertainty of experimental measurements.
Concern about the number of significant figures in a calculated number is particu-
larly critical when an electronic calculator is used to do the arithmetic of the calculation.
Hand calculators now in common use are not programmed to take significant figures into
account. Consequently, the digital readouts on them more often than not display more
digits than are needed. It is a mistake to record these extra digits, since they have no sig-
nificance; that is, they are not significant figures (see Fig 2.4).
To record correctly the numbers obtained through calculations, students must be
able to (1) round off numbers to a specified number of significant figures and (2) deter-
mine the allowable number of significant figures in a calculated result based on a set of
operational rules. We will consider these skills in the order listed.
Rounding Off Numbers

When calculator answers are obtained that contain too many digits, it is necessary to drop
the unneeded (nonsignificant) digits, a process that is called rounding off. Rounding
off is the process of deleting unwanted (nonsignificant) digits from a calculated number.
Three simple rules govern the process.
Rule 1 If the first digit to be dropped is less than 5, that digit and all digits that follow it
are simply dropped.
Thus, 62.312 rounded off to three significant figures becomes 62.3.
FIGURE 2.4 The

digital readout on an
electronic calculator
usually shows more
digits than are
needed or justified.
Electronic calculators
are not programmed
to take significant
figures into account.
(Texas Instruments
Incorporated)
Rule 2 If the first digit to be dropped is a digit greater than 5, or a 5 followed by digits
other than all zeros, the excess digits are all dropped and the last retained digit is
increased in value by one unit.
Thus, 62.782 and 62.558 rounded off to three significant figures become, respec-
tively, 62.8 and 62.6.
An additional point Rule 3 If the first digit to be dropped is a 5 not followed by any other digit or a 5 fol-
about rounding off is that lowed only by zeros, an odd–even rule applies. Drop the 5 and any zeros that
numbers are not rounded
follow it and then
sequentially. In rounding
the number 4.548 to two a. increase the last retained digit by one unit if it is odd, or
significant figures we do
b. leave the last retained digit the same if it is even.
not round it first to 4.55
and then to 4.6. When Thus, 62.650 and 62.350 rounded to three significant figures become, respec-
rounding we look at the
tively, 62.6 (even rule) and 62.4 (odd rule). The number zero as a last retained
first number to the right
of the last retained digit digit is always considered an even number; thus, 62.050 rounded to three signifi-
and base the rounding cant figures becomes 62.0.
operation on its value.
The number 4.548 rounds These rounding rules must be modified slightly when digits to the left of the
to 4.5 because the first decimal point are to be dropped. To maintain the inferred position of the decimal
number to the right of point in such situations, nonsignificant zeros must replace all of the dropped digits that
the last retained digit, 4, are to the left of the inferred decimal point. Parts (b) and (d) of Example 2.6 illustrate
has a value of less than 5
this point.
(rule 1).
EXAMPLE 2.6 Rounding Numbers to a Specified Number

of Significant Figures
Round off each of the following numbers to two significant figures.
a. 25.7 b. 432,117 c. 0.435 d. 15,500
SOLUTION
a. Rule 2 applies. The last retained digit (the 5) is increased in value by one unit.
25.7 becomes 26
b. Since the first digit to be dropped is a 2, rule 1 applies.

432,117 becomes 430,000
Note that to maintain the position of the inferred decimal point, nonsignificant zeros
must replace all of the “dropped” digits. This will always be the case when digits to
the left of the inferred decimal place are “dropped.”
c. Rule 3 applies. The first and only digit to be dropped is a 5. The last retained digit (the 3)
is an odd number, so, using the odd–even rule, its value is increased by one unit.
0.435 becomes 0.44
d. This is a rule 3 situation again. Since an odd digit (a 5) occupies the second signifi-
cant figure place, its value is increased by one.
15,500 becomes 16,000
Note again that nonsignificant zeros must take the place of all digits that are
“dropped” to the left of the inferred decimal place.
Operational Rules for Mathematical Operations

Calculations should not increase or decrease the uncertainty in measurements. Two op-
erational rules exist to help ensure that this is the case. One rule covers the operations
of multiplication and division and the other the operations of addition and subtraction.
Rule 1 Multiplication and Division. In multiplication and division, the number of sig-
nificant figures in the product or quotient is the same as in the number in the
calculation that contains the fewest significant figures.
6.038 × 2.57 = 15.51766 (calculator answer)

= 15.5 (correct answer)
This number limits the answer
to three significant figures.
Rule 2 Addition and Subtraction. In addition and subtraction of a series of measure-

ments, the uncertainty in the answer should be the same as that of the measure-
ment in the series that has the greatest uncertainty.
Position of uncertainty
347 Ones position
+ 2.03 Hundredths position
+ 23.6 Tenths position
372.63 (calculator answer)
373 (correct answer)
The measurement with the greatest uncertainty in this series of numbers is 347,
which is uncertain to the ones position. Thus, the calculator answer must be
rounded to the ones position, the position of greatest uncertainty.
Note that for multiplication and division (rule 1), significant figures are considered, and
that for addition and subtraction (rule 2), uncertainties are considered. The answers from
either addition or subtraction can have more or fewer significant figures than any of the
numbers that have been added or subtracted, as is shown in Example 2.9.
EXAMPLE 2.7 Predicting the Number of Significant Figures That Should

Be Present in the Answer to a Multiplication Problem
Without actually doing any multiplications, indicate the number of significant figures that
should be present in the answer to each of the following multiplications. Assume that all
numbers are measured quantities.
a. 6.00 * 6.00 * 6.00
b. 6.00 * 0.600 * 60.60
c. 0.006 * 0.060 * 0.600
d. 60,600 * 6060 * 606
SOLUTION
a. Each number to be multiplied contains three significant figures. Thus, the answer
should also contain three significant figures.
b. The first two input numbers contain three significant figures and the third number
contains four significant figures. Only three significant figures should be present in
the answer.
c. The input numbers contain, respectively, one, two, and three significant figures. The
one significant figure input number limits the answer to one significant figure.
d. All three input numbers contain three significant figures. Thus, the answer should
contain three significant figures.
Answer Double Check: Are the answers reasonable in terms of the number of signifi-
cant figures present? Yes. Each answer contains no more significant figures than the least
number found in the numbers used to generate the answer.
EXAMPLE 2.8 Expressing Multiplication/Division Answers to the Proper

Number of Significant Figures
Perform the following computations, all of which involve multiplication and/or division.
Express your answers to the proper number of significant figures. Assume that all num-
bers are measured quantities.
1,810,000
a. 3.751 * 0.42 b.
3.1453
1800.0 3.130 * 3.140
c. d.
6.0000 3.15
SOLUTION
a. The calculator answer to this problem is
3.751 * 0.42 = 1.57542
The input number with the least number of significant figures is 0.42, which has two
significant figures. Thus the calculator answer must be rounded off to two signifi-
cant figures.
1.57542 becomes 1.6
(calculator answer) (correct answer)
b. The calculator answer to this problem is
1,810,000
= 575,461.8
3.1453
The input number 1,810,000 contains three significant figures and the input number
3.1453 has five significant figures. Thus the correct answer is limited to three significant
figures and is obtained by rounding the calculator answer to three significant figures.
575,461.8 becomes 575,000
A decimal point is not explicitly shown in the number 575,000 since doing so would
make the trailing zeros significant.
c. The calculator answer to this problem is
1800.0
= 300
6.0000
Both input numbers contain five significant figures. Thus the correct answer must
also contain five significant figures.
300 becomes 300.00
Note here how the calculator answer had too few significant figures. Most calcula-
tors cut off zeros after the decimal point even if they are significant. Using too few
significant figures in an answer is just as wrong as using too many.
d. This problem involves both multiplication and division. The calculator answer is In a calculation that
involves more than one
3.130 * 3.140 multiplication–division
= 3.1200634 operation, such as part
3.15
(d) of this example, carry
The input number with the least number of significant figures is 3.15, which con- all of the digits that show
tains three significant figures. Thus, the calculator answer must be rounded off to on your calculator until
three significant figures. you arrive at the final
answer and then round
3.1200634 becomes 3.12 off using the rounding
(calculator answer) (correct answer) rules. Do not round
off at each step in the
calculation.
Answer Double Check: Are the answers reasonable in terms of the number of signifi-
cant figures present? Yes. Each answer contains no more significant figures than the least
number found in the numbers used to generate the answer.
EXAMPLE 2.9 Expressing Addition/Subtraction Answers to the Proper

Number of Significant Figures
Perform the following computations, all of which involve addition or subtraction. Express
your answers to the proper number of significant figures. Assume that all numbers are
measured quantities.
a. 13.01 + 13.001 + 13.010
b. 10.2 + 3.4 + 6.01
c. 0.6700 - 0.6644
d. 34.7 + 0.0007
SOLUTION
a. The calculator answer to this problem is
13.01 + 13.001 + 13.010 = 39.021
Since this is an addition problem, in going from the calculator answer to the correct
answer we must consider uncertainties rather than significant figures. (The multipli-
cation–division rule is based on significant figures and the addition–subtraction rule
is based on uncertainties.)
The uncertainties in the input numbers are
13.01 hundredths
13.001 thousandths
13.010 thousandths
The number 13.01 has the greatest uncertainty (hundredths) and so the last retained
digit in the correct answer should reflect this uncertainty. Hence, the calculator
answer is rounded off to hundredths.
39.021 becomes 39.02

b. The calculator answer to this problem is

10.2 + 3.4 + 6.01 = 19.61
The uncertainty in the first two input numbers is tenths, and the third input num-
ber involves an uncertainty of hundredths. Thus, the last retained digit in the cor-
rect answer will be in the tenths place, the largest uncertainty among the input
numbers.
19.61 becomes 19.6
Note that the input number 3.4 possesses two significant figures and yet the correct
answer contains three significant figures. Why? The number of significant figures is
not the determining factor in addition and subtraction (rule 2) as it is in multiplica-
tion and division (rule 1).
c. The calculator answer to this problem is
0.6700 - 0.6644 = 0.0056
Both input numbers are known to the ten-thousandths place. Thus, the answer
should also have an uncertainty involving the ten-thousandths place.
In this particular problem the calculator answer and the correct answer are the
same, a situation that does not occur very often. The correct answer is 0.0056. Note
that two significant figures were “lost” in the subtraction. The answer has two signifi-
cant figures. The two input numbers each have four significant figures. For addition
and subtraction this is allowable; for multiplication and division it would not be
allowable.
d. The calculator answer to this problem is
34.7 + 0.0007 = 34.7007
The uncertainty in the input number 34.7 is tenths and the uncertainty in the input
number 0.0007 is ten-thousandths. Thus, the calculator answer must be rounded off
to the tenths place.
34.7007 becomes 34.7
The correct answer, 34.7, is the same as one of the input numbers. The message of
this situation is that the number 0.0007 is negligible when added to the number 34.7.
Answer Double Check: Were the answers rounded to the correct number of signifi-
cant figures using the proper rule? Yes. The rounding of calculator answers was done
using uncertainty considerations rather than the number of significant figures in input
numbers. The addition–subtraction rule, which involves uncertainty considerations, was
used rather than the multiplication–division rule, which involves input-number significant
figure considerations.
Example 2.8 was an exercise that involved only multiplication/division operations

and the significant figure rule for these operations was applied in each part. Similarly,
Example 2.9 was an exercise that involved only addition/subtraction operations and the
significant figure rule for such operations was always used. What about the occasionally
encountered situation where both multiplication/division and addition/subtraction are
encountered in the same problem, such as in
23.77 * (1.3 + 2.58 + 6.671)
For such a problem, both calculational significant-figure rules must be applied by using
a two-step approach. First we add the three numbers in parentheses, obtaining an inter-
mediate answer that is rounded based on the addition–subtraction rule. This intermediate
answer is then multiplied by 23.77 to generate a final answer that is then adjusted for
significant figures using the multiplication–division rule.
This “undesirable” situation of having to round twice within the same problem, thus
introducing two rounding errors, is minimized to some degree by using the following
operational rules for the intermediate answer rounding:
1. The intermediate answer is rounded such that one extra digit is maintained (the first
insignificant digit), which is highlighted in a way to denote that it is not significant.
2. This “incorrectly” rounded intermediate answer (one too many digits) is then car-
ried into further steps of the calculation and “correct” rounding occurs with the final
answer.
Following this plan, we solve the preceding problem in this manner.
Addition: (1.3 + 2.58 + 6.671) = 10.551 (calculator answer)
= 10.5 冷 5 冷 (intermediate answer, with one extra digit retained when
rounding using the addition>subtraction rule)
Multiplication: (23.77 * 10.5 冷 5 冷 ) = 250.7735 (calculator answer)
= 251 (correct answer, rounded remembering that 23.77 has four
significant figures and 10.5 冷 5 冷 has only three significant figures)
Note, again, that the just employed “rounding procedures” are used only when both sig-
nificant figure rules (addition/subtraction and multiplication/division) are needed in the
same problem. The reason for doing this is to minimize the rounding errors associated
with having to round twice.
Significant Figures and Exact Numbers

In Section 2.2 we noted that some numbers are exact. Counted numbers, defined num-
bers, and simple fractions all fall into this category. The conventions of significant figures
do not apply to exact numbers because there is no uncertainty associated with them.
Therefore, such numbers, when present in a calculation, will never limit the number of
significant figures in the computational answer; that is, they will have no effect on the
number of significant figures in a calculated result.
An alternative approach to the topic of significant figures and exact numbers is to
view exact numbers as containing an infinite number of significant figures. From this
viewpoint, such numbers will never be the limiting factors in significant-figure consider-
ations. Thus, when we say that there are 3 feet in 1 yard (a definition), both the numbers
3 and 1 are considered to have an infinite number of significant figures.
Multiplication by a Small Whole Number

An interesting significant figure situation arises when a measured quantity is multiplied by
a small whole number (an exact number). There are two approaches to solving this type
of problem with the two approaches often giving a different number of significant figures
in the answer. These two approaches are the following:
1. Treating the problem as a simple multiplication problem and using the multiplication/
division significant figure rule when rounding the calculator answer.
2. Treating the problem as an addition problem in which the measured quantity
is added to itself several times and then rounding the calculator answer using the
addition/subtraction rule.
The simple problem of obtaining the mass of three identical coins, each of which
has a mass of 6.32 grams, nicely illustrates this “dual-approach” situation.
Using the multiplication approach generates 19.0 grams as the correct answer.
3 * 6.32 grams = 18.96 grams (calculator answer)

exact three significant
a number b a figures b = 19.0 grams (correct answer)
The correct answer has three significant figures, the same number present in the input
number 6.32.
Using the addition approach generates 18.96 grams as the correct answer.
6.32 grams
6.32 grams
6.32 grams
18.96 grams (calculator and correct answer)
The correct answer should have an uncertainty in the hundredths place since each of the
input numbers has this uncertainty.
In situations such as the preceding, the operational rule followed in this text will
be to use the addition approach since it often, but not always, allows for an additional
significant figure in the answer. Example 2.10 further explores the situation just discussed.
EXAMPLE 2.10 Significant Figures in Calculations Involving

Multiplication by a Small Whole Number
For a collection of identical 19.13 centimeter-long pencils, what would be the total com-
bined length of the pencils if
a. six pencils are present and the problem is solved using multiplication?
b. six pencils are present and the problem is solved using addition?
c. three pencils are present and the problem is solved using multiplication?
d. three pencils are present and the problem is solved using addition?
SOLUTION
An exact number has a. Using multiplication, the set-up is
no effect on the number
of significant figures in (6 * 19.13) centimeters = 114.78 centimeters (calculator answer)
an answer obtained by = 114.8 centimeters (correct answer)
calculation.
The correct answer is limited to four significant figures based on the multiplication/
division significant figure rule because the input number 19.13 contains four signifi-
cant figures.
b. Using the addition approach, the set-up is
19.13 centimeters
19.13 centimeters
19.13 centimeters
19.13 centimeters
19.13 centimeters
19.13 centimeters
114.78 centimeters (calculator and correct answer)
The final answer has an uncertainty of hundredths, the same as that of all of the
input numbers, based on the addition/subtraction rule for significant figures.
Note that the addition approach answer (114.78) contains one more significant
figure than the multiplication approach answer (114.8) obtained in part (a). The
addition approach is the preferred approach because of this.
c. Using the multiplication approach (3 * 19.13) generates the answer 57.39 centimeters
as both the calculator and correct answer.
d. The addition approach (19.13 + 19.13 + 19.13) also generates the answer 57.39
centimeters as both the calculator and correct answer.
Thus, for three pencils, the two approaches give the same answer.
2.7 EXPRESSING NUMBERS IN SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

Student Learning Focus: Be able to convert numbers from decimal notation to scientific notation
and also carry out the reverse of this process. Be able to interpret a measurement expressed in
scientific notation in terms of the uncertainty it possesses.
Up to this point in the chapter, we have expressed all numbers in decimal notation, the
everyday method for expressing numbers. Such notation becomes cumbersome for very
large and very small numbers (which occur frequently in scientific work). For example, in
one drop of blood, which is 92% water by mass, there are approximately
1,600,000,000,000,000,000,000
molecules (Sec 5.2) of water, each of which has a mass of
0.000000000000000000000030 gram
Recording such large and small numbers is not only time consuming but also open to
error; often, too many or too few zeros are recorded. Also, it is impossible to enter such
numbers into most calculators because they cannot accept that many digits. (Most calcula-
tors accept eight or ten digits.)
A method called scientific notation exists for expressing in compact form multi- Scientific notation is
digit numbers that involve many zeros. Scientific notation is a numerical system in also called exponential
notation.
which numbers are expressed in the form A * 10 n, where A is a number with a single
nonzero digit to the left of the decimal point and n is a whole number. The number
A is called the coefficient. The number 10n is called the exponential term. The coef-
ficient is always multiplied by the exponential term. The scientific notation form of
the number 703 is
Coefficient Exponent
7.03 × 102
Multiplication sign Exponential term
The two previously cited numbers that deal with molecules of water are expressed
in scientific notation as
1.6 * 1021 molecules and 3.0 * 10 - 23 gram
Such scientific notation is compatible with most calculators.

Exponents
A brief review of exponents and their use is in order before we consider the rules for
converting numbers from ordinary decimal notation to scientific notation and vice versa.
An exponent is a number written as a superscript following another number and indi-
cates how many times the first number, the base, is to be multiplied by itself. The following
examples illustrate the use of exponents.
62 = 6 * 6 = 36
35 = 3 * 3 * 3 * 3 * 3 = 243
103 = 10 * 10 * 10 = 1000
Exponents are also frequently referred to as powers of numbers. Thus, 62 may be
verbally read as “six to the second power” and 35 as “three to the fifth power.” Raising a
number to the second power is often called “squaring,” and raising it to the third power
“cubing.”
Scientific notation exclusively uses powers of ten. When 10 is raised to a positive
power, its decimal equivalent is the number 1 followed by as many zeros as the power. This
one-to-one correlation between power magnitude and number of zeros is shown in color
in the following examples.
102 = 100 (two zeros and a power of 2)
104 = 10,000 (four zeros and a power of 4)
106 = 1,000,000 (six zeros and a power of 6)
The notation 100 is a defined quantity.
100 = 1
The preceding generalization easily explains why. Ten to the zero power is the number 1
followed by no zeros, which is simply 1.
All of the examples of exponential notation presented so far have had positive ex-
ponents. This is because each example represented a number of magnitude greater than
one. Negative exponents are also possible. They are associated with numbers of magni-
tude less than one.
A negative sign in front of an exponent is interpreted to mean that the base and the
power to which it is raised are in the denominator of a fraction in which 1 is the numerator.
The following examples illustrate this interpretation.
1 1
10 - 1 = 1 = = 0.1
10 10
1 1 1
10 - 2 = = = = 0.01
102 10 * 10 100
1 1 1
10 - 3 = = = = 0.001
103 10 * 10 * 10 1000
When the number 10 is raised to a negative power, the absolute value of the power (the
value ignoring the minus sign) is always one more than the number of zeros between the
decimal point and the one. This correlation between power magnitude and number of
zeros is shown in color in the following examples.
10 - 2 = 0.01 (one zero and a power of -2)

10 - 4 = 0.0001 (three zeros and a power of -4)
10 - 6 = 0.000001 (five zeros and a power of -6)
Differences in magnitude between numbers that are powers of 10 are often described
with the phrase orders of magnitude. An order of magnitude is a single exponential
value of the number 10. Thus, 106 is four orders of magnitude larger than 102, and 107 is
three orders of magnitude larger than 104.
Converting from Decimal to Scientific Notation

The procedure for converting a number from decimal notation to scientific notation involves
two operational rules:
Rule 1 The coefficient must be a number between 1 and 10 that contains the same num- The decimal and
ber of significant figures as are present in the original decimal number. The coef- scientific notation forms
ficient is obtained by rewriting the decimal number with a decimal point after the of a number always
contain the same number
first nonzero digit and deleting all nonsignificant zeros. of significant figures.
For 233,000, the coefficient is 2.33

For 0.00557, the coefficient is 5.57
For 0.35500, the coefficient is 3.5500
Rule 2 The value of the exponent for the power of ten is obtained by counting the num-
ber of places the decimal point in the coefficient must be moved to give back
the original decimal number. If the decimal point movement is to the right, the
exponent has a positive value and if the decimal point movement is to the left, the
exponent has a negative value.
Numerous applications of these two rules are found in Example 2.11.
EXAMPLE 2.11 Expressing Decimal Numbers in Scientific Notation
Without using a calculator, express in scientific notation the number in each of the fol-
lowing statements.
a. Light travels at a speed of 186,000 miles per second.
b. A person exhales approximately 320,000,000,000,000,000,000 molecules of carbon
dioxide in one breath.
c. The diameter of a human hair is 0.0016 inch.
d. The maximum allowable amount of chromium in drinking water (EPA standard) is
0.00000010 gram per milliliter of water.
SOLUTION
a. For the number 186,000 the scientific notation coefficient is 1.86. This coefficient
meets the requirement that it contain the same number of significant figures as the
original decimal number.
The value of the exponent in the exponential term of the scientific notation is +5
since the decimal point in the coefficient must be moved five places to the right to
generate the original decimal number.
1.86000
five-place movement
Note that zeros are added to the coefficient as the decimal point is moved in
order to obtain the original decimal point position.
Multiplying the coefficient by the exponential term 105 gives the scientific nota-
tion form of the number, which is
1.86 * 105
b. The coefficient for the number 320,000,000,000,000,000,000 is 3.2. It, like the origi-
nal number, contains two significant figures.
The value of the exponent for the exponential term is +20 since the decimal
point in the coefficient must be moved 20 places to the right to generate the original
decimal number.
3.20000000000000000000
20-place movement
Movement of the decimal point in the coefficient to the right always results in a
positive exponent.
The scientific notation form of the number, obtained by multiplying the coeffi-
cient and exponential term, is
3.2 * 1020
c. The scientific notation coefficient for the number 0.0016 is 1.6. The exponent for the
power of ten is −3, since moving the decimal point in the coefficient three places to
the left generates the original decimal number.
0.001.6
three-place movement
Movement of the decimal point in the coefficient to the left always means that the
exponent will be negative. The scientific notation form of the number is, thus,
1.6 * 10 - 3.
Some numbers, such as d. The scientific notation coefficient for the number 0.00000010 is 1.0. The coefficient
2.4, 0.911, and 57, are is 1.0 rather than 1 because the original number has two significant figures. The
simpler in their original
exponent for the power of ten is −7.
form than in scientific
notation. Such numbers
are usually left in decimal 0.0000001.0
notation. Although there seven-place movement
are no fixed rules as to
when scientific notation
The number in scientific notation is, thus, 1.0 * 10 - 7.
should be used, it is
generally not used for
numbers between 0.1 Answer Double Check: Are the answers reasonable in terms of the sign (plus or minus)
and 1000. for the exponent? Yes. When converting from decimal notation to scientific notation,
numbers greater than one will always have positive exponents and numbers less than one
will always have negative exponents. Such is the case for the answers here.
Significant Figures and Scientific Notation

When a number is expressed in scientific notation, only significant digits become part of the
coefficient. Because of this there is never any confusion (ambiguity) in determining the num-
ber of significant figures in a number expressed in scientific notation. There are five possible
uncertainty interpretations for the number 10,000 (one, two, three, four, or five significant
figures). In scientific notation each of these interpretations assumes a different form.
1 * 104 (10,000 with one significant figure)

1.0 * 104 (10,000 with two significant figures)
1.00 * 104 (10,000 with three significant figures)
1.000 * 104 (10,000 with four significant figures)
1.0000 * 104 (10,000 with five significant figures)
Most scientists use the preceding scientific notation method for designating sig-
nificant figures in an “ambiguous” number instead of the overbar notation discussed in
Section 2.5. The overbar notation is used only in those situations where there is reason for
not expressing the number in scientific notation.
Converting from Scientific to Decimal Notation

To convert a number in scientific notation, such as 6.02 * 1023, into a regular decimal num-
ber, we start by examining the exponent. The value of the exponent tells how many places
the decimal point must be moved. If the exponent is positive, movement is to the right to
give a number greater than one; if it is negative, movement is to the left to give a number
less than one. Zeros may have to be added to the number as the decimal point is moved.
EXAMPLE 2.12 Expressing Scientific Notation Numbers

in Decimal Notation
Without using a calculator, convert the scientific notation number in each of the following
statements to a decimal number.
a. The announced attendance at a football game was 5.3127 * 104 people.
b. The circumference of the earth is 2.5 * 104 miles.
c. The concentration of gold in seawater is 1.1 * 10 - 8 gram per liter.
d. The mass of a hydrogen atom is 1.67 * 10 - 24 gram.
SOLUTION
a. The exponent +4 tells us the decimal is to be located four places to the right of
where it is in 5.3127.
5.3127
Decimal point shift
The decimal number is

53,127
b. The exponent +4 tells us the decimal is to be located four places to the right of
where it is in 2.5. Trailing zeros will have to be added to accommodate the decimal
point change.
Added zeros
2.5000
Decimal point shift
These added “trailing zeros” are not significant zeros. Thus, the number of signifi-
cant digits remains at two. The decimal form of the number is
25,000
c. The exponent −8 tells us the decimal is to be located eight places to the left of
where it is in 1.1. Leading zeros will have to be added to accommodate the decimal
point change.
Added zeros
0.00000001.1
Decimal point shift
These added “leading zeros” are not significant zeros. Thus, the number of signifi-
cant digits remains at two. The decimal form of the number is
0.000000011
d. The exponent −24 tells us the decimal is to be located 24 places to the left of where
it is in 1.67. This will produce an extremely small number.
0.000000000000000000000001.67
Decimal point shift
Twenty-three leading zeros were needed to mark the new decimal place. (In num-
bers with negative exponents, the number of added leading zeros will always be
one less than the value of the exponent.) The decimal form of this number is, thus,
0.00000000000000000000000167
The number of significant figures present is three, the same number as in the origi-
nal scientific notation form of the number.
Answer Double Check: Are the answers reasonable in terms of significant figures? Yes.
The number of significant figures in the decimal form of the number must be the same
as the number of significant figures in the coefficient of the scientific notation form of the
number. Such is the case in each part of this problem.
Uncertainty and Scientific Notation

The uncertainty associated with a measurement whose value is expressed in scientific
notation cannot be obtained directly from the coefficient in the scientific notation. The
coefficient decimal point location is not the true location for the decimal point. The value
of the exponential term must be taken into account in determining the uncertainty.
The uncertainty associated with a scientific notation number is obtained by deter-
mining the uncertainty associated with the coefficient and then multiplying this value by
the exponential term. For the number 3.753 * 102, we have
10 - 3 * 102 = 10 - 1
uncertainty exponential uncertainty
in coefficient term in value
That the uncertainty in the number 3.753 * 102 is, indeed, 10 - 1 can be readily seen by
rewriting the number in decimal notation.
3.753 * 10 2 = 375.3
The uncertainty for the decimal number is in the tenths place (10 - 1). Example 2.13 fur-
ther illustrates the process of determining the uncertainty associated with numbers that
are expressed in scientific notation.
EXAMPLE 2.13 Determining the Uncertainty Associated with Numbers

Expressed in Scientific Notation
What is the uncertainty associated with each of the following measured values?
a. 4.200 * 104 b. 4.2 * 105 c. 4.2 * 10 - 1 d. 4.200 * 10 - 3
SOLUTION
Each part will be worked the same way. The uncertainty in the coefficient is multiplied by
the exponential term to obtain the overall uncertainty for the value.
a. The uncertainty in the coefficient is { 0.001
10 - 3 * 104 = 101
The overall uncertainty is {10.
b. 10 - 1 * 105 = 104, which gives an uncertainty of {10,000. That the uncertainty is
this large becomes readily apparent when the number is written in decimal notation.
4.2 * 105 = 420,000
c. 10 - 1 * 10 - 1 = 10 - 2, which gives an uncertainty of {0.01
d. 10 - 3 * 10 - 3 = 10 - 6, which gives an uncertainty of {0.000001
EXAMPLE 2.14 Uncertainty Considerations for a Number Expressed

in Scientific Notation
For the measured value 3.714 * 10 - 3 Carry out the following uncertainty-related activi-
ties without using the decimal form of the number.
a. Determine the uncertainty, expressed as a power of 10, associated with the measurement.
b. Rewrite the measured value so that its uncertainty is increased by a factor of 100 (102).
c. Rewrite the measured value so that its uncertainty is decreased by a factor of 100 (102).
d. Rewrite the measured value so that its uncertainty is {10 - 5.
SOLUTION
a. The uncertainty is obtained by multiplying the coefficient’s uncertainty by the expo-
nential term, as was previously illustrated in Example 2.13. The uncertainty of the
coefficient is 10−3 and the exponent is also 10−3. Thus,
10 - 3 * 10 - 3 = 10 - 6
The uncertainty in the number is 10−6.

b. Increasing the uncertainty by a factor of 102 will change it from 10−6 (part a) to 10−4.
This increase in uncertainty means the measurement will contain two less significant
figures than before the change.
3.714 * 10 - 3 becomes 3.7 * 10 - 3
c. Decreasing the uncertainty by a factor of 102 will change it from 10−6 (part a) to
10−8. This decrease in uncertainty means the measurement will contain two more
significant figures than before the change.
3.714 * 10 - 3 becomes 3.71400 * 10 - 3

d. The uncertainty change is from 10−6 (part a) to 10−5, an increase in uncertainty of

101. This increase in uncertainty will decrease the number of significant figures in
the measurement by one.
3.714 * 10 - 3 becomes 3.71 * 10 - 3
2.8 MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS IN SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

Student Learning Focus: Be able to carry out basic mathematical operations using numbers
expressed in scientific notation, without changing them into decimal notation.
A major advantage of writing numbers in scientific notation is that it greatly simplifies the
mathematical operations of multiplication and division.
Multiplication in Scientific Notation

Multiplication of two or more numbers expressed in scientific notation conceptually
involves two separate operations or steps.
An electronic calculator Step 1 Multiply the coefficients (the decimal numbers between 1 and 10) together in the
combines steps 1 and 2 usual manner.
into one operation.
Step 2 Add algebraically the exponents of the powers of ten to obtain a new exponent.
In general terms, we can represent the multiplication of two scientific notation num-
bers as follows.
(a * 10x) * (b * 10y) = ab * 10x + y
EXAMPLE 2.15 Multiplication of Scientific Notation Numbers
Carry out the following multiplications involving scientific notation. Be sure to take into
account significant figures in obtaining your final answer.
a. (2.05 * 10 - 3) * (1.19 * 10 - 7)
b. (7.92 * 1010) * (2.3 * 10 - 4)
SOLUTION
a. Multiplying the two coefficients together gives
2.05 * 1.19 = 2.4395
Since both input numbers for the multiplication contain three significant figures, the
calculator answer must be rounded to three significant figures.
2.4395 becomes 2.44
An electronic calculator is Next, the exponents of the powers of ten are added to generate the new power
not programmed to take of ten.
into account significant
figures. It cannot 10 - 3 * 10 - 7 = 10( - 3) + ( - 7) = 10 - 10
completely substitute for
your brain. (To add two numbers of the same sign, either positive or negative, just add the num-
bers and place the common sign in front of the sum.) Combining the coefficient and
the exponential term gives the answer of
2.44 * 10 - 10
b. Multiplying the coefficients gives

7.92 * 2.3 = 18.216
The answer must be rounded to two significant figures because the input number
2.3 has only two significant figures.
18.216 becomes 18
In combining the exponential terms, we have exponents of different signs. The
smaller exponent (4) is subtracted from the larger exponent (10), and the sign of the
larger exponent (+) is used. Thus,
(+10) + (- 4) = (+6)
and
1010 * 10 - 4 = 106
Combining the coefficient and the exponential term gives
18 * 106
This answer has something wrong with it; it is not in correct scientific notation form.
The coefficient should be a number between 1 and 10. This problem is corrected by
recognizing that 18 is equal to 1.8 * 101, making this a substitution for 18, and then
combining exponential terms.
An electronic calculator
automatically makes this
18 × 106 = 1.8 × 101 × 106 = 1.8 × 107
coefficient–exponent
adjustment for you.
The correct answer is 1.8 * 107.
In Example 2.15, each multiplication was considered in two parts—a coefficient part
and an exponential term part. Such an approach is helpful for understanding the role that
exponents play in the calculations. In practice, with an electronic calculator, multiplica-
tions like those in Example 2.15 are usually done in one step with the numbers being
entered directly into the calculator in scientific notation form. Example 2.16 considers this
one-step approach with several comments added about how to enter scientific notation
numbers into calculators in that form.
EXAMPLE 2.16 Multiplication of Numbers in Scientific Notation Form
Carry out the following multiplication, directly entering the numbers into a calculator in
scientific notation.
(4.72 * 10 - 6) * (8.21 * 1023)
SOLUTION
We first enter the number 4.72 * 10 - 6 into the calculator. This involves the following
operations.
1. Enter 4.72 into the calculator.
2. Press the 冷 EE 冷 or 冷 EXP 冷 key (or something similar). This enters the “* 10” portion
of the notation.
3. Enter 6 (the magnitude of the exponent) and then press the 冷 +/ - 冷 key to change
the exponent from +6 to -6.
The number 4.72 * 10 - 6 is now entered into the calculator. How it is displayed varies
with the brand of calculator. Variations include
冷 4.72 - 06 冷冷 4.72 - 06 冷冷 0.00000472 冷

The multiplication key is then pressed and the second number is entered into the calcu-
lator in a similar manner to that just explained. The 冷 = 冷 key is pressed to generate the
answer.
(4.72 * 10 - 6) * (8.21 * 1023) = 3.87512 * 1018 (calculator answer)

= 3.88 * 1018 (correct answer)
A calculator entry mistake that students often make is to enter the coefficient (4.72),
then enter “times” and “10,” then press 冷 EE 冷 or 冷 EXP 冷 and enter -6. The calculator result
is 4.72 * 10 - 5 a number 10 times larger than wanted. Entering “* 10” multiplies the num-
ber by an extra ten. Pressing the 冷 EE 冷 or 冷 EXP 冷 key stands for “* 10.”
Division in Scientific Notation

Division of two numbers expressed in scientific notation conceptually involves two sepa-
rate operations or steps.
Step 1 Divide the coefficients (the decimal numbers between 1 and 10) in the usual
manner.
Step 2 Subtract algebraically the exponent in the denominator (bottom) from the expo-
nent in the numerator (top) to give the exponent of the new power of ten.
Note that in multiplication we add exponents, and in division we subtract exponents.
EXAMPLE 2.17 Division of Scientific Notation Numbers
Carry out the following divisions in scientific notation. Be sure to take significant figures
into account in obtaining your final answer.
2.05 * 105 3.92 * 1010
a. b.
1.19 * 103 9.1 * 10 - 4
SOLUTION
a. Performing the indicated division involving the coefficients gives
2.05
= 1.722689
1.19
Since both input numbers for the division have three significant figures, the calculator
answer must be rounded off to three significant figures.
1.722689 becomes 1.72

Dividing exponential terms involves the algebraic subtraction of exponents.
105
= 10(5) - ( + 3) = 102
103
Algebraic subtraction involves changing the sign of the number to be subtracted
and then following the rules for addition (as outlined in Example 2.12). In this prob-
lem the number to be subtracted (+3) becomes, upon changing the sign, (−3). Then
we add (+5) and (−3). The answer is (+2), as shown in the preceding equation.
1.72 * 102
b. The new coefficient, obtained by dividing 3.92 by 9.1, should contain two signifi-
cant figures, the same number as in the input number 9.1.
3.92
= 0.43076923
9.1
0.43076923 becomes 0.43

Performing the exponential term division by subtracting the powers of the exponen-
tial terms gives
1010
= 10( + 10) - ( - 4) = 1014
10 - 4

0.43 * 1014
which is not in correct scientific notation form because the coefficient is a num-
ber less than one. This problem is remedied by recognizing that 0.43 is equal to
4.3 * 10 - 1, making this substitution for 0.43, and then combining the two exponen-
tial terms.
An electronic calculator
0.43 × 1014 = (4.3 × 10−1) × 1014 = 4.3 × 1013 automatically makes this
coefficient–exponent
adjustment for you.
The correct answer is, thus, 4.3 * 1013.
Addition and Subtraction in Scientific Notation

To add or subtract numbers written in scientific notation (without the use of an electronic
calculator), the power of ten for all numbers must be the same. More often than not, one or
more exponents must be adjusted. Adjusting the exponent requires rewriting the number
in a form where the coefficient is a number greater than 10 or less than 1. With exponents
all the same, the coefficients are then added or subtracted and the exponent is maintained
at its now common value. Although any of the exponents may be changed, changing the
smaller exponent to a larger one will usually produce a coefficient in the answer that is a
number between 1 and 10.
EXAMPLE 2.18 Addition and Subtraction of Scientific Notation Numbers
Perform the following additions or subtractions with all numbers expressed in scientific
notation. Answers will need to be checked for the correct number of significant figures
and for the correct scientific notation form (coefficient is a number between 1 and 10).
a. (2.661 * 103) + (3.011 * 103)
b. (2.66 * 104) - (1.03 * 103)
c. (9.98 * 10 - 3) + (8.04 * 10 - 5)
SOLUTION
a. The exponents are the same to begin with. Therefore, we can proceed with the
addition immediately.
2.661 * 103
3.011 * 103
5.672 * 103 (calculator and correct answer)
Both input numbers have uncertainties in the thousandths place. The calculator an-
swer has the same uncertainty. Thus, the calculator answer and correct answer are
the same. Note that the exponent values are not added. They are maintained at their
common value.
b. The exponents are different, so before subtracting we must change one of the expo-
nents. Let us change 103 to 104:
103 can be written as 10 - 1 * 104
An electronic calculator Then, by substitution, we have
automatically adjusts
exponents to a common
basis. Therefore, the
1.03 × 103 = 1.03 × 10−1 × 104
numbers can be entered
into the calculator as
given.
The coefficient and the first exponent are then combined to give a new coefficient.
1.03 × 10−1 × 104 = 0.103 × 104
We are now ready to make the subtraction called for in the original statement of the
problem.
common exponent
2.66 × 104 = 2.66 × 104
−1.03 × 103 = −0.103 × 104
2.557 × 104 (calculator answer)
Significant-figure
considerations require a
common exponent base
The calculator answer must be adjusted for significant figures. On the common
for the numbers being exponent basis of 104, the uncertainty in 2.66 lies in the hundredths place and that
added or subtracted. in 0.103 lies in the thousandths place. The correct answer, therefore, is limited to
an uncertainty of hundredths. (Recall, from Example 2.9, the rules on addition and
significant figures.) Thus,
2.557 * 104 becomes 2.56 * 104 (correct answer)
c. The exponents are 10−3 and 10−5. Since −5 is smaller than −3, let us have 10−3 as
the common exponent. (Always use the larger of the two exponents as the common
exponent.)
10 - 5 can be rewritten as 10 - 2 * 10 - 3
Then by substitution we have
8.04 × 10−5 = 8.04 × 10−2 × 10−3
The coefficient and the first exponent are then combined to give a new coefficient.
8.04 × 10−2 × 10−3 = 0.0804 × 10−3
We are now ready to make the addition called for in the original statement of the
problem.
common exponent
9.98 × 10−3 = 9.98 × 10−3
8.04 × 10−5 = 0.0804 × 10−3
10.0604 × 10−3 (calculator answer)
The calculator answer must be adjusted for significant figures and also changed into
correct scientific notation since the coefficient has a value greater than 10. The sig-
nificant figure adjustment rounds the answer to hundredths, giving
10.06 * 10 - 3
The correct scientific notation adjustment involves rewriting 10.06 as a power of ten
and then simplifying the resulting expression.
10.06 × 10−3 = 1.006 × 101 × 10−3 = 1.006 × 10−2 (correct answer)
With the use of an electronic calculator, addition and subtraction in scientific nota-
tion can be carried out by entering the numbers directly into the calculator in scientific
notation form (no equalizing of exponents) and then using the uncertainty considerations
previously illustrated in Example 2.14 to change the calculator answer to the correct
answer. Example 2.19 portrays such a calculation.
EXAMPLE 2.19 Adding Scientific Notation Numbers without Equalizing

Exponents
Perform the addition
(7.2 * 103) + (7.1 * 105)
without changing the numbers to decimal numbers or equalizing the exponents.
SOLUTION
Entering the numbers 7.2 * 103 and 7.1 * 105 directly into an electronic calculator gives
the result
(7.2 * 103) + (7.1 * 105) = 7.172 * 105 (calculator answer)
The conversion of the calculator answer to the correct answer involves the follow-
ing uncertainty considerations (previously considered in Example 2.14), which the calcu-
lator will not do for you.
The input number 7.2 * 103 has an uncertainty of 102 (10 - 1 * 103)
The input number 7.1 * 105 has an uncertainty of 104 (10 - 1 * 105)
The limiting input uncertainty is 104, the larger of the two uncertainties. The correct
answer needs to have this uncertainty.
Uncertainty considerations for the calculator answer are:
7.172 * 105 has an uncertainty of 102 (103 * 105)
Thus, the uncertainty of the calculator answer must be increased from 102 to 104 (the
limiting uncertainty) to generate the correct answer. This change involves decreasing the
number of significant figures in the coefficient by two, as explained in Example 2.14.
7.172 * 105 (calculator answer) becomes 7.2 * 105 (correct answer)
the chapter. They are a useful study aid for students as they prepare for an upcoming examination or are review-
1. Exact and Inexact Numbers Numbers are of plus a last digit that has been estimated. The
two kinds: exact and inexact. An exact number maximum number of significant figures possible
has a value that has no uncertainty associated in a measurement is determined by the design
with it. Exact numbers occur in definitions, in of the measuring device. All nonzero digits in a
counting, and in simple fractions. An inexact measurement value are always significant. Zeros
number has a value that has a degree of uncer- in a measurement value may or may not be sig-
tainty associated with it. Inexact numbers result nificant depending on their placement within the
any time a measurement is made. measurement value.
2. Precision and Accuracy of Measurements 5. Significant Figures and Mathematical
Precision refers to how close a series of mea- Operations Calculations should never increase
surements on the same object are to each other. (or decrease) the degree of uncertainty in mea-
Accuracy refers to how close a measurement (or surements. In multiplication and division, the
the average of multiple measurements) comes to number of significant figures in the answer is the
a true or accepted value. The precision and accu- same as that in the input number containing the
racy of a measurement depend not only on the fewest significant figures. In addition and sub-
measuring device used but also on the technical traction of a series of measurements, the result
skill of the person making the measurement. can be no more certain than the least-certain
3. Uncertainty in Measurements Every mea- measurement in the series.
surement has a degree of uncertainty associated 6. Scientific Notation Scientific notation is a system
with it. In reading a measurement scale, all dig- for writing decimal numbers in a more compact
its known for certain are recorded plus one es- form that greatly simplifies the mathematical opera-
timated digit (uncertainty). It is wrong to record tions of multiplication and division. In this system,
more than one estimated digit in a measurement. numbers are expressed in the form A * 10n, where
4. Significant Figures Significant figures in a A is a number with a single nonzero digit to the left
measurement are those digits that are certain, of the decimal point and n is a whole number.
Key Terms Listing

This listing gives new terms defined in the chapter. Terms are listed alphabetically and cross-references are given
to the chapter sections where free standing complete sentence definitions for the terms are found.
accuracy Sec. 2.3 measurement Sec. 2.1 rounding off Sec. 2.6
exact number Sec. 2.2 order of magnitude Sec. 2.7 scientific notation Sec. 2.7
exponent Sec. 2.7 precision Sec. 2.3 significant figures Sec. 2.5
inexact number Sec. 2.2 random error Sec. 2.3 systematic error Sec. 2.3

These problems are single concept problems that are categorized by topic (chapter section) and are arranged in the
same sequence as the chapters textual material. These drill problems occur in matched pairs with the two members of
a pair addressing the same aspect of a given topic. This matched-pair arrangement creates two independent problem
sets—an odd-numbered set and an even-numbered set. Answers are given at the back of the book for the odd-numbered
problem set.
EXACT AND INEXACT NUMBERS (SEC. 2.2) Students
2.1 Indicate whether the number in each of the following Trials A B C

statements is an exact or an inexact number. 1 6.35 L 6.31 L 6.36 L
a. A classroom contains 24 chairs.
b. There are 60 seconds in a minute. 2 6.31 L 6.32 L 6.36 L
c. A bag of cherries weighs 4.1 pounds. 3 6.38 L 6.33 L 6.35 L
d. A newspaper article contains 421 words. 4 6.32 L 6.32 L 6.36 L
2.2 Indicate whether the number in each of the following
statements is an exact or an inexact number. 2.6 With a high-grade measuring device, the length of an
a. A classroom contains 44 students. object is determined to be 13.452 mm (millimeters).
b. The car is traveling at a speed of 63 miles per Three students are asked to determine the length of
hour. the same object using a lower-grade measuring de-
c. The temperature on the beach is 93°F. vice. How do you evaluate the following work of the
d. The child is 6 years old. three students with regard to precision and accuracy?
2.3 A person is told that there are 60 seconds in a minute
and also that a garden hose is 60 feet long. What is Students
the fundamental difference between the value of 60 in Trials A B C
these two pieces of information?
2.4 A person is told that there are 12 students in a class- 1 13.6 mm 13.4 mm 13.9 mm
room and also that a train will pass by in 12 minutes. 2 13.9 mm 13.5 mm 13.9 mm
What is the fundamental difference between the value 3 13.3 mm 13.5 mm 13.3 mm
of 12 in these two pieces of information?
4 13.6 mm 13.4 mm 14.3 mm
2.7 Consider the following four sets of four measurements

ACCURACY AND PRECISION (SEC. 2.3) where the dotted line represents the true value.
2.5 With a high-grade volumetric measuring device, the
volume of a liquid sample is determined to be 6.321
L (liters). Three students are asked to determine the
volume of the same liquid sample using a lower-grade
measuring device. How do you evaluate the following
work of the three students with regard to precision
and accuracy? I II III IV
Which of the four measurement sets (I, II, III, or IV) has 2.15 What is the magnitude of the uncertainty associated
a. high precision and high accuracy with each of the following measured values?
b. low precision and low accuracy a. 2.31 b. 2.39 c. 2.376 d. 2.3003
c. the largest random error 2.16 What is the magnitude of the uncerainty associated
d. a large systematic error with little random error with each of the following measured values?
2.8 Based on the measurement data given in problem 2.7, a. 7.7 b. 7.711 c. 7.603 d. 7.1117
which of the measurement sets has 2.17 What is the difference in meaning between the times
a. high precision and low accuracy 3.3 seconds and 3.30 seconds?
b. low precision and the second highest accuracy 2.18 What is the difference in meaning between the lengths
c. high precision and large systematic errors 0.54 inch and 0.540 inch?
d. high accuracy and small random errors 2.19 The number of people present at a parade was esti-
mated by police to be 50,000. How many people were
present at the parade if you assume that this estimate
has each of the following uncertainties?
UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENTS (SEC. 2.4)
a. 10,000 b. 1000 c. 100 d. 10
2.9 Consider the following rulers as instruments for the 2.20 The number of people present at a protest rally was
measurement of length in centimeters (cm)? estimated by police to be 18,000. How many people
were present at the rally if you assume that this esti-
mate has each of the following uncertainties?
4 4 40 40 a. 10,000 b. 1000 c. 100 d. 10
3 3 30 30
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES (SEC. 2.5)
2 2 20 20 2.21 Determine the number of significant figures in each of
the following measured values.
1 1 10 10 a. 0.33333 b. 0.0003333
c. 0.303030 d. 0.00000003
cm cm cm cm
2.22 Determine the number of significant figures in each of
1 2 3 4 the following measured values.
a. 0.5432 b. 0.005432
What would the uncertainty be in measurements made c. 0.05040302 d. 0.0054
using the following? 2.23 Determine the number of significant figures in each of
a. Ruler 1 b. Ruler 2 the following measured values.
2.10 Using the rulers given in Problem 2.9, what would a. 2750 b. 2750.00 c. 675,000 d. 675.000
the uncertainty be in measurements made using the 2.24 Determine the number of significant figures in each of
following? the following measured values.
a. Ruler 3 b. Ruler 4 a. 4900 b. 4900.0 c. 36,450 d. 36.450
2.11 Using the rulers given in Problem 2.9, what is the 2.25 Determine the number of significant figures in each of
length of the paper clip shown by the side of the the following measured values.
following? a. 3010.20 b. 0.00300300
a. Ruler 3 b. Ruler 4 c. 40,400 d. 33,000,000
2.12 Using the rulers given in Problem 2.9, what is the 2.26 Determine the number of significant figures in each of
length of the paper clip shown by the side of the the following measured values.
following? a. 250.00 b. 4004
a. Ruler 1 b. Ruler 2 c. 0.0505050 d. 2,375,000
2.13 With which of the rulers in Problem 2.9 was each of 2.27 For each of the numbers in Problem 2.25, tell how
the following measurements made, assuming that you many of the zeros present are
cannot use a ruler multiple times in making a mea- a. confined zeros.
surement? (It is possible that there may be more than b. leading zeros.
one correct answer.) c. trailing zeros that are significant.
a. 21.2 cm b. 3.2 cm c. 3.65 cm d. 27 cm d. trailing zeros that are not significant.
2.14 With which of the rulers in Problem 2.9 was each of 2.28 For each of the numbers in Problem 2.26, tell how
the following measurements made, assuming that you many of the zeros present are
cannot use a ruler multiple times in making a mea- a. confined zeros.
surement? (It is possible that there may be more than b. leading zeros.
one correct answer.) c. trailing zeros that are significant.
a. 2.3 cm b. 2.33 cm c. 17 cm d. 4 cm d. trailing zeros that are not significant.
2.29 Identify the estimated digit in each of the measured 2.37 In the pairs of numbers of Problem 2.35, tell whether
values in Problem 2.25 both members of the pair have the same uncertainty.
2.30 Identify the estimated digit in each of the measured 2.38 In the pairs of numbers of Problem 2.36, tell whether
values in Problem 2.26 both members of the pair have the same uncertainty.
2.31 What is the magnitude of the uncertainty 2.39 Using standard arithmetic notation and overbars (if
( {10, {0.1, etc.) associated with each of the mea- needed), write the number twenty-three thousand in
sured values in Problem 2.25? a manner such that it has the following numbers of
2.32 What is the magnitude of the uncertainty ( {10, {0.1, significant figures.
etc.) associated with each of the measured values in a. two b. four c. six d. eight
Problem 2.26? 2.40 Using standard arithmetic notation and overbars (if
2.33 Complete the following table by filling in the blanks needed), write the number six hundred thousand in
in each row with numerical values that are consistent a manner such that it has the following numbers of
with the number given in the first column. The first significant figures.
row is completed as an example. a. one b. three c. five d. seven
2.41 Determine the number of significant figures in each of
the following measured values.
Number of Estimated a. 2600 { 10 b. 1.375 { 0.001
Measured Significant Digit in Magnitude of c. 42 { 1 d. 73,000 { 1
Number Figures Measurement Uncertainty 2.42 Determine the number of significant figures in each of
6.75 3 5 {0.01 the following measured values.
a. 700 { 100 b. 700 { 10
a. 3.130
c. 43.57 { 0.01 d. 64,000 { 1
b. 0.002
c. 3050 ROUNDING OFF (SEC. 2.6)
d. 2100 2.43 Round off each of the following measured numbers to
three significant figures.
a. 0.01234 b. 0.1257 c. 6.2374 d. 24.89
2.34 Complete the following table by filling in the blanks 2.44 Round off each of the following measured numbers to
in each row with numerical values that are consistent three significant figures.
with the number in the first column. The first row is a. 0.003477 b. 0.1222 c. 8.333 d. 37.76
completed as an example. 2.45 Round off each of the following measured values to
a. 42.55 b. 42.65 c. 42.75 d. 42.85
Number of Estimated 2.46 Round off each of the following measured values to
Measured Significant Digit in Magnitude of
Number Figures Measurement Uncertainty
a. 67.25 b. 67.35 c. 67.45 d. 67.55
72.31 4 1 {0.01 2.47 Round off each of the following measured values to
a. 2.04
a. 42,303 b. 42,360 c. 42,549 d. 42,601
b. 0.07 2.48 Round off each of the following measured values to
c. 23000 three significant figures.
a. 67,222 b. 67,666 c. 67,495 d. 67,501
d. 2160
2.49 Complete the following table by filling in the blanks in
each row with numerical values obtained by rounding
the given values to the specified number of significant
2.35 In the following pairs of numbers, tell whether both
figures (sig figs). The first row is completed as an example.
members of the pair contain the same number of sig-
nificant figures. 4 sig fig 2 sig fig
a. 11.01 and 11.00 Measured value for value for
b. 2002 and 2020 Value measurement measurement
c. 0.05700 and 0.05070 2.3552 2.355 2.4
d. 0.000066 and 660,000
a. 1.7747
members of the pair contain the same number of sig- b. 23,511
nificant figures. c. 0.70871
a. 2305 and 2350 b. 0.6600 and 0.0066 d. 4.3500
c. 23,000 and 23,001 d. 936,000 and 0.000936
2.50 Complete the following table by filling in the blanks in 2.56 How many significant figures must the number Q pos-
each row with numerical values obtained by rounding sess, in each case, to make the following mathematical
the given values to the specified number of signifi- equations valid from a significant-figure standpoint?
cant figures (sig figs). The first row is completed as an a. 94,461 * Q = 33,003
example. b. 94,461 * Q = 1.03
c. 94,461 * Q = 0.6200
d. 94,461 * Q = 233,620,000
4 sig fig 2 sig fig 2.57 Carry out the following multiplications and divisions,
Measured value for value for
expressing your answers to the correct number of sig-
Value measurement measurement
nificant figures. Assume that all numbers are measured
0.12767 0.1277 0.13 quantities.
a. 4.2337 * 0.00706 b. 3700 * 37.00
a. 0.47056
5671 5.01
b. 25.516 c. d.
4.44 5.07
c. 24,532 2.58 Carry out the following multiplications and divisions,
d. 2.1500 expressing your answers to the correct number of sig-
nificant figures. Assume that all numbers are measured
quantities.
a. 350.00 * 0.00072 b. 620,000 * 620.000
2.51 Round off each of the following numbers to the num- 3554 0.000623
ber of significant figures indicated in parentheses. c. d.
2.22 0.000632
a. 0.350763 (three) b. 653.899 (four) 2.59 Carry out the following mathematical operations, ex-
c. 22.55555 (five) d. 0.277654 (four) pressing your answers to the correct number of sig-
2.52 Round off each of the following numbers to the num- nificant figures. Assume that all numbers are measured
ber of significant figures indicated in parentheses. quantities.
a. 3883 (two) b. 0.00003011 (two) 4.5 * 6.3 5.567 * 3.0001
c. 4.4050 (three) d. 2.1000 (three) a. b.
7.22 3.45
37 * 43 112 * 20
c. d.
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES IN MULTIPLICATION 4.2 * 6.0 30 * 63
AND DIVISION (SEC. 2.6) 2.60 Carry out the following mathematical operations, ex-
pressing your answers to the correct number of sig-
2.53 Without actually solving the problems, indicate the nificant figures. Assume that all numbers are measured
number of significant figures that should be pres- quantities.
ent in the answers to the following multiplications 2.322 * 4.00 7.403
and divisions. Assume that all numbers are measured a. b.
3.200 * 6.73 3.220 * 5.000
quantities.
11.2 * 11.2 5600 * 300
a. 4.5 * 4.05 * 4.50 c. d.
b. 0.100 * 0.001 * 0.010 3.3 * 6.5 22 * 97.1
655,000 6.00
c. d. SIGNIFICANT FIGURES IN ADDITION
6.5500 33.000
2.54 Without actually solving the problems, indicate the AND SUBTRACTION (SEC. 2.6)
number of significant figures that should be pres- 2.61 Without actually solving the problems, indicate the
ent in the answers to the following multiplications uncertainty (tenths, hundredths, etc.) that should be
and divisions. Assume that all numbers are measured present in the answers to the following additions and
quantities. subtractions. Assume that all numbers are measured
a. 3.33 * 3.03 * 0.0333 quantities.
b. 300,003 * 20,200 * 1.33333 a. 12.1 + 23.1 + 127.01 b. 43.65 - 23.7
333,000 0.0666 c. 1237.6 + 23 + 0.12 d. 4650 + 25 + 200
c. d.
3.33000 1.3457 2.62 Without actually solving the problems, indicate the
2.55 How many significant figures must the number Q uncertainty (tenths, hundredths, etc.) that should be
possess, in each case, to make the following math- present in the answers to the following additions and
ematical equations valid from a significant-figure subtractions. Assume that all numbers are measured
standpoint? quantities.
a. 7.312 * Q = 4.13 b. 7.312 * Q = 0.0022 a. 0.06 + 1.32 + 7.901 b. 4.72 - 3.908
c. 7.312 * Q = 20.44 d. 7.312 * Q = 0.1100 c. 23.6 + 33 + 17.21 d. 46,230 + 325 + 45
2.63 Perform the following additions or subtractions. 2.70 Each of the following calculations involves the num-
Report your results to the proper number of signifi- bers 200, 17, 24, and 40. The numbers 200 and 17 are
cant figures. Assume that all numbers are measured exact; 24 and 40 are measurements. Express each an-
quantities. swer to the proper number of significant figures.
a. 12 + 23 + 127 b. 3.111 + 3.11 + 3.1 a. 200 + 17 + 24 + 40
c. 1237.6 + 23 + 0.12 d. 43.65 - 23.7 b. 200 * 17 * 24 * 40
2.64 Perform the following additions or subtractions. c. 200 - 17 - 24 - 40
Report your results to the proper number of signifi- 200 * 17
d.
cant figures. Assume that all numbers are measured 24 * 40
quantities. 2.71 What is the combined length, in inches, of eleven
a. 237 + 37 + 7 b. 4.000 + 4.002 + 4.20 identical 2.21 inch metal rods when the problem is
c. 235.45 + 37 + 36.4 d. 4.111 - 3.07 treated as ?
2.65 Perform the following additions or subtractions. Report a. a multiplication problem
your results to the proper number of significant figures. b. an addition problem
Assume that all numbers are measured quantities. 2.72 What is the combined volume, in gallons, of twelve
a. 999.0 + 1.7 - 43.7 b. 345 - 6.7 + 4.33 identical 1.50 gallon water containers when the prob-
c. 1200 + 43 + 7 d. 132 - 0.0073 lem is treated as ?
2.66 Perform the following additions or subtractions. Report a. a multiplication problem
your results to the proper number of significant figures. b. an addition problem
Assume that all numbers are measured quantities.
a. 1237.6 + 1237.4 b. 1237.6 - 1237.4
c. 23,000 + 457 + 23 d. 3.12 - 0.00007
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION (SEC. 2.7)
2.73 For each of the following numbers, will the exponent
CALCULATIONS INVOLVING BOTH SIGNIFICANT be positive, negative, or zero when the number is ex-
FIGURE RULES (SEC. 2.6) pressed in scientific notation?
a. 0.0320 b. 321.7 c. 6.87 d. 63,002
2.67 Perform the following mathematical operations, ex- 2.74 For each of the following numbers, will the exponent
pressing your answers to the correct number of sig- be positive, negative, or zero when the number is ex-
nificant figures. Assume all numbers are measured pressed in scientific notation?
quantities. a. 0.323 b. 10.23 c. 623,000 d. 9.003
a. 0.400 * (2.33 + 4.5) 2.75 For each of the following numbers, by how many
b. 0.300 * (3.73 + 3.0 + 2.777) places does the decimal point have to be moved in
c. 0.300 * (3.73 - 3.0) order to express the number in scientific notation?
d. 0.650 * 7.23 * (6.772 + 3.10) a. 0.0315 b. 0.00013 c. 3500 d. 63,003
2.68 Perform the following mathematical operations, ex- 2.76 For each of the following numbers, by how many
pressing your answers to the correct number of sig- places does the decimal point have to be moved in
nificant figures. Assume all numbers are measured order to express the number in scientific notation?
quantities. a. 375.3 b. 2200
a. 1.20 * (3.45 + 4.5) c. 0.00112 d. 0.00000057
b. 0.40 * (3.03 + 3.50 + 7.123) 2.77 For each of the following numbers, how many signifi-
c. 2.10 * (5.73 - 2.00) cant figures should be present in the scientific nota-
d. 0.500 * 0.1723 * (0.6772 + 0.31) tion form of the number?
a. 27,520 b. 27.520 c. 0.001210 d. 1.37500
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES AND EXACT NUMBERS 2.78 For each of the following numbers, how many signifi-
(SEC. 2.6) cant figures should be present in the scientific nota-
tion form of the number?
2.69 Each of the following calculations involves the num- a. 88,200 b. 47.200 c. 0.00330 d. 0.27540
bers 4.3, 230, 20, and 13.00. The numbers 4.3 and 2.79 How many digits will there be in the coefficient when
13.00 are measurements; 230 and 20 are exact num- each of the following numbers is expressed in scien-
bers. Express each answer to the proper number of tific notation?
significant figures. a. 23 b. 23.000
a. 4.3 + 230 + 20 + 13.00 c. 2300 d. 2300.000
b. 4.3 * 230 * 20 * 13.00 2.80 How many digits will there be in the coefficient when
c. 4.3 + 230 - 20 - 13.00 each of the following numbers is expressed in scien-
4.3 * 230 tific notation?
d.
20 * 13.00 a. 47 b. 47.00 c. 47,000 d. 470.00
2.81 Express the following numbers in scientific notation. 2.91 Each of the following numbers is expressed in non-
a. 0.0325 b. 345.00 standard (incorrect) scientific notation. Convert each
c. 32,000 d. 97,000,300 number to standard (correct) scientific notation.
2.82 Express the following numbers in scientific notation. a. 342 * 104 b. 23.6 * 10 - 4
a. 6000 b. 0.0066 c. 66.00 d. 3752 c. 0.0032 * 10 5
d. 0.12 * 10 - 3
2.83 Express each of the following numbers, to three sig- 2.92 Each of the following numbers is expressed in non-
nificant figures, in scientific notation. standard (incorrect) scientific notation. Convert each
a. 6666 b. 37.500 c. 0.34567 d. 1.3005 number to standard (correct) scientific notation.
2.84 Express each of the following numbers, to three sig- a. 47.23 * 102 b. 23.60 * 10 - 2
nificant figures, in scientific notation. c. 0.100 * 105 d. 0.023 * 10 - 3
a. 66,666 b. 375.52 c. 0.03030 d. 7.0055 2.93 For each of the following pairs of measured numbers,
2.85 Using scientific notation, express the number sixty-seven indicate whether the first member of the pair is larger
thousand to the following number of significant figures. or smaller than the second member of the pair.
a. one b. three c. five d. seven a. 4.02 * 10 - 2 and 4.02 * 102
2.86 Using scientific notation, express the number six- b. 2.0 * 102 and 2.0 * 104
hundred-seventy-four thousand to the following num- c. 2.023 * 10 - 2 and 2.023 * 10 - 4
ber of significant figures. d. 4.30 * 106 and 4.03 * 106
a. two b. four c. six d. eight 2.94 For each of the following pairs of measured numbers,
2.87 Express the following numbers in decimal notation. indicate whether the first member of the pair is larger
a. 2.30 * 10 - 3 b. 4.35 * 103 or smaller than the second member of the pair.
-2
c. 6.6500 * 10 d. 1.11 * 108 a. 3.0 * 10 - 1 and 3.0 * 10 - 2
2.88 Express the following numbers in decimal notation. b. 2.0 * 106 and 2.0 * 107
a. 4.63 * 10 - 5 b. 3.327 * 102 c. 4.11 * 104 and 3.99 * 10 - 4
-1
c. 3.47700 * 10 d. 2.4010 * 107 d. 7.25 * 100 and 7.50 * 10 - 1
2.89 Complete the following table by filling in the blanks in
each row with numerical values obtained from converting
numbers from decimal form to scientific notation form, or UNCERTAINTY AND SCIENTIFIC
vice versa, and then determining significant figures in the NOTATION (SEC. 2.7)
numbers. The first row is completed as an example. 2.95 What is the uncertainty, in terms of a power of ten, as-
Scientific Sig Figs Sig Figs
sociated with each of the following measured values?
Decimal Notation Decimal Scientific a. 3.700 * 104 b. 3.700 * 106
Form Form Form Notation Form c. 3.70 * 10 5
d. 3.7 * 10 - 2
2.96 What is the uncertainty, in terms of a power of ten,
27.23 2.723 * 1011 four four associated with each of the following measured
-1
a. 6.33 * 10 values?
b. 33,000 a. 5.70 * 10 - 2 b. 5.700 * 10 - 1
c. 5.7 * 10 3
d. 5.700 * 104
c. 0.1140 2.97 Rewrite the number 365,000 in scientific notation so
d. 6.33 * 1044 that it fits each of the following specifications.
a. has an uncertainty in the thousands place
2.90 Complete the following table by filling in the blanks b. has an uncertainty in the tens place
in each row with numerical values obtained from con- c. has an uncertainty in the tenths place
verting numbers from decimal form to scientific nota- d. has an uncertainty in the thousandths place
tion form, or vice versa, and then determining signifi- 2.98 Rewrite the number 725,000 in scientific notation so
cant figures in the numbers. The first row is completed that it fits each of the following specifications.
as an example. a. has an uncertainty in the ten thousands place
b. has an uncertainty in the hundreds place
Scientific Sig Figs Sig Figs c. has an uncertainty in the tenths place
Decimal Notation Decimal Scientific
d. has an uncertainty in the ten-thousandths place
Form Form Form Notation Form
2.99 For each of the following pairs of measured numbers,
373.2 3.732 * 102 four four indicate whether the uncertainty in the first member of
a. 33.01 the pair is greater than, the same as, or less than the
uncertainty in the second member of the pair.
b. 6.32 * 10 - 3
a. 2.50 * 102 and 2.5 * 102
c. 7.200 * 10 - 11 b. 2.50 * 10 - 4 and 2.5 * 10 - 5
d. 230,000 c. 2.500 * 10 - 2 and 2.5 * 10 - 4
d. 5.6 * 106 and 5.60 * 105
2.100 For each of the following pairs of measured num- Uncertainty

bers, indicate whether the uncertainty in the first Scientific Uncertainty Scientific
member of the pair is greater than, the same as, or Decimal Notation Decimal Notation
less than the uncertainty in the second member of Form Form Form Form
the pair.
373.2 3.732 * 102 10 - 1 10 - 1
a. 4.612 * 102 and 4.609 * 102
b. 1.03 * 109 and 1.03 * 10 - 9 a. 2345
c. 3.00 * 102 and 3.000 * 101 b. 0.0301
d. 4.5 * 104 and 4.500 * 106
2.101 For the measured value 2.735 * 103 carry out the
c. 3.00 * 10 - 2
following uncertainty-related activities without using d. 1.23 * 106
the decimal form of the number.
a. Determine the uncertainty, expressed as a power
of 10, associated with the measurement.
b. Rewrite the measured value so that its uncertainty MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION IN SCIENTIFIC
is increased by a factor of 100 (102). NOTATION (SEC. 2.8)
c. Rewrite the measured value so that its
2.105 Without using a calculator, carry out the following
uncertainty is decreased by a factor of
multiplications of exponential terms.
1000 (10 - 3).
a. 105 * 103 b. 10 - 5 * 10 - 3
d. Rewrite the measured value so that its uncer-
c. 105 * 10 - 3 d. 10 - 5 * 103
tainty is {103.
2.106 Without using a calculator, carry out the following
2.102 For the measured value 2.744 * 10 - 3 carry out the
multiplications of exponential terms.
following uncertainty-related activities without using
a. 107 * 104 b. 10 - 7 * 10 - 4
the decimal form of the number.
c. 107 * 10 - 4 d. 10 - 7 * 104
a. Determine the uncertainty, expressed as a power
2.107 Carry out the following multiplications, making sure
of 10, associated with the measurement.
that your answer is expressed in correct scientific no-
b. Rewrite the measured value so that its uncertainty
tation form and to the correct number of significant
is increased by a factor of 1000 (103).
figures.
c. Rewrite the measured value so that its uncertainty
a. (1.171 * 106) * (2.555 * 102)
is decreased by a factor of 100 (10 - 2).
b. (5.37 * 10 - 3) * (1.7 * 105)
d. Rewrite the measured value so that its uncer-
c. (9.0 * 10 - 5) * (3.000 * 10 - 5)
tainty is {10 - 4.
d. (3.0 * 105) * (9.000 * 105)
2.103 Complete the following table by filling in the blanks
2.108 Carry out the following multiplications, making sure
in each row with numerical values related to the un-
that your answer is expressed in correct scientific no-
certainty of the decimal and scientific notation forms
tation form and to the correct number of significant
of a numerical value. The first row is completed as
figures.
an example.
a. (2.340 * 10 - 3) * (2.60 * 106)
b. (1.110 * 105) * (3.333 * 10 - 7)
c. (9.8 * 102) * (7.00 * 102)
Uncertainty d. (8.77 * 10 - 6) * (5.030 * 102)
Scientific Uncertainty Scientific 2.109 Without using a calculator, carry out the following
Decimal Notation Decimal Notation divisions of exponential terms.
Form Form Form Form 105 105 10 - 5 10 - 5
a. b. c. d.
27.23 2.723 * 1011 10 - 2 10 - 2 103
10 -3
103
10 - 3
a. 0.6770 2.110 Without using a calculator, carry out the following
divisions of exponential terms.
b. 33,003
102 102 10 - 2 10 - 2
c. 6.350 * 102 a. b. -3
c. d.
103
10 103
10 - 3
d. 6.350 * 10 - 2 2.111 Carry out the following divisions, making sure that
your answer is expressed in correct scientific nota-
tion form and to the correct number of significant
figures.
2.104 Complete the following table by filling in the blanks
9.51167 * 10 - 2 4.500 * 1010
in each row with numerical values related to the un- a. b.
-3
certainty of the decimal and scientific notation forms 3.32 * 10 5.0005 * 10 - 8
-3
of a numerical value. The first row is completed as an 3.32 * 10 5.0005 * 10 - 8
c. -2
d.
example. 9.51167 * 10 4.500 * 1010
2.112 Carry out the following divisions, making sure that standard scientific notation to the proper number of
your answer is expressed in correct scientific nota- significant figures.
tion form and to the correct number of significant a. (3.245 * 103) + (1.17 * 103)
figures. b. (9.870 * 10 - 2) - (5.7 * 10 - 3)
3.5608 * 103 3.300 * 10 - 5 c. (9.356 * 105) + (3.27 * 104)
a. b.
5.71 * 10 5
4.0003 * 102 d. (2.030 * 104) - (1.111 * 103)
5.71 * 10 5
4.003 * 102 2.118 Carry out the following additions and subtractions
c. d. using the two-step approach of equalizing exponents
3.5608 * 10 3
3.300 * 10 - 5
and then adding coefficients. Express your answer in
2.113 Without using a calculator, carry out the follow-
standard scientific notation to the proper number of
ing mathematical operations involving exponential
terms.
a. (5.405 * 106) + (3.09 * 105)
102 * 103 10 - 2 * 10 - 3
a. b. b. (7.777 * 10 - 1) - (5.3 * 10 - 1)
104 10 - 4 c. (8.219 * 102) - (1.901 * 101)
-3
106
10 * 102 * 105 d. (3.45 * 103) + (3.45 * 102)
c. -5 -9
d.
10 * 10 10 - 6 * 108 2.119 Carry out the following additions and subtractions
2.114 Without using a calculator, carry out the follow- using the two-step approach of equalizing exponents
ing mathematical operations involving exponential and then adding coefficients. Express your answer in
terms. standard scientific notation to the proper number of
104 * 105 10 - 3 * 10 - 3 * 10 - 3 significant figures.
a. b. a. (8.313 * 107) - (6.00 * 106)
106 * 103 10 - 6
-6 b. (8.313 * 107) - (6.00 * 105)
10 * 10 * 10
2 3 4
10 * 104
c. d. c. (8.313 * 107) - (6.00 * 104)
-2
10 * 10 * 10-3 -4
103 * 10 - 5 d. (8.313 * 107) - (6.00 * 102)
2.115 Perform the following mathematical operations. Be 2.120 Carry out the following additions and subtractions
sure your answer contains the correct number of sig- using the two-step approach of equalizing exponents
nificant figures and that it is in correct scientific nota- and then adding coefficients. Express your answer in
tion form. standard scientific notation to the proper number of
(6.0 * 103) * (5.0 * 103) significant figures.
a.
2.0 * 107 a. (7.431 * 108) - (4.00 * 107)
2.0 * 107 b. (7.431 * 108) - (4.00 * 106)
b.
(6.0 * 103) * (5.0 * 103) c. (7.431 * 108) - (4.00 * 105)
(3.571 * 10 - 5) * (4.5113 * 10 - 9) d. (7.431 * 108) - (4.00 * 103)
c. 2.121 Carry out the additions and subtractions in Problem
(5.10 * 10 - 6) * (3.71300 * 1010)
(5 * 1010) * (6.0 * 107) * (3.111 * 10 - 5) 2.117 by directly entering the two scientific notation
d. values into an electronic calculator and then using
(3 * 103) * (4.00 * 10 - 6)
uncertainty considerations to obtain the correct an-
2.116 Perform the following mathematical operations. Be swer. Do not resort to using decimal notation in ana-
sure your answer contains the correct number of sig- lyzing the uncertainty situation.
nificant figures and that it is in correct scientific nota- 2.122 Carry out the additions and subtractions in Problem
tion form. 2.118 by directly entering the two scientific notation
(3.00 * 105) * (6.00 * 103) * (5.00 * 106) values into an electronic calculator and then using
a.
2.00 * 107 uncertainty considerations to obtain the correct
4.1111 * 10 - 3 answer. Do not resort to using decimal notation in
b.
(3.003 * 10 - 6) * (9.8760 * 10 - 5) analyzing the uncertainty situation.
(6 * 105) * (6 * 10 - 5) 2.123 Carry out the additions and subtractions in Problem
c.
(3 * 102) * (1 * 10 - 10) 2.119 by directly entering the two scientific notation
(3.00 * 106) * (2.7 * 103) * (8.50 * 103) values into an electronic calculator and then using
d. uncertainty considerations to obtain the correct
(2.22 * 102) * (8.504 * 106)
answer. Do not resort to using decimal notation in
analyzing the uncertainty situation.
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION IN SCIENTIFIC 2.124 Carry out the additions and subtractions in Problem
NOTATION (SEC. 2.8) 2.120 by directly entering the two scientific notation
values into an electronic calculator and then using
2.117 Carry out the following additions and subtractions uncertainty considerations to obtain the correct
using the two-step approach of equalizing exponents answer. Do not resort to using decimal notation in
and then adding coefficients. Express your answer in analyzing the uncertainty situation.
Multi-Concept Problems
Problems in this section draw on concepts from two or more sections of the chapter. They are usually more difficult than the
practice problems in the preceding section. These problems illustrate how concepts presented in different sections of the chapter
“mesh together” (complement each other) in problem-solving situations. Answers are given at the back of the book for the odd-
numbered problems.
2.125 Indicate whether or not both members of each of the 2.133 How many significant figures must the number Q
following pairs of measured values, when rounded possess, in each case, to make the following math-
to hundredths, contain the same number of signifi- ematical equations valid from a significant-figure
cant figures. standpoint?
a. 24.736 and 24.766 a. 6.000 * Q = 4.0
b. 3.736 and 11.736 5.000
c. 0.06736 and 0.0111 b. = 3.175
Q
d. 3.003 and 13.003 c. 5.250 + Q = 7.03
2.126 Indicate whether or not both members of each of the d. 0.7777 - Q = 0.011
following pairs of measured values, when rounded 2.134 How many significant figures must the number Q
to hundredths, contain the same number of signifi- possess, in each case, to make the following math-
cant figures. ematical equations valid from a significant-figure
a. 24.736 and 124.766 b. 13.736 and 11.736 standpoint?
c. 0.006736 and 0.0111 d. 3.003 and 3.0030 a. 450.0 * Q = 3.00
2.127 How many significant figures does each of the fol- Q
lowing numbers have? b. = 1.703
5.1256
a. 7770 b. 7.770
c. 9.13 + Q = 10.2
c. 7.770 * 10 - 3 d. 7.770 * 103
d. Q - 0.111 = 9.25
2.128 How many significant figures does each of the
2.135 What is wrong with the statement “The number of
following numbers have?
objects is 12.00 exactly”?
a. 0.4500 b. 4.500
2.136 What is wrong with the statement “Through count-
c. 4.500 * 10 - 3 d. 4.500 * 103
ing, it was determined that the basket contained
6.70 * 101 peaches”?
members of the pair contain the same number of
2.137 Each of the following calculations contains the
numbers 4.2, 5.30, 11, and 28. The numbers 4.2 and
a. 11.0 and 11.00
5.30 are measured quantities, and 11 and 28 are
b. 600.0 and 6.000 * 103
exact numbers. Do each calculation and express
c. 6300 and 6.3 * 103
each answer to the proper number of significant
d. 0.300045 and 0.345000
figures.
a. (4.2 + 5.30) * (28 + 11)
members of the pair contain the same number of
b. 4.2 * 5.30 * (28 - 11)
28 - 4.2 28 - 4.2
a. 0.000066 and 660,000 c. d.
b. 1.500 and 1.500 * 102 5.30 * 11 11 - 5.30
c. 54,000 and 5400.0 2.138 Each of the following calculations contains the num-
d. 0.05700 and 0.0570 bers 3.111, 5.03, 100, and 33. The numbers 3.111
2.131 In the following pairs of numbers, tell whether both and 5.03 are measured quantities, and 100 and 33
members of the pair have an uncertainty of less than are exact numbers. Do each calculation and express
{0.01. each answer to the proper number of significant
a. 0.006 and 0.016 figures.
b. 2.700 and 2.700 * 102 a. (3.111 + 5.03) * (100 + 33)
c. 3300.00 and 3300 b. 3.111 * 5.03 * (100 + 33)
d. 5.750 * 101 and 5.750 * 10 - 1 3.111 + 5.03 5.03 - 3.111
c. d.
2.132 In the following pairs of numbers, tell whether both 100 * 33 100 + 33
members of the pair have an uncertainty of less than 2.139 Arrange the following sets of numbers in ascending
{0.01. order (from smallest to largest).
a. 3.71 and 3.50 a. 2.07 * 102, 243, 1.03 * 103
b. 4.500 and 4.500 * 10 - 2 b. 0.0023, 3.04 * 10 - 2, 2.11 * 10 - 3
c. 270.0 and 0.27000 c. 23,000, 2.30 * 105, 9.67 * 104
d. 4.31 * 10 - 2 and 4.31 * 102 d. 0.00013, 0.000014, 1.5 * 10 - 4
2.140 Arrange the following sets of numbers in ascending c. 965,000,000, 9.76 * 108, 2.03 * 108
order (from smallest to largest). d. 0.00010, 0.00023, 3.4 * 10 - 2
a. 350, 3.51 * 102, 3.522 * 101
b. 0.000234, 2.341 * 10 - 3, 2.3401 * 10 - 4
Multiple Choice Practice Test

correct response (choice d) or no correct response (choice e). The answers to these questions are given at the end of this section
MC 2.1 Which of the following statements contains an MC 2.7 Which of the following measured values is speci-
exact number? fied to three significant figures?
a. There are 63 apples in the box. a. 1110
b. The magazine has 24 pages. b. 0.1110
c. The paper dimensions are 8.5 * 11 inches. c. 1.110
MC 2.2 A student measures the mass of a metal object three MC 2.8 In which of the following cases is the given number
times with the following results: 3.056 g, 3.057 g, and 3.056 g. correctly rounded to three significant figures?
Based on this information it is correct to say that the stu- a. 241,000 becomes 241
dent’s results are b. 0.3334 becomes 0.334
a. accurate. c. 42.357 becomes 42.3
b. precise. d. more than one correct response
c. both accurate and precise. e. no correct response
d. more than one correct response MC 2.9 In which of the following pairs of numbers do the
e. no correct response two members of the pair have the same uncertainty?
MC 2.3 Which of the following length measurements is a. 3.102 and 5.134
consistent with a ruler that has subdivisions of 0.1 inch? b. 0.20 and 0.200
a. 21.14 inches c. 301,000 and 300,000
b. 21.1 inches d. more than one correct answer
c. 21.00 inches e. no correct response
d. more than one correct response MC 2.10 The calculator answer obtained from multiplying
e. no correct response the measurements 42.44, 3.41, and 7.00 is 1013.0428. This
MC 2.4 The estimated digit(s) in the measured value 65,430 answer
pounds is a. is correct as written.
a. the zero b. should be rounded to 1013.
b. the three c. should be rounded to 1010.
c. both the zero and the three d. more than one correct response
e. no correct response MC 2.11 The correct answer obtained from adding the
MC 2.5 Which of the following statements concerning the measurements 8.1, 3.14, and 97.143 contains
“significance” of zeros in measured numbers is correct? a. two significant figures.
a. Leading zeros are always significant. b. three significant figures.
b. Confined zeros are always significant. c. four significant figures.
c. Trailing zeros are never significant. d. five significant figures.
e. no correct response MC 2.12 For which of the following sets of mathematical
MC 2.6 In which of the following measured numbers are operations does the correct answer contain only one signifi-
all of the zeros significant? cant figure?
a. 0.000003140 a. 4.0 * (2.3 + 4.5)
b. 360,031,010 b. 3.0 * (3.7 - 3.4)
c. 3.0101 c. 7.02 * (0.0001 + 0.011)
MC 2.13 When the number 3009.1 is converted to scientific d. more than one correct response
notation, the coefficient in the number e. no correct response
a. is 3.01. MC 2.18 Which of the following measured values are not
b. is 103. written in standard scientific notation?
c. contains five significant figures. a. 1.100 * 10 - 3
d. more than one correct response b. 11.00 * 103
e. no correct response c. 0.1100 * 103
MC 2.14 In which of the following cases is the given num- d. more than one correct response
ber correctly converted to scientific notation? e. no correct response
a. 321,000 becomes 3.21 * 104 MC 2.19 Which of the following represent the value
b. 0.00300 becomes 3 * 10 - 3 “twenty-hundredths” written to two significant figures?
c. 31.040 becomes 3.104 * 101 a. 0.020
d. more than one correct response b. 0.20
e. no correct response c. 2.0 * 102
MC 2.15 Which of the following is a correct conversion d. more than one correct response
from scientific notation to decimal notation? e. no correct response
a. 3.00 * 10 - 3 becomes 0.003 MC 2.20 In which of the following pairs of numbers are the
b. 5.00 * 103 becomes 5000 two numbers totally equivalent?
c. 3.21 * 106 becomes 321,000 a. 3200 and 3.200 * 103
d. more than one correct response b. 0.20 and 2.0 * 10 - 1
e. no correct response c. 4713.0 and 4.7130 * 103
MC 2.16 The uncertainty associated with the measured d. more than one correct response
value 6.0230 * 103 is e. no correct response
a. 10 - 4
b. 103
ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE CHOICE PRACTICE TEST
c. 10 - 1
d. more than one correct response MC 2.1 d MC 2.8 e MC 2.15 e
e. no correct response MC 2.2 b MC 2.9 a MC 2.16 c
MC 2.17 In which of the following pairs of numbers do the MC 2.3 d MC 2.10 c MC 2.17 c
two members of the pair have the same uncertainty? MC 2.4 b MC 2.11 c MC 2.18 d
a. 480 * 105 and 4.80 * 106 MC 2.5 b MC 2.12 b MC 2.19 b
b. 3.21 * 10 - 4 and 3.2 * 10 - 3 MC 2.6 c MC 2.13 c MC 2.20 d
c. 3 * 10 - 5 and 3.2211 * 10 - 1 MC 2.7 a MC 2.14 e
C H A P T E R
3
Unit Systems and Dimensional
Analysis
3.1 The Metric System of Units

3.2 Metric Units of Length
3.3 Metric Units of Mass
3.4 Metric Units of Volume
3.5 Units in Mathematical Operations
3.6 Conversion Factors
3.7 Dimensional Analysis
3.8 Density
3.9 Equivalence Conversion Factors Other than Density
3.10 Percentage and Percent Error
3.11 Temperature Scales
3.1 THE METRIC SYSTEM OF UNITS

Student Learning Focus: Understand why scientists prefer the metric system of units over the
English system of units when making measurements. Recognize units of the metric system by
name and abbreviation, and know the numerical meaning associated with various metric system
prefixes.
All measurements consist of three parts: (1) a number that tells the amount of the quantity
measured, (2) an error that produces an amount of uncertainty, and (3) a unit that tells the
nature of the quantity being measured. Chapter 2 dealt with the interpretation and manipu-
lation of the number and error parts of a measurement. We now turn our attention to units.
A unit is a “label” that describes (or identifies) what is being measured (or counted).
It can be almost anything: quarts, dimes, frogs, bushels, inches, or pages, for example.
60
Chapter 3 • Unit Systems and Dimensional Analysis 61
Having units for a measurement is an absolute necessity. If you were to ask a neighbor
to lend you six sugar, the immediate response would be “How much sugar?” You would
then have to indicate that you wished to borrow six pounds, six ounces, six cups, six
teaspoons, or whatever amount of sugar you needed.
Two formal systems of units of measurement are used in the United States today.
Common measurements in commerce—in supermarkets, lumberyards, gas stations, and
so on—are made in the English system. The units of this system include the familiar
inch, foot, pound, quart, and gallon. A second system, the metric system, is used in
scientific work. Units in this system include the meter and kilogram. The United States
is one of only a very few countries that use different unit systems in commerce and
scientific work. On a worldwide basis, almost universally, the metric system is used in
both areas.
Metric system use has become more common in the United States in recent years.
Metric units now appear on many consumer products. Road signs in some states display
distances in both miles and kilometers, and soft drinks are now sold in 1-, 2-, and 3-liter
containers (see Fig. 3.1). Automobile engine sizes are often given in liters. Canned and
packaged goods (cereals, mixes, fruits, etc.) on grocery store shelves now have the con-
tent masses listed in grams as well as ounces or pounds.
The metric system is superior to the English system. Its superiority lies in the area of
interrelationships between units of the same type (volume, length, etc.). Metric unit inter-
relationships are less complicated than English unit interrelationships because the metric
system is a decimal unit system. In the metric system, conversion from one unit size to
another can be accomplished simply by moving the decimal point to the right or left an
appropriate number of places.
SI Units
The metric measurement system, which dates back to the year 1791, was devised under
the auspices of the French Academy of Sciences. The use of this French system quickly
spread to other nations and it became the preferred system of measurement for scientists
throughout the world.
FIGURE 3.1 Metric measurements are becoming increasingly common in the United States as exem-
plified by highway mileage signs and consumer products. (iStockphoto; Eric Schrader/Pearson Science)
62 Chapter 3 • Unit Systems and Dimensional Analysis
TABLE 3.1 The Seven Base Units in the SI System of Units

Base Quantity Unit Name Unit Abbreviation
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Electric current* ampere A
Luminous intensity* candela cd
*This unit will not be further encountered in this textbook.
In 1960, again in France, a revised metric system, with improved definitions for
units, was developed by an international committee. This revised system, called the SI sys-
tem of units, is now the unit system of preference for scientists. The SI system of units
is a particular choice of metric units that was adopted in 1960 as a standard for making
metric system measurements. (The acronym SI comes from the phrase “French Systeme
International d’Unites.”)
The SI system of units has seven base units, each of which relates to a fundamental
physical quantity. An SI base unit is one of seven SI units of measurement from which all
other SI measurement units can be derived. Table 3.1 lists these seven base units along
with the symbols used to denote them.
Other SI units, called derived units, can be obtained from the SI base units. An ex-
ample of such a derived unit is the SI unit of speed, which is a combination of the SI base
units for distance and time.
SI unit of length (m)

SI unit of speed =
SI unit of time (s)
An SI-derived unit is an SI unit derived by combining two or more SI base units. Several
additional SI-derived units will be encountered in later sections of this chapter.
Metric System Prefixes

In the metric system, basic or derived units for each type of measurement—length, mass,
time, etc.—are multiplied by appropriate powers of ten to form smaller or larger units.
The names of the larger or smaller units are constructed from the unprefixed unit name
by attaching to it a prefix that tells which power of ten is involved. These prefixes are
given in Table 3.2, along with their symbols or abbreviations and mathematical meanings.
The prefixes in color are those most frequently used.
The use of numerical prefixes should not be new to you. Consider the use of the
prefix tri- in the following words: triangle, tricycle, trio, trinity, triple. Every one of these
words conveys the idea of three of something. We will use the metric system prefixes in
the same way.
The meaning of a prefix always remains constant; it is independent of the
base unit it modifies. For example, a kilosecond is a thousand seconds; a kilowatt, a
thousand watts; and a kilocalorie, a thousand calories. The prefix kilo- will always mean
a thousand.
Students often ask if

TABLE 3.2 Metric System Prefixes and Their Mathematical Meanings
other metric system
Prefix Symbol Mathematical Meaning Pronunciation Word Meaning prefixes exist besides
those in Table 3.2. The
12
Tera- T 1,000,000,000,000 = 10 TER-uh trillion answer is yes. The other
Giga- G 1,000,000,000 = 10 9
GIG-uh billion approved prefixes are
6 1015 peta (P)
Mega- M 1,000,000 = 10 MEG-uh million 18
10 exa (E)
Kilo- k 1000 = 103 KIL-oh thousand
1021 zetta (Z)
Hecto- h 100 = 102 HEK-toe hundred 1024 yotta (Y)
Deca- da 10 = 101 DEK-uh ten 10 - 15 femto (f)
0 - 18
1 = 10 one 10 atto (a)
Deci- d 0.1 = 10 -1
DES-ee tenth 10 - 21 zepto (z)
10 - 24 yocto (y)
Centi- c 0.01 = 10-2 SEN-tee hundredth
Milli- m 0.001 = 10-3 MIL-ee thousandth
-6
Micro- m* 0.000 001 = 10 MY-kro millionth
-9
Nano- n 0.000 000 001 = 10 NAN-oh billionth
-12
Pico- p 0.000 000 000 001 = 10 PEE-koh trillionth
*This is the Greek letter mu (pronounced “mew,” rhymes with “you”).
EXAMPLE 3.1 Recognizing the Mathematical Meanings of Metric System

Prefixes
Write the name of the power of 10 associated with the listed metric system prefix or the
metric system prefix associated with the listed power of 10.
a. nano- b. micro- c. deci- d. 10 - 2 e. 106 f. 109
SOLUTION
a. nano- denotes 10 - 9 (one-billionth)
b. micro- denotes 10 - 6 (one-millionth)
c. deci- denotes 10 - 1 (one-tenth)
d. 10 - 2 (one-hundredth) is denoted by the prefix centi-
e. 106 (one million) is denoted by the prefix mega-
f. 109 (one billion) is denoted by the prefix giga-
3.2 METRIC UNITS OF LENGTH

Student Learning Focus: Be familiar with common metric system units for measuring length and
how such units compare in magnitude to common English system length units.
The meter (m) is the SI system base unit of length. (Metre has been adopted as the pre- Length is measured by
ferred international spelling for the unit, but meter is the spelling used in the United States determining the distance
between two points.
and in this book.) A meter is about the same size as the English yard unit; 1 meter equals
1.09 yards (Fig. 3.2a). The prefixes listed in Table 3.2 enable us to derive other units of
length from the meter. The kilometer (km) is 1000 times larger than the meter; the centi-
meter (cm) and millimeter (mm) are, respectively, one-hundredth and one-thousandth of
a meter. Most laboratory measurements are made in centimeters or millimeters rather than
meters because of the meter’s relatively large size.
FIGURE 3.2 Com-

parisons of the metric (a) Length (b) Mass (c) Volume
base units of length A meter is slightly longer A gram is a small unit A liter is slightly larger than
(meter), mass (gram), than a yard. compared to a pound. a quart.
and volume (liter) with 1 meter = 1.09 yards 1 gram = 1/454 pound 1 liter = 1.06 quarts
common objects. (Rim A baseball bat is about Two pennies have a mass of Most beverages are now
light/Getty Images, 1 meter long. about 5 grams. sold by the liter rather than
Inc.—PhotoDisc; Getty by the quart.
Images, Inc.—Photodisc;
Eric Schrader/Pearson
Science )
3.3 METRIC UNITS OF MASS

Student Learning Focus: Be familiar with common metric system units for measuring mass and
how such units compare in magnitude to common English system mass units. Understand the
difference between the concepts of mass and weight.
The kilogram (kg) is the SI system base unit of mass. It is the only SI base unit whose
name includes a prefix (kilo- in this case). In chemistry, the smaller gram (g) unit is gen-
erally used instead of the larger kilogram unit. Note that in forming smaller and larger
SI mass units, the prefix is added to the word gram to give units such as microgram or
centigram. (A second prefix is never added to the SI base unit kilogram; a microkilogram
is not an appropriate designation.)
A gram is a very small unit compared with the English pound and ounce (Fig. 3.2b).
It takes approximately 28 grams to equal 1 ounce and nearly 454 grams to equal 1 pound.
Both grams (g) and milligrams (mg) are commonly used in the laboratory, where the ki-
logram (kg) is generally too large.
The terms mass and weight are frequently used interchangeably in measurement
discussions. Although in most cases this practice does no harm, technically it is incorrect
to interchange the terms. Mass and weight refer to different properties of matter, and their
difference in meaning should be understood.
Mass is measured by Mass is a measure of the total quantity of matter in an object. Weight is a measure
determining the amount of the force exerted on an object by gravitational forces. The mass of a substance is a con-
of matter in an object. stant; the weight of an object is a variable dependent upon the geographical location of
The determination is
made using a balance.
that object.
Matter at the equator weighs less than it would at the North Pole because Earth
is not a perfect sphere but bulges at the equator. As a result, an object at the equator
is farther from the center of Earth. It therefore weighs less because the magnitude of
gravitational attraction (the measure of weight) is inversely proportional to the distance
between the centers of the attracting objects; that is, the gravitational attraction is
FIGURE 3.3 An
astronaut on a space
walk is weightless but
not massless. He or she
has exactly the same
mass as on Earth. (NASA
Headquarters)
larger when the objects’ centers are closer together and smaller when the objects’ cen-
ters are farther apart. Gravitational attraction also depends on the masses of the attract-
ing bodies; the greater the masses, the greater the attraction. For this reason, an object
would weigh much less on the moon than on Earth because of the smaller size of the
moon and the correspondingly lower gravitational attraction. Quantitatively, a 22.0
pound object weighing 22.0 pounds at Earth’s North Pole would weigh 21.9 pounds
at Earth’s equator and only 3.7 pounds on the moon. In outer space an astronaut may
be weightless but never massless. In fact, he or she has the same mass in space as on
Earth (see Fig. 3.3).
3.4 METRIC UNITS OF VOLUME

Student Learning Focus: Be familiar with common metric system units for measuring volume and
how such units compare in magnitude to common English system volume units.
Before specific metric units of volume are considered, a brief review of how the quanti-
ties area and volume are calculated is in order.
Area is a measure of the extent of a surface. The units for area are squared units of
length. Common area units include square inches (in.2), square feet (ft2), square meters
(m2), and square centimeters (cm2). Note that a squared unit is just that unit multiplied by
itself. The unit cm2 means centimeter * centimeter in the same way that 32 means 3 * 3.
Figure 3.4 lists the formulas needed for determining the areas of commonly encoun-
tered geometrical objects. Notice that in each case the formula involves taking the
product of two lengths. Note also that the constant pi (p) is needed in calculating the
area of a circle. Its value to three, four, and five significant figures, respectively, is 3.14,
3.142, and 3.1416.
Volume is a measure of the amount of space occupied by an object. It is a three- Volume is measured by
dimensional measure and thus involves units that have been cubed: in.3, ft 3, m3, cm3, determining the amount
of space occupied by a
and so on. Again, a cubed unit is just that unit multiplied by itself three times in the same
three-dimensional object.
manner that 33 is 3 * 3 * 3. Figure 3.5 lists volume formulas for commonly encountered
three-dimensional objects. Note particularly the manner in which the volume of a cube is
calculated—side * side * side. This is the key to understanding metric units of volume
whose definitions are cube related.
FIGURE 3.4 Formulas

for calculating the
areas of various two- Square Area = side × side s
dimensional objects.
A=s×s
s
= s2
Rectangle Area = length × width w

A=l×w
l
r
Circle Area = π × (radius)2 π = 3.1416
A = π × r2
Triangle Area = 12 × base × height h

A = 12 × b × h
b
FIGURE 3.5 Formulas

for calculating the
volumes of various
Cube
three-dimensional Volume = side × side × side
objects. V=s×s×s s
= s3
l
Rectangular solid Volume = length × width × height h

V=l×w×h w
= lwh
r
Cylinder Volume = π × (radius)2 × height π = 3.1416

h
V = π × r2 × h
= πr2h
r
4
Sphere Volume = 3 × π × (radius)3
π = 3.1416
V = 4 × π × r3
3
= 4 πr3
3
The cubic meter (m3) is the SI system unit of volume. It is a derived SI unit rather than a
base SI unit (see Table 3.1). It is the volume associated with a cube with sides of 1 meter.
1 cubic meter = volume of a cube with sides of 1 m

= 1m * 1m * 1m
= 1 m3
The cubic meter is too large a unit to be routinely used in the chemistry laboratory.
The smaller units cubic decimeter (dm3) and cubic centimeter (cm3) are frequently used
instead of m3.
More frequently used than the preceding SI units of volume (m3, dm3, and cm3) are
the non-SI units liter (L) and milliliter (mL). The abbreviation for liter is a capital L rather
than a lowercase l because a lowercase l is easily confused with the number 1. (As with
meter, we will use the U.S. spelling for liter rather than the international spelling, which
is litre.)
Formal definitions for the liter and milliliter units of volume are based on cubic
measurement. A liter is a volume equal to that of a cube whose sides are 1 dm or 10 cm
(1 dm = 10 cm) in length.
1 liter = 1 dm3 (1 dm * 1 dm * 1 dm)

1 liter = 1000 cm3 (10 cm * 10 cm * 10 cm)
The cubic measurement equivalents for the smaller milliliter volume unit are obtained by
dividing both sides of the preceding equations by 1000 since a milliliter is one-thousandth
of a liter.
1 milliliter = 0.001 dm3

1 milliliter = 1 cm3
Thus, the liter and cubic decimeter units are the same, and the milliliter and cubic cen-
timeter units are the same. For the latter case, in practice, mL is used when specifying
volumes for liquids and gases and cm3 when specifying volume for solids. Figure 3.6
shows diagrammatically the relationship between the units of liter and milliliter and cubic
measurement.
A liter and a quart have approximately the same volume; 1 liter equals 1.06 quarts
(Fig. 3.2c). The milliliter and deciliter (dL) are commonly used in the laboratory. Deciliter
units are routinely encountered in clinical laboratory reports detailing the composition of
body fluids. A deciliter is equal to 100 mL.
1 cm FIGURE 3.6 The rela-

tionship between the
units liter and milliliter
1 mL in terms of cubic units.
1 dm = 10 cm 1 liter
1 dm = 10 cm
1 dm = 10 cm
3.5 UNITS IN MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS

Student Learning Focus: Understand how the mathematical operations of multiplication and
division apply to measurement units.
Just as numbers can have exponents associated with them (32, 63, 102, 104, etc.), so also
can units have exponents associated with them. In Section 3.4 in the discussion of
volume, the cubic volume units were introduced. For example, cm3 denotes the unit
centimeter multiplied by itself three times (cm * cm * cm). Other commonly encountered
units with exponents include
in.2 square inches

To avoid confusion with
the word in, the abbre- ft3 cubic feet
viation for inches, in., cm2 square centimeters
includes a period. This is
the only unit abbrevia- m2 square meters
tion in which a period
appears. In mathematical problems the powers on units are manipulated in the same manner
as powers of ten (Sec. 2.8). Exponents are added during multiplication and subtracted
during division. Just as
102 * 101 = 103
so likewise
km2 * km = km3
Similarly,
103
= 101
102
and
km3
= km
km2
3.6 CONVERSION FACTORS

Student Learning Focus: Understand how conversion factors are derived from equalities and be
familiar with common English-English, metric-metric, and English-metric conversion factors.
With both the English and metric systems of units in common use in the United States, it
is often necessary to change measurements from the English system to the metric system
or vice versa. The mathematical tool used to accomplish this task is a general method of
problem solving called dimensional analysis (Sec. 3.7). Central to the use of dimensional
analysis is the concept of conversion factors. A conversion factor is a ratio that specifies
how one unit of measurement is related to another unit of measurement.
Conversion factors are derived from equations (equalities) that relate units. Consider
the quantities “1 minute” and “60 seconds,” both of which describe the same amount of
time. We may write an equation describing this fact:
1 min = 60 sec
This fixed relationship is the basis for the construction of a pair of conversion factors that A valid conversion fac-
relate seconds and minutes: tor requires a correct
relationship between
1 min 60 sec units. For example, even
and though the statement
60 sec 1 min 1 minute = 45 seconds
is false, you can foolishly
Note that conversion factors always come in pairs, one member of the pair being the make a conversion fac-
reciprocal of the other. Also note that the numerator and the denominator of a conversion tor from it. However, any
factor always describe the same amount of whatever we are considering. One minute and answers you obtain using
60 seconds denote the same amount of time. this incorrect conversion
factor will be incorrect.
Conversion factors have a value of unity, that is, one. That this is the case can be Correct answers require
seen by taking the equation correct conversion fac-
tors, which require
1 min = 60 sec
correct relationships be-
and dividing each side of it by the quantity “60 seconds,” which gives tween units.
1 min 60 sec
=
60 sec 60 sec
Since the numerator and denominator of the fraction on the right are identical, we have
1 min
= 1
60 sec
In general, we will always be able to construct a set of two conversion factors, each
with a value of unity, from any two terms that describe the same “amount” of whatever
we are considering. The two conversion factors will always be reciprocals of each other.
(Conversion factors can also be constructed from two quantities that are equivalent rather
than equal. We will consider this situation in Sec. 3.8.)
Three important categories of conversion factors are (1) English-to-English,
(2) metric-to-metric, and (3) metric-to-English or English-to-metric. Further details con-
cerning these types of conversion factors follow.
English-to-English Conversion Factors

English-to-English conversion factors are used to change a measurement in one English
system unit into another English unit. Both the numerator and the denominator of such
conversion factors involve English units.
Most students are familiar with and have memorized numerous conversion factors
within the English system of measurement. Some of these factors, with only one member
of a conversion factor pair listed, are
12 in. 1 yd 1 gal 16 oz
1 ft 3 ft 4 qt 1 lb
Such conversion factors are exact; that is, they contain an unlimited number of significant
figures because the numbers within them arise from definitions (Sec. 2.2).
Table 3.3 lists the unit relationships most commonly needed to derive English-to-
English conversion factors.
Metric-to-Metric Conversion Factors

Metric-to-metric conversion factors are used to change a measurement in one metric unit
into another metric unit. Such conversion factors are similar to English-to-English conver-
sion factors in that they arise from definitions and are thus exact.
TABLE 3.3 Relationships Needed to Derive Commonly Used English-to-English

Conversion Factors
Length Mass Volume
12 inches = 1 foot 16 ounces = 1 pound 32 fluid ounces = 1 quart
36 inches = 1 yard 2000 pounds = 1 ton 2 pints = 1 quart
3 feet = 1 yard 4 quarts = 1 gallon
5280 feet = 1 mile
To write metric-to-metric Individual metric-to-metric conversion factors are derived from the meanings of the
conversion factors, you metric system prefixes (Table 3.2). For example, the set of conversion factors involving
need to know the mean- kilometer and meter come from the equality
ing of the metric system
prefixes in terms of powers 1 kilometer = 103 meters
of ten (see Table 3.2).
and those relating centigram and gram come from the equality
1 centigram = 10 - 2 gram
These two pairs of conversion factors, respectively, are
103 m 1 km
and
1 km 103 m
10 - 2 g 1 cg
and
1 cg 10 - 2 g
A recommended general rule to follow in writing metric-to-metric conversion factors

is that the numerical equivalent of the prefix (the power of ten) is always associated
with the base (unprefixed) unit and the number one is always associated with the
prefixed unit.
To help avoid confusion The number 1 always goes

about the accuracy of with the prefixed unit.
metric–English conver- 1 km
sion factors, scientists
The power of 10 always
103 m
have agreed on common
goes with the unprefixed
experiment-based defini-
unit.
tions for English units
in terms of metric units.
They have also agreed
that these definitions Metric-to-English and English-to-Metric Conversion Factors
should be taken to be
Conversion factors that relate metric units to English units must be established by mea-
exact. The three exact
definitions are surement since they involve two different unit systems. Such conversion factors are thus
1 in. = 2.540005 cm not exact. Table 3.4 lists commonly used “metric–English” conversion factors. These few
1 lb = 453.59237 g conversion factors are sufficient to solve most of the problems that we will encounter.
1 qt = 0.94633343 L Because they are not exact, metric-to-English conversion factors can be specified to
Conversion factors ob-
differing numbers of significant figures. For example,
tained from these exact
definitions are almost
always rounded to fewer 1.00 lb = 454 g
digits. These rounded 1.000 lb = 453.6 g
conversion factors are not
exact. 1.0000 lb = 453.59 g
TABLE 3.4 Conversion Factors That Relate the English and Metric Systems
of Measurement to Each Other
Type of Measurement Most Used Conversion Factor Additional Conversion Factors
Length 2.540 cm 1.609 km 39.37 in. 1.094 yd
1 in. 1 mi 1m 1m
Mass 453.6 g 2.205 lb
1 lb 1 kg
Volume 0.9463 L 3.785 L
1 qt 1 gal
In a problem-solving context, which “version” of a conversion factor is used depends on

how many significant figures there are in the other numbers of the problem. Conversion
factors should never limit the number of significant figures in the answer to a problem.
The conversion factors in Table 3.4 are given to four significant figures, which generally
is sufficient for the applications we will make of them.
Figure 3.7 summarizes the major concepts about conversion factors considered in
this section of the text.
FIGURE 3.7 English-

Characteristics of Conversion Factors to-English and metric-
• Ratios that specify how units are related to each other to-metric conversion
factors are based on
• Derived from equations that relate units defined relationships.
Metric-to-English
1 minute = 60 seconds and English-to-metric
• Come in pairs, one member of the pair being the reciprocal conversion factors are
of the other based on measured
relationships.
1 min 60 sec
and
60 sec 1 min
• Conversion factors originate from two types of relationships:
(1) defined relationships and (2) measured relationships
Conversion Factors from Conversion Factors from

DEFINED Relationships MEASURED Relationships
• All English-to-English and metric-to- • All English-to-metric and metric-to-
metric conversion factors English conversion factors
• Have an unlimited number of • Have a specific number of significant

significant figures figures, depending on the uncertainty in
the defining relationship
12 inches = 1 foot (exactly)
4 quarts = 1 gallon (exactly) 1.00 lb = 454 g (three sig figs)
1 kilogram = 103 grams (exactly) 1.000 lb = 453.6 g (four sig figs)
1.0000 lb = 453.59 g (five sig figs)
• Metric-to-metric conversion factors are
derived using the meanings of the
metric system prefixes.
3.7 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

Student Learning Focus: Be able to set up and work simple metric system-metric system, metric
system-English system and English system-English system unit conversion problems using the
dimensional analysis method of problem solving.
Dimensional analysis is a general problem-solving method in which the units associated

with numbers are used as a guide in setting up calculations. In this method, units are
treated in the same way as numbers; that is, they can be multiplied, divided, or cancelled.
For example, just as
3 * 3 = 32 (3 squared)
we have
km * km = km2 (km squared)
Also, just as the twos cancel in the expression
2 * 3 * 6
2 * 5
the inches cancel in the expression
in. * cm
in.
Like units found in the numerator and denominator of a fraction will always cancel, just
as like numbers do.
The following steps indicate how to set up a problem using dimensional analysis.
Step 1 Identify the known or given quantity (both a numerical value and units) and the
units of the new quantity to be determined.
This information will always be found in the statement of the problem.
Write an equation with the given quantity on the left and the units of the desired
quantity on the right.
Step 2 Multiply the given quantity by one or more conversion factors in a manner such that
the unwanted (original) units are cancelled out, leaving only the new desired unit.
The general format for the multiplication is
information given * conversion factor(s) = information sought
The number of conversion factors used depends on the individual problem.
Except in the simplest of problems, it is a good idea to predetermine formally the se-
quence of unit changes to be used. This sequence will be called the unit “pathway.”
Significant figures are Step 3 Perform the mathematical operations indicated by the conversion factor setup.
not something we learn In performing the calculation, you need to double check that all units ex-
about in Chapter 2 and
cept the desired set have cancelled out. You also need to check the numerical
then forget about for the
remainder of the course. answer to see that it contains the proper number of significant figures.
Significant figures will be
Now let us work a number of sample problems using dimensional analysis and the
part of every calculation
done in this course. steps just outlined.
Metric-to-Metric Conversion Factor Use

Our first two examples involve only metric system units and thus will involve only metric-
to-metric conversion factors.
EXAMPLE 3.2 One-Step Metric-to-Metric Conversion Factor Problem
A vitamin-C tablet is found to contain 0.500 g of vitamin C. How many milligrams of vita-
min C does this tablet contain?
SOLUTION
Step 1 The given quantity is 0.500 g, the mass of vitamin C in one tablet. The unit of the
desired quantity is milligrams.
0.500 g = ? mg
Step 2 Only one conversion factor will be needed to convert from grams to milligrams—
one that relates grams to milligrams. Two forms of this conversion factor exist.
1 mg 10 - 3 g
and
10 - 3 g 1 mg
The first factor is used because it allows for the cancellation of the gram units,
leaving us with milligrams as the new units.
1 mg
0.500 g *
10 - 3 g
For cancellation, a unit must appear in both the numerator and the denominator.
Because the given quantity (0.500 g) has grams in the numerator, the conversion
factor used must be the one with grams in the denominator.
If the other conversion factor had been used, we would have
10 - 3 g
0.500 g *
1 mg
No unit cancellation is possible in this setup. Multiplication gives g2/mg as the

final units, which is certainly not what we want. In all cases, only one of the two
conversion factors of a reciprocal pair will correctly fit into a dimensional analy-
sis setup.
Step 3 Step 2 takes care of the units. All that is left is to combine numerical terms to get the
final answer; we still have to do the arithmetic. Collecting the numerical terms gives
0.500 * 1
mg = 500 mg calculator answer
10 - 3
= 5.00 * 10 mg (correct answer)
2
Since the conversion factor used in this problem is derived from a defini-
tion, it contains an unlimited number of significant figures and will not limit in
any way the allowable number of significant figures in the answer. Therefore,
the answer should have three significant figures, the same number as in the
given quantity.
Answer Double Check: Is the magnitude of the answer reasonable? Yes. In going from
a large unit (g) to a smaller unit (mg), the numerical value should increase, which it
has (0.500 to 500); there should be many “smalls” in a “large.” A gram is equivalent to
1000 milligrams. Therefore, one-half gram is equivalent to 500 milligrams, which is our
answer.
Chemical Insight: VITAMIN C

Vitamin C is necessary for the proper formation of skin, ligaments, and tendons as well
as bone and teeth. Humans, monkeys, and guinea pigs are among the relatively few
species that require dietary sources of vitamin C. Other species synthesize vitamin C
from dietary carbohydrates.
Although many people think citrus fruits are the best source of vitamin C (50 mg
per 100 g), peppers (128 mg per 100 g), cauliflower (70 mg per 100 g), strawberries
(60 mg per 100 g), and spinach or cabbage (60 mg per 100 g) are all richer in vitamin C.
EXAMPLE 3.3 Two-Step Metric-to-Metric Conversion Factor Problem
The ozone layer is a region in the upper atmosphere, at altitudes between 25 and 35 km,
where the concentration of ozone is several times higher than at ground level. Express
the altitude 35 km (the upper limit of the ozone layer) in centimeter units.
SOLUTION
Step 1 The given quantity is 35 km, and the units of the desired quantity are centimeters.
35 km = ? cm
Step 2 In dealing with metric–metric unit changes where both the original and desired units
carry prefixes (which is the case in this problem), it is recommended that you always
channel units through the base unit (unprefixed unit). If you do that, you will not
need to deal with any conversion factors other than those resulting from prefix defi-
nitions. Following this recommendation, the unit pathway for this problem is
km S m S cm
prefixed base prefixed
unit unit unit
In the setup for this problem, we will need two conversion factors, one for
the kilometer-to-meter change and one for the meter-to-centimeter change.
103 m 1 cm
35 km × ×
1 km 10−2 m
This conversion This conversion
factor converts factor converts
km to m. m to cm.
The units cancel except for the desired centimeters.

Step 3 Carrying out the indicated numerical calculation gives
35 × 103 × 1
cm = 3.5 × 106 cm (calculator and
1 × 10−2 correct answer)
Numbers from Numbers from
first conversion second conversion
factor factor
The correct answer is the same as the calculator answer for this problem.
The given quantity has two significant figures, and both conversion factors are
exact. Thus, the correct answer should contain two significant figures.
Answer Double Check: Is the magnitude of the answer reasonable? Yes. The answer is a
large number (106), which it should be. There are many small units (cm) in a large unit (km).
Chemical Insight: OZONE

Oxygen occurs naturally in two forms: “normal oxygen” (the most abundant form)
and ozone (a much less abundant form). The concentration of ozone in the upper
atmosphere (ozone layer) is approximately 200 parts per billion. Despite its low con-
centration in the ozone layer, it is, however, extremely important to life on Earth, as it
screens out (absorbs) 95–98% of biologically harmful ultraviolet radiation coming from
the sun. Excessive exposure to ultraviolet light causes sunburn and can contribute to
the development of certain types of skin cancer. The presence of ozone in the upper
atmosphere is a very desirable situation.
Ozone, under certain conditions, can also be found in the lower atmosphere.
There, its presence is considered undesirable. In the lower atmosphere, ozone is pro-
duced during photochemical smog formation. As an “active ingredient” in such smog,
it is partially responsible for the eye irritation that many individuals experience when
outdoors during smoggy atmospheric conditions.
The next example illustrates the use of cubic conversion factors in a dimensional analy-
sis setting. The context is a volume measurement (Sec. 3.4) specified using cubic dimensions.
EXAMPLE 3.4 Metric-to-Metric Conversion Factor Problem Involving

Cubic Dimensions
The amount of water in the world’s oceans is estimated to be 1.35 * 109 km3. What is this
water volume in cubic centimeters?
SOLUTION
Step 1 The given quantity is 1.35 * 109 km3, and the units of the desired quantity are
cubic centimeters.
1.35 * 109 km3 = ? cm3
Step 2 The unit pathway will be
km3 S m3 S cm3
prefixed base prefixed
unit unit unit
As noted in Example 3.3, it is always recommended that in going from one pre-
fixed metric unit to another prefixed metric unit, a pathway be used that goes
through the base (unprefixed) unit.
The first conversion factor that is needed (km3 to m3) is obtained by cubing
the conversion factor, based on the relationship 103 m = 1 km, that is,
103 m 3
a b
1 km
In a similar manner, the second conversion factor involves the relationship
1 cm 3
a b
10 - 2 m
The dimensional analysis setup for the problem is

103 m 3 1 cm 3
1.35 * 109 km3 * a b * a -2 b
1 km 10 m
Note that for cubed conversion factors, the exponent of 3 outside the
parentheses affects everything within those parentheses, that is, both the number
and the unit.
103 m 3 (103)3 m3 109 m3
a b = 3 3 =
1 km (1) km 1 km3
1 cm 3 (1)3 cm3 1 cm3

a b = =
10 - 2 m (10 - 2)3 m3 10 - 6 m3
Rewriting the dimensional analysis setup using the preceding relationships
enables us to easily see the cancellation of units that occurs
109 m3 1 cm3
1.35 * 109 km3 * 3 *
1 km 10-6 m3
All units cancel except cm3.
Step 3 Carrying out the indicated numerical calculation gives
1.35 * 109 * 109 * 1
cm3 = 1.35 * 1024 cm3 (calculator and correct answer)
1 * 10 - 6
The original data is given to three significant figures, and the conversion factors are
exact (defined). Therefore, the answer can be specified to three significant figures.
Answer Double Check: The most common mistake made in a problem of this type is
forgetting to cube the numerical parts of cubed conversion factors. Such is not the case
here. All numbers that should be cubed have been cubed. Note that the given number,
1.35 * 109, was not cubed; it was not part of a cubed conversion factor.
Chemical Insight: OCEAN WATER

It is estimated that ocean water constitutes 97.5% of the Earth’s water. Such water is commonly
referred to as seawater (or salt water). The remaining 2.5% of Earth’s waters is fresh water,
which consists of three components. Solid-state fresh water (1.72%) is found in ice caps, snow
pack, and glaciers. Ground water (0.77%) is found in large underground natural aquifers.
Surface fresh water (0.01%) is found in lakes, streams, reservoirs, soil, and the atmosphere.
All water as it occurs in nature is impure in a chemical sense. The impurities
present include suspended matter, microbiological organisms, dissolves gases, and dis-
solved minerals. The major distinction between fresh water and seawater is the amount
and identity of the dissolved minerals present in the water. On a relative scale, where
the total number of dissolved mineral particles present in fresh water is assigned the
value 1, seawater has a value of approximately 500.
As shown in the detailed solutions for Examples 3.2 through 3.4, when using di-
mensional analysis to set up and solve problems, three questions are always asked:
1. What data are given in the problem?
2. What quantity do we wish to obtain in the problem?
3. What conversion factors are needed to facilitate the transition from the given quan-
tity to the desired one?
English-to-English Conversion Factor Use

Our next worked-out example problem involves the use of English-to-English conversion
factors. Such conversion factors, which were previously considered in Section 3.6 (Table 3.3)
should pose no problems for you. The example is intended to give you further insight into
the dimensional analysis method for setting up the pathway for unit change.
EXAMPLE 3.5 Multistep English-to-English Conversion Factor Problem
If a person’s stomach produces 87 fl oz of gastric juice in a day, what is the equivalent

volume of the gastric juice in gallons?
SOLUTION
Step 1 The given quantity is 87 fl oz, and the unit of the desired quantity is gallons.
87 fl oz = ? gal
Step 2 The logical pathway to follow to accomplish the desired change is to convert
fluid ounces to quarts (fluid ounces are subdivisions of a quart) and then convert
the quarts to gallons (quarts are subdivisions of a gallon).
fl oz S qt S gal
Always use logical steps in setting up the pathway for a unit change. It does
not have to be done in one big jump. Use smaller steps for which you know
the conversion factors. Big steps usually get you involved with unfamiliar con-
version factors. Most people do not carry around in their head the number of
fluid ounces in a gallon, but they do know that there are 32 fl oz in a quart
(see Table 3.3).
The setup for this problem will require two conversion factors: fluid ounces
to quarts and quarts to gallons.
1 qt 1 gal
87 fl oz * *
32 fl oz 4 qt
fl oz S qt S gal
The units all cancel except for the desired gallons.

Step 3 Performing the indicated multiplications, we get
87 × 1 × 1
gal = 0.6796875 gal (calculator answer)
32 × 4
= 0.68 gal (correct answer)
Numbers from
first conversion Numbers from
factor second conversion
factor
The calculator answer contains too many significant figures. The correct an-
swer should contain only two significant figures, the number in the given quan-
tity. Again, both conversion factors involve exact definitions and will not enter
into significant figure considerations.
Chemical Insight: GASTRIC JUICE

Gastric juice is a mixture of water, enzymes, and hydrochloric acid that is secreted by
the gastric glands of the stomach. The presence of hydrochloric acid in gastric juice
causes the sensation of heartburn if it is refluxed into the esophagus.
The acidity of gastric juice (hydrochloric acid) prevents bacterial growth in the
stomach, kills most bacteria that enter the body with food, and effects the partial
breakdown of protein by activating protein-digesting enzymes. The concentration of
hydrochloric acid in gastric juice is approximately 5% by mass, creating an acidity
effect about the same of that of lemon juice.
English-to-Metric and Metric-to-English Conversion Factor Use

We will now consider some sample problems that involve both the English and metric sys-
tems of units. As mentioned previously (Sec. 3.6), conversion factors between these two unit
systems do not arise from definitions, but are determined experimentally. Hence they are not
exact. Some of these experimentally determined conversion factors were given in Table 3.4.
Instead of trying to remember all of the conversion factors listed in Table 3.4, mem-
orize only one factor for each type of measurement (mass, volume, length). Knowing
only one factor of each type is sufficient information to work metric-to-English or English-
to-metric conversion problems. The relationships that are the most useful for you to
memorize are the following:
Lenght: 1 in. = 2.540 cm (four significant figures)
Mass: 1 lb = 453.6 g (four significant figures)
Volume: 1 qt = 0.9463 L (four significant figures)
These three equalities can be considered “bridge relationships,” connecting English
and metric system measurement units of various types.
These bridge relationships are always applicable in problem solving. For example,
no matter what mass units are given or asked for in a problem, we can convert to pounds
or grams (bridge units), cross the bridge with our memorized conversion factor, and then
convert to the desired final unit. The only advantage that would be gained by memoriz-
ing all the factors in Table 3.4 would be that you could work some problems with fewer
conversion factors, usually only one factor fewer. The reduction in the number of con-
version factors used is usually not worth the added complication of keeping track of the
additional conversion factors.
EXAMPLE 3.6 English-to-Metric Conversion Factor Problem
Your feisty neighbor Landy Ippert weighs 244 lb. What is his mass in kilograms?
SOLUTION
Step 1 The given quantity is 244 lb, and the units of the desired quantity are kilograms.
244 lb = ? kg
Step 2 This is an English–metric mass-unit conversion problem. The mass-unit “mea-
surement bridge” involves pounds and grams. Since pounds are the given units,
we are at the bridge to start with. Pounds are converted to grams (crossing the
bridge), and then the grams are converted to kilograms.
lb S g S kg
The conversion factor setup for this problem is
453.6 g 1 kg
244 lb * * 3
1 lb 10 g
The units all cancel except for kilograms.

Step 3 Performing the indicated arithmetic gives
244 * 453.6 * 1
kg = 110.6784 kg (calculator answer)
1 * 103
= 111 kg (correct answer)
The calculator answer must be rounded off to three significant figures, since
the given quantity (244 lb) has only three significant figures. The first conversion
factor has four significant figures, and the second one is exact.
An alternative pathway for working this problem makes use of the conversion Conversion factors based
factor in Table 3.4 involving pounds and kilograms. If we use this conversion factor, on measurement, such as
we can go directly from the given to the desired unit in one step. The setup is English–metric conver-
sion factors, should never
be the limiting quantity in
1 kg
244 lb * = 110.65759 kg (calculator answer) determining the number
2.205 lb of significant figures in a
final answer. For this rea-
= 111 kg (correct answer)
son and also to minimize
As is the case here, for most problems there is more than one pathway that rounding error, we will
always use four-significant-
can be used to get the answer. When alternative pathways exist, it cannot be said
figure English–metric
that one way is more correct than another. The important concept is that you conversion factors
select a pathway, choose a correct set of conversion factors consistent with that (Table 3.4) in problem
pathway, and get the answer. solving unless the given
Although both pathways used in this problem are correct, we prefer the first quantity dictates the use
of conversion factors with
solution because it uses our mass measurement bridge. Use of the measurement
even more significant
bridge system cuts down on the number of conversion factors you are required figures.
to know (or look up in a table).
Answer Double Check: Using the second setup for solving the problem, it is easy to
check that the magnitude of the answer is reasonable. Rounding the number 244 to 240
and dividing by 2 gives an estimated answer of 120. The correct answer, 111, is consistent
with this estimate.
EXAMPLE 3.7 Multistep Metric-to-English Conversion Factor Problem
The average direct daily use of water in the United States per person is 3.0 * 105 mL.
This includes water for drinking, cooking, bathing, dishwashing, laundry, flushing toilets,
watering lawns, and so on. What is the volume, in gallons, of this amount of water?
SOLUTION
Step 1 The given quantity is 3.0 * 105 mL, and the units of the desired quantity are gallons.
3.0 * 105 mL = ? gal
Step 2 The bridge relationship for volume involves liters and quarts. Thus, we need to convert
the milliliters to liters, cross the bridge to quarts, and then convert quarts to gallons.
mL S L S qt S gal
Following the pathway, the setup becomes

10 - 3 L 1 qt 1 gal
3.0 * 105 mL * * *
1 mL 0.9463 L 4 qt
Step 3 The numerical calculation involves the following collection of numbers.
3.0 * 105 * 10 - 3 * 1 * 1
gal = 79.256049 gal (calculator answer)
1 * 0.9463 * 4
= 79 gal (correct answer)
The calculator answer must be rounded to two significant figures because
the input number 3.0 * 105 has only two significant figures.
Again, as in Example 3.6, to illustrate that there is more than one way to set
up almost any unit conversion problem, let us work this problem using the other
volume conversion factor from Table 3.4.
To use the conversion factor based on 3.785 L = 1 gal requires a pathway of
mL S L S gal
The conversion factor setup is
10 - 3 L 1 gal
3.0 * 105 mL * * = 79.260238 gal (calculator answer)
1 mL 3.785 L
= 79 gal (correct answer)
Note that the calculator answers obtained from this setup and the previous
one for this problem are different—79.256049 and 79.260238—but each gives the
same answer after rounding to two significant figures. The slight difference arises
from the fact that the English-to-metric conversion factors used are not exact defini-
tions. The two conversion factors used have different rounding-off errors in them.
Note that both methods give the same correct answer after rounding to the
correct number of significant figures. Although each of the setups is correct, we
still prefer the method of having a specific bridge relationship for volume, mass,
and length to use in crossing the metric-to-English bridge.
Chemical Insight: WATER AND THE HUMAN BODY

Water use amounts, the subject of this calculation, can also be specified for the human
body. On average, per day, approximately 2400 mL of water enter and leave the body.
Water enters the body in three different ways: (1) the liquids we drink (1500 mL),
(2) water in foods (700 mL), and (3) water produced in cells as a by-product of process-
ing of ingested food (200 mL). Water normally leaves the body by four mechanisms: (1)
urine produced in the kidneys (1400 mL), (2) water expired from the lungs (350 mL),
(3) perspiration from the skin (450 mL), and (4) feces formed in the intestines (200 mL).
EXAMPLE 3.8 Metric-to-English Conversion Factor Problem Involving

Cubic Units
A large flask contains 375 mL of strained (no seeds) watermelon juice. (Tests are to be run
on the juice to see how much vitamin A it contains.) Specify the volume of this amount
of juice in
a. cubic centimeters.
b. cubic feet.
SOLUTION
a. From Section 3.4, we note that
1 mL = 1 cm3
Therefore,
1 cm3
375 mL * = 375 cm3 (calculator and correct answer)
1 mL
b. We will use the answer from part (a), 375 cm3, as the starting point for the part (b)
calculation.
Step 1 The given quantity is 375 cm3, and the units for the desired quantity are ft3.
375 cm3 = ? ft3
Step 2 If this problem were a problem involving just length rather than (length)3, the
pathway would be
cm S in. S ft
3
The pathway for (length) is just an adaptation of this pathway.
cm3 S in.3 S ft3
The conversion factors needed for this pathway are simply those for length raised
to the third power; that is,
3
1 in. 1 ft 3
375 cm3 * a b * a b
2.540 cm 12 in.
Note that the entire conversion factor, in each case, must be cubed, not just the
units on the conversion factor. The notation 1 121 ftin. 2 3 means that the conversion
factor within the parentheses is multiplied by itself three times. Thus,
1 ft 3 1 ft 1 ft 1 ft
a b = * *
12 in. 12 in. 12 in. 12 in.
1 ft3
=
1728 in.3
The complete setup for this problem, showing the removal of parentheses and
cancellation of units, is
3
1 in. 1 ft 3
375 cm3 * a b * a b
2.540 cm 12 in.
13 in.3 13 ft3
= 375 cm3 * *
(2.540)3 cm3 (12)3 in.3
Note that the numbers as well as the units must be cubed with removal of parentheses.
Step 3 The numerical setup is
375 * 13 * 13 3
ft = 0.013243 ft3 (calculator answer)
(2.540)3 * (12)3
= 0.0132 ft3 (correct answer)
Answer Double Check: The most common mistake made in solving a problem of this type
is forgetting to cube numbers that need to be cubed. In the step 3 numerical setup for this
problem, the denominator of the problem does involve cubed numbers. In rewritten form it is
2.540 * 2.540 * 2.540 * 12

(11++1+)+1++1* * 12 * 12
(++)++*
3
(2.540) (12)3
Units Involving More Than One Type of Measurement

As a final concept in our discussion of unit changes effected using dimensional analysis,
“complex” measurement units are considered, that is, units that involve more than one
type of measurement. Such “complex” units are frequently encountered in many settings.
Two examples of “complex” units are the following:
miles per hour (length and time): 60 miles/hr
milligrams per milliliter (mass and volume): 3.0 mg salt/mL solution
Example 3.9 illustrates how such “complex” units are handled in a dimensional analysis
unit-change setting.
EXAMPLE 3.9 Conversion Factor Problem Involving Two Types of Units
Worldwide emissions of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere are estimated at 2 * 109
tons per year. What is this emission rate in pounds per hour?
SOLUTION
Step 1 The given quantity is 2 * 109 ton/year, and the units of this quantity are to be
changed to lb/hr.
ton lb
2 * 109 = ?
yr hr
Step 2 This problem is more complex than previous examples because two different
types of units are involved: mass and time. However, the approach we use to
solve it is similar, other than that we must change two units instead of one. The
tons must be converted to pounds and the years to hours.
The logical pathway for the mass change is the direct one-step path
ton S lb
For time, it is logical to make the change in two steps.
yr S day S hr
It does not matter whether time or mass is handled first in the conversion-factor
setup. We will arbitrarily choose to handle time first. The setup becomes
ton 1 yr 1 day
2 × 109 × ×
yr 365 day 24 hr
The units at this The units at this
point are ton/day. point are ton/hr.
Note that in the first conversion factor, years had to be in the numerator to cancel
the years in the denominator of the given quantity.
We are not done yet. The time conversion from years to hours has been ac-
complished, but nothing has been done with mass. To take care of mass we do
not start a new conversion factor setup. Rather, an additional conversion factor is
tacked onto those we already have in place.
ton 1 yr 1 day 2000 lb

2 * 109 * * *
yr 365 day 24 hr 1 ton
The tons in the denominator of the last factor cancel the tons in the numerator of
the given quantity. With this cancellation, the units now become lb/hr.
Step 3 Collecting the numerical factors and performing the indicated math gives
2 * 109 * 1 * 1 * 2000 lb lb
= 4.56621 * 108 (calculator answer)
365 * 24 * 1 hr hr
8 lb
= 5 * 10 (correct answer)
hr
The given quantity possesses only one significant figure. Rounding the calculator answer
to one significant figure produces the correct answer of 5 * 108 lb>hr. Again, none of the
conversion factors plays a role in significant-figure considerations since they all originated
from definitions.
Answer Double Check: In solving dimensional analysis problems involving compound
units, a common error made is mistakenly writing one or more conversion factors in the
inverted form. The double-check for this is to always formally cancel units using slash
marks. If conversion factors are present in inverted form, the units will not cancel in the
proper manner. Unit cancellation shows that there are no inverted conversion factors in
the dimensional analysis setup for the preceding problem.
Chemical Insight: CARBON DIOXIDE

Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere in a number of ways. Foremost among them
(93% of total emissions) is respiration associated with animals and humans. Forest fires
and other burning of plant materials account for 2% of emissions, and the burning of
fossol fuels such as oil, coal, and natural gas is 5% of emissions. Most (95%) of this
released carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere by the natural processes of
photosynthesis and uptake of carbon dioxide by the oceans. There is, however, a net
gain in atmospheric carbon dioxide each year.
The environment impact of increased carbon dioxide levels is called the green-
house effect, an effect that produces global warming (an increase in average air tem-
peratures). Carbon dioxide traps some of the heat energy re-radiated by the Earth as
it cools at night, thus preventing the heat energy from escaping to outer space. The
trapped energy causes an increased warming of the atmosphere.
Although the emphasis in this section has been on using conversion factors to
change units within the English or metric systems or from one to the other, the applica-
tions of conversion factors go far beyond this type of activity. We will resort to using
conversion factors time and time again throughout this textbook in solving problems.
What has been covered in this section is only the tip of the iceberg relative to dimensional
analysis and conversion factors.
3.8 DENSITY
Student Learning Focus: Be able to calculate the density of a substance from its mass and volume
and be able to use density as a conversion factor in mass-volume calculations.
Density is the ratio of the mass of an object to the volume occupied by that object; that is,
The SI-derived unit for
mass
density (d) = density is kilograms per
volume cubic meter (kg>m3).
This is too large a unit
The most frequently encountered density units in chemistry are grams per cubic cen- for almost all chemical
timeter (g>cm3) for solids, grams per milliliter (g/mL) for liquids, and grams per liter applications that involve
(g/L) for gases. Use of these units avoids the problem of having density values that are density use.
TABLE 3.5 Densities of Selected Solids, Liquids, and Gases
Density Density
(g/cm3 at Density (g/L at 25°C,
Solids 25°C)* Liquids (g/mL at 25°C)* Gases 1 atm)*
Gold 19.3 Mercury 13.55 Chlorine 3.17
Lead 11.3 Milk 1.028–1.035 Carbon dioxide 1.96
Copper 8.93 Blood plasma 1.027 Oxygen 1.42
Aluminum 2.70 Urine 1.003–1.030 Air (dry) 1.29
Table salt 2.16 Water 0.997 Nitrogen 1.25
Bone 1.7–2.0 Olive oil 0.92 Methane 0.66
Table sugar 1.59 Ethyl alcohol 0.79 Hydrogen 0.08
Wood, pine 0.30–0.50 Gasoline 0.56
*Density changes with temperature. (In most cases it decreases with increasing temperature, since almost
all substances expand when heated.) Consequently, the temperature must be recorded along with a density
value. In addition, the pressure of gases must be specified.
extremely small or extremely large numbers. Table 3.5 gives density values for a number
of substances.
Metals are classified as People often speak of one substance being heavier or lighter than another. For ex-
light or heavy, based on ample, it is said that “lead is a heavier metal than aluminum.” What is actually meant by
density. Light metals are
metals whose densities
this statement is that lead has a higher density than aluminum; that is, there is more mass
are less than 4.00 g>cm3. in a specific volume of lead than there is in the same volume of aluminum. The density of
Included among the light an object is a measure of how tightly the object’s mass is packed into a given volume. Even
metals are though the density of lead (11.3 g>cm3) is greater than that of aluminum (2.70 g>cm3), 1 g
calcium 1.55 g>cm3 of lead weighs exactly the same as 1 g of aluminum—1 g is 1 g. Because the aluminum
magnesium 1.74 g>cm3 is less dense than the lead, the mass in the 1 g of aluminum will occupy a larger volume
aluminum 2.70 g>cm3 than the mass in the 1 g of lead. Said in another way, if equal-volume samples of lead and
aluminum are weighed, the lead will have the greater mass. When we say lead is heavier
The lightest of the light
metals is lithium, with a
than aluminum, we actually mean that lead is more dense than aluminum.
density of 0.53 g>cm3. The densities of solids and liquids are often compared to the density of water.
Anything less dense (lighter) than water floats in it (see Figure 3.8), and anything more
dense (heavier) sinks. In a similar vein, densities of gases are compared to that of air. Any
gas less dense (lighter) will rise in air, and anything more dense (heavier) will sink in air.
FIGURE 3.8 Icebergs

float in water because
ice (solid water) is
less dense than liquid
water. (iStockphoto)
To obtain an object’s density, we must make two measurements: One involves deter-
mining the object’s mass, and the other, its volume; the mass is then divided by the volume.
EXAMPLE 3.10 Using Mass and Volume to Calculate Density
A student determines that the mass of a 20.0 mL sample of olive oil (to be used in oil-and-
vinegar salad dressing) is 18.4 g.
a. What is the density of the olive oil in grams per milliliter?
b. Predict whether the olive oil layer will be on the top or bottom in unshaken oil-and-
vinegar salad dressing.
SOLUTION
a. Substituting the given mass and volume values into the formula
mass
density =
volume
we have
18.4 g g
density = = 0.92 (calculator answer)
20.0 mL mL
g
mL
Because both input numbers contain three significant figures, the density is specified
to three significant figures.
b. Since vinegar is a water-based solution, its density will be slightly greater than that
of water (1.00 g/mL). The olive oil will be the top layer because its density is less
than that of water or vinegar.
Answer Double Check: Is the magnitude of the numerical answer reasonable? Yes. The
density should be expected to be close to 1.00 g/mL because the mass and volume values
are approximately the same (18.4 and 20.0). Division of almost equal numbers gives a
result close to 1.00.
Chemical Insight: OLIVE OIL

Olive oil is a dietary staple for the peoples of several Mediterranean countries. Such
olive oil use is considered to be a beneficial dietary health habit.
A grain and vegetable-rich diet that contains small amounts of extra-virgin olive
oil (three to four teaspoons daily) has been found to help people with high blood
pressure reduce the amount of blood pressure medication they require, on average, by
48%. Substitution of sunflower oil for the olive oil resulted in only a 4% reduction in
medication dosage.
The blood-pressure-reduction benefits of olive oil do not relate to the “oil” itself
but rather come from trace amounts of other substances naturally present, namely
from the antioxidant substances that olive oil contains. These antioxidants help pro-
mote relaxation of blood vessels.
Using Density as a Conversion Factor

Density may be used as In a mathematical sense, density can be thought of as a conversion factor that relates the
a conversion factor to volume and mass of an object. Interpreting density in this manner enables us to calculate
convert from mass to
a substance’s volume from its mass and density or its mass from its volume and density.
volume, or vice versa.
Density is thus a bridge connecting mass and volume.
Density conversion factors, like all other conversion factors, have two reciprocal
forms. For a density of 1.37 g>mL, the two conversion factors forms are
1.37 g 1 mL
and
1 mL 1.37 g
Note that the number 1 always goes in front of a “naked” unit in a conversion factor, that
is, a density given as 4.3 g>mL means 4.3 grams per 1 mL.
EXAMPLE 3.11 Using Density as a Conversion Factor to Relate Mass

and Volume
Methane, a gas that is naturally present in the earth’s atmosphere in small amounts, has a
density of 0.714 g/L at a particular temperature and pressure.
a. What is the mass, in grams, of 10.0 L of methane?
b. What is the volume, in liters, of 10.0 g of methane?
SOLUTION
Both parts of this problem can be solved using density as a conversion factor.
a.
Step 1 The given quantity is 10.0 L of methane. The unit of the desired quantity (mass)
is grams. Thus,
10.0 L = ? g
Step 2 The pathway going from liters to grams involves a single step, since density, used
as a conversion factor, directly relates grams and liters.
0.714 g
10.0 L *
1L
Step 3 Doing the indicated math gives the following answer.
10.0 * 0.714
g = 7.14 g (calculator and correct answer)
1
The calculator answer and correct answer turn out to be the same.
An alternative way of working this problem involves directly using the
defining equation for density.
mass
density =
volume
Rearranging this equation so that mass is isolated on the left side of the equation gives
mass = density * volume
Since both density and volume are given in the problem statement, we have, by
direct substitution,
0.714 g
mass = * 10.0 L
1L
= 7.14 g (calculator and correct answer)
b.
Step 1 The given quantity is 10.0 g of methane. The unit of the desired quantity
(volume) is liters.
10.0 g = ? L
Step 2 The pathway going from grams to liters involves a single step, since density, used
as a conversion factor, directly relates grams and liters.
1L
10.0 g *
0.714 g
Note that the conversion factor used is actually the reciprocal of the density. Use
of the inverted form is necessary in order for the gram units to cancel.
Step 3 Doing the indicated math gives the following answer
10.0 * 1
L = 14.005602 L (calculator answer)
0.714
= 14.0 L (correct answer)
The correct answer is the calculator answer rounded to three significant figures,
the number in each input number.
As in part (a), this problem can also be worked, using a rearranged form of the defining
equation for density. Rearranging this equation to isolate volume on the left side gives
mass
volume =
density
The given values for mass and density can then be directly substituted into this
equation to produce the answer 14.0 L.
Answer Double Check: Are the answers reasonable in terms of their magnitudes? Yes.
In part (a), since the density is less than one, 10.0 L of methane will have a mass of less
than 10.0 g, the mass it would have if the density were 1.00 g>mL. The answer 7.14 g is
consistent with this reasoning. In part (b), 7.14 g of methane would have a volume of
10.0 L. Therefore, 10.0 g of methane will have a volume greater than 10.0 L. The answer
14.0 L is consistent with this reasoning.
Chemical Insight: METHANE

Methane is present in the Earth’s atmosphere in small amounts. Its source is primarily
the decomposition of animal and plant matter in an oxygen-deficient environment—
swamps, marshes, bogs, and the sediments of lakes. A common name for methane is
marsh gas.
Methane is also the dominant substance present (85% to 95% by volume) in
processed natural gas used in home heating. Because methane gas is odorless, an
odorant (smelly compound) must be added to the processed natural gas. Otherwise,
natural gas leaks could not be detected.
Bacteria that live in termites and in the digestive tracts of plant-eating animals
have the ability to produce methane from plant materials (cellulose). The methane out-
put of a large cow (belching and flatulence) can reach 20 liters per day.
Density is a property Density is a conversion factor of a different type from those previously used in
peculiar to a particular this chapter. It involves a ratio whose numerator and denominator are equivalent rather
substance. The density
of water applies only to
than equal; that is, it is an equivalence conversion factor rather than the previously used
water and to no other equality conversion factors. An equivalence conversion factor is a ratio that converts
substance. Different sub- one type of measure to a different type of measure. Density involves mass and volume, two
stances have different different types of measure. This contrasts with equality conversion factors that have ratios
densities at a given set of in which the numerator and denominator involve the same measure. An equality con-
conditions.
version factor is a ratio that converts one unit of a given measure to another unit of the
same measure. Twelve inches and one foot, which are both measures of length, generate
an equality conversion factor.
A major difference between equivalence conversion factors and equality conver-
sion factors is that the former have applicability only in the particular problem setting for
which they were derived, whereas the latter are applicable in all problem-solving situa-
tions. Many different gram-to-cubic centimeter (mass-to-volume) relationships (densities)
exist, but only one foot-to-inch relationship exists. Mathematically, equivalence conver-
sion factors can be used the same way equality conversion factors are, and such conver-
sion factors will be used often in later chapters.
3.9 EQUIVALENCE CONVERSION FACTORS OTHER THAN DENSITY

Student Learning Focus: Be familiar with the use of conversion factors that involve concentration
and dosage relationships, rate relationships, and cost relationships.
In the previous section we noted that density was an equivalence conversion factor rather
than an equality conversion factor. Equivalence conversion factors have application only
in a limited setting, the setting for which they were derived. Besides density, numerous
other equivalence conversion factor types exist, three of which are considered in this sec-
tion because they are often encountered in a chemical context. These additional equiva-
lence conversion factor types are (1) concentration and dosage relationships, (2) rate re-
lationships, and (3) cost relationships.
Concentration and Dosage Relationship Conversion Factors

If the concentration of salt in a salt water solution is 4.5 mg/mL, then we have
4.5 mg salt = 1 mL of solution
and the two conversion factors are
4.5 mg salt 1 mL solution

and
1 mL solution 4.5 mg salt
If the dosage for an antibiotic is 125 mg/kg of body weight, then we have
125 mg antibiotic = 1 kg body weight
and the two conversion factors are
125 mg antibiotic 1 kg body weight

and
1 kg body weight 125 mg anibiotic
Example 3.12 illustrates the usage of a concentration relationship in a problem-
solving context.
EXAMPLE 3.12 Using Concentration Conversion Factors
A blood analysis shows a vitamin-A concentration of 125 mg/100 mL of blood. How many
grams of vitamin A are there in 1.2 L of this blood?
SOLUTION
Step 1 The given quantity is 1.2 L of blood. The unit of the desired quantity is grams of
vitamin A.
1.2 L blood = ? g vitamin A
Step 2 The pathway in going from liters of blood to grams of vitamin A is
L blood S mL blood S mg vitamin A S g vitamin A
The conversion factors needed for this pathway are
1 mL blood 125 mg vitamin A 10 - 6 g vitamin A
1.2 L blood * -3 * *
10 L blood 100 mL blood 1 mg vitamin A
Step 3 The numerical calculation involves the following collection of numbers.

1.2 * 1 * 125 * 10 - 6
g vitamin A = 0.0015 g vitamin A (calculator and correct answer)
10 - 3 * 100 * 1
The given number 1.2 L limits the answer to two significant figures.
Answer Double Check: Is it reasonable that the answer should be as small as it is

(0.0015 g)? Yes. Since the volume size of 1.2 L (1200 mL) is 12 times as large as a
100 mL volume, this larger volume should contain 12 times as much vitamin A as in
a 100 mL volume. Twelve times 125 mg is 1500 mg, which is equivalent to 0.0015 g.
Therefore, the answer size is reasonable.
Chemical Insight: VITAMIN A

Vitamin A is best known for the role it plays in the human vision process. Light energy
that passes into the eyes and hits the retina is translated into nerve impulses that are
sent to the brain with the help of two vitamin A-dependent proteins.
Vitamin A also plays an important role in cell differentiation. Cell differentiation
is the process whereby immature cells change in structure and function to become
specialized cells. For example, some immature bone marrow cells differentiate into
white blood cells and others into red blood cells. In such differentiation processes,
vitamin A serves as an activating factor for specific proteins, which, in turn, activate
specific portions (genes) within DNA molecules.
Rate Relationship Conversion Factors

In a chemical setting, rate relationships involve the amount of a substance and a time
unit. Industrially, the amount of a chemical substance that can be produced or is con-
sumed in a given amount of time is an economically important consideration.
Examples of rate relationships for the production of a chemical substance could

include
65,000 lb substance 7200 g substance 3.72 tons substance
1 day 1 min 1 hr
Example 3.13 illustrates how a rate conversion factor is incorporated into a dimensional
analysis type problem.
EXAMPLE 3.13 Using Rate Conversion Factors
A certain chemical process consumes water at the rate of 55 L/sec. How much water, in
liters, is consumed in 3.0 hours?
SOLUTION
Step 1 The given quantity is 3.0 hours of time. The unit of the desired quantity is liters of
water.
3.0 hours = ? liters water
Step 2 The pathway for going from hours to liters of water involves two time unit
changes and the given rate conversion factor relationship.
hours S minutes S seconds S liters water
The hours need to be changed to seconds because the rate conversion factor is
stated in terms of seconds.
The conversion factor setup needed to effect the changes in this pathway is
60 min 60 sec 55 L water
3.0 hr * * *
1 hr 1 min 1 sec
Step 3 The numerical calculation, after cancellation of units, involves the following col-
lection of numbers.
3.0 * 60 * 60 * 55
L water = 594,000 L water (calculator answer)
1 * 1 * 1
= 590,000 L water (correct answer)
Both the given time (3.0 hr) and the water amount (55 L) limit the correct answer
to two significant figures.
Answer Double Check: Is it reasonable that the answer is as large as it is? Yes. There are
several thousand seconds in 3.0 hours and therefore the number 55 should increase by a
factor of several thousand, which it has.
Cost Relationship Conversion Factors

Cost relationships involve the amount of a substance and a monetary amount. There is a
tremendous difference between having the price of copper at the following three levels.
13 cents 37 cents 82 cents
1 lb copper 1 lb copper 1 lb copper
The first cost relationship is so low that copper cannot be produced at a profit.
Example 3.14, which involves the cost of aluminum metal, illustrates how a cost
conversion factor is used in a dimensional analysis setup.
EXAMPLE 3.14 Using Cost Conversion Factors
If aluminum metal is selling for 91.25 cents a pound, what would be the cost to a buyer,
in dollars, who needs 2525 pounds of aluminum?
SOLUTION
Step 1 The given quantity is 2525 lb of aluminum. The unit of the desired quantity is dollars.
2525 lb aluminum = ? dollars
Step 2 Because the cost relationship is stated in terms of cents, the cents will need to be
changed to dollars. The needed pathway is
lb aluminum S cents S dollars
The conversion factor sequence consistent with this pathway is
91.25 cents 1 dollar
2525 lb aluminum * *
1 lb aluminum 100 cents
Step 3 The numerical relationships that remain after cancellation of units are
2525 * 91.25 * 1
dollar = 2304.0625 dollars (calculator answer)
1 * 100
= 2304 dollars (correct answer)
Both 2525 and 91.25 are four-significant-figure quantities. Thus, the calculator
answer is rounded to four significant figures.
Chemical Insight: ALUMINUM

Aluminum is the most abundant metal in Earth’s crust, and it is the second most used
of all metals. (Iron is the metal used in the greatest amount.) Freshly cut aluminum
appears silvery. Its surface, however, quickly changes to a dull white as the result of
atmospheric corrosion (reaction with oxygen).
The electrical conductivity of aluminum is 63.5% that of an equal volume of
copper. However, when aluminum’s lower density is considered, its conductivity is
2.1 times that of copper on a pound-per-pound basis. Ninety percent of all overhead
electrical transmission lines in the United States are aluminum alloys.
3.10 PERCENTAGE AND PERCENT ERROR

Student Learning Focus: Understand the concept of what a percentage is and be able to use per-
centage as a conversion factor in problem solving.
Percent is the number of items of a specified type in a group of 100 total items. The quan-
tity 45% means 45 items per 100 total items. In general, percent is parts per 100 total parts.
A mathematical statement of the percent concept is
number of items of interest
percent = * 100
total number of items
Example 3.15 shows a simple calculation of a percent.
EXAMPLE 3.15 Percentage Calculation
A professor proctoring an examination notices that 11 students out of a class of 80 stu-

dents write with their left hand. Calculate the percentage, to three significant figures, of
right-handed students in the class.
SOLUTION
We first calculate the number of right-handed students in the class.
right@handed students = 80 - 11 = 69 (calculator and correct answer)
The percentage of right-handed students is equal to the number of right-handed students
divided by the total number of students times the factor 100.
69
percentage right@handed students = * 100
80
= 86.25% (calculator answer)
= 86.2% (correct answer)
Using Percentage as a Conversion Factor

Percent values find use as conversion factors in problem-solving situations where dimen-
sional analysis is employed. Let us look at the mechanics of writing a percentage as a
conversion factor, paying particular attention to the units involved. The percent value in
the statement “A gold alloy is found upon analysis to contain 77% gold by mass” will be
our focus point for the discussion. What are the mass units associated with the value 77%?
The answer is that many mass units could be appropriate. The following statements, writ-
ten as fractions (conversion factors), are all consistent with our 77% gold analysis.
77 oz of gold 77 lb of gold
100 oz of gold alloy 100 lb of gold alloy
77 g of gold 77 kg of gold
100 g of gold alloy 100 kg of gold alloy
Thus, in writing a percent as a conversion factor, the choice of unit (for mass in this case)
is arbitrary. In practice, the complete context of the problem in which the percentage is
found usually makes obvious the appropriate unit choice.
In conversion factors derived from percentages, confusion about cancellation of
units frequently arises. Both numerator and denominator contain the same units, for ex-
ample, ounces. Yet the ounces do not cancel. Not considering the complete unit is what
causes confusion in the minds of students. In the conversion factor
77 oz of gold
100 oz gold alloy
the numerator and denominator dimensions are not simply “ounces.” The dimensions are,
respectively, “ounces of gold” and “ounces of gold alloy.” Ounces cannot be cancelled,
because they are only a part of the complete dimension. Cancellation is possible only
when complete units are identical.
To avoid the problem of mistakenly cancelling dimensions that are not the same, al-
ways write complete dimensions. Percent will always involve the same dimensional units
(pounds, grams, meters) of different things. The identities of the different things, gold and
gold alloy in our example, must always be included as part of the units.
EXAMPLE 3.16 Using Percentage as a Conversion Factor
A sample of clean, dry air is found to be 20.9% oxygen by volume. How many milliliters
of oxygen are present in 375 mL of this air?
SOLUTION
Step 1 The given quantity is 375 mL of air, and the desired quantity is milliliters of
oxygen.
375 mL air = ? mL oxygen
Step 2 This is a one-conversion-factor problem with the conversion factor, obtained

from the given percentage, being
20.9 mL oxygen
100 mL air
The setup for the problem is
20.9 mL oxygen
375 mL air *
100 mL air
Step 3 The numerical calculation involves the following arrangement of numbers.
375 * 20.9
mL oxygen = 78.375 mL oxygen (calculator answer)
100
= 78.4 mL oxygen (correct answer)
The original percentage (20.9) and the air volume (375 mL) both have three sig-
nificant figures. Therefore, the correct answer should also contain three signifi-
cant figures. The number 100 in the setup is an exact number, since it originates
from the definition of percent.
Answer Double Check: Is the magnitude of the answer reasonable? Yes. Using rounded
numbers, we note that 100 mL of air contains about 20 mL of oxygen and that 400 mL of
air (4 times as much air) should contain about 80 mL of oxygen. A value of 78.4 mL for
oxygen is, thus, appropriate for 375 mL of air.
Chemical Insight: EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE

Oxygen, the subject of this calculation, is the second abundant gas present in the
Earth’s atmosphere. Its presence is dwarfed, however, by that of nitrogen; nitrogen is
approximately four times more abundant. Composition figures for clean, dry air (no
water present) at sea level in parts per million (ppm) by volume are
nitrogen - 780,800 ppm
oxygen - 209,500 ppm
argon - 9340 ppm
carbon dioxide - 373 ppm
neon - 18 ppm
helium - 5 ppm
methane - 2 ppm
krypton - 1 ppm
EXAMPLE 3.17 Multiple Use of Percentages in a Conversion

Factor Problem
A study of the 184 adult males living in a small town in Weber County in the state of Utah
includes the following facts: (1) 20.1% of the adult males are baldheaded, (2) 62.1% of
the baldheaded adult males are left-handed, and (3) 91.3% of the left-handed, baldheaded
adult males are handsome. How many handsome, left-handed, baldheaded adult males
live in the town?
SOLUTION
Step 1 The given quantity is 184 adult males, with the units of the desired quantity being
handsome, left-handed, baldheaded adult males.
184 adult males = ? handsome, left@handed, baldheaded adult males
Step 2 When conversion factors, particularly unusual ones, are given in word form in
the statement of a problem, it is suggested that you first extract them from the
problem statement and write them down before starting to solve the problem.
The given conversion factors in this problem are
20.1 baldheaded adult males

100 adult males
62.1 left@handed, baldheaded adult males
100 baldheaded adult males
91.3 handsome, left@handed, baldheaded adult males

100 left@handed, baldheaded adult males
The unit-conversion pathway for this problem will be
handsome,
left@handed,
baldheaded left@handed,
adult males S S baldheaded S
adult males baldheaded
adult males
adult males
The dimensional analysis setup for this problem is
20.1 baldheaded 62.1 left@handed 91.3 handsome

184 adult males * * *
100 adult males 100 baldheaded 100 left@handed
All units cancel except those in the numerator of the last conversion factor.
Step 3 Performing the indicated arithmetic gives
184 * 20.1 * 62.1 * 91.3

handsome, left@handed, baldheaded adult males
100 * 100 * 100
= 20.968929 handsome, left@handed, baldheaded adult males (calculator answer)
= 21.0 handsome, left@handed, baldheaded adult males (correct answer)
The calculator answer must be rounded off to three significant figures since
all three of the given percentages contain only three significant figures.
Percent Error
Percent error is the ratio of the difference between a measured value and the accepted
value for the measurement and the accepted value itself, all multiplied by 100. A math-
ematical statement of the percent error concept is
measured value - accepted value
percent error = * 100
accepted value
A percent error can be either positive or negative. If the measured value is greater
than the accepted value, the difference (measured value – accepted value) will be posi-
tive, and the percent error will be positive. If the measured value is less than the accepted
value, the difference will be negative and the percent error will be negative.
EXAMPLE 3.18 Calculation of Percent Error
The accepted value for the density of gold is 19.3 g>cm3. In a laboratory setting, three
students are asked to experimentally determine the density of gold. Their results are
student 1: 19.1 g>cm3
Calculate the percent error associated with each student’s reported density.
SOLUTION
We will use the equation
measured value - accepted value

accepted value
to calculate the percent error in each student’s result.
STUDENT 1
(19.1 - 19.3) g>cm3
19.3 g>cm3
-0.2
= * 100
19.3
= -1.03626943 (calculator answer)
= -1 (correct answer)
The negative sign associated with the result indicates that the measured value was less
than the accepted value.
STUDENT 2
(18.5 - 19.3) g>cm3
19.3 g>cm3
-0.8
= * 100
19.3
= - 4.14507772 (calculator answer)
= -4 (correct answer)
The percent error is again negative, reflecting that the measured value was less than the
accepted value.
STUDENT 3
This time we will have a positive percent error because the measured value is greater
than the accepted value.
(19.9 - 19.3) g>cm3
19.3 g>cm3
0.6
= * 100
19.3
= 3.10880829 (calculator answer)
= 3 (correct answer)
Note that there are no units associated with percent error; g>cm3, present in both nu-
merator and denominator, cancel.
Answer Double Check: Are the signs (plus or minus) associated with the percent error
consistent with convention? Yes. A positive percent error arises when the measured value
is greater than the accepted value (student 3), and a negative percent error results from a
measured value that is less than the accepted value (students 1 and 2).
Chemical Insight: GOLD

Gold is too soft a metal for normal use in jewelry, so it is alloyed with copper, silver,
and other metals with a resulting increase in hardness. The amount of gold in such
alloys is specified in terms of karats. (This is a different unit from the carat used to
specify the mass of diamonds, where 1 carat = 200 mg.) Pure gold is 24-karat gold,
and the amount of gold in alloys is compared to this value. Eighteen-karat gold is an
alloy with 18 out of 24 parts by mass gold or 75% gold. A 12-karat gold alloy would
be 50% gold (12 parts out of 24). In the United States, most gold jewelry is 14-karat
gold (58% gold by mass).
3.11 TEMPERATURE SCALES

Student Learning Focus: Know the defining characteristics for each of the three major temperature
scales and be able to convert from one scale to another.
Temperature is a measure of the hotness or coldness of an object. The most common in-
strument for measuring temperature is the mercury-in-glass thermometer, which consists
of a glass bulb containing mercury sealed to a slender glass capillary tube. The higher the
temperature, the farther the mercury will rise in the capillary tube. Graduations on the
capillary tube indicate the height of the mercury column in terms of defined units, usually
called degrees. A tiny superscript circle (°) is used as the symbol for a degree.
Three different temperature scales are in common use—Celsius, Kelvin, and
Fahrenheit. Both the Celsius and Kelvin scales are part of the metric measurement system,
and the Fahrenheit scale belongs to the English measurement system. Different degree
sizes and different reference points are what produce the various temperature scales.
The SI base unit for temperature is the kelvin, with symbol K (see Table 3.1). Note
that there is no degree sign associated with the symbol K and that the k in the word
kelvin is not capitalized when it denotes the SI unit kelvin. This contrasts with the Celsius The Celsius Scale: Thirty
and Fahrenheit scales where the notations °C and °F are used. is hot, Twenty is pleasing;
Ten is quite cool, And
The Celsius scale, named after Anders Celsius (1701–1744), a Swedish astronomer, zero is freezing.
is the scale most commonly encountered in scientific work. On this scale the boiling
and freezing points of water serve as reference points, with the former having a value of
100°C (degrees Celsius) and the latter, 0°C. Thus, there are 100 degree intervals between
the two reference points. The Celsius scale was formerly called the centigrade scale.
The Kelvin scale, a close relative of the Celsius scale, is divided into kelvins (K)
instead of degrees. Because the kelvin is the same size unit as the Celsius degree, there
are the same number of intervals between the reference points as on the two scales. The
two scales differ only in the numerical values assigned to the reference points and the
names of the units. On the Kelvin scale the boiling point of water is at 373.15 K (kelvins),
and the freezing point of water is at 273.15 K. This scale, proposed by the British math-
ematician and physicist William Kelvin (1824–1907) in 1848, is particularly useful when
working with relationships between temperature and pressure–volume behavior of gases
(see Sec. 12.3). The degree sign is not used in specifying Kelvin temperatures (321 K in-
stead of 321°K).
A unique feature of the Kelvin scale is that negative temperature readings
never occur. The lowest possible temperature thought to be obtainable occurs at 0
on the Kelvin scale. This temperature, known as absolute zero, has never been pro-
duced experimentally, although scientists have come within a fraction of a degree
of reaching it.
The Fahrenheit scale was designed by the German physicist Gabriel Fahrenheit
(1686–1736) in the early 1700s. After proposing several scales, he finally adopted a system
that used a salt–ice mixture and boiling mercury as the reference points. These were the
two extremes in temperature available to him at that time. A reading of 0 was assigned
to the salt–ice mixture and 600 to the boiling mercury. The distance between these two
points was divided into 600 equal parts or degrees. On this scale, water freezes at 32°F
(degrees Fahrenheit) and boils at 212°F. Thus, there are 180 degrees between the freez-
ing and boiling points of water on this scale as contrasted to 100 degrees on the Celsius
scale and 100 kelvins on the Kelvin scale. Figure 3.9 shows a comparison of the three
temperature scales.
Fahrenheit Celsius Kelvin

( °F) ( °C) (K)
Normal boiling point of water 212 100 373
Normal body temperature 180 98.6 100 37 100 310

Freezing point of water 32 0 273
FIGURE 3.9 The

relationships among
the Fahrenheit, Celsius,
and Kelvin temperature
Absolute zero − 459.7 − 273.15 0 scales.
When changing a temperature reading on one scale to its equivalent on another

scale, we must take two factors into consideration: (1) the size of the unit on the two
scales may differ, and (2) the zero points on the two scales do not coincide.
Difference in unit size will be a factor any time the Fahrenheit scale is involved in a
conversion process. The conversion factors necessary to relate the size of the Fahrenheit
degree to the size of the Celsius degree or the kelvin are obtainable from the informa-
tion in Figure 3.9. From that figure we see that 180 Fahrenheit degrees are equivalent to
9
100 Celsius degrees or kelvins. Using this relationship and the fact that 180
100 = 5 , we obtain
the following equalities.
5 Celsius degrees = 9 Fahrenheit degrees

5 kelvins = 9 Fahrenheit degrees
Conversion factors derived from these equalities will contain an infinite number of signifi-
cant figures; that is, they are exact conversion factors.
Adjustment for differing zero-point locations is carried out by considering how
many degrees above or below the freezing point of water (the ice point) the original tem-
perature is. Examples 3.19 and 3.20 show how this zero-point adjustment is carried out, in
addition to illustrating the use of temperature scale conversion factors.
EXAMPLE 3.19 Fahrenheit-to-Celsius Temperature Conversion
An oven for baking pizza operates at approximately 525°F. What is the equivalent tem-
perature on the Celsius scale?
SOLUTION
First, we determine the number of degrees between the ice point (freezing point of water)
and the given temperature on the original scale.
525⬚F - 32⬚F = 493⬚F above the ice point
How hot is hot? Second, we convert from Fahrenheit units to Celsius units.
100°C Boiling point 5 Celsius degrees
of water 493 Fahrenheit degrees * = 273.88888 Celsius degrees
9 Fahrenheit degrees
800°C Campfire (calculator answer)
875°C Cigarette
= 274 Celsius degrees
ember = (correct answer)
1,600°C Gas stove fire Third, taking into account the ice point on the new scale, we determine the new tempera-
2,300°C Filament of ture. On the Celsius scale, the temperature will be 274 degrees above the ice point. Since
lightbulb the ice point is 0°C, the new temperature will be 274°C.
7,500°C Surface of the
sun Answer Double Check: Is the magnitude of the Celsius and Fahrenheit readings reason-
30,000°C Typical able? Yes. At high temperatures the Celsius reading will always be less than the Fahrenheit
lightning bolt reading, roughly by a factor of two. This relationship results from the fact that the size of the
Celsius degree is almost twice as big as that of the Fahrenheit degree (9>5 = 1.8). This ap-
proximate factor-of-two relationship holds in this problem (525° and 274°C). Temperatures
must be high enough that the zero-point adjustment (adding or subtracting 32) does not
appreciably change the magnitude of the temperature readings in order for the factor-of-
two relationship to hold.
EXAMPLE 3.20 Celsius-to-Fahrenheit Temperature Conversion
The stratospheric ozone layer over Antarctica thins dramatically every year during spring.
Antarctica’s unusual winter weather conditions of extreme cold (–85°C) and total darkness
are necessary prerequisites for the occurrence of the chemical reactions that lead to ozone
depletion. What is the equivalent temperature on the Fahrenheit scale of Antarctica’s win-
ter temperature of -85⬚C?
SOLUTION
First, we determine how many degrees there are between the original temperature and
the ice point. On the Celsius scale this will always be equal numerically to the original
temperature, since the ice point is 0°C.
-85⬚C = 85 Celsius degrees below the ice point
Second, we change this number of degrees from Celsius units to Fahrenheit units.
9 Fahrenheit degrees
85 Celsius degrees * = 153 Fahrenheit degrees
5 Celsius degrees
Significant-figure considerations for changes in size of degree (Celsius to Fahrenheit or
vice versa) represent an exception to the general rules for handling significant figures.
Although size of degree changes involve a multiplication, position of uncertainty
(addition–subtraction rules) is used to determine how the calculator answer should be
modified to give the correct answer. If the original number of degrees is known to tenths,
then the new number of degrees is also specified to tenths. Or, as in our specific problem
here, if the original number of degrees is known to the closest degree ({1), then the new
number of degrees is specified to the closest degree.
Third, taking into account the ice point on the new scale, we determine the new
temperature. The new temperature will be 153 Fahrenheit degrees below the ice point on
the Fahrenheit scale.
32⬚F - 153⬚F = -121⬚F (calculator and correct answer)
Answer Double Check: Is the magnitude of the Celsius and Fahrenheit readings reason-
able? Yes. Celsius and Fahrenheit scale readings are numerically equal at a temperature
of –40°C (the only temperature at which they are numerically equal). At temperatures
above –40°C, Fahrenheit readings are always higher than Celsius readings. At tempera-
tures below –40°C, Fahrenheit readings are always lower than Celsius readings. Since
this problem involves a temperature below –40°C, the Fahrenheit temperature should be
numerically lower than the Celsius temperature, which is the case.
Chemical Insight: OZONE HOLE

Since the mid-1970s, scientists have observed a seasonal decrease in ozone concen-
trations in the upper atmosphere (stratosphere) above Antarctica. This phenomenon,
which is commonly called the ozone hole, occurs in September and October of each
year, the beginning of the Antarctic spring. Up to 70% of the ozone above Antarctica is
lost during these two months.
Winter conditions in Antarctica include extreme cold (it is the coldest location on
Earth) and total darkness. When sunlight appears in the spring, it triggers the chemical
reactions that lead to ozone depletion. By the end of November, weather conditions are
such that the ozone-depletion reactions stop. Then the ozone hole disappears as air from
nonpolar regions flows into the polar region, replenishing the depleted ozone levels.
Examples 3.19 and 3.20 point out that Fahrenheit–Celsius temperature-scale conver-
sions are more complicated than the unit conversions of the last three sections. Not only
is multiplication by a conversion factor required, but also addition and subtraction.
The relationship between the Kelvin and Celsius scales is very simple because the
sizes of the “degree” unit is the same. No conversion factors are needed. All that is required
is an adjustment for the differing zero points. This adjustment involves the number of units
by which the two scales are offset from each other. The adjustment factor is specifically 273,
273.2, or 273.15 depending on the uncertainty in the temperature measurement. Since tem-
peratures are most often stated in terms of a whole number of units (31°C, 43°C, etc.), 273
is the most used adjustment factor. However, the other two factors are needed when deal-
ing with temperatures involving tenths or hundredths of a degree (31.5°C, 43.12°C, etc.).
To change a Celsius temperature to the Kelvin scale, we add the adjustment factor
to the Celsius reading.
K = ⬚C + 273
To change a Kelvin temperature to Celsius, we subtract this same adjustment factor from
the Kelvin scale reading.
⬚C = K - 273
The relationship between the Fahrenheit scale and the Celsius scale can also be
stated in an equation format.
9
⬚F = (⬚C) + 32
5
5
⬚C = (⬚F - 32)
9
Some students prefer to use these equations rather than the dimensional analysis
approach used in Examples 3.19 and 3.20. The use of these equations is illustrated in
Example 3.21.
EXAMPLE 3.21 Temperature Scale Conversions
A person suffering from heat stroke is found to have a body temperature of 41.1°C. What
is this temperature on (a) the Fahrenheit scale? (b) the Kelvin scale?
SOLUTION
a. Substituting into the Celsius-to-Fahrenheit equation, we get
9 9
⬚F = (⬚C) + 32 = (41.1) + 32
5 5
= 74.0 + 32
= 106⬚F (calculator answer)
= 106.0⬚F (correct answer)

9
The multiplication 5 (41.1) gives the calculator answer 73.98, which is rounded
to 74.0, the closest tenth of a degree (see the significant-figure discussion in
Example 3.20). Adding 32 (an exact number by definition) to 74.0 gives 106.0 as the
correct answer.
b. Substituting into the Celsius-to-Kelvin equation, we get
K = ⬚C + 273.2 = 41.1 + 273.2

= 314.3 K (calculator and correct answer)
Note that we used the adjustment factor 273.2 rather than simply 273 because the
given temperature involved tenths of a degree.
Temperature Readings and Significant Figures

Temperatures encountered in everyday situations are generally determined using a
thermometer (or equivalent electronic device). Standard procedure in reading a thermometer
is to estimate the temperature to the closest degree. Thus, thermometer-obtained tempera-
ture readings have an uncertainty in the “ones places,” that is, to the closest degree.
When considering significant figures for temperature readings, the preceding opera-
tional procedure must be taken into account. Celsius or Fahrenheit temperatures of 10°,
20°, 30°, etc., are considered to have two significant figures even though no decimal point
is explicitly shown after the zero (Sec. 2.5). A temperature reading of 100°C or 100°F is
considered to possess three significant figures.
Note that the previous paragraph applies only to ordinary temperatures obtained
using a thermometer (or equivalent electronic device). The temperature at the bottom of
a blast furnace (used in steelmaking) often reaches 3600°F. Such a temperature is not a
four-significant-figure temperature but rather would be assumed, without further infor-
mation, to be a two-significant-figure temperature. Obviously, this temperature was not
determined by inserting a standard thermometer into the bottom of the blast furnace.
The following concise summaries of chapter content by section restate the major ideas (concepts) considered
in the chapter. They are a helpful study aid for students as they prepare for an upcoming examination or are
reviewing for a final comprehensive examination.
1. SI System of Units The SI system of units, a the units associated with numbers are used as a
metric unit system, is the preferred system of guide in setting up calculations. A given quantity
measurement in all scientific work. The SI sys- is multiplied by one or more conversion factors
tem employs seven base units, from which other in such a manner that the unwanted (original)
needed units are derived. It is a decimal system units are cancelled, leaving only the desired units.
in which larger and smaller units of a quantity 4. Density Density is the ratio of the mass of an
are related by factors of 10. Prefixes are used object to the volume occupied by that object. A
to designate relationships between the base unit correct density expression includes a numerical
and larger or smaller units. value, a mass unit, and a volume unit. Density
2. Conversion Factors A conversion factor is a can be used as a conversion factor to relate mass
ratio that converts a measure expressed in one to volume or vice versa.
unit to a measure expressed in another unit. 5. Percentage and Percent Error Percent means
English-to-English and metric-to-metric con- parts per hundred, that is, the number of items
version factors are defined quantities. Metric- of a specified type in a group of 100 items.
to-English conversion factors are obtained by Percentage values find use as conversion fac-
measurement and therefore have an uncertainty tors in problem-solving situations where di-
factor associated with them. mensional analysis is employed. Percent error
3. Dimensional Analysis Dimensional analysis compares a measured value with its accepted
is a general problem-solving method in which value.
6. Temperature Scales The three major tem- differ only in the numerical values assigned to
perature scales are the Celsius, Kelvin, and the reference points. The Fahrenheit scale has a
Fahrenheit scales. The size of the degree for smaller degree size than the other two tempera-
the Celsius and Kelvin scales is the same. They ture scales.
Key Terms Listing

given to the chapter sections where free standing complete-sentence definitions for the terms are found.
area Sec. 3.4 equivalence conversion factor percent error Sec. 3.10
conversion factor Sec. 3.6 Sec. 3.8 SI base unit Sec. 3.1
cubic meter Sec. 3.4 kilogram Sec. 3.3 SI-derived unit Sec. 3.1
density Sec. 3.8 liter Sec. 3.4 SI system of units Sec. 3.1
dimensional analysis Sec. 3.7 mass Sec. 3.3 temperature Sec. 3.11
equality conversion factor meter Sec. 3.2 volume Sec. 3.4
Sec. 3.8 percent Sec. 3.10 weight Sec. 3.3

ing the same aspect of a given topic. This matched-pair arrangement creates two independent problem sets—an odd-numbered
METRIC SYSTEM UNITS (SECS. 3.1–3.4)
3.1 Indicate whether each of the following metric system
Metric Abbreviation Mathematical
units is a unit of mass, volume, or length.
Prefix for Prefix Meaning of Prefix
a. kiloliter b. megagram
c. micrometer d. centigram milli- m 10 - 3
3.2 Indicate whether each of the following metric system
a. tera-
units is a unit of mass, volume, or length.
a. milligram b. deciliter b. n
c. nanometer d. picoliter c. giga-
3.3 Identify the metric system prefix corresponding to
d. 10 - 6
each of the following powers of ten.
a. 10 - 9 b. 106
c. 10 -3
d. 10 - 1 3.8 Complete the following table by filling in the “blanks”
3.4 Identify the metric system prefix corresponding to in each line with the name of metric prefix, its abbre-
each of the following powers of ten. viation, and/or the power of ten to which it is equiva-
a. 10 - 12 b. 10 - 6 lent. The first line is already completed as an example.
-2
c. 10 d. 109
3.5 Give the symbol (abbreviation) for each of the follow- Metric Abbreviation Mathematical
ing metric system units. Prefix for Prefix Meaning of Prefix
a. microgram b. decimeter centi- c 10 - 2
c. centiliter d. picogram
3.6 Give the symbol (abbreviation) for each of the follow- a. kilo-
ing metric system units. b. M
a. megagram b. milliliter
c. pico-
c. kilometer d. nanoliter
3.7 Complete the following table by filling in the “blanks” d. 10 - 1
in each line with the name of the metric system prefix,
its abbreviation, and/or the power of ten to which it 3.9 Complete the following table by filling in the “blanks”
is equivalent. The first line is already completed as an in each row with the name of the metric unit, the
example. property being measured (mass, length, or volume),
and/or the abbreviation for the metric unit. The first 3.17 For each of the pairs of units listed, indicate which
row is completed as an example. quantity is larger.
a. 1 centimeter, 1 inch b. 1 meter, 1 yard
Metric Property being Abbreviation for c. 1 gram, 1 pound d. 1 liter, 1 gallon
Unit Measured Metric Unit 3.18 For each of the pairs of units listed, indicate which
microliter volume mL quantity is larger.
a. 1 kilometer, 1 mile b. 1 milliliter, 1 fluid
a. kilogram ounce
b. Mm c. 1 kilogram, 1 pound d. 1 liter, 1 quart
c. nanogram
d. mL
AREA AND VOLUME MEASUREMENTS
(SECS. 3.4 AND 3.5)
3.10 Complete the following table by filling in the “blanks”
in each row with the name of the metric unit, the 3.19 Calculate the area of the following surfaces.
property being measured (mass, length, or volume), a. a square surface whose side is 4.52 cm
and/or the abbreviation for the metric unit. The first b. a rectangular surface whose width is 3.5 m and
row is completed as an example. whose length is 9.2 m
c. a circle whose radius is 4.579 mm
Metric Property being Abbreviation d. a triangle whose height is 3.0 mm and whose
Unit Measured for Metric Unit base is 5.5 mm
3.20 Calculate the area of the following surfaces.
gigagram mass Gg a. a rectangular surface whose dimensions are
a. centimeter 24.3 m and 32.1 m
b. dL b. a circle of radius 2.7213 cm
c. a triangular object whose base is 12.0 mm and
c. picometer whose height is 8.00 mm
d. Tg d. a square surface with sides of 6.7 cm
3.21 Calculate the volume of each of the following
3.11 Use the appropriate metric prefix abbreviation to re- objects, each of which has a regular geometrical
place the power of ten in each of the following values. shape.
a. 6.8 * 10 - 1 m b. 3.2 * 10 - 12 L a. a copper block 5.4 cm long, 0.52 cm high, and
c. 7.23 * 10 - 2 L d. 6.5 * 106 g 3.4 cm wide
3.12 Use the appropriate metric prefix abbreviation to re- b. a cylindrical piece of cheese that has a height
place the power of ten in each of the following values. of 7.5 cm and a radius of 2.4 cm
a. 4.1 * 10 - 9 L b. 9.9 * 10 - 6 g c. a spherical piece of styrofoam with a radius
c. 8.721 * 103 g d. 4.4 * 109 m of 87 mm
3.13 What type of quantity (length, mass, area, or volume) d. a piece of gold in the shape of a cube whose
do each of the following units represent? edge is 7.2 cm
a. cm b. cm2 c. cm3 d. cL 3.22 Calculate the volume of each of the following
3.14 What type of quantity (length, mass, area, or volume) objects, each of which has a regular geometrical
do each of the following units represent? shape.
a. km2 b. kL c. km d. km3 a. a cube of steel whose edge is 3.5175 mm
3.15 Which of the two given units is the more appropriate b. a spherical marble with a radius of 1.212 cm
for expressing each of the following measurements? c. a bar of iron 6.0 m long, 0.10 m wide, and 0.20
a. mass of a watermelon seed (kilogram or milligram) m high
b. length of an ant’s body (meter and centimeter) d. a cylindrical rod of copper whose length is 62
c. thickness of a piece of bread (millimeter or mm and whose radius is 3.2 mm
picometer) 3.23 Indicate whether each of the following cubic vol-
d. volume of a beverage cup (liter or kiloliter) ume measurements is equal to or not equal to a
3.16 Which of the two given units is the more appropriate liter.
for expressing each of the following measurements? a. 1 dm3 b. 10 dm3
a. thickness of a chemistry textbook (centimeter or c. 1 cm 3
d. 1000 cm3
meter) 3.24 Indicate whether each of the following cubic
b. mass of a 12-year-old child (kilogram or volume measurements is equal to or not equal to
megagram) a milliliter.
c. length of a pair of scissors (decimeter or meter) a. 0.001 dm3 b. 1 dm3
d. volume of a car’s gasoline tank (milliliter or liter) c. 1 cm 3
d. 10 cm3
CONVERSION FACTORS (SEC. 3.6) 3.34 Indicate how each of the following conversion factors
should be interpreted in terms of significant figures
3.25 Write an equation that relates the members of each present.
of the following pairs of time units and also write the 2.540 cm 453.6 g 2.113 pt 10 - 9 m
two conversion factors associated with the equation. a. b. c. d.
1 in. 1 lb 1L 1 nm
a. days and hours
b. minutes and seconds 3.35 Indicate whether each of the following equations re-
c. decades and centuries lating units would generate an exact set of conversion
d. days and years factors or an inexact set of conversion factors relative
3.26 Write an equation that relates the members of each to significant figures.
of the following pairs of time units, and also write a. 1 dozen = 12 objects
the two conversion factors associated with the b. 1 kilogram = 2.20 pounds
equation. c. 1 minute = 60 seconds
a. days and weeks d. 1 millimeter = 10 - 3 meter
b. hours and minutes 3.36 Indicate whether each of the following equations re-
c. months and years lating units would generate an exact set of conversion
d. years and centuries factors or an inexact set of conversion factors relative
3.27 Based on each of the following descriptions, write to significant figures.
an equation (similar to 60 seconds = 1 minute) that a. 1 gallon = 16 cups b. 1 week = 7 days
relates two English system units of measurement. c. 1 pint = 0.4732 liter d. 1 mile = 5280 feet
a. volume units, contains the number 2
b. length units, contains the number 3 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS—METRIC–METRIC
c. mass units, contains the number 2000 UNIT CONVERSIONS (SEC. 3.7)
d. length units, contains the number 36
3.28 Based on each of the following descriptions, write an 3.37 Perform the following metric system conversions
equation (similar to 60 seconds = 1 minute) that re- using dimensional analysis and one conversion
lates two English system units of measurement. factor.
a. volume units, contains the number 4 a. 37 L to dL b. 37.0 mm to m
b. length units, contains the number 5280 c. 0.37 pg to g d. 370 kL to L
c. mass units, contains the number 16 3.38 Perform the following metric system conversions
d. volume units, contains the number 32 using dimensional analysis and one conversion
3.29 Give the two forms of the conversion factor that relate factor.
each of the following pairs of units. a. 23 Mg to g b. 23.0 mm to m
a. kL and L b. mg and g c. 0.23 cL to L d. 230 g to ng
c. m and cm d. msec and sec 3.39 Perform the following metric system conversions using
3.30 Give the two forms of the conversion factor that relate dimensional analysis and two conversion factors.
each of the following pairs of units. a. 47 Mg to mg b. 5.00 nL to cL
a. ng and g b. dL and L c. 6 * 10 - 2 mm to dm d. 37 pm to km
c. m and Mm d. psec and sec 3.40 Perform the following metric system conversions
3.31 Complete each of the following conversion factors by using dimensional analysis and two conversion
replacing the letter A found within the conversion fac- factors.
tor with a numerical value. a. 3 * 10 - 3 Mm to mm b. 4.20 pg to dg
Ag 1 mm Ag c. 45 kL to mL d. 0.31 cm to mm
1 in.
a. b. c. d. 3.41 A surface has an area of 365 m2. What is this area in
1 kg Am 1 lb A cm
each of the following units?
3.32 Complete each of the following conversion factors by a. km2 b. cm2
replacing the letter A found within the conversion fac- c. dm2 d. Mm2
tor with a numerical value. 3.42 A surface has an area of 35 m2. What is this area in
Am 1 cg AL A cm
a. b. c. d. each of the following units?
1 Mm Ag 1 qt 1 in. a. mm2 b. pm2
3.33 Indicate how each of the following conversion factors c. Gm2 d. mm2
should be interpreted in terms of significant figures 3.43 An object has a volume of 35 cubic meters. Determine
present. what this volume is for each of the following cubic
1.609 km 10 - 2 m metric units using dimensional analysis and one con-
a. b.
1 mile 1 cm version factor.
28.35 g 12 in. a. cubic millimeters b. cubic picometers
c. d. c. cubic gigameters d. cubic micrometers
1 oz 1 ft
3.44 An object has a volume of 365 cubic meters. Determine 3.55 A regular-issue U.S. postage stamp is 2.1 cm wide and
what this volume is for each of the following cubic 2.5 cm long. Express the surface area of this postage
metric units using dimensional analysis and one con- stamp in
version factor. a. square centimeters. b. square inches.
a. cubic kilometers b. cubic centimeters 3.56 A rectangular piece of concrete has dimensions of
c. cubic decimeters d. cubic megameters 3.6 m and 1.2 m. Express its surface area in
3.45 An object has a volume of 67 cubic centimeters. a. square meters. b. square yards.
Determine what this volume is for each of the follow- 3.57 A piece of rectangular luggage has the dimensions
ing cubic metric units using dimensional analysis and 95 cm * 105 cm * 145 cm. What is the volume of the
two conversion factors. luggage in
a. cubic kilometers b. cubic millimeters a. cubic centimeters b. cubic feet
c. cubic decimeters d. cubic megameters 3.58 A rectangular copper block has the dimensions
3.46 An object has a volume of 212 cubic millimeters. 65 cm * 3.0 cm * 4.0 cm. What is the volume of the
Determine what this volume is for each of the follow- copper block in
ing cubic metric units using dimensional analysis and a. cubic centimeters b. cubic inches
two conversion factors.
a. cubic centimeters b. cubic picometers
c. cubic gigameters d. cubic micrometers DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS—UNITS INVOLVING
TWO TYPES OF MEASUREMENT (SEC. 3.7)
3.59 A certain chemical process consumes water at a rate
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS—METRIC–ENGLISH
of 55 L/sec. Express this water consumption rate in the
UNIT CONVERSIONS (SEC. 3.7)
following units.
3.47 The length of a football field, between goal lines, is a. L/hr b. kL/sec
100.0 yd. Express this length in the following units. c. dL/min d. mL/day
a. meters b. centimeters 3.60 A certain petroleum refinery operation uses hydrogen
c. kilometers d. inches gas at the rate of 5 * 104 g>min. Express this hydro-
3.48 The length of a football field, between goal posts, is gen consumption rate in the following units.
120.0 yd. Express this length in the following units. a. dg/min b. g/sec
a. meters b. millimeters c. kg/hr d. ng/day
c. megameters d. miles 3.61 The amount of carbon monoxide, a common air
3.49 A spray steam iron has a capacity of 75 mL of water. pollutant, in a sample of air is measured at 0.0057 mg>mL
Express this water capacity in the following units. air. Express this mass/volume ratio in the following units.
a. qt b. gal a. mg>L b. g/mL
c. fl oz d. cm3 c. mg>mL d. kg/kL
3.50 An automobile’s gasoline tank has a capacity of 64 L. 3.62 The amount of mercury in a sample of water from
Express this capacity in the following units. a polluted lake is measured at 0.39 mg>mL water.
a. qt b. gal Express this mass/volume ratio in the following units.
c. fl oz d. cm3 a. mg>L b. g/mL c. ng/nL d. cg/dL
3.51 The mass of the earth is estimated to be 6.6 * 1021
tons. Express the mass of the earth in the following
units.
DENSITY (SEC. 3.8)
a. g b. kg
c. ng d. oz 3.63 Given the following mass-volume relationships
3.52 A defensive lineman on a professional football team for objects, calculate their densities in grams per
has a mass of 295 lb. Express the mass of this football milliliter.
player in the following units. a. mass = 10.0 g; volume = 6.37 mL
a. kg b. Mg b. mass = 12.0 g; volume = 4.0 mL
c. mg d. ton c. mass = 6.23 g; volume = 4.02 cm3
3.53 An apple has a volume of 61 cm3. Express this volume d. mass = 0.111 lb; volume = 9.5 mL
in the following units. 3.64 Given the following mass-volume relationships
a. cubic feet b. cubic yards for objects, calculate their densities in grams per
c. cubic inches d. cubic miles milliliter.
3.54 A large pond has a surface area of 1250 km2. Express a. mass = 7.2 g; volume = 9.93 mL
this volume in the following units. b. mass = 7.20 g; volume = 14.3 mL
a. square yards b. square inches c. mass = 4.33 g; volume = 4.45 cm3
c. square feet d. square miles d. mass = 0.135 lb; volume = 61.0 mL
3.65 Calculate the mass, in grams, for each of the following. 3.78 Classify each of the following as an equality conver-
a. 47.6 mL of acetone (d = 0.791 g>mL) sion factor or an equivalence conversion factor.
b. 47.6 cm3 of silver metal (d = 10.40 g>cm3) 1 mg sugar 1.20 mg sugar
c. 47.6 L of carbon monoxide gas (d = 1.25 g>L) a. -3
b.
10 g sugar 10.0 kg sugar solution
d. 47.6 cm3 of rock salt (d = 2.18 g>cm3)
3.66 Calculate the mass, in grams, for each of the following. 2 pt sugar solution 1.20 mg sugar solution
a. 63.0 mL of gasoline (d = 0.56 g>mL) c. d.
1 qt sugar solution 10.0 mL sugar solution
b. 63.0 cm3 of sodium metal (d = 0.93 g>cm3)
c. 63.0 L of ammonia gas (d = 0.759 g>L) 3.79 The correct dosage for a certain antibiotic is 32 mg/kg
d. 63.0 cm3 of mercury (d = 13.6 g>mL) of body weight.
3.67 Calculate the volume, in milliliters, for each of the following. a. How much antibiotic, in milligrams, should be ad-
a. 17.6 g of blood plasma (d = 1.027 g>mL) ministered to a child who weighs 15.9 kg?
b. 17.6 g of gold metal (d = 19.3 g>cm3) b. If 3750 mg of antibiotic is a correct dosage for a
c. 17.6 g of dry air (d = 1.29 g>L) patient, what is the patient’s weight in kilograms?
d. 17.6 g of urine (d = 1.008 g>mL) 3.80 The correct dosage for a certain arthritis medication is
3.68 Calculate the volume, in milliliters, for each of the following. 6.00 mg/kg of body weight.
a. 33.2 g of milk (d = 1.03 g>mL) a. How much medication, in milligrams, should be ad-
b. 33.2 g of bone (d = 1.8 g>cm3) ministered to a patient who weighs 146 kilograms?
c. 33.2 g of hydrogen gas (d = 0.087 g>L) b. If 826 mg of medication is a correct dosage for a
d. 33.2 g of lead metal (d = 11.3 g>cm3) patient, what is the patient’s weight in kilograms?
3.69 A small bottle contains 2.171 mL of a red liquid. The 3.81 The amount of sugar in a sugar solution is found to
total mass of the bottle and liquid is 5.261 g. The be 2.30 mg>L. How much sugar, in grams, is present in
empty bottle weighs 3.006 g. What is the density, in the following amounts of the sugar solution?
grams per milliliter, of the liquid? a. 2.30 L b. 2.30 mL c. 2.30 qt d. 2.30 fl oz
3.70 A piece of metal weighing 187.6 g is placed in a 3.82 The amount of salt in a salt solution is found to be
graduated cylinder containing 225.2 mL of water. The 4.5 mg/mL. How much salt, in grams, is present in the
combined volume of solid and liquid is 250.3 mL. What following amounts of the salt solution?
is the density, in grams per milliliter, of the metal? a. 4.42 mL b. 4.42 L c. 4.42 qt d. 4.42 fl oz
3.71 An automobile gasoline tank holds 13.0 gal when 3.83 At a gasoline pump, the gasoline is dispensed at the rate
full. How many pounds of gasoline will it hold, if the of 0.20 gallon per second. How much time, in minutes, is
gasoline has a density of 0.56 g/mL? needed to dispense the following volumes of gasoline?
3.72 Liquid sodium metal has a density of 0.93 g>cm3. How a. 16.0 gal b. 13.0 qt c. 7.00 L d. 5355 mL
many pounds of liquid sodium are needed to fill a 3.84 At a soft drink dispenser, liquid is dispensed at the rate of
container whose capacity is 15.0 L? 2.00 fluid ounces per second. How much time is needed,
3.73 What mass of chromium (density = 7.18 g>cm3) in minutes, to obtain the following size soft drinks?
occupies the same volume as 100.0 g of aluminum a. 16.00 fl oz. b. 16.00 mL
(density = 2.70 g>cm3)? c. 2.00 qt d. 0.10 gal
3.74 What volume of nickel (density = 8.90 g>cm3) has the 3.85 The commodity market price for soybeans is $9.20 per
same mass as 100.0 cm3 of lead (density = 11.3 g>cm3)? bushel on a given day. Assume the cost is rounded to
3.75 Water has a density of 1.0 g/mL at room temperature. the closest 0.01 dollar.
State whether each of the following will sink or float a. How many bushels of soybeans can be purchased
when dropped in water. for $1000.00?
a. paraffin wax (d = 0.90 g>cm3) b. How much, in dollars, will 45 bushels of soybeans
b. limestone (d = 2.8 g>cm3) cost?
3.76 Air has a density of 1.29 g/L at room temperature. State 3.86 The commodity market price for corn is $3.72 per
whether each of the following will rise or sink in air. bushel on a given day. Assume the cost is rounded to
a. helium gas (d = 0.18 g>L) the closest 0.01 dollar.
b. argon gas (d = 1.78 g>L) a. How many bushels of corn can be purchased for
$500.00?
EQUIVALENCE CONVERSION FACTORS (SEC. 3.9) b. How much, in dollars, will 625 bushels of corn cost?
3.77 Classify each of the following as an equality conver-
sion factor or an equivalence conversion factor.
1.28 g salt solution 10 - 3 L salt solution
PERCENTAGE AND PERCENT ERROR (SEC. 3.10)
a. b.
1 mL salt solution 1 mL salt solution 3.87 A 1980 U.S. penny (a zinc–copper alloy) with a mass
of 3.053 g contains 2.902 g of copper. What is the
4 qt salt solution 4.5 mg salt mass percentage in the penny of
c. d.
1 gal salt solution 1 g salt solution a. copper? b. zinc?
3.88 A 2004 U.S. penny (zinc plated with a thin layer of TEMPERATURE SCALES (SEC. 3.11)
copper) with a mass of 2.552 g contains 2.488 g of
zinc. What is the mass percentage in the penny of 3.99 State the freezing point of water on each of the
following temperature scales.
a. copper? b. zinc?
a. Fahrenheit
3.89 How many grams of water are contained in 65.3 g of
b. Celsius
a mixture of alcohol and water that is 34.2% water by
c. Kelvin
mass?
3.100 State the boiling point of water on each of the
3.90 How many grams of alcohol are contained in 467 g of
following temperature scales.
a mixture of alcohol and water that is 23.0% alcohol
a. Fahrenheit
by mass?
b. Celsius
3.91 A solution of table salt in water contains 15.3% by
c. Kelvin
mass of table salt. If 437 g of solution are evaporated
3.101 If the temperature increases by 20 degrees on the
to dryness, how many grams of table salt will remain?
Celsius scale, how many degrees will it rise on the
3.92 A solution of table salt in water contains 15.3% by
Fahrenheit scale?
mass of table salt. In a 542 g sample of this solution,
3.102 If the temperature increases by 20 degrees on the
how many grams of water are present?
Fahrenheit scale, how many degrees will it rise on
3.93 A vinegar solution (acetic acid and water) is 9.00% by
the Celsius scale?
mass acetic acid, and it has a density of 1.013 g/mL.
3.103 Carry out the following temperature-scale
How many grams of acetic acid are present in 1.00 gal
conversions.
of the vinegar solution?
a. 1352°C to °F b. 37.6°C to °F
3.94 A vinegar solution (acetic acid and water) is 18.00% by
c. 1352°F to °C d. 37.6°F to °C
mass acetic acid, and it has a density of 1.025 g/mL.
How many grams of acetic acid are present in 1.00
conversions.
quart of the vinegar solution?
a. -7⬚C to °F b. 295°C to °F
3.95 Consider the following facts about a candy mixture con-
c. -7⬚F to °C d. 295°F to °C
taining “Gummi bears” and “Gummi worms”: (1) 30.9%
of the 661 items present are Gummi bears, (2) 23.0% of
conversions.
the Gummi bears are orange, and (3) 6.4% of the orange
a. 275°C to K b. 275.2°C to K
Gummi bears have only one ear. How many one-eared,
c. 275.73°C to K d. 275 K to °C
orange Gummi bears are present in the candy mixture?
3.96 An analysis of the makeup of a beginning chemistry
conversions.
class gives the following facts: (1) 47.1% of the 87 stu-
a. 169°C to K b. 169.3°C to K
dents are female; (2) 43.9% of the female students are
c. 169.27°C to K d. 169 K to °C
married; and (3) 33.3% of the married female students
3.107 Carry out the following temperature scale
are sophomores. How many students in the class are
conversions.
sophomore female students who are married?
a. The temperature on a hot summer day is 101°F.
3.97 The accepted value for the normal boiling point of
What is this temperature in degrees Celsius?
ethyl alcohol is 78.5°C. In a laboratory setting, three
b. Oxygen, the gas necessary to sustain life, freezes
students are asked to experimentally determine the
to a solid at –218.4°C. What is this temperature in
normal boiling point of ethyl alcohol. Their results are
degrees Fahrenheit?
student 1: 78.0⬚C c. The melting point of sodium chloride (table
student 2: 77.9⬚C salt) is 804°C. What is this temperature in
student 3: 79.7⬚C kelvins?
d. Liquefied nitrogen boils at 77 K. What is this tem-
Calculate the percent error associated with each stu- perature in degrees Fahrenheit?
dent’s reported boiling point. 3.108 Carry out the following temperature scale
3.98 The accepted value for the normal boiling point of conversions.
benzaldehyde, a substance used as an almond flavor- a. Mercury freezes at 234.3 K. What is this tempera-
ing, is 178°C. In a laboratory setting, three students are ture in degrees Celsius?
asked to experimentally determine the normal boiling b. Normal body temperature for a chickadee is
point of benzaldehyde. Their results are 41.0°C. What is this temperature in degrees
student 1: 175⬚C Fahrenheit?
c. A recommended temperature setting for house-
student 2: 190⬚C
hold hot water heaters is 140°F. What is this tem-
student 3: 181⬚C perature in degrees Celsius?
Calculate the percent error associated with each stu- d. The metal aluminum melts at 934 K. What is this
dent’s reported boiling point. temperature in degrees Fahrenheit?
3.109 Which temperature in each of the follow- 3.110 Which temperature in each of the follow-
ing pairs of temperature readings is the higher ing pairs of temperature readings is the higher
temperature? temperature?
a. 223 K or 223°C b. 100°C or 100°F a. 376 K or 376°C b. 0°C or 30°F
c. -15⬚C or 4°F d. - 40⬚C or - 40⬚F c. -10⬚C or 10°F d. - 50⬚F or - 50⬚C
“mesh together” (complement each other) in problem solving situations. Answers are given at the back of the book for the odd-
numbered problems.
3.111 When each of the following metric system measure- times a week for 15 weeks (a semester). How many
ments of length is converted to meters, using a conver- seconds will a student with perfect attendance spend
sion factor obtained from the equality 10-2 meters = in class during the semester?”
1 centimeter, how many significant figures should be 3.119 If your blood has a density of 1.05 g/mL at 20°C,
in the answer? how many grams of blood would you lose if you
a. 4.3 cm b. 4.03 cm donated 1.00 pint of blood?
c. 0.33030 cm d. 5.123 cm 3.120 If your urine has a density of 1.030 g/mL at 20°C,
3.112 When each of the following metric system measure- how many pounds of urine would you lose if you
ments of volume is converted to liters, using a conver- eliminated 0.500 pint of urine?
sion factor obtained from the equality 10-3 liters = 1 3.121 The density of a solution of sulfuric acid is 1.29 g>cm3,
millimeter, how many significant figures should be and it is 38.1% acid by mass. What volume, in millili-
in the answer? ters, of the sulfuric acid solution is needed to supply
a. 7 mL b. 4.321 mL 325 g of sulfuric acid?
c. 375 mL d. 0.3001 mL 3.122 The density of a solution of sulfuric acid is 1.29 g>cm3,
3.113 The heights of the starting five players on a basket- and it is 38.1% acid by mass. What is the mass, in
ball team are 20.9 dm, 2030 mm, 1.90 m, 0.00183 km, grams, of 25.0 mL of sulfuric acid?
and 203 cm. What is the average height, in centime- 3.123 Levels of blood glucose higher than 400 mg/dL are
ters, of these five basketball players? (The average life-threatening. Is either of the following laboratory-
is the sum of the individual values divided by the measured glucose levels life-threatening?
number of values.) a. 5000 mg>mL
3.114 The masses for the five heaviest defensive line- b. 0.5 g/L
men on a football team are 141,000 g, 0.133 Mg, 3.124 Levels of blood glucose lower than 40 mg/dL are
1.28 * 108 mg, 126 kg, and 1.22 * 1011 mg. What is life-threatening. Is either of the following laboratory-
the average mass, in grams, of these defensive line- measured glucose levels life-threatening?
men? (The average is the sum of the individual val- a. 2000 mg>mL
ues divided by the number of values.) b. 20,000,000 ng/cL
3.115 Using dimensional analysis, convert each of the fol- 3.125 A square piece of aluminum foil, 4.0 in. on a side,
lowing length measurements to meters. is found to weigh 0.466 g. What is the thickness of
a. 3.72 mm b. 3.720 mm the foil, in millimeters, if the density of the foil is
c. 0.0372 mm d. 0.037200 mm 269 cg>cm3?
3.116 Using dimensional analysis, convert each of the fol- 3.126 The density of osmium (the densest metal) is
lowing volume measurements to liters. 2260 cg>cm3. What is the mass, in grams, of a block of
a. 6.33 dL b. 6.330 dL osmium with dimensions 5.00 in. * 4.00 in. * 0.25 ft?
c. 0.0633 dL d. 0.063300 dL 3.127 A scientist invented a new temperature scale called
3.117 Using the dimensional analysis method of problem the Howard scale (°H) and assigned the boiling
solving, set up and solve the following problem: “If and freezing points of water the values 200°H and
your heart beats at a rate of 69 times per minute, –200°H, respectively. What is a temperature of 50°F
how many times will your heart have beat by the equivalent to on the Howard scale?
time you reach your 8th birthday?” (Ignore the fact 3.128 A scientist invented a new temperature scale called
that two of the years were leap years.) the Scott scale (°S) and assigned the boiling and
3.118 Using the dimensional analysis method of problem freezing points of water the values 150°S and –50°S,
solving, set up and solve the following problem: “A respectively. What is a temperature of 50°C equiva-
chemistry course meets for 50-minute sessions four lent to on the Scott scale?

MC 3.1 Which of the following metric system prefixes is c. three
correctly paired with its mathematical meaning? d. four
a. milli- and 10 - 2 e. no correct response
b. micro- and 10 - 6 MC 3.8 Which of the following conversion factor sequences
c. giga- and 10 - 9 (unit setups) would affect the change from milligrams to
d. more than one correct response kilograms?
e. no correct response a. mg * (g>mg) * (kg>g)
MC 3.2 In which of the following sequences are the metric b. mg * (g>kg) * (mg>g)
system prefixes listed in order of decreasing size? c. mg * (mg>g) * (kg>g)
a. mega-, giga-, kilo- d. mg * (g>mg) * (g>kg)
b. nano-, micro-, milli- e. no correct response
c. pico-, centi-, deci- MC 3.9 Which of the following conversion factor
d. more than one correct response sequences (unit setups) would affect the change from ft/hr
e. no correct response to cm/sec?
MC 3.3 Which of the following is the correct abbreviation a. ft>hr * (in.>ft) * (min>hr) * (sec>min)
for the metric unit called a microliter? b. ft>hr * (cm>in.) * (hr>min) * (min>sec)
a. mL c. ft>hr * (in.>ft) * (cm>in.) * (hr>min)
b. ML * (min>sec)
c. mcL d. ft>hr * (in.>ft) * (in.>cm) * (hr>min)
d. microL * (sec>min)
MC 3.4 Which of the following is an incorrect pairing of MC 3.10 How many nanograms of liquid are present in a
concepts? 2.5 megagram sample of the liquid?
a. kilogram - metric unit of mass a. 2.5 * 103 ng
b. milliliter - metric unit of volume b. 2.5 * 10 - 3 ng
c. cubic centimeter - metric unit of length c. 2.5 * 1015 ng
d. more than one correct response d. 2.5 * 10 - 15 ng
MC 3.5 Which of the following statements concerning MC 3.11 Express the area measurement 24.0 cm2 in the
conversion factors is correct? units of square yards.
a. English-to-English conversion factors come from a. 0.263 yd2
measured relationships. b. 0.103 yd2
b. Metric-to-English conversion factors come from c. 0.00729 yd2
defined relationships. d. 0.00287 yd2
c. Conversion factors always come in reciprocal pairs. e. no correct response
d. more than one correct response MC 3.12 Express the measurement 4.22 quarts in the units
e. no correct response of microliters.
MC 3.6 Which of the following is a correct conversion factor? a. 3.99 * 10 - 6 mL
a. 453.6 g/1 lb b. 3.99 * 106 mL
b. 10 - 2 cm>1 in. c. 4.46 * 10 - 6 mL
c. 0.9463 qt/1 L d. 4.46 * 10 - 3 mL
e. no correct response MC 3.13 Which of the following would be a correct set of
MC 3.7 Given that the dimensional analysis pathway for density units?
solving a problem is a. L/g
weeks S days S hours S minutes b. lb/gal
how many conversion factor will be in the setup for the problem ? c. kg/cm
a. one d. more than one correct response
b. two e. no correct response
MC 3.14 If object A has a mass of 24 g and a volume MC 3.18 Which of the following comparisons of the size
of 2.0 mL and object B has a mass of 36 g and a vol- of the degree on the major temperature scales are correct?
ume of 6.0 mL, which of the following is a correct density a. A kelvin is larger than a Celsius degree.
comparison? b. A Fahrenheit degree and a Celsius degree are the
a. B is more dense than A. same size.
b. A is twice as dense as B. c. A Fahrenheit degree is larger than a kelvin.
c. B has a density one-third that of A. d. more than one correct response
d. A and B have equal densities because the given e. no correct response
units are the same. MC 3.19 Which of the following statements concerning the
e. no correct response major temperature scales are correct?
MC 3.15 What is the volume, in milliliters, of 50.0 g of a a. Celsius temperatures can never have negative values.
liquid if its density is 1.20 g/mL? b. The addition of 273 to a Fahrenheit scale reading
a. 32.1 mL converts it to a Kelvin scale reading.
b. 41.7 mL c. The freezing point of water is the same on the
c. 60.0 mL Celsius and Kelvin scales.
d. 73.1 mL d. more than one correct response
MC 3.16 Which of the following is an equivalence conver- MC 3.20 If the temperature of an object is 435°C, what is its
sion factor rather than an equality conversion factor? temperature on the Kelvin scale?
a. 1 gal water/4 qt water a. 162 K
b. 1 lb water/453.6 g water b. 668 K
c. 1 g water/1 mL water c. 708 K
d. more than one correct response d. 723 K
MC 3.17 A student experimentally determines that the boil-
ing point of a particular compound is 178.5°C. What is the
percent error in the student’s measurement, given that the
accepted value for the boiling point of the compounds is MC 3.1 b MC 3.8 a MC 3.15 b
165.9°C? MC 3.2 e MC 3.9 c MC 3.16 c
a. +7.06% MC 3.3 e MC 3.10 c MC 3.17 c
b. - 7.06% MC 3.4 c MC 3.11 d MC 3.18 e
c. +7.59% MC 3.5 c MC 3.12 b MC 3.19 e
d. - 7.59% MC 3.6 a MC 3.13 b MC 3.20 c
e. no correct response MC 3.7 c MC 3.14 b
C H A P T E R
4
Basic Concepts About Matter
4.1 Chemistry—The Study of Matter

4.2 Physical States of Matter
4.3 Properties of Matter
4.4 Changes in Matter
4.5 Pure Substances and Mixtures
4.6 Heterogeneous and Homogeneous Mixtures
4.7 Elements and Compounds
4.8 Discovery and Abundance of the Elements
4.9 Names and Chemical Symbols of the Elements
4.1 CHEMISTRY—THE STUDY OF MATTER

Student Learning Focus: Define the term matter and list the aspects of matter that are of particular
concern to a chemist.
Chemistry is the scientific discipline concerned with the characteristics, composition, and
transformations of matter. What is matter? What is it that chemists study? Intuitively, most
people have a general feeling for the meaning of the word matter. They consider matter
to be the materials of the physical universe—that is, the stuff from which the universe is
made. Such an interpretation is a correct one.
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Matter includes all naturally
occurring things—both living and nonliving—that can be seen (such as plants, soil, and
rocks), as well as things that cannot be seen (such as air and bacteria). Matter also in-
cludes materials that do not occur naturally, that is, synthetic materials that are produced
in a laboratory or industrial setting, using—directly or indirectly—naturally occurring
starting materials. Various forms of energy, such as heat, light, and electricity, are not
111
112 Chapter 4 • Basic Concepts About Matter
considered to be matter. However, chemists must be concerned with energy as well as

with matter, because nearly all changes that matter undergoes involve the release or ab-
sorption of energy.
The scope of chemistry is extremely broad, and it touches every aspect of our lives.
An iron gate rusting, a chocolate cake baking, the diagnosis and treatment of a heart at-
tack, the propulsion of a jet airliner, and the digesting of food all fall within the realm of
chemistry. The key to understanding such diverse processes is an understanding of how
matter can be classified into a surprisingly small number of categories. The naturally oc-
curring materials of the universe and the synthetic materials humans have fashioned from
them are, indeed, much simpler in makeup than they outwardly appear.
4.2 PHYSICAL STATES OF MATTER

Student Learning Focus: Characterize each of the three states of matter in terms of the definite-
ness or indefiniteness of its shape and volume.
Three physical states exist for matter: solid, liquid, and gas. The classification of a given
matter sample in terms of physical state is based on whether its shape and volume are
definite or indefinite.
Most people think of Solid is the physical state characterized by a definite shape and a definite volume.
rocks as solids, hence Sugar cubes have the same shape and volume whether they are placed in a large container
the sayings “solid as a or on a table top (Fig. 4.1a). For solids in powdered or granulated forms, such as sugar or
rock” and “it is written
in stone.” But at high
salt, a quantity of the solid takes the shape of the portion of the container it occupies, but
temperatures and each individual particle has a definite shape and volume. Liquid is the physical state char-
pressures within the acterized by an indefinite shape and a definite volume. A liquid always takes the shape
earth, rock can turn to of its container to the extent that it fills the container (Fig. 4.1b). Gas is the physical state
molten magma. characterized by an indefinite shape and an indefinite volume. A gas always completely
fills its container, adopting both the container’s volume and shape (Fig. 4.1c).
The state of matter observed for a particular substance is always dependent on the
temperature and pressure under which the observation is made. Because we live on a
planet characterized by relatively narrow temperature extremes, we tend to fall into the
error of believing that the commonly observed states of substances are the only states in
which they occur. Under laboratory conditions, states other than the natural ones can be
obtained for almost all substances. Oxygen, which is nearly always thought of as a gas,
can be obtained in the liquid and solid states at very low temperatures. People seldom
(a) (b) (c)
. . . .
. . .. . . . .
. .
. . . . . . . ..
. .
. . . . . .
. . . .
. . . . . . ..
. . .
. . . . .
Solid Liquid Gas

Definite shape Indefinite shape Indefinite shape
Definite volume Definite volume Indefinite volume
FIGURE 4.1 (a) A solid has a definite shape and a definite
volume. (b) A liquid has an indefinite shape—it takes the
shape of its container—and a definite volume. (c) A gas has an
indefinite shape and an indefinite volume—it assumes the shape
and volume of its container.
Chapter 4 • Basic Concepts About Matter 113
FIGURE 4.2 Water

can be found
simultaneously in
the solid, liquid, and
vapor (gaseous) forms,
as shown here at
Yellowstone National
Park. (Shutterstock)
think of the metal iron as being a gas, its state at extremely high temperatures (above
3000°C). At intermediate temperatures (1535–3000°C), iron is a liquid. Water is one of
the very few substances familiar to everyone in all three physical states: solid ice, liquid
water, and gaseous steam (see Fig. 4.2).
Chapter 11 will consider in detail further properties of the different physical states
of matter, changes from one state to another, and the question of why some substances
decompose. Suffice it to say at present that physical state is one of the qualities by which
matter can be classified.
4.3 PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Student Learning Focus: Be able to classify properties of a substance as physical or chemical and
also as intensive or extensive.
How are the various kinds of matter differentiated from each other? The answer is
simple—by their properties. Properties are the distinguishing characteristics of a
substance that are used in its identification and description. Just as we recognize a friend
by characteristics such as hair color, walk, tone of voice, or shape of nose, we recognize
various chemical substances by how they look and behave. Each chemical substance has
a unique set of properties that distinguishes it from all other substances. If two samples of
matter have every property identical, they must necessarily be the same substance.
Knowledge of the properties of substances is useful in the following:
1. Identifying an unknown substance. Identifying a confiscated drug such as cocaine
involves comparing the properties of the drug to those of known cocaine samples.
2. Distinguishing between different substances. A dentist can quickly tell the difference
between a real tooth and a false tooth because of property differences.
3. Characterizing a newly discovered substance. Any new substance must have a
unique set of properties different from those of any previously characterized
substance.
4. Predicting the usefulness of a substance for specific applications. Water-soluble
substances obviously should not be used in the manufacture of bathing suits.
Physical and Chemical Properties

Chemical properties There are two general categories of properties of matter: physical and chemical. A physical
describe the ability of property is a characteristic of a substance that can be observed without changing the sub-
a substance to form stance into another substance. Color, odor, taste, size, physical state, boiling point, melting
new substances, either
by reaction with other
point, and density are all examples of physical properties.
substances or by The physical appearance of a substance may change while a physical property
decomposition. Physical is being determined, but the substance’s identity will not. For example, the melting
properties are associated point of a solid cannot be measured without melting the solid, changing it to a liquid.
with a substance’s Although the liquid’s appearance is much different from that of the solid, the substance
physical existence. They
can be determined
is still the same. Its chemical identity has not changed. Hence, melting point is a physi-
without reference to any cal property.
other substance, and A chemical property is a characteristic of a substance that describes the way
determining them causes the substance undergoes or resists change to form a new substance. When copper
no change in the identity objects are exposed to moist air for long periods of time, they turn green; this is a
of the substance.
chemical property of copper. The green coating formed on the copper is a new sub-
stance; it results from the reaction of copper metal with the oxygen, carbon dioxide,
and water in air. The properties of this green coating are very different from those of
metallic copper. On the other hand, gold objects resist change when exposed to air
for long periods of time. The lack of reactivity of gold with air is a chemical property
of gold.
Most often the changes associated with chemical properties result from the interac-
tion (reaction) of a substance with one or more other substances. However, the presence
of a second substance is not an absolute requirement. Sometimes the presence of energy
(usually heat or light) can trigger the change known as decomposition. The fact that hy-
drogen peroxide, in the presence of either heat or light, decomposes into the substances
water and oxygen is a chemical property of hydrogen peroxide.
When we specify chemical properties, we usually give conditions such as tem-
perature and pressure because they influence the interactions between substances. For
example, the gases oxygen and hydrogen are unreactive with each other at room tem-
perature, but they interact explosively at a temperature of several hundred degrees
Celsius.
Selected physical and chemical properties of water are contrasted in Table 4.1. Note
how the chemical properties of water cannot be described without reference to other
substances. It does not make sense to say simply that a substance reacts. The substance
that it interacts with must be specified because it might interact with many different
substances.
TABLE 4.1 Selected Physical and Chemical Properties of Water
Physical Properties Chemical Properties

1. Colorless 1. Reacts with bromine to form a mixture of two acids
2. Odorless 2. Can be decomposed by means of electricity to form
3. Boiling point = 100oC hydrogen and oxygen
4. Freezing point = 0oC 3. Reacts vigorously with the metal sodium to produce
5. Density = 1.000 g/mL at 4oC hydrogen
4. Does not react with gold even at high temperatures
5. Reacts with carbon monoxide at elevated temperatures
to produce carbon dioxide and hydrogen
EXAMPLE 4.1 Classifying Properties as Physical or Chemical
Classify each of the following properties of selected metals as a physical property or a

chemical property.
a. Titanium metal can be drawn into thin wires.
b. Silver metal shows no sign of reaction when placed in hydrochloric acid.
c. Copper metal possesses a reddish-brown color.
d. Potassium metal, which has a shiny appearance when freshly cut, turns dull gray
when exposed to air.
SOLUTION
a. Physical property. Pulling bulk metal into a thin wire does not change its composition.
b. Chemical property. Reactivity with an acid as well as lack of reactivity with an acid
are considered to be chemical properties.
c. Physical property. The property of color is determined without changing the identity
(composition) of the metal.
d. Chemical property. A change in color indicates the formation of a new substance.
Intensive and Extensive Properties

The properties of a substance may be classified in a second manner—as intensive or extensive Color is an intensive
properties based on whether they depend on the amount of substance present. For example, property that cannot
two different-sized pieces of pure copper will have the same melting point and the same always be used for
identification. This
reddish-brown color (both intensive properties) but different masses (an extensive property).
property can fool you
An intensive property is a property that is independent of the amount of substance if particle size for a
present. Temperature, color, melting point, and density are all intensive properties; they substance is extremely
are the same for a small sample and for a large one of the same substance. small. For example,
An extensive property is a property that depends on the amount of substance present. silver is a silvery-white
metal with a high luster;
The mass, length, and volume of a substance are examples of extensive properties. Values
however, in the finely
of the same extensive property are additive. For example, two pieces of aluminum have a divided state, metallic
combined mass that is the sum of the individual masses. Intensive properties, such as melt- silver appears black.
ing point and density, which are the same for two samples of a substance, are not additive.
Because every sample of a given substance has the same intensive properties, such
properties are more useful than extensive properties for characterizing (identifying) sub-
stances. Chemical properties of a substance, which are also intensive properties, are also
key components of a substance-identification process.
Interestingly, taking the mathematical ratio of two numerical extensive properties
produces an intensive property. In effect, the “amount factor” cancels out in such a cal-
culation. The property of density (Sec. 3.8) is an example of such a situation. Density is
the ratio of mass over volume. Both mass and volume are extensive properties; however,
their ratio (density) is an intensive property.
EXAMPLE 4.2 Classifying Properties as Intensive or Extensive
Indicate whether each of the following statements describes an intensive property or an

extensive property.
a. A sample of cheese has a mass of 36 grams.
b. A sample of cheese has a solid yellow color.
c. A sample of cheese does not dissolve in water.
d. A sample of cheese has a density of 1.5 g/cm3.
SOLUTION
a. Extensive property. Mass depends on the amount (size) of the cheese sample.
b. Intensive property. Color is independent of cheese sample size.
c. Intensive property. Both small and large samples of the cheese will be insoluble.
d. Intensive property. Density is the same for different-sized cheese samples
4.4 CHANGES IN MATTER

Student Learning Focus: Be able to classify a given change that occurs in matter as a physical
change or a chemical change.
Changes in matter are common and familiar occurrences. Changes take place when food
is digested, paper is burned, and iron rusts (see Fig. 4.3). Like properties of matter,
changes in matter are classified into two categories: physical and chemical.
A physical change is a process in which a substance changes its physical appear-
ance but not its chemical composition. A new substance is never formed as a result of a
physical change.
Frost on a windowpane is A change in physical state is the most common type of physical change. The melting
an example of deposition. of ice, the freezing of liquid water, the conversion of liquid water into steam (evapora-
tion), the condensation of steam to water, the sublimation of ice in cold weather, and
the formation of snow crystals in clouds in the winter (deposition) all represent changes
When roasted coffee is of state. The terminology used in describing changes of state, with the exception of the
ground, the rich aroma is terms sublimation and deposition, should be familiar to almost everyone. Although the
due to the sublimation of
processes of sublimation and deposition—going from a solid directly to the gaseous state
coffee components.
or vice versa—are not common, they are encountered in everyday life. Dry ice sublimes,
as do mothballs placed in a clothing storage area. As mentioned previously, ice or snow
Not all physical changes
involve a change of state.
forming in clouds is an example of deposition. Figure 4.4 summarizes the terminology
Pulverizing an aspirin used in describing changes of state.
tablet into a fine powder In any change of state, the composition of the substance undergoing change remains
and cutting a piece of the same even though its physical state and outward appearance have changed. The melt-
adhesive tape into small ing of ice does not produce a new substance. The substance is water before and after
pieces are examples of
physical changes that
the change. Similarly, the steam produced from boiling water is still water. Changes such
involve only the solid as these illustrate that matter can change in appearance without undergoing a change in
state. chemical composition.
FIGURE 4.3 The

rusting of an iron
pipe is an example of
a naturally occurring
chemical change.
(Tobias Stinner/Fotolia)
FIGURE 4.4
Terminology associated
Gas with physical changes
of state.
Eva
n
a tio
Co
n
por
i t io
nde
lim
ati
pos
ns
Sub
on
atio
De
n
Melting
Solid Liquid
Freezing
A chemical change is a process in which a substance undergoes a change in

chemical composition. The creation of one or more new substances is always a char-
acteristic of a chemical change. Carbon dioxide and water are two new substances
produced when the chemical change associated with the burning of gasoline occurs.
Ashes, carbon dioxide, and water are among the new substances produced when
wood is burned. Chemical changes are often called chemical reactions. A chemical
reaction is a process in which at least one new substance is produced as a result of
chemical change. Table 4.2 classifies a number of changes for matter as being either
physical or chemical.
Most changes for matter can easily be classified as either physical or chemical.
However, not all changes are “black” or “white.” There are some gray areas. For example,
the formation of certain solutions falls in the gray area. Common salt dissolves easily in
water to form a solution of saltwater. The salt can easily be recovered by the physical
process of evaporating the water. When gaseous hydrogen chloride is dissolved in water,
again a solution results, but in this case the starting materials cannot be easily recovered
by evaporation. The formation of saltwater is considered a physical change because the
TABLE 4.2 Classification of Changes as Physical or Chemical
Change Classification
Rusting of iron Chemical
Melting of snow Physical
Sharpening a pencil Physical
Digesting food Chemical
Taking a bite of food Physical
Burning gasoline Chemical
Slicing an onion Physical
Detonation of dynamite Chemical
Souring of milk Chemical
Breaking of glass Physical
original components can be recovered in an unchanged form using physical methods.

The second solution presents classification problems because of the possibility that a
chemical reaction took place.
The changes involved in the cooking of an egg also present classification problems.
The cooked egg contains the same structural units as the uncooked egg. However, some
changes in structural arrangement have taken place, so is the change physical or chemical?
Despite the existence of gray areas, we shall continue to use the concepts of physical and
chemical change because their usefulness far outweighs the problems created by a few
exceptions.
Chemists study the nature of changes in matter to learn how to bring about favor-
able changes and prevent undesirable ones. The control of chemical change has been a
major factor in attaining the modern standard of living now enjoyed by most people in
the developed world. The many plastics, synthetic fibers, and prescription drugs now in
common use are produced using controlled chemical change.
Use of the Terms Physical and Chemical

The message of the Generalizations concerning the use of the terms physical and chemical are in order.
“modifiers” physical and
chemical is constant: 1. Whenever the term physical is used to modify another term, as in physical property
Physical denotes no or physical change, it always conveys the idea that the composition (identity) of the
change in composition, substance involved did not change.
and chemical denotes
2. Whenever the term chemical is used to modify another term, as in chemical prop-
change in composition or
resistance to such change. erty or chemical change, it always conveys the idea that the composition (identity)
of the substance(s) involved did change or successfully resisted change as the result
of an external challenge to identity.
Based on these generalizations, we note that techniques used to accomplish physi-
cal change are called physical methods or physical means. Chemical methods and chemi-
cal means are used to bring about chemical change. A physical separation would be a
separation process in which none of the components experienced composition changes.
Composition changes would be part of a chemical separation process.
EXAMPLE 4.3 Correct Use of the Terms Physical and Chemical
Correctly complete each of the following sentences by placing the word physical or
chemical in the blank.
a. The fact that pure aspirin melts at 143°C is a property of aspirin.
b. The fact that sodium metal explosively interacts with water to produce hydrogen
gas is a property of sodium.
c. Straightening a bent nail with a hammer is an example of a change.
d. Draining off the water from a water-and-hard-boiled-egg mixture is an example of a
separation.
SOLUTION
a. Physical. Changing solid aspirin to liquid aspirin (melting) does not produce any
new substances. We still have aspirin.
b. Chemical. A new substance, hydrogen, is produced.
c. Physical. The nail is still a nail.
d. Physical. We started out with water and eggs, and after the separation we still have
water and eggs.
4.5 PURE SUBSTANCES AND MIXTURES

Student Learning Focus: Be able to classify matter, based on its composition, as a pure substance
or a mixture.
In addition to its classification by physical state (Sec. 4.2), matter can also be classified in Substance is a general
terms of its composition as a pure substance or a mixture. A pure substance is a single term used to denote any
variety of matter. Pure
kind of matter that cannot be separated into other kinds of matter using physical means.
substance is a specific
All samples of a pure substance contain only that substance and nothing else. Pure water term that applies only
is water and nothing else. Pure sucrose (table sugar) contains only that substance and to matter that contains a
nothing else. single substance.
A pure substance always has a definite and constant composition. This invariant
composition dictates that the properties of a pure substance are always the same under All samples of a pure
a given set of conditions. Collectively, these definite and constant physical and chemical substance, no matter
properties constitute the means for identification of the pure substance. what their source, have
the same properties
A mixture is a physical combination of two or more pure substances in which each under the same
substance retains its own identity. Components of a mixture retain their identity because conditions.
they are physically mixed rather than chemically combined. Consider, for example, a
mixture of salt and pepper (see Fig. 4.5). Close examination of such a mixture will show Commercial table salt is
distinct particles of salt and pepper with no obvious interaction between them. The salt not just the pure substance
sodium chloride. It is a
particles in the mixture are identical in properties and composition to the salt particles in mixture containing small
the salt container, and the pepper particles in the mixture are no different from those in amounts of potassium
the pepper container. iodide as a nutritional
Once a particular mixture is made up, its composition is constant. However, mix- supplement, dextrose as
tures of the same components with different compositions can also be made up; thus, a stabilizer, and calcium
silicate as an anticaking
mixtures are considered to have variable compositions. Consider the large number of salt agent (to keep it pouring
and pepper mixtures that could be produced by varying the amounts of the two sub- when it rains) in addition
stances present. to the sodium chloride.
FIGURE 4.5 The

individual particles of
salt and pepper are
easily recognizable in
a mixture of the two
substances because a
mixture is a physical
rather than chemical
combination of
substances. (Ken Lax/
Pearson Education/PH
College)
FIGURE 4.6 A
Matter
comparison chart
contrasting the
differences between
mixtures and pure
substances.
Mixture Pure Substance

1. It is a physical combination 1. Only one substance is present.
of two or more substances. 2. It has a definite and constant
2. It has a variable composition. composition.
3. Properties vary as 3. Properties are always the
composition varies. same under a given set of
4. Components can be separated conditions.
using physical means.
Most naturally occurring An additional characteristic of any mixture is that its components can often be re-
samples of matter are trieved intact from the mixture by physical means, that is, without a chemical change. In
mixtures. Gold and many cases, the differences in properties of the various components make the separation
diamond are two of the
few naturally occurring
relatively easy. For example, in our salt–pepper mixture, if the pepper grains were large
pure substances. enough, the two components could be separated manually by picking out all the pepper
Despite their scarcity in grains. Alternatively, the separation could be carried out by dissolving the salt particles in
nature, numerous pure water, removing the insoluble pepper particles, and then evaporating the water to recover
substances are known. the salt.
They are obtained from
natural mixtures by
Most mixture separations are not as easy as that for a salt–pepper mixture; expen-
using various types of sive instrumentation and numerous separation steps are required. Imagine the logistics
separation techniques or involved in the separation of the components of blood, a water-based mixture of varying
are synthesized in the amounts of proteins, sugar (glucose), salt (sodium chloride), oxygen, carbon dioxide, and
laboratory from naturally other components.
occurring materials.
Figure 4.6 summarizes the differences between mixtures and pure substances.
Further considerations about mixtures are found in Section 4.6, and Section 4.7 contains
further details about pure substances.
4.6 HETEROGENEOUS AND HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURES

Student Learning Focus: Understand the general meaning associated with the terms heteroge-
neous and homogeneous and be able to distinguish between heterogeneous mixtures and homo-
geneous mixtures based on a mixture’s properties.
Mixtures are subclassified as heterogeneous or homogeneous. This subclassification is

Hetero is a prefix that based on visual recognition of the mixture’s components. A heterogeneous mixture is
means “different.” Its use a mixture that contains two or more visually distinguishable phases (parts), each of which
in the classification term
has different properties. A heterogeneous mixture of sand and sugar is said to be com-
heterogeneous mixture
focuses on the different posed of two phases: a sand phase and a sugar phase. Because two or more phases are
properties associated always present, a nonuniform appearance is characteristic of all heterogeneous mixtures.
with different parts of the Naturally occurring heterogeneous mixtures include rocks, soils, and wood (see Fig. 4.7).
mixture. The phases in a heterogeneous mixture may or may not be in the same physical
state. Set concrete contains a number of phases, all of which are in the solid state. A
mixture of sand and water contains two phases, and each is in a different state (solid and
liquid). It is possible to have heterogeneous mixtures in which all components are liquids.
FIGURE 4.7 Wood

is an example of
a heterogeneous
mixture. (Tim Mainiero/
Shutterstock)
In order for these mixtures to occur, the mixed liquids must have limited solubility in each American dimes and
other. When this is the case, the mixed liquids form separate layers with the least dense quarters in current use
are heterogeneous
liquid on top. An oil-and-vinegar salad dressing is an example of such a liquid–liquid
mixtures of metals.
mixture. Oil-and-vinegar dressing consists of two phases (oil and vinegar) regardless of A copper phase is
whether the mixture consists of two separate layers or of oil droplets dispersed through- sandwiched between a
out the vinegar, a condition caused by shaking the mixture. All the oil droplets together copper–nickel phase.
are considered to be a single phase. Older “silver” dimes
and quarters are a
A homogeneous mixture is a mixture that contains only one visually distinguish-
homogeneous mixture
able phase (part), which has uniform properties throughout. A sugar–water mixture in of silver (90%) and
which all the sugar has dissolved is a one-phase (homogeneous) system with an appear- copper (10%).
ance that cannot be distinguished from that of pure water. Air is a homogeneous mixture of
gases, motor oil and gasoline are multicomponent homogeneous mixtures of liquids, and Homo is a prefix that
metal alloys such as 14-karat gold (a mixture of copper and gold) are examples of homo- means “the same.” Its use
geneous mixtures of solids. The homogeneity present in solid metallic alloys is achieved in the classification term
by mixing the metals while they are in the molten state. Obviously, homogeneous mixtures homogeneous mixture
focuses on the same
are possible only when all components present are in the same physical state. properties throughout the
A thorough intermingling of the components in a homogeneous mixture is required mixture.
in order for a single phase to exist. Sometimes this occurs almost instantaneously during
the preparation of the mixture, as in the addition of alcohol to water. At other times, an Manufacturers add
extended period of mixing or stirring is required. For example, when a hard sugar cube substances called
is added to a container of water, it does not instantaneously dissolve to give a homoge- emulsifying agents to
neous mixture. Only after much stirring does the sugar completely dissolve. Prior to that products like chocolate
bars and peanut
point, the mixture is heterogeneous, containing a solid phase (the undissolved sugar butter to keep these
cube) and a liquid phase (sugar dissolved in water). products homogeneous.
Figure 4.8 contrasts the properties common to all mixtures with those specific for Without emulsifiers, the
heterogeneous and homogeneous mixtures. ingredients would slowly
separate into phases and
look unpalatable.
Use of the Terms Homogeneous and Heterogeneous
A summary of the major concepts developed in both this section and Section 4.5 is
presented in Figure 4.9. This summary is based on the interplay between the terms het-
erogeneous and homogeneous and the terms chemical and physical. From this interplay
come the new expressions chemically homogeneous, chemically heterogeneous, physically
homogeneous, and physically heterogeneous.
All pure substances are chemically homogeneous. Only one substance can be present
in a chemically homogeneous material. Mixtures, which by definition must contain two or
more substances, are always chemically heterogeneous. The term physically homogeneous
describes materials consisting of only one phase. If two or more phases are present, then
the term physically heterogeneous applies.
FIGURE 4.8 A
comparison chart Mixture
contrasting the
1. It is a physical combination
properties common
of two or more substances.
to all mixtures with
those specific for 2. It has a variable composition.
heterogeneous and 3. Properties vary as
homogeneous mixtures. composition varies.
4. Components can be separated
using physical means.
Heterogeneous Mixture Homogeneous Mixture
1. It has two or more visibly 1. It has only one visibly

distinct phases. distinct phase.
2. Each phase has different 2. The phase has the same
properties. properties throughout.
Blood appears Pure water (Fig. 4.9a) is both chemically homogeneous and physically homoge-
homogeneous to neous because only one substance and one phase are present. Water with some sugar
the naked eye. But
when looked at
dissolved in it (Fig. 4.9b) is physically homogeneous with only one phase present, but
under a microscope, is chemically heterogeneous because two substances, sugar and water, are present. A
it can be seen to be a mixture of oil and water (Fig. 4.9c) is both chemically and physically heterogeneous be-
heterogeneous mixture of cause it contains two substances and two phases. An ice cube in liquid water (Fig. 4.9d)
red and white blood cells represents the somewhat unusual situation of chemical homogeneity and physical
and liquid called plasma.
heterogeneity—one substance and two phases. This combination occurs only when a
single substance is present in two or more physical states (solid, liquid, gas).
FIGURE 4.9
Describing a sample
of matter using the
terms chemically Chemically homogeneous Chemically heterogeneous
heterogeneous, Water Physically homogeneous Sugar Physically homogeneous
physically water
heterogeneous,
chemically
homogeneous, One substance and one phase Two substances and one phase
and physically (a) Pure water (b) Sugar water
homogeneous.
Chemically heterogeneous Chemically homogeneous

Oil on Physically heterogeneous Physically heterogeneous
water Ice in water
Two substances and two phases One substance and two phases
(c) Oil and water (d) Ice and water
4.7 ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS

Student Learning Focus: Based on properties, be able to describe the difference between an ele-
ment and a compound. Be able to explain why a compound is not considered to be a mixture.
Chemists have isolated and characterized an estimated 9 million pure substances. A

very small number of these pure substances, 118 to be exact, are different from all the
others. They are elements. All the rest, the remaining millions, are compounds. What
distinguishes an element from a compound?
An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into simpler pure sub- The definition for the term
stances using ordinary chemical means such as a chemical reaction, an electric current, element given here will do
heat, or a beam of light. The metals gold, silver, and copper are elements as are the gases for now. After considering
the concept of atomic
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. number (Sec. 5.6), we will
A compound is a pure substance that can be broken down into two or more simpler present a more rigorous
pure substances using chemical means. Water is a compound. By means of an electric definition.
current, water can be broken down into the gases hydrogen and oxygen, both of which
are elements. Hydrogen peroxide is a compound. Light can be used to decompose it into
water and gaseous oxygen.
Ultimately, the products from the breakdown of any compound are elements. In
practice the breakdown often occurs in steps, with simpler compounds resulting from the
intermediate steps, as illustrated in Figure 4.10.
Before a substance can be classified as an element, all possible attempts must be Every compound that
made chemically to subdivide it into simpler substances. If a sample of pure substance, S, exists is made up of
some combination of
is subjected to a decomposition process and two new substances, X and Y, are produced,
two or more of the 118
S would be classified as a compound. If, on the other hand, a number of attempts made known elements. Usually,
chemically to subdivide S proved unsuccessful, we might correctly call it an element, but four or fewer elements
until all possible reactions have proved unsuccessful, such a classification could be in error. are present in a given
Figure 4.11 contrasts the properties general to all pure substances with those spe- compound.
cific for the pure substance subclassifications of elements and compounds.
Even though two or more elements are obtained from decomposition of compounds,
compounds are not mixtures. Why is this so? Remember, substances can be combined
either physically or chemically. Physical combination of substances produces a mixture.
Chemical combination of substances produces a compound, a substance in which com-
bining entities are bound together. No such binding occurs during physical combination.
Three important distinctions between compounds and mixtures are the following:
1. Compounds have properties distinctly different from those of the substances that
combined to form the compound. The components of mixtures retain their indi-
vidual properties.
2. Compounds have a definite composition. Mixtures have a variable composition.
3. Physical methods are sufficient to separate the components of a mixture. The
components of a compound cannot be separated by physical methods; chemical
methods are required.
FIGURE 4.10 Stepwise
A breakdown of a
compound containing
Chemical An element
A—B three elements (A, B,
means and C) to yield its
Chemical constituent elements.
A—B—C A simpler
means compound B
A compound An element
C
An element
FIGURE 4.11 A
comparison chart Pure Substance
contrasting the
1. Only one substance present
properties common
to all pure substances 2. Definite and constant
with those specific composition
for elements and 3. Properties always the
compounds. same under a given set
of conditions
Element Compound
1. Cannot be broken down into 1. A chemical combination of

simpler substances by two or more elements
chemical or physical means 2. Can be broken down into
2. The building blocks for all constituent elements using
other types of matter chemical, but not physical,
3. 118 known elements means
3. Has a definite, constant
elemental composition
Example 4.4, which involves two comparisons involving ballpoint pens and their
caps, further illustrates the difference between compounds and mixtures.
EXAMPLE 4.4 “Composition” Difference between a Mixture

and a Compound
Consider two boxes with the following contents: The first contains 25 ballpoint pens,
each with its cap on; the second contains 25 ballpoint pens without caps and 25 ballpoint
pen caps. Which box has contents that would be an analogy for a mixture and which box
has contents that would be an analogy for a compound?
SOLUTION
The box containing the ballpoint pens with their caps on represents a compound. Two
samples withdrawn from this box will always be the same; each will be a ballpoint pen
with its cap on. Each item in the box has the same composition.
The box containing separated ballpoint pens and caps represents a mixture. Two
samples withdrawn from this box need not be the same; results could be two ballpoint
pens, two caps, or a cap and a ballpoint pen. All items in the box do not have the same
composition.
Figure 4.12 presents the thought processes that a chemist goes through in classifying
a sample of matter as a heterogeneous mixture, a homogeneous mixture, a compound, or
an element. This figure, which serves as a final summary of matter classification, is based
on the following three questions about a sample of matter:
1. Does the sample of matter have the same properties throughout?
2. Are two or more different substances present?
3. Can the pure substance be broken down into simpler substances?
Does the sample of matter FIGURE 4.12 The

have the same properties thought processes used
throughout? in classifying matter
into various categories.
No Yes
Heterogeneous Homogeneous
Are two or more different Are two or more different

substances present? substances present?
Yes No No Yes
Heterogeneous Pure substance Pure substance Homogeneous

mixture (in two or more (in one physical mixture
physical states) state)
Can the pure substance be

broken down into simpler
substances?
No Yes
Element Compound
EXAMPLE 4.5 Classifying Substances as Element, Compound, or Mixture
Consider the following properties that involve the metal silver:

1. Silver metal cannot be decomposed into simpler substances using chemical techniques.
2. Silver metal reacts with gaseous hydrogen sulfide to form the black solid silver sul-
fide (silverware tarnish).
3. Sterling silver is a metal alloy that contains 92.5% silver and 7.5% copper by mass.
4. Argenite ore, a source for silver metal, is found in Mexico and Peru.
Based on these properties, classify each of the following silver-containing entities as an
element, compound, homogeneous mixture, or heterogeneous mixture.
a. sterling silver b. argenite ore
c. silverware tarnish d. silver metal
SOLUTION
a. Homogeneous mixture. Alloys are homogeneous physical combinations of substances
obtained by mixing the substance while they are in a molten state.
b. Heterogeneous mixture. Ores contain numerous visible components besides the
metal to be extracted.
c. Compound. Silverware tarnish is produced by a chemical reaction rather than a
physical mixing of substances.
d. Element. A substance that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances using
chemical means is an element.
4.8 DISCOVERY AND ABUNDANCE OF THE ELEMENTS

Student Learning Focus: Be familiar with discovery “patterns” and abundance “patterns” for the
known elements.
A student who attended The discovery and isolation of the 118 known elements, the building blocks for all matter,
a university in the year have taken place over a period of several centuries. Most of the discoveries have occurred
1700 would have been since 1700, with the 1790s and 1880s being the most active decades.
taught that 11 elements
existed. In 1750, he or
Not all the elements are naturally occurring. Eighty-eight of the 118 elements occur
she would have learned naturally, and the remaining 30 have been synthesized in the laboratory by bombarding
about 17 elements, in samples of naturally occurring elements with small particles. The synthetic (laboratory-
1800 about 43, in 1850 produced) elements are all unstable (radioactive) and usually quickly revert back to nat-
about 58, in 1900 about 83, urally occurring elements. Further details about the concept of radioactivity (unstable
and in 1950 about 98, and
in 2000 about 113. Today’s
elements) are not considered in this text.
total of 118 elements was The naturally occurring elements are not evenly distributed on Earth or in the uni-
reached in 2010. verse as a whole. What is startling is the degree of inequality in the distribution. A very
few elements account for the majority of elemental particles (atoms). (An atom is the
smallest particle of an element that can exist; see Sec. 5.1.)
Studies of the radiation emitted by stars enable scientists to estimate the elemental
composition of the universe. Results indicate that two elements, hydrogen and helium,
are absolutely dominant (Fig. 4.13a). All other elements are mere “impurities” when their
abundances are compared with those of these two dominant elements. In this big picture,
in which Earth is but a tiny microdot, 91% of all elemental particles (atoms) are hydrogen,
and nearly all of the remaining 9% are helium.
Any increase in the If we narrow our view of elemental abundances to the chemical world of humans—
number of known the Earth’s crust (its waters, atmosphere, and outer solid surfaces)—a different perspec-
elements from 118
tive emerges. Again, two elements dominate, but this time they are oxygen and silicon
will result from the
production of additional (Fig. 4.13b). The numbers in Figure 4.13 are atom percents, that is, the percentage of
synthetic elements. total atoms that are of a given type. Note that eight elements (the only elements with
Current chemical theory atom percents greater than 1%) account for more than 98% of total atoms in Earth’s crust.
strongly suggests that Furthermore, two elements (oxygen and silicon) account for 80% of the atoms that make
all naturally occurring
up the chemical world of humans.
elements have been
identified. The isolation Oxygen, the most abundant element in Earth’s crust, was isolated in pure form
of the last of the known for the first time in 1774 by the English chemist and theologian Joseph Priestley
naturally occurring (see “The Human Side of Chemistry 1”). Discovery years for the other “top five” ele-
elements, rhenium, ments of Earth’s crust are 1824 (silicon), 1827 (aluminum), 1766 (hydrogen), and 1808
occurred in 1925.
(calcium).
FIGURE 4.13 Calcium 2.6% Magnesium 2.4%

Abundance of elements Iron 2.2%
in the universe and in Helium 9% Hydrogen 2.9% Sodium 2.1%
Earth’s crust (in atom All others < 0.1% All others 1.5%
percent). Aluminum 6.1%
Silicon 20.1%
Hydrogen 91% Oxygen 60.1%
Universe Earth’s crust

(a) (b)
The Human Side of Chemistry 1

Joseph Priestley American colonists, Priestley became inter- the American colonists in their revolt against
(1733–1804) ested in science. At first his studies involved the British king. In 1791, while living in
electricity (one of Franklin’s interests), and then Birmingham, England, his church, home, and
Oxygen, the most abun- his interest turned to research on gases. laboratory were burned by an angry mob
dant element within Coincident with his focus on gases was upset because of his sympathetic attitude
Earth’s crust, was iso- a move to Leeds, England, to take over a pas- toward the American and French Revolutions.
lated in gaseous form for torate there. Here he lived next door to a brew- After fleeing the area in disguise, Priestley
the first time on Monday, August 7, 1774, by ery from which he could readily obtain carbon eventually emigrated to the United States,
the English theologian and part-time chemist dioxide, the gas produced by fermenting grain where he lived the remaining 10 years of his
Joseph Priestley. The experiment leading products. His carbon dioxide studies led him to life in relative seclusion in Northumberland,
to oxygen’s isolation involved heating an the idea of dissolving this gas under pressure Pennsylvania.
oxygen-containing compound of mercury until in water. The resulting soda water became Priestley was the author of more than
it decomposed. famous all over Europe. 150 books, mostly on theological subjects. He
Born in Yorkshire, England, in 1733, Only three gases were known when always considered theology more important
Priestley was the eldest son of a nonconformist Priestley began his gas studies: air, carbon than science. Concerning his scientific accom-
minister. As a youth, he studied languages, dioxide, and the then recently discovered plishments, a contemporary wrote that “no
logic, and philosophy but never formally stud- hydrogen. Numerous new gases were dis- single person ever discovered so many new
ied science. He developed strong religious covered by him, including ammonia, hydrogen and curious substances.”
beliefs of his own and became a Unitarian chloride, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, In 1874, on the 100th anniversary of the
minister. hydrogen sulfide, and his most notable dis- discovery of oxygen, the American Chemical
As a result of meeting Benjamin covery, oxygen. Society, now the largest chemical organization
Franklin in London in 1766, when Franklin During the period of his scientific in the world, was organized at the residence
was attempting to settle the taxation dis- studies, Priestley remained an outspoken that Priestley had occupied in Northumberland,
pute between the British government and the man on religion and also openly supported Pennsylvania. ▪
The distribution of elements in the human body and other living systems is very different
from that found in the earth’s crust. This results from living systems selectively taking up
matter from their external environment rather than simply accumulating matter repre-
sentative of their surroundings. The four most abundant elements in the human body, in
terms of atom percent, are hydrogen (63%), oxygen (25.5%), carbon (9.5%), and nitrogen
(1.4%). The high abundances of hydrogen and oxygen in the body reflect the high water
content of the body. Hydrogen is over twice as abundant as oxygen, largely because
water contains hydrogen and oxygen in a 2:1 atom ratio.
4.9 NAMES AND CHEMICAL SYMBOLS OF THE ELEMENTS

Student Learning Focus: For common elements, given the name of the element, be able to write
its chemical symbol, or, given its chemical symbol, be able to write its name.
Each element has a unique name, which in most cases was selected by its discoverer.
A wide variety of rationales for choosing a name has been applied. Some elements bear
geographical names. Germanium was named after the native country of its German
discoverer. The elements francium and polonium acquired names in a similar manner.
The elements mercury, uranium, neptunium, and plutonium are all named for planets.
Helium gets its name from the Greek word helios for “sun,” since it was first observed
spectroscopically in the sun’s corona during an eclipse. Some elements carry names that
relate to specific properties of the element or compounds containing it. Chlorine’s name
is derived from the Greek chloros denoting “greenish yellow,” the color of chlorine gas.
Iridium gets its name from the Greek iris meaning “rainbow” because of the various
colors of the compounds from which it was isolated.

Jöns Jakob In 1796, at age 17, partly to get away values he obtained are remarkably accurate,
Berzelius from his unhappy home situation, he began as measured by today’s standards, an amazing
(1779–1848) the study of medicine in Uppsala, obtaining a accomplishment considering the crudeness of
degree six years later. His first position was his laboratory equipment. He reported atomic
“These symbols are physician to the poor in several neighborhoods masses of 35.41 and 63.00 for chlorine and
horrifying. A young in Stockholm. A university appointment in copper, respectively. Today’s accepted val-
student in chemistry might as well learn Stockholm as professor of medicine and phar- ues for these two elements are, respectively,
Hebrew as make himself acquainted with macy came in 1807. Berzelius’s true interests 35.45 and 63.55. Many laboratory innovations,
them.” Such was the response of a contem- were, however, in the field of chemistry, and among them the wash bottle, filter paper, and
porary when, in 1814, Jöns Jakob Berzelius he left medicine shortly thereafter. In 1815, rubber tubing, came from the work of Berzelius.
first proposed the system of elemental he obtained an appointment as professor of In addition to atomic symbols and atom-
symbols that forms the basis for the symbol chemistry. ic masses, Berzelius also discovered the ele-
system we use today. This initial opposition Berzelius loved experimental (laboratory) ments cerium, thorium, selenium, and silicon.
turned later to acceptance as the advantages work and was probably the best experimental Silicon is the second most abundant element
of his symbol system became apparent, chemist of his generation. His experimental in Earth’s crust, exceeded only by oxygen (Sec.
although acceptance was slow during his contributions to chemistry are considered even 4.8). Silicon–oxygen compounds (silicates)
lifetime. more important than his chemical symbols. make up most of Earth’s rock, soil, and sand.
Born in Vaversunda, Sweden, in Working in a laboratory with facilities no more In recent times, “silicon chips” have become
1779, Berzelius was the son of a clergyman- elaborate than those of a kitchen, he performed the basis for the computer industry. Indeed, a
schoolmaster. The death of both his parents, more than 2000 experiments over a 10-year region of California, near San Francisco, where
before he was 9, caused his youth to be a con- period to determine accurate atomic masses many different computer-related industries are
stant shuffling between relatives. (Sec. 5.4) for 43 of the known 48 elements. The located, is called Silicon Valley. ▪
Learning the chemical In the early 1800s chemists adopted the practice of assigning chemical symbols to
symbols of the more the elements. A chemical symbol is a one- or two-letter designation for an element de-
common elements is an rived from the element’s name. In written communications, chemical symbols are used
important key to having
a successful experience
more frequently than names in referring to the elements. The system of chemical symbols
in studying chemistry. now in use originated in 1814 with the Swedish chemist Jöns Jakob Berzelius (see “The
Knowledge of chemical Human Side of Chemistry 2”).
symbols is essential for A complete list of the known elements and their chemical symbols is given in
writing chemical formulas Table 4.3. The chemical symbols and names of the more frequently encountered ele-
(Sec. 5.4), naming
compounds (Chapter 8),
ments are shown in color in this table.
and writing chemical Fourteen elements have one-letter symbols, and the rest have two-letter
equations (Sec. 10.2). symbols. If a symbol consists of a single letter, it is capitalized. In all two-letter sym-
bols the first letter is always capitalized, and the second letter is always lowercase.
Two-letter symbols usually, but not always, start with the first letter of the element’s
English name. The second letter of the symbol is frequently, but not always, the sec-
ond letter of the name. Consider the elements terbium, technetium, and tellurium,
whose symbols are, respectively, Tb, Tc, and Te. Obviously, a variety of choices of
second letters is necessary because the first two letters are the same in all three
elements’ names.
Eleven elements have chemical symbols that bear no relationship to the ele-
ment’s English-language name. In ten of these cases, the symbol is derived from
the Latin name of the element; in the case of tungsten, its German name is the
symbol source. Most of these elements have been known for hundreds of years and
date back to the time when Latin was the language of scientists. Table 4.4 shows
the relationship between the chemical symbol and the non-English name of these
11 elements.
TABLE 4.3 The Chemical Symbols for the Elements
Ac actinium Ga gallium Pm promethium

Ag silver* Gd gadolinium Po polonium
Al aluminum Ge germanium Pr praseodymium
Am americium H hydrogen Pt platinum
Ar argon He helium Pu plutonium
As arsenic Hf hafnium Ra radium
At astatine Hg mercury* Rb rubidium
Au gold* Ho holmium Re rhenium
B boron Hs hassium Rf rutherfordium
Ba barium I iodine Rg roentgenium
Be beryllium In indium Rh rhodium
Bh bohrium Ir iridium Rn radon
Bi bismuth K potassium* Ru ruthenium
Bk berkelium Kr krypton S sulfur
Br bromine La lanthanum Sb antimony*
C carbon Li lithium Sc scandium
Ca calcium Lr lawrencium Se selenium
Cd cadmium Lu lutetium Sg seaborgium
Ce cerium Lv livermorium Si silicon
Cf californium Md mendelevium Sm samarium
Cl chlorine Mg magnesium Sn tin*
Cm curium Mn manganese Sr strontium
Cn copernicium Mo molybdenum Ta tantalum
Co cobalt Mt meitnerium Tb terbium
Cr chromium N nitrogen Tc technetium
Cs cesium Na sodium* Te tellurium
Cu copper* Nb niobium Th thorium
Db dubnium Nd neodymium Ti titanium
Ds darmstadtium Ne neon Tl thallium
Dy dysprosium Ni nickel Tm thulium
Er erbium No nobelium U uranium
Es einsteinium Np neptunium V vanadium
Eu europium O oxygen W tungsten*
F fluorine Os osmium Xe xenon
Fe iron* P phosphorus Y yttrium
Fl flerovium Pa protactinium Yb ytterbium
Fm fermium Pb lead* Zn zinc
Fr francium Pd palladium Zr zirconium
Only 114 elements are listed in this table. Elements 113, 115, 117, and 118, discovered (synthesized) in the
period 2004–2010, are yet to be named.
*These elements have symbols that were derived from non-English names for the element.
TABLE 4.4 Elements Whose Chemical Symbols Are Derived from a Non-English Name
of the Element
English Name of Element Non-English Name of Element Chemical Symbol

Chemical Symbols from Latin
Antimony Stibium Sb
Copper Cuprum Cu
Gold gets its symbol Gold Aurum Au
from the Latin aurum, Iron Ferrum Fe
which means “shiny.”
The liquid metal mercury Lead Plumbum Pb
gets its symbol from the Mercury Hydragyrum Hg
Latin hydragyrum, which
means “runs like water.” Potassium Kalium K
Lead gets its symbol from
Silver Argentum Ag
the Latin plumbum, from
which we get the name Sodium Natrium Na
“plumber,” because pipes
Tin Stannum Sn
used to be made out of
lead. Chemical Symbol from German
Tungsten Wolfram W
The chemical symbols of the elements are also found on the inside front cover
of this book. The chart of elements on the left side of the inside front cover is called a
periodic table. More will be said about it in later chapters. Both cover listings also give
other information about the elements. This additional information will be discussed in
Chapter 5.
EXAMPLE 4.6 Writing Correct Names for Elements
Each of the following names for elements is misspelled. What is the correct spelling for
each element name?
a. zink b. sulfer
c. flourine d. potasium
SOLUTION
a. The name ends in c rather than k—zinc.
b. The ending for the name is ur rather than er—sulfur.
c. The o and u need to be interchanged—fluorine.
d. The name has a double ss rather than a single s—potassium.
EXAMPLE 4.7 Writing Correct Chemical Symbols for Elements
What is wrong with each of the following attempts to write correct chemical symbols for
elements?
a. CO for cobalt b. al for aluminum
c. Hy for hydrogen d. M g for magnesium
SOLUTION
a. The second letter in a chemical symbol is always lower case— Co.
b. The first letter in a chemical symbol must be capitalized—Al.
c. The correct symbol for hydrogen is a single letter—H.
d. In two-letter symbols for elements there is no space between the two letters—Mg.
1. Chemistry and Matter Chemistry is the substances that have properties and compo-
branch of science concerned with the charac- sition distinctly different from those of the
terization, composition, and transformations of original materials. Chemical changes are also
matter. Matter, the substances of the physical called chemical reactions.
universe, is anything that has mass and occu- 5. Pure Substances and Mixtures All specimens
pies space. of matter are either pure substances or mixtures.
2. Physical States of Matter Matter exists in A pure substance is a form of matter that has a
three physical states: solid, liquid, and gas. definite and constant composition. A mixture is a
Physical-state classification is based on whether physical combination of two or more pure sub-
a substance’s shape and volume are definite or stances in which the pure substances retain their
indefinite. identity.
3. Properties of Matter Properties are the dis- 6. Types of Mixtures Mixtures can be classified
tinguishing characteristics of a substance used as heterogeneous or homogeneous on the basis
in its identification and description. Properties of the visual recognition of the components
are classified as physical or chemical based present. A heterogeneous mixture contains vis-
on whether they can be observed without ibly different parts or phases, each of which has
changing a substance into another substance. different properties. A homogeneous mixture
Physical properties can be observed without contains only one phase, which has uniform
change in substance identity. Chemical proper- properties throughout.
ties are involved with identity change or fail- 7. Types of Pure Substances A pure substance
ure to undergo such change. Properties of a can be classified as an element or a compound
substance may also be classified as intensive on the basis of whether it can be broken down
or extensive based on whether they depend into two or more simpler substances by ordi-
on the amount of substance present. Intensive nary chemical means. Elements cannot be bro-
properties do not depend on substance ken down into simpler substances. Compounds
amount, whereas extensive properties depend yield two or more simpler substances when
on amount. broken down. There are 118 pure substances
4. Changes in Matter Changes that can occur in that qualify as elements. Not all of the elements
matter are of two types: physical and chemical. are naturally occurring. There are millions of
A physical change is a process that does not compounds.
alter the composition of the substance. No 8. Chemical Symbols Chemical symbols are a
new substances are ever formed as a result shorthand notation for the names of the el-
of a physical change. A chemical change is a ements. Most chemical symbols consist of
process that involves a change in the compo- two letters; a few involve a single letter. The
sition of the substance. Such changes always first letter of a chemical symbol is always
involve conversion of the material or materi- capitalized, and the second letter is always
als under consideration into one or more new lowercase.
Key Terms Listing

given to the chapter sections where freestanding complete sentence definitions for the terms are found.
chemical change Sec. 4.4 extensive property Sec. 4.3 mixture Sec. 4.5
chemical property Sec. 4.3 gas Sec. 4.2 physical change Sec. 4.4
chemical reaction Sec. 4.4 heterogeneous mixture Sec. 4.6 physical property Sec. 4.3
chemical symbol Sec. 4.9 homogeneous mixture Sec. 4.6 properties Sec. 4.3
chemistry Sec. 4.1 intensive property Sec. 4.3 pure substance Sec. 4.5
compound Sec. 4.7 liquid Sec. 4.2 solid Sec. 4.2
element Sec. 4.7 matter Sec. 4.1

sequence as the chapter textual material. These drill problems occur in matched pairs with the two members of a pair addressing
the same aspect of a given topic. This matched pair arrangement creates two independent problem sets—an odd-numbered set
and an even-numbered set. Answers are given at the back of the book for the odd-numbered problem set.
PHYSICAL STATES OF MATTER (SEC. 4.2) PROPERTIES OF MATTER (SEC. 4.3)
4.1 What physical characteristic 4.7 The following are properties of the metal magnesium.
a. distinguishes liquids from solids? Classify them as physical or chemical properties.
b. is common to the gaseous and liquid states? a. silvery white in color
4.2 What physical characteristic b. finely divided form burns in oxygen with a daz-
a. distinguishes gases from liquids? zling white flame
b. is common to the liquid and solid states? c. has a density of 1.738 g/cm3 at 20°C
4.3 Indicate whether each of the following substances d. does not react with cold water
does or does not take the shape of its container and 4.8 The following are properties of the metal lithium.
also whether it has a definite volume. Classify them as physical or chemical properties.
a. copper wire b. oxygen gas a. can be cut with a sharp knife
c. a hard sugar cube d. bulk granulated sugar b. light enough that it floats on water
4.4 Indicate whether each of the following substances c. in the liquid state, reacts with its glass container
does or does not take the shape of its container and d. changes from silvery gray color to black when
also whether it has an indefinite volume. placed in moist air
a. aluminum powder 4.9 Indicate whether each of the following statements
b. carbon dioxide gas describes a physical or chemical property.
c. a single grain of table salt a. Silver compounds discolor the skin by reacting
d. bulk-granulated table salt with skin protein.
4.5 Ethyl alcohol, a liquid at room temperature, has a b. Hemoglobin gives blood its red color.
boiling point of 78.3°C and a melting point of –117°C. c. Lithium metal is light enough to float on water.
Specify the physical state of ethyl alcohol at each of d. Mercury is a liquid at room temperature.
the following temperatures. 4.10 Indicate whether each of the following statements de-
a. −120°C b. −60°C scribes a physical or chemical property.
c. 60°C d. 120°C a. Charcoal lighter fluid can be ignited with a
4.6 Carbon tetrachloride, a liquid at room temperature, match.
has a boiling point of 77°C and a melting point of b. Magnesium metal does not react with cold
–23°C. Specify the physical state of carbon tetrachlo- water.
ride at each of the following temperatures. c. Carbon monoxide is a colorless gas.
a. −80°C b. −30°C d. Sodium metal is so soft that it can be cut with a
c. 30°C d. 80°C sharp knife.
4.11 Classify each of the following as an intensive property b. Sand is obtained from a sand–sugar mixture by
or an extensive property. adding water to the mixture and pouring off the
a. length b. density resulting sugar–water solution.
c. color d. boiling point c. Ammonia is obtained by the high-temperature, high-
4.12 Classify each of the following as an intensive property pressure reaction between hydrogen and nitrogen.
or an extensive property. d. Water is obtained from a sugar–water solution by
a. mass b. temperature evaporating off and then collecting the water.
c. volume d. melting point 4.21 Complete each of the following sentences by placing
4.13 Classify each of the properties in Problem 4.7 as an the word chemical or physical in the blank.
intensive property or an extensive property. a. The freezing over of a pond’s surface is a
4.14 Classify each of the properties in Problem 4.8 as an process.
intensive property or an extensive property. b. The crushing of some ice to make ice chips is a
procedure.
CHANGES IN MATTER (SEC. 4.4) c. The destruction of a newspaper through burning it
is a process.
4.15 Classify each of the following changes as physical or d. Pulverizing a hard sugar cube using a wooden
chemical. mallet is a procedure.
a. buttering a slice of bread 4.22 Complete each of the following sentences by placing
b. souring of milk the word chemical or physical in the blank.
c. breaking a rock into small pieces a. The reflection of light by a shiny metallic object is
d. water vapor condensing on a car windshield a process.
4.16 Classify each of the following changes as physical or b. The decomposing of a blue powdered material to
chemical. produce a white glasslike substance and a gas is a
a. straightening of a bent nail procedure.
b. lighting a candle c. A burning candle produces light by
c. bread turning brown when toasted means.
d. copper metal is melted d. The grating of a piece of cheese is a
4.17 Classify each of the following changes as physical or technique.
chemical. 4.23 Give the name of the change of state associated with
a. a match burning each of the following processes.
b. “rubbing alcohol” evaporating a. Water is made into ice cubes.
c. a copper object turning green in color over time b. The inside of your car window fogs up.
d. a pan of water boiling c. Mothballs in the clothes closet disappear with time.
4.18 Classify each of the following changes as physical or d. Perspiration dries.
chemical. 4.24 Give the name of the change of state associated with
a. a newspaper page turning yellow over time each of the following processes.
b. a rubber band breaking a. Dry ice disappears without melting.
c. a firecracker exploding b. Snowflakes form.
d. dry ice “disappearing” over time c. Dew on the lawn disappears when the sun comes out.
4.19 Indicate whether each of the following methods for d. Ice cubes in a soft drink disappear with time.
obtaining various substances involves physical or
chemical change.
PURE SUBSTANCES AND MIXTURES
a. Sodium chloride (salt) is obtained from saltwater
(SECS. 4.5 AND 4.6)
by evaporation of the water.
b. Nitrogen gas is obtained from air by letting the 4.25 Consider the following classifications of matter: het-
nitrogen boil off from liquid air. erogeneous mixture, homogeneous mixture, and pure
c. Oxygen gas is obtained by decomposition of the substance.
oxygen-containing compound potassium chlorate. a. In which of these classifications must two or more
d. Water is obtained by the high-temperature reaction substances be present?
of gaseous hydrogen with gaseous oxygen. b. In which of these classifications must the compo-
4.20 Indicate whether each of the following methods for sition be uniform throughout?
obtaining various substances involves physical or 4.26 Consider the following classifications of matter: het-
chemical change. erogeneous mixture, homogeneous mixture, and pure
a. Mercury is obtained by decomposing a mercury– substance.
oxygen compound, liberating the oxygen and a. In which of these classifications must the compo-
leaving the mercury behind. sition be constant?
b. In which of these classifications is separation c. oil-and-vinegar salad dressing with spices

into simpler substances using physical means d. oil-and-vinegar salad dressing without spices
possible? 4.34 In each of the following situations, two of the four
4.27 Classify each of the following statements as true or false. phrases chemically homogeneous, chemically hetero-
a. Heterogeneous mixtures must contain three or geneous, physically homogeneous, and physically het-
more substances. erogeneous apply. Select the two correct phrases for
b. Pure substances cannot have a variable composition. each situation.
c. Substances maintain many of their properties in a het- a. water and dissolved table salt
erogeneous mixture but not in a homogeneous mixture. b. water and white sand
d. Pure substances are seldom encountered in the c. carbonated beverage right after opening container
everyday world. d. carbonated beverage that has gone flat
4.28 Classify each of the following statements as true or false.
a. Homogeneous mixtures must contain at least two
ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS (SEC. 4.7)
substances.
b. Heterogeneous mixtures but not homogeneous 4.35 Based on the information given, classify each of the
mixtures can have a variable composition. pure substances A through D as elements or com-
c. Pure substances cannot be separated into other pounds, or indicate that no such classification is pos-
kinds of matter using physical means. sible because of insufficient information.
d. The number of known pure substances is less a. Analysis with an elaborate instrument indicates
than one hundred thousand. that substance A contains two elements.
4.29 Assign each of the following descriptions of matter to b. Substance B decomposes upon heating.
one of the following categories: heterogeneous mix- c. Heating substance C to 1000°C causes no change in it.
ture, homogeneous mixture, pure substance. d. Heating substance D to 500°C causes it to change
a. two substances present, two phases present from a solid to a liquid.
b. two substances present, one phase present 4.36 Based on the information given, classify each of the
c. three substances present, one phase present pure substances A through D as elements or com-
d. three substances present, three phases present pounds, or indicate that no such classification is pos-
4.30 Assign each of the following descriptions of matter to sible because of insufficient information.
one of the following categories: heterogeneous mix- a. Substance A cannot be broken down into simpler
ture, homogeneous mixture, pure substance. substances by chemical means.
a. one substance present, one phase present b. Substance B cannot be broken down into simpler
b. one substance present, two phases present substances by physical means.
c. one substance present, three phases present c. Substance C readily dissolves in water.
d. three substances present, two phases present d. Substance D readily reacts with the element chlorine.
4.31 Classify each of the following as a heterogeneous mix- 4.37 Indicate whether each of the following statements is
ture, a homogeneous mixture, or a pure substance. true or false.
Also indicate how many phases are present. (In each a. Both elements and compounds are pure
case, the substances are present in the same container.) substances.
a. water and dissolved salt b. A compound results from the physical combina-
b. water and dissolved sugar tion of two or more elements.
c. water and sand c. For matter to be heterogeneous, at least two com-
d. water and oil pounds must be present.
4.32 Classify each of the following as a heterogeneous mix- d. Compounds, but not elements, can have a variable
ture, a homogeneous mixture, or a pure substance. composition.
Also indicate how many phases are present. (In each 4.38 Indicate whether each of the following statements is
case, the substances are present in the same container.) true or false.
a. liquid water and ice a. Compounds can be separated into their constitu-
b. liquid water, oil, and ice ent elements using chemical means.
c. carbonated water (soda water) and ice b. Elements can be separated into their constituent
d. oil, ice, saltwater solution, sugar–water solution, compounds using physical means.
and pieces of copper metal c. A compound must contain at least two elements.
4.33 In each of the following situations, two of the four d. A compound is a physical mixture of different
phrases chemically homogeneous, chemically hetero- elements.
geneous, physically homogeneous, and physically het- 4.39 Based on the information given in the following equa-
erogeneous apply. Select the two correct phrases for tions, classify each of the pure substances A through G as
each situation. elements or compounds, or indicate that no such classifi-
a. pure water cation is possible because of insufficient information.
b. tap water a. A + B S C b. D S E + F + G
4.40 Based on the information given in the following equa- 4.46 Indicate whether each of the following statements
tions, classify each of the pure substances A through about elements is true or false.
G as elements or compounds, or indicate that no a. The two most active decades for discovery of new
such classification is possible because of insufficient elements were the 1790s and the 1840s.
information. b. The majority of the known elements have been
a. A S B + C b. D + E S F + G discovered since 1900.
4.41 Consider two boxes with the following contents: c. Aluminum is the third most abundant element in
The first contains 50 individual paper clips and Earth’s crust.
50 individual rubber bands; the second contains d. At present, 108 elements are known.
the same number of paper clips and rubber bands 4.47 Indicate whether each of the following statements
with the difference that each paper clip is inter- about elemental abundances is true or false.
locked with a rubber band. Which box has con- a. Silicon is the second most abundant element in
tents that would be an analogy for a mixture, and Earth’s crust.
which has contents that would be an analogy for a b. Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the
compound? universe but not in Earth’s crust.
4.42 Consider the characteristics of the two breakfast ce- c. Oxygen and hydrogen are the two most abundant
reals Crispy Wheat ‘N Raisins and Crispix. The first elements in the universe.
cereal contains wheat flakes and raisins. The second d. One element accounts for over one-half of the
cereal contains a fused two-layered flake, one side of atoms in Earth’s crust.
which is rice and the other side corn. Characterize 4.48 Indicate whether each of the following statements
the properties of these two cereals that make one an about elemental abundances is true or false.
analogy for a mixture and the other an analogy for a a. Hydrogen is the most abundant element in both
compound. Earth’s crust and the universe.
4.43 Indicate whether or not each of the following charac- b. Oxygen and silicon are the two most abundant
terizations applies to a mixture that contains the ele- elements in the universe.
ments copper and sulfur. (The copper and sulfur have c. Helium is the second most abundant element in
not reacted with each other.) Earth’s crust.
a. It has a variable composition. d. Two elements account for over three-fourths of
b. Elements present maintain their individual the atoms in Earth’s crust.
properties. 4.49 With the help of Figure 4.13, indicate whether the first
c. Physical methods are sufficient to separate the ele- listed element in each of the given pairs of elements
ments present. is more abundant or less abundant in Earth’s crust, in
d. A chemical combination of the elements has terms of atom percent, than the second listed element.
occurred. a. silicon and aluminum
4.44 Indicate whether or not each of the following char- b. calcium and hydrogen
acterizations applies to a compound that contains the c. iron and oxygen
elements copper and sulfur. d. sodium and potassium
a. It has a variable composition. 4.50 With the help of Figure 4.13, indicate whether the first
b. Elements present maintain their individual listed element in each of the given pairs of elements
properties. is more abundant or less abundant in Earth’s crust, in
c. Physical methods are sufficient to separate the ele- terms of atom percent, than the second listed element.
ments present. a. oxygen and hydrogen
d. A chemical combination of the elements has b. iron and aluminum
occurred. c. calcium and magnesium
d. copper and sodium
DISCOVERY AND ABUNDANCE OF THE ELEMENTS
(SEC. 4.8) NAMES AND CHEMICAL SYMBOLS
OF THE ELEMENTS (SEC. 4.9)
4.45 Indicate whether each of the following statements
about elements is true or false. 4.51 Using Table 4.3, identify all elements that have one-
a. All except three of the elements are naturally letter chemical symbols.
occurring. 4.52 Using Table 4.3, identify all frequently encountered
b. New elements have been identified within the last elements whose chemical symbols are the first two
10 years. letters of their English names.
c. Oxygen is the most abundant element in the uni- 4.53 Each of the following elements has a chemical symbol
verse as a whole. that does not relate to its English name. What is the
d. Two elements account for over 75% of the ele- chemical symbol for each of these elements?
mental particles (atoms) in Earth’s crust. a. silver b. iron c. mercury d. potassium
4.54 Each of the following elements has a chemical symbol 4.59 Which element in each of the following sets of three
that does not relate to its English name. What is the elements has a one-letter chemical symbol?
chemical symbol for each of these elements? a. aluminum, potassium, palladium
a. antimony b. tin c. lead d. sodium b. helium, argon, hydrogen
4.55 Answer each of the following questions by selecting c. tungsten, magnesium, sodium
the correct element name. d. chlorine, bromine, iodine
a. Does the chemical symbol Ar designate the ele- 4.60 Which element in each of the following sets of three
ment argon or arsenic? elements has a one-letter symbol?
b. Does the chemical symbol Ca designate the a. selenium, sodium, sulfur
element calcium or cadmium? b. boron, beryllium, tellurium
c. Does the chemical symbol Ti designate the ele- c. silicon, fluorine, magnesium
ment tin or titanium? d. barium, lead, uranium
d. Does the chemical symbol Ra designate the ele- 4.61 The six most abundant elements in the Earth’s crust
ment radium or radon? are oxygen, silicon, aluminum, hydrogen, calcium,
4.56 Answer each of the following questions by selecting and magnesium. What are the chemical symbols for
the correct element name. these elements?
a. Does the chemical symbol Be designate the ele- 4.62 The six most abundant elements in the human body
ment beryllium or berkelium? are hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, calcium, and
b. Does the chemical symbol Rh designate the phosphorus. What are the chemical symbols for these
element rhenium or rhodium? elements?
c. Does the chemical symbol Co designate the ele- 4.63 Certain words can be viewed whimsically as sequen-
ment cobalt or copper? tial combinations of symbols of the elements. For
d. Does the chemical symbol Ne designate the ele- example, the given name Stephen is made up of the
ment neon or neptunium? following chemical symbol sequence: S-Te-P-He-N.
4.57 Indicate whether each of the following pairings of Analyze each of the following given names in a similar
element name and chemical symbol is correct or manner.
incorrect. a. Rebecca b. Nancy c. Sharon d. Alice
a. gold and Ag b. silver and Si 4.64 Certain words can be viewed whimsically as sequen-
c. potassium and Po d. tin and Pb tial combinations of symbols of the elements. For
4.58 Indicate whether each of the following pairings of example, the given name Stephen is made up of the
element name and chemical symbol is correct or following chemical symbol sequence: S-Te-P-He-N.
incorrect. Analyze each of the following given names in a similar
a. mercury and Me b. sodium and Na manner.
c. aluminum and A d. copper and Cu a. Barbara b. Lavon c. Heather d. Monica
numbered problems.
4.65 Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless gas that is 4.67 Assign each of the following descriptions of matter to one
toxic to humans. It combines with the metal nickel to of the following categories: element, compound, mixture.
form nickel carbonyl, a colorless liquid that boils at a. One substance present, one phase present, sub-
43°C. stance can be decomposed by chemical means
a. List all physical properties of substances found in b. Two substances present, one phase present
the preceding narrative. c. One substance present, two elements present
b. List all chemical properties of substances found in d. Two elements present, composition is variable
the preceding narrative. 4.68 Assign each of the following descriptions of matter to one
4.66 A hard sugar cube is pulverized, and the resulting of the following categories: element, compound, mixture.
granules are heated in air until they discolor and then a. One substance present, one phase present, sub-
finally burst into flame and burn. stance cannot be decomposed by chemical means
a. List all physical changes to substances found in b. One substance present, three elements present
the preceding narrative. c. Two substances present, two phases present
b. List all chemical changes to substances found in d. Two elements present, composition is definite and
the preceding narrative. constant
4.69 Indicate whether each of the following samples of 4.72 Classify the following as (1) heterogeneous mix-
matter is a heterogeneous mixture, a homogeneous ture, (2) heterogeneous, but not a mixture, (3) ho-
mixture, a compound, or an element. mogeneous mixture, or (4) homogeneous, but not a
a. a colorless single-phase liquid that when boiled mixture.
away (evaporated) leaves behind a solid white a. molten iron metal
residue b. solid iron metal
b. a uniform red liquid with a boiling point of 59°C c. mix of molten and solid iron
that cannot be broken down into simpler sub- d. solid iron in water
stances using chemical means 4.73 In which of the following sequences of elements do
c. a nonuniform, white crystalline substance, part of all of the elements have two-letter symbols?
which dissolves in water and part of which does not a. magnesium, nitrogen, phosphorus
d. a colorless single-phase liquid that completely b. bromine, iron, calcium
evaporates without decomposition when heated c. aluminum, copper, chlorine
and produces a gas that can be separated into sim- d. boron, barium, beryllium
pler components using physical means 4.74 In which of the following sequences of elements do
4.70 Indicate whether each of the following samples of all of the elements have symbols that start with a let-
matter is a heterogeneous mixture, a homogeneous ter that is not the first letter of the element’s English
mixture, a compound, or an element. name?
a. a colorless gas, only part of which reacts with hot iron a. silver, gold, mercury
b. a cloudy liquid that separates into two layers upon b. copper, helium, neon
standing for two hours c. cobalt, chromium, sodium
c. a green solid, all of which melts at the same tem- d. potassium, iron, lead
perature to produce a liquid that decomposes 4.75 The chemical symbols Co and Hf when split into
upon further heating two capital letters produce the symbols of other ele-
d. a colorless gas that cannot be separated into sim- ments: Co gives C and O and Hf gives H and F. With
pler substances using physical means and that re- the help of Table 4.3, identify the other two-letter
acts with copper to produce both a copper–nitrogen chemical symbols that when split into two separate
compound and a copper–oxygen compound capital letters produce the symbols of two other
4.71 Classify the following as (1) heterogeneous mixture, elements.
(2) heterogeneous, but not a mixture, (3) homoge- 4.76 Reversal of the letters in the chemical symbols Ni
neous mixture, or (4) homogeneous, but not a mixture. and Ca produce the chemical symbols of other el-
a. an undissolved sugar cube in water ements (In and Ac). With the help of Table 4.3,
b. a partially dissolved sugar cube in water identify the other two-letter symbols for which this
c. a completely dissolved sugar cube in water reversal process produces the symbol of another
d. an ice cube in water element.

MC 4.1 Which of the following is a property of both the MC 4.3 In which of the following pairs of properties are
liquid state and the solid state? both properties chemical properties?
a. a definite shape a. melts at 73°C, blue in color
b. an indefinite volume b. good reflector of light, is very hard
c. an indefinite shape and a definite volume c. decomposes upon heating, reacts with oxygen
MC 4.2 Which of the following observations would be clas- MC 4.4 Which of the following statements describes an
sified as a physical property of a solid-state substance? intensive property of apple juice?
a. it dissolves in acid, and a gas is liberated a. The density of the apple juice is 1.02 g/mL.
b. it burns in oxygen with a bright red flame b. The cup contains 8.5 fluid ounces of apple juice.
c. it melts at 127°C c. The apple juice has a slightly sour taste.
MC 4.5 Which of the following changes is a physical MC 4.12 Which of the following statements concerning
change? elements and compounds is correct?
a. melting of ice a. Elements, but not compounds, are pure
b. pulverizing of a hard sugar cube substances.
c. tarnishing of a piece of silver jewelry b. A compound is a physical combination of two or
d. more than one correct response more elements.
e. no correct response c. Compounds, but not elements, can be broken
MC 4.6 Which of the following statements concerning mix- down into simpler substances, using physical
tures is correct? means.
a. All components of a heterogeneous mixture must d. more than one correct response
be in the same physical state. e. no correct response
b. A homogeneous mixture can have components MC 4.13 In which of the following sequences are the
present in two physical states. classifications of matter listed in order of increasing
c. A heterogeneous mixture must contain at least complexity?
two phases. a. pure substance, compound, homogeneous
d. more than one correct response mixture
e. no correct response b. compound, pure substance, heterogeneous
MC 4.7 Which of the following is a correct description for a mixture
sample of ice cubes in water? c. compound, element, pure substance
a. one substance present, one phase present d. more than one correct response
b. two substances present, one phase present e. no correct response
c. two substances present, two phases present MC 4.14 Which of the following statements concerning the
d. more than one correct response known elements is correct?
e. no correct response a. All except three of the elements are naturally
MC 4.8 The description “two substances present, two phas- occurring.
es present” is correct for b. New elements have been characterized within the
a. heterogeneous mixtures. last 20 years.
b. homogeneous mixtures. c. It is very probable that all naturally occurring ele-
c. pure substances. ments have already been discovered.
MC 4.9 Which of the following characterizations could rep- MC 4.15 The number of known elements is______________
resent a compound? the number of known compounds.
a. one substance present, one phase present, a. about the same as
substance can be decomposed by chemical b. approximately double
means c. approximately 100 times greater than
b. one substance present, three elements present d. very large compared to
c. two elements present, composition is definite and e. no correct response
constant MC 4.16 Which of the following statements concerning
d. more than one correct response elemental abundances (in atom percent) in Earth’s crust is
e. no correct response correct?
MC 4.10 A substance that can’t be chemically broken down a. One element accounts for over one-half of all
into simpler substances is classified as a(n) elemental particles (atoms)
a. element b. Two elements account for over three-fourths of all
b. compound elemental particles (atom)
c. homogeneous mixture c. Elemental abundances for Earth’s crust are very
d. heterogeneous mixture similar to those for the universe as a whole.
e. no correct response d. more than one correct response
MC 4.11 When substance A interacts with substance B, e. no correct response
a new substance C is formed. Based on this information, MC 4.17 The most abundant elements in the universe and
a. A must be an element. Earth’s crust are, respectively,
b. B could be an element. a. oxygen and silicon
c. C must be a compound. b. hydrogen and helium
d. more than one correct response c. hydrogen and carbon
e. no correct response d. oxygen and iron
MC 4.18 Which of the following statements concerning el- MC 4.20 In which of the following sequences of elements
emental symbols is correct? do all members of the sequence have chemical symbols
a. All elements have symbols that start with the first starting with the same letter?
letter of the element’s English name. a. sulfur, silicon, sodium
b. The vast majority of elements have symbols that b. gold, silver, aluminum
are the first two letters of the element’s name. c. potassium, phosphorus, lead
c. A few elements have symbols that contain one d. more than one correct response
letter. e. no correct response
MC 4.19 In which of the following sequences of elements
do all members of the sequence have one-letter chemical MC 4.1 e MC 4.8 a MC 4.15 e
symbols? MC 4.2 c MC 4.9 d MC 4.16 d
a. nitrogen, oxygen, carbon MC 4.3 c MC 4.10 a MC 4.17 e
b. fluorine, chlorine, iodine MC 4.4 d MC 4.11 d MC 4.18 c
c. helium, beryllium, lithium MC 4.5 d MC 4.12 e MC 4.19 a
d. more than one correct response MC 4.6 c MC 4.13 b MC 4.20 b
e. no correct response MC 4.7 e MC 4.14 d
C H A P T E R
5
Atoms, Molecules,
and Subatomic Particles
5.1 The Atom

5.2 The Molecule
5.3 Natural and Synthetic Compounds
5.4 Chemical Formulas
5.5 Subatomic Particles: Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons
5.6 Atomic Number and Mass Number
5.7 Isotopes
5.8 Atomic Masses
5.9 Evidence Supporting the Existence and Arrangement of Subatomic Particles
5.1 THE ATOM

Student Learning Focus: Be familiar with the five statements that constitute the atomic theory of
matter. Be able to describe the “smallness” of atoms in terms of size and mass.
Can a sample of an element, say gold, be divided endlessly into smaller and smaller
pieces of gold, or is there a limit to the subdivision process where by a “smallest possible
piece” of gold is obtained? In other words, is matter “continuous” or “discontinuous”? This
is a concept that was debated by philosophers for many centuries without a conclusion
being reached, although the “continuous” concept tended to be favored.
A definitive answer to this “continuous–discontinuous” question is now available.
It came in the nineteenth century and is based on scientific experimentation rather than
philosophical speculation. In a series of papers published in the period 1803–1807, the
English chemist John Dalton (1766–1844; see “The Human Side of Chemistry 3”) pro-
posed that matter is discontinuous; that is, there is a limit to the process of subdivid-
ing matter into smaller and smaller particles. Dalton’s proposal was based on data he
140
Chapter 5 • Atoms, Molecules, and Subatomic Particles 141

John Dalton observations was made the evening before his Dalton remained a devout Quaker all
(1766–1844) death. his life. He was a very poor speaker and was
In 1793, Dalton moved to Manchester, not well received as a lecturer. He shunned
Born in Eaglesfield, England, where he remained the rest of his life. honors and never found time for marriage. In
Cumberland, England, in He supported himself by private tutoring, which later years, honors did come to him, including
1766, John Dalton was left him time to pursue his scientific investiga- honorary doctor’s degrees from Oxford and
the second son of a poverty-stricken Quaker tions on an almost full-time basis. Some of his Cambridge Universities.
weaver. His formal education at the village investigations involved color blindness, a per- In 1832, some of his colleagues sought
school lasted until age 11. At age 12, Dalton sonal affliction of his. He was the first person to present him to King William IV. Dalton ob-
himself was teaching in the village school. to describe color blindness. jected because he did not want to wear the
Shortly thereafter, he made his first attempts His interest in meteorology was respon- court dress. He finally went in the scarlet robes
at scientific investigations, recording weather sible for his greatest contribution to chemistry, of Oxford University. Quakers do not wear scar-
observations. the atomic theory of matter. From “weather” let, but Dalton, being color-blind to red, saw
Throughout his life, Dalton had a he turned his attention to the nature of the scarlet as gray. So he appeared before the king
particular interest in the study of weather. atmosphere and then to the study of gases in in scarlet but in gray to himself.
In 1787 he made his first entry in a notebook general. Dalton’s atomic theory, first published Upon his death in 1844, he was accorded
entitled “Observations on the Weather.” He in 1808, was based on his observations of the a public funeral in Manchester. Over 40,000
continued to record temperature, barometric behavior of gases. He is also the formulator of persons passed by his casket, an appropriate
pressure, rainfall, dew point, and so on, for the gas law now called Dalton’s law of partial tribute to a man who was so instrumental in
the next 57 years; the last of over 200,000 pressures (Sec 12.16). revolutionizing the science of chemistry. ▪
and other scientists had collected concerning the amounts of different substances that
react with each other. His data, inconsistent with the idea of infinitely divisible matter,
were compatible with the concept that a limit to the process of physical subdivision of
matter exists.
Dalton called these smallest particles of subdivision atoms. An atom is the smallest The word atom is derived
particle of an element that can exist and still have the properties of the element. Additional from the Greek atmos
meaning “indivisible.”
research, carried out by many scientists, has now validated Dalton’s basic conclusion that
The Greek philosopher
the building blocks for all types of matter are atoms. Some of the details of Dalton’s origi- Democritus (460–370
nal proposals have had to be modified in light of later, more sophisticated experiments, B.C.), a proponent of the
but the basic concept of atoms remains. discontinuous matter
Today, among scientists, the concept that atoms are the building blocks for matter is concept, was the first to
use this term.
a foregone conclusion. The large accumulated amount of supporting evidence for atoms
is impressive. Key concepts about atoms, in terms of current knowledge, are found in
what is known as the atomic theory of matter. The atomic theory of matter is a set of
five statements that summarizes modern-day scientific thought about atoms. These five
statements are the following:
1. All matter is made up of small particles called atoms, of which 118 different “types” The atomic theory of
are known, with each type corresponding to a different element. matter is considered to
be the most significant
2. All atoms of a given type are similar to one another and significantly different from theoretical model of
all other types. nature ever formulated.
3. The relative number and arrangement of different types of atoms contained in a The concepts within
pure substance (its composition and structure) determine its identity. this theory form the
4. Chemical change is a union, separation, or rearrangement of atoms to give new foundation for all other
considerations relative to
substances. the world we live in and
5. Only whole atoms can participate in or result from any chemical change, since the various forms of life
atoms are considered indestructible during such changes. found thereon.
142 Chapter 5 • Atoms, Molecules, and Subatomic Particles
Just how small is an atom? Atomic dimensions and masses, although not directly
measurable, are known quantities obtained by calculation. The data used for the calcula-
tions come from measurements made on macroscopic amounts of pure substances.
The diameter of an atom is about 10-10 m.
1 atom ⬇ 10-10 m
Atoms are very small. If one were to arrange atoms of this diameter in a straight line, it would take one million
• Imagine an apple of them to extend across the dot that serves as a period at the end of this sentence.
enlarged to the size The mass of an atom is about 10-23 g.
of Earth. The atoms in
the apple would then
be about the size of
1 atom ⬇ 10-23 g
cherries.
• The diameter of an To produce a mass of 1 lb would require about 5 * 1025 such atoms. The number
atom would have to be 5 * 1025 is so large that it is difficult to visualize its magnitude. The following comparison
increased two hundred “hints” at this number’s magnitude. If each of the 7.0 billion people on Earth were made
million times (2 * 108)
to cause it to have the
a millionaire (receiving 1 million $1 bills), we would still need 7 billion other worlds,
diameter of a penny. each inhabited by the same number of millionaires to have 5 * 1025 dollar bills in
circulation.
Atoms are incredibly small particles. No one has seen or ever will see an atom
with the naked eye. The question may thus be asked: “How can you be absolutely
sure that something as minute as an atom really exists?” The achievements of late
twentieth-century and early twenty-first century scientific instrumentation have gone a
long way toward removing any doubt about the existence of atoms. Electron microscopes,
capable of producing magnification factors in the millions, have made it possible to
photograph “images” of individual atoms. In 1976 physicists at the University of Chicago
were successful in obtaining images of single atoms. One of these images is shown in
Figure 5.1.
FIGURE 5.1 The

bright spots in this
photomicrograph
are images of seven
uranium atoms. The
images were obtained
using an electron
microscope. (Courtesy
of M. Isaacson, Cornell
University, and M.
Ohtsuki, The University
of Chicago)
5.2 THE MOLECULE

Student Learning Focus: Understand the relationships between atoms and molecules. Be able to
categorize molecules as heteroatomic or homoatomic and as diatomic, triatomic, etc.
Free isolated atoms are rarely encountered in nature. Instead, under normal conditions Reasons for the tendency
of temperature and pressure, atoms are almost always found together in aggregates or of atoms to collect
clusters ranging in size from two atoms to numbers too large to count. When the group or together into molecules
and information on the
cluster of atoms is relatively small and bound together tightly, the resulting entity is called binding forces involved
a molecule. A molecule is a group of two or more atoms that functions as a unit because are considered in
the atoms are tightly bound together. This resultant “package” of atoms behaves in many Chapter 7. The important
ways as a single, distinct particle would. point at this time is that
A diatomic molecule is a molecule that contains two atoms. It is the simplest type a molecule is a collection
of atoms that functions as
of molecule that can exist. Next in complexity are triatomic molecules. A triatomic a single composite unit.
molecule is a molecule that contains three atoms. Continuing on numerically, we have
tetratomic molecules, pentatomic molecules, and so on.
The atoms contained in a molecule may all be of the same kind, or two or more The Latin word mole
kinds may be present. On the basis of this observation, molecules are classified into two means “a mass.” The
categories: homoatomic and heteroatomic. A homoatomic molecule is a molecule in word molecule denotes
a “little mass.”
which all atoms present are the same kind. A pure substance containing homoatomic
molecules must be an element. A heteroatomic molecule is a molecule in which two
or more different kinds of atoms are present. Pure substances containing heteroatomic
molecules must be compounds. Figure 5.2 shows general models for selected simple
heteroatomic molecules.
The fact that homoatomic molecules exist indicates that individual atoms are not
always the preferred structural unit for an element. The gaseous elements hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine, and chlorine exist in the form of diatomic molecules. There
are four atoms present in a gaseous phosphorus molecule and eight atoms present in a
gaseous sulfur molecule (see Fig. 5.3). Some guidelines for determining which elements
have individual atoms as their basic structural units and which exist in molecular form
will be given in Section 7.2.
FIGURE 5.2 General

B depictions of various
A B
A A simple heteroatomic
molecules using models.
A diatomic molecule Spheres of different
A triatomic molecule
containing one atom of sizes and colors
containing two atoms of
A and one atom of B A and one atom of B represent different
(a) kinds of atoms.
(b)
A A A
A A
B B B
A tetratomic molecule A tetratomic molecule

containing two atoms of containing three atoms of
A and two atoms of B A and one atom of B
(c) (d)
FIGURE 5.3 Make-up

of the homoatomic S S
molecules present in P
S
the elements chlorine S S S S
(a), phosphorus (b), and P P
sulfur (c). Cl Cl P S
Two atoms Four atoms Eight atoms

(a) (b) (c)
EXAMPLE 5.1 Classifying Molecules Based on Numbers of and Types

of Atoms Present
Classify each of the following molecules as (1) diatomic, triatomic, etc., (2) homoatomic
or heteroatomic, and (3) representing an element or a compound.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
SOLUTION
Ozone (as in ozone a. Tetratomic (four atoms); heteroatomic (two kinds of atoms); a compound (two
layer) is a form of oxygen kinds of atoms)
different from the oxygen
we breathe. In ozone the
b. Triatomic (three atoms); heteroatomic (two kinds of atoms); a compound (two kinds
molecules are triatomic, of atoms)
and in the oxygen we c. Hexatomic (six atoms); homoatomic (one kind of atom); an element (one kind of
breathe the molecules atom)
are diatomic. In both d. Diatomic (two atoms); heteroatomic (two kinds of atoms); a compound (two kinds
cases the molecules are
homoatomic because
of atoms)
oxygen is an element.
Answer Double Check: Are the answers reasonable? Yes. Heteroatomic molecule and
compound are always companion terms, and homoatomic molecule and element are al-
ways companion terms. Such is the case for each of the answers. These term pairings are
not affected by the number of atoms present in the molecule.
Many, but not all, compounds have heteroatomic molecules as their basic structural
unit. Those compounds that do are called molecular compounds. Some compounds in
the liquid and solid state, however, are not molecular; that is, the atoms present are not
collected together into discrete heteroatomic molecules. These nonmolecular compounds
still contain atoms of at least two kinds (a necessary requirement for a compound), but
the form of aggregation is different. It involves an extended three-dimensional assembly
of positively and negatively charged particles called ions (Sec. 7.4). Compounds that
contain ions are called ionic compounds. The familiar substances sodium chloride (table
salt) and calcium carbonate (limestone) are ionic compounds. The reasons some com-
pounds have ionic rather than molecular structures are considered in Section 7.7.
For molecular compounds, the molecule is the smallest particle of the compound ca-
pable of a stable independent existence. It is the limit of physical subdivision for the com-
pound. Consider the molecular compound sucrose (table sugar). Continued subdivision
of a quantity of table sugar to yield smaller and smaller amounts would ultimately lead
to the isolation of one single particle of table sugar—a molecule of table sugar. This mol-
ecule of sugar could not be broken down any further and still maintain the physical and
chemical properties of table sugar. The sugar molecule could be broken down further by
chemical (not physical) means to give atoms, but if that occurred, we would no longer
have table sugar. The molecule is the limit of physical subdivision. The atom is the limit
of chemical subdivision.
Every molecular compound has as its smallest characteristic unit a unique molecule. If
two samples had the same molecule as a basic unit, both would have the same properties;
thus, they would be one and the same compound. An alternative way of stating the same
conclusion is that there is only one kind of molecule for any given molecular substance.
Since every molecule in a sample of a molecular compound is the same as every
other molecule in the sample, it is commonly stated that molecular compounds are made
up of a single kind of particle. Such terminology is correct as long as it is remembered
that the particle referred to is the molecule. In a sample of a molecular compound, there
are at least two kinds of atoms present but only one kind of molecule.
The properties of molecules are very different from the properties of the atoms that
make up the molecules. Molecules do not maintain the properties of their constituent ele-
ments. Table sugar is a white crystalline molecular compound with a sweet taste. None of
the three elements present in table sugar (carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen) is a white solid
or has a sweet taste. Carbon is a black solid, and hydrogen and oxygen are colorless gases.
Figure 5.4 summarizes the relationships between hetero- and homoatomic molecules
and elements, compounds, and pure substances. Example 5.2 deals with these same clas-
sifications as well as that of mixtures (heterogeneous and homogeneous; see Section 4.6).
Pure Substance
Element Compound
Only one kind of atom Two or more kinds of

is present. atoms are present.
Individual Homoatomic Heteroatomic Positive and

Atoms Molecules Molecules Negative Ions
Some elements occur Some elements have Some compounds have Some compounds have
as individual atoms. homoatomic molecules. molecules as the ions as the structural unit.
structural unit.
FIGURE 5.4 A comparison chart contrasting the basic structural units present in elements and
compounds.
EXAMPLE 5.2 Classifying Matter Based on Molecular, Phase,

and Substance Characteristics
Assign each of the following descriptions of matter to one of the following categories:
element, compound, homogeneous mixture, or heterogeneous mixture.
a. All molecules present are triatomic; two substances are present; one phase is present.
b. All molecules present are heteroatomic; one substance is present; two phases are present.
c. All molecules present are identical and homoatomic; one phase is present.
d. Both homoatomic and heteroatomic molecules are present; one phase is present.
SOLUTION
a. This is a homogeneous (one phase) mixture (two substances). The molecular in-
formation (triatomic) does not differentiate between elements and compounds as
mixture components.
b. This is a compound (one substance, heteroatomic molecules). The compound is
present in two physical states (two phases). An example of such a situation would
be ice cubes in water.
c. This is an element (one substance—all identical homoatomic molecules). The ele-
ment is present in one physical state (one phase).
d. This is a homogeneous (one phase) mixture (both homoatomic and heteroatomic
molecules). The mixture contains at least one element (homoatomic) and at least
one compound (heteroatomic).
5.3 NATURAL AND SYNTHETIC COMPOUNDS

Student Learning Focus: Be familiar with the relationships between natural and synthetic
compounds.
Approximately 9 million chemical compounds are now known, with more being charac-
terized daily. No end appears to be in sight as to the number of compounds that can and
will be prepared in the future. Approximately 10,000 new chemical substances are regis-
tered every week with Chemical Abstracts Service, a clearinghouse for new information
concerning chemical substances.
Two examples of Many compounds, perhaps the majority now known, are not naturally occurring
compounds that were substances. These synthetic (laboratory-produced) compounds are legitimate compounds
first discovered in nature and should not be considered second class or unimportant simply because they lack
and then later produced
in a laboratory setting are
the distinction of being natural. Many of the plastics, synthetic fibers, and prescription
the antibiotic penicillin G drugs now in common use are synthetic materials produced through controlled chemical
and the antirejection drug change carried out on an industrial scale.
cyclosporin. The original We have noted that chemists can produce compounds not found in nature. The re-
source for penicillin G, verse is also true. Nature is capable of making many compounds, especially those found
the first antibiotic to be
marketed, was a mold
in living systems, that chemists are not yet able to prepare in the laboratory.
of the Penicillium family, There is a middle ground also. Many compounds that exist in nature can also be
from whence it got its produced in the laboratory. A fallacy exists in the thinking of some people concerning
name. Cyclosporin, a these compounds that have “dual origins.” A belief still persists that there is a difference
drug used to control between compounds prepared in the laboratory and samples of the same compounds
rejection of a transplanted
organ, such as a liver, by
found in nature. This is not true for pure samples of a compound. All pure samples of a
a patient’s own immune compound, regardless of their origin, have the same composition. Since compositions are
system, was originally the same, properties will also be the same. There is no difference, for example, between a
isolated from a type of laboratory-prepared vitamin and a “natural” vitamin if both are pure samples of the same
soil fungus. vitamin, despite frequent claims to the contrary.
5.4 CHEMICAL FORMULAS

Student Learning Focus: Interpret a chemical formula in terms of the number of elements and the
number of atoms that the chemical formula denotes.
A most important piece of information about a compound is its composition. Chemical

formulas represent a concise means of specifying compound compositions. A chemical
formula is a notation made up of the chemical symbols of the elements present in a com-
pound and numerical subscripts (located to the right of each chemical symbol) that indi-
cate the number of atoms of each element present in a structural unit of the compound.
The chemical formula for the compound we call aspirin is C9H8O4. This formula
provides us with the following information about an aspirin molecule: Three elements
are present—carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O)—and 21 atoms are present—9
carbon atoms, 8 hydrogen atoms, and 4 oxygen atoms.
When only one atom of a particular element is present in a molecule of a com- A chemical symbol in a
pound, the element’s symbol is written without a numerical subscript in the formula of formula stands for one
the compound. In the formula for isopropyl alcohol, C3H6O, for example, the subscript 1 atom of the element. If
more than one atom is to
for the element oxygen is not written. be indicated in a formula,
To write formulas correctly, it is necessary to follow strictly the capitalization rules for a subscript number is
elemental symbols (Sec. 4.9). Making the error of capitalizing the second letter of an element’s used after the symbol.
symbol can dramatically alter the meaning of a chemical formula. The formulas CoCl2 and
COCl2 illustrate this point; the symbol Co stands for the element cobalt, whereas CO stands
for one atom of carbon and one atom of oxygen. The properties of the compounds CoCl2
and COCl2 are dramatically different. The compound CoCl2 is a blue crystalline solid with a
melting point of 724°C and a boiling point of 1029°C. The compound COCl2 is a highly toxic
colorless gas with a melting point of −118°C and a boiling point of 8°C.
For molecular compounds, chemical formulas give the composition of the molecules
making up the compounds. For ionic compounds, which have no molecules, a chemical
formula gives the ion ratio found in the compound. For example, the ionic compound so-
dium oxide contains sodium ions and oxygen ions in a two-to-one ratio—twice as many
sodium ions as oxygen ions. The formula of this compound is Na2O, which expresses the
ratio between the two types of ions present. The term formula unit is used to describe this
smallest ratio between ions. The distinction between the formula unit of an ionic compound
and the molecule of a molecular compound is pictorially portrayed in Figure 5.5.
FIGURE 5.5 A
comparison of a
molecule of a molecular
compound and a
formula unit of an ionic
Cl Na compound. A molecule
Cl can exist as a separate
Na unit, whereas a formula
Cl Na unit is simply two or
H more ions “plucked”
Cl One formula
Na from a much larger
Cl unit
C array of ions.
H Na
H Cl Na
H
Cl Na
Cl
(a) A molecule of the
molecular compound (b) A formula unit of the ionic
methane (CH4) compound sodium chloride (NaCl)
Sometimes chemical formulas contain parentheses, an example being Al2(SO4)3.

The interpretation of this formula is straightforward; in a formula unit there are present
two aluminum (Al) ions and three SO4 groups. The subscript following the parentheses
always indicates the number of units in the formula of the polyatomic entity inside the
parentheses. As another example, consider the compound Pb(C2H5)4. Four units of C2H5
are present. In terms of atoms present, the formula Pb(C2H5)4 represents 29 atoms:
1 lead (Pb) atom, 4 * 2 = 8 carbon (C) atoms, and 4 * 5 = 20 hydrogen (H) atoms. The
formula could be (but is not) written as PbC8H20. Both versions of the formula convey
the same information in terms of atoms present. However, Pb(C2H5)4 gives the additional
information that the C and H are present as C2H5 units and is therefore the preferred way
of writing the formula. Further information concerning the use of parentheses (when and
why) will be presented in Section 7.8. The important concern now is being able to inter-
pret formulas that contain parentheses in terms of total atoms present. Example 5.3 deals
with this skill in greater detail.
EXAMPLE 5.3 Interpreting Chemical Formulas in Terms of Atoms

and Elements Present
Interpret each of the following chemical formulas in terms of how many atoms of each
element are present in one structural unit of the compound.
a. C8H9O2N (acetaminophen, the active ingredient in Tylenol)
b. (NH4)2C2O4 (ammonium oxalate, used in the manufacture of explosives)
c. Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2 (hydroxyapatite, present in tooth enamel)
SOLUTION
a. We simply look at the subscripts following the symbols for the elements. This for-
mula indicates that eight carbon atoms, nine hydrogen atoms, two oxygen atoms,
and one nitrogen atom are present in one molecule of the compound.
b. The subscript following the parenthesis, 2, indicates that two NH4 units are present.
Collectively, in these two units, we have two nitrogen atoms and 2 * 4 = 8 hydro-
gen atoms. In addition, two carbon atoms and four oxygen atoms are present.
c. There are ten calcium atoms. The amounts of phosphorus, hydrogen, and oxygen
are affected by the subscripts outside the parentheses. There are six phosphorus
atoms and two hydrogen atoms present. Oxygen atoms are present in two locations
in the formula. There are a total of 26 oxygen atoms: 24 from the PO4 subunits
(6 * 4) and two from the OH subunits (2 * 1).
Figure 5.6 pictorially relates chemical formulas to the matter classifications of ele-
ment, compound, and mixture. Note in the top third of the diagram that the formulas for
molecules of an element contain only one type of atom and thus only one elemental sym-
bol. In the middle third of the diagram, we see that formulas for the compounds shown
contain two types of atoms and thus two elemental symbols. Finally, in the bottom third
of the diagram, we see that in mixtures, different types of molecules with different chemi-
cal formulas, must be present.
In addition to chemical formulas, compounds have names. Naming compounds is
not as simple as naming elements. Although the nomenclature of elements (Sec. 4.9)
has been largely left up to the imagination of their discoverers, extensive sets of
systematic rules exist for naming compounds. Rules must be used because of the large
number of compounds that exist. Chapter 8 is devoted to compound nomenclature, and
we will not worry about naming rules until then. For the time being, our focus will be
Elements FIGURE 5.6 A

contrast between the
chemical formulas
for molecules of
elements and molecules
of compounds
and their pictorial
representations.
Hydrogen (H2) molecules Oxygen (O2) molecules
Compounds
Water (H2O) molecules Hydrogen peroxide

(H2O2) molecules
Mixtures
Mixture of hydrogen (H2) Mixture of hydrogen peroxide

and oxygen (O2), (H2O2) and water (H2O),
a mixture of elements a mixture of compounds
on the meaning and significance of chemical formulas; knowing how to name the com-
pounds that the formulas represent is not a prerequisite for understanding the meaning
of formulas.
5.5 SUBATOMIC PARTICLES: PROTONS, NEUTRONS, AND ELECTRONS

Student Learning Focus: Characterize protons, neutrons, and electrons in terms of electric charge
and relative mass. Be able to describe the arrangement of subatomic particles within an atom.
Until the last two decades of the nineteenth century, scientists believed that atoms were
solid, indivisible spheres without internal substructure. Today this concept is known to be
incorrect. Evidence from a variety of sources, some of which will be discussed in Section 5.9,
indicates that atoms themselves are made up of smaller, more fundamental particles called
subatomic particles.
A subatomic particle is a very small particle that is a building block for atoms. Atoms of all 118 elements
Three major types of subatomic particles exist: the electron, the proton, and the neutron. contain the same three
Information concerning the key properties of electrical charge and mass for the three types of subatomic
particles. Different kinds
types of subatomic particles is given in Table 5.1. An electron is a subatomic particle of atoms differ only in
that possesses a negative (-) electrical charge. Electrons were characterized in 1897 by the the number of the various
English physicist Joseph John Thomson (1856–1940). A proton is a subatomic particle subatomic particles they
that possesses a positive (+) electrical charge. Protons were discovered in 1886 by the contain.
German physicist Eugen Goldstein (1850–1930). A neutron is a subatomic particle that
is neutral; that is, it has no charge. The neutron, the last of the three subatomic particles
to be identified, was characterized in 1932 by the English physicist James Chadwick
(1891–1974).
TABLE 5.1 Charges and Masses of the Major Subatomic Particles

Electron Proton Neutron
Charge -1 +1 0
- 28 - 24
Actual mass (g) 9.109 * 10 1.673 * 10 1.675 * 10 - 24
Relative mass (based on the 1 1837 1839

electron’s being one unit)
Relative mass (based on the 0 (1/1839) 1 1
neutron’s being one unit)
Using the mass or relative mass values from Table 5.1, we see that the electron has
the smallest mass of the three subatomic particles. Both protons and neutrons are very
massive particles compared to the electron, being nearly 2000 times heavier. For most
purposes the masses of protons and neutrons can be considered equal, although techni-
cally the neutron is slightly heavier (1839 versus 1837 on a relative mass scale where the
electron has a value of 1; see Table 5.1).
Electrons and protons, the two types of charged subatomic particles, possess the
same amount of electrical charge; the character of the charge is, however, opposite (nega-
tive versus positive). The fact that these subatomic particles are charged is most impor-
tant because of the way in which charged particles interact. Particles of opposite or un-
like charge attract each other; particles of like charge repel each other. This behavior of
charged particles will be of major concern in many of the discussions in later portions of
the text.
Arrangement of Subatomic Particles Within an Atom

The arrangement of subatomic particles within an atom is not haphazard. All protons and
all neutrons are found at the center of an atom in a very small volume called the nucleus
(Figure 5.7). A nucleus is the small, dense, positively charged center of an atom; it con-
tains an atom’s protons and neutrons. A nucleus always has a positive charge because of
the positively charged protons that are present. Almost all of an atom’s mass (more than
99.9%) is found within its nucleus; all the heavy subatomic particles (protons and neu-
trons) are located there. The small size of the nucleus, coupled with its large amount of
FIGURE 5.7 The mass, causes nuclear material to be extremely dense.
protons and neutrons
of an atom are found
in the central nuclear
region—the nucleus—
and the electrons are Extranuclear region
found in an electron (electrons)
cloud outside the
nucleus. Note that this
figure is not drawn to
scale; the correct scale
would be comparable
to a penny (the
nucleus) in the center
Nucleus
of a baseball field
(protons and neutrons)
(the atom).
Closely resembling the term nucleus is the term nucleon. A nucleon is any sub-
atomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom. Thus, both protons and neutrons are
nucleons and the nucleus can be regarded as containing a collection of nucleons (protons
and neutrons).
The outer (extranuclear) region of an atom contains all of the electrons. It is an
extremely large region compared to the nucleus. It is mostly empty space. It is a region
in which the electrons move rapidly about the nucleus. The motion of the electrons in
this extranuclear region determines the volume (size) of the atom in the same way as
the blades of a fan determine a volume by their motion. The volume occupied by the
electrons is sometimes referred to as the electron cloud. Since electrons are negatively
charged, the electron cloud is said to be negatively charged.
Figure 5.7 contrasts the nuclear and extranuclear regions of an atom. The attractive
force between the nucleus (positively charged) and the electrons (negatively charged)
keeps the electrons within the extranuclear region of the atom. By analogy, the attractive
force of gravity keeps the planets in their orbits about the sun.
Charge Neutrality of an Atom

An atom as a whole is neutral. How can it be that an entity possessing positive charge
(the nuclear region) and negative charge (the extranuclear region, or electron cloud)
can end up neutral overall? For this to occur, the same number of positive and negative
charges must be present in the atom; equal numbers of positive and negative charges
give a net electrical charge of zero. Atom neutrality thus requires that there be the same
number of electrons and protons present in an atom, which is always the case for atoms.
number of protons = number of electrons
Size Relationships within an Atom

The diameter of the nucleus of an atom is approximately 10 - 15 m, which is about
1/100,000 the 10 - 10 m diameter of an atom (see Fig. 5.8). The following imaginary ex-
ample is helpful in gaining a correct perspective about the size relationship between a
Nuclear diameter FIGURE 5.8 Key

1 × 10−15 m atomic dimensions (not
drawn to scale).
1 × 10−10 m
Atom’s diameter
nucleus and an atom as a whole. Imagine enlarging (magnifying) the nucleus until it is
the size of a baseball (about 2.9 inches in diameter). If the nucleus were this large, the
whole atom would have a diameter of approximately 2.5 miles. The electrons would still
be smaller than the periods used to end sentences in this text, and they would move
about within that 2.5-mile region.
The concentration of almost all the mass of an atom in the nucleus can also be
illustrated by again using our imagination. If a coin the same size as a copper penny
contained copper nuclei (copper atoms stripped of their electrons) rather than copper
atoms (which are mostly empty space), the coin would weigh 190,000,000 tons. Nuclei
are indeed very dense matter.
Additional Subatomic Particles

Our just-completed discussion of the makeup of atoms in terms of subatomic particles
is based on the existence of three types of subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and
electrons. This model of the atom is actually an oversimplification. In recent years, as
the result of research carried out by nuclear physicists, the picture of the atom has lost
its simplicity. Experimental evidence now available indicates that protons and neutrons
themselves are made up of even smaller particles. Numerous other particles, with names
such as leptons, mesons, and baryons, have been discovered. No simple theory is yet
available that can explain all of these new discoveries relating to the complex nature of
the nucleus.
Despite the existence of these smaller subatomic particles, further discussions in
this chapter will be based on the three-subatomic-particle model of the atom. It read-
ily explains almost all chemical observations about atoms. We will have no occasion to
deal with any of the recently discovered types of subatomic (or sub-subatomic) particles.
Protons, neutrons, and electrons will meet all our needs.
We will also continue to use the concept that atoms are the fundamental building
blocks for all types of matter (Sec. 5.1) despite the existence of protons, neutrons, and
electrons. This is because under normal conditions subatomic particles do not lead an in-
dependent existence for any appreciable length of time. The only way they gain stability
is by joining together to form an atom.
A significant collection of evidence is consistent with and supports the existence,
nature, and arrangement of subatomic particles as given in this section. Several pieces of
such evidence will be considered in Section 5.9.
5.6 ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER

Student Learning Focus: Define the terms atomic number and mass number and, given these
two numbers, be able to determine the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons present in
an atom.
What determines whether a given atom is an atom of carbon or an atom of oxygen or an

atom of gold? It is the number of protons present in the nucleus of the atom. The number
of protons present determines atom identity. Every element has a characteristic number of
protons associated with all of its atoms. For example:
All carbon atoms contain 6 protons.

All oxygen atoms contain 8 protons.
All gold atoms contain 79 protons.
If two atoms differ in the number of protons present, they must be atoms of two different
elements. Conversely, if two atoms possess the same number of protons, they must be
atoms of the same element.
Atomic Number
The characteristic number of protons associated with the atoms of a particular element is
called the atomic number of the element. An atomic number is the number of protons Atomic numbers must be
in the nucleus of an atom. whole numbers since they
are obtained by counting
Values of atomic numbers for the various elements, along with selected additional
whole objects (protons).
information, are printed on the inside front cover of this book. A check of the entries in You cannot have 3 12 or
the atomic number column of the data tabulation on the right side of the inside front 5 14 protons in a nucleus.
cover shows that an entry exists for each of the numbers in the sequence 1 to 118.
The existence of an element that corresponds to each of the atomic numbers 1
through 118 is an indication of the order existing in nature. Scientists also interpret this
continuous atomic number sequence 1 through 118 as evidence that there are no “miss-
ing elements” yet to be discovered in nature. The highest-atomic-numbered element that
is naturally occurring is element 92 (uranium); elements 93 through 118 are all synthetic
(Sec. 4.8).
The atomic numbers of the elements are also found on the left side of the inside front
cover. The diagram there is a periodic table, a graphical presentation of selected charac-
teristics of the elements. (The periodic table will be considered in detail in Chapter 6.)
We note at this time that each box in the periodic table designates an element, with that
element’s symbol in the center of the box. The number above the symbol is the element’s
atomic number. The elements are arranged in the periodic table in order of increasing
atomic number.
Previously, in Section 4.7, an element was defined as a pure substance that cannot
be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical means. Although this is
a good historical definition for an element, we can now give a more rigorous defini-
tion using the concept of atomic number. An element is a pure substance in which all
atoms present have the same atomic number; that is, all atoms have the same number of
protons.
An atomic number, besides giving information about the number of protons pres-
ent in an atom, also gives information about the number of electrons present. Because of
charge neutrality (Sec. 5.5) an atom has the same number of protons and electrons. Thus,
atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons
The symbol Z is used as a general designation for atomic number.
Mass Number
Information about the number of neutrons present in an atom is not obtainable solely
from an atomic number. A second number, a mass number, is needed in addition to the
atomic number. A mass number is the sum of the number of protons and the number of
neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons Mass numbers, like

atomic numbers,
The symbol A is used as a general designation for mass number. Since only protons and must always be whole
numbers.
neutrons are present in a nucleus, the mass number gives the total number of subatomic
particles present in the nucleus. The mass of an atom is almost totally accounted for by
the protons and neutrons present (Sec. 5.5), hence the designation mass number.
Subatomic Particle Makeup of an Atom

Knowing the atomic number and mass number of an atom uniquely specifies the atom’s
makeup in terms of subatomic particles. The following equations show the relationship
between subatomic particles and the two numbers.
number of protons = atomic number = Z

The sum of the mass
number and the atomic
number of electrons = atomic number = Z
number for an atom number of neutrons = mass number - atomic number = A - Z
(A + Z) has significance.
It corresponds to the total
Note that the neutron count is obtained through subtraction of the atomic number
number of subatomic
particles present in from the mass number.
the atom (protons + Mass numbers are not tabulated in a manner similar to atomic numbers because, as
neutrons + electrons). we learn in the next section, most elements lack a unique mass number.
The mass and atomic numbers of a given atom are often specified using the notation
A
ZE
Here E represents the symbol of the element being considered. The atomic number is
placed as a subscript in front of the elemental symbol. The mass number is placed as a
superscript in front of the elemental symbol. Examples of such notation for actual atoms
include
19 23 197
9F 11Na 79Au
The first of these notations specifies a fluorine atom that has an atomic number of 9 and
a mass number of 19.
Examples 5.4 and 5.5 are sample calculations showing the interrelationships among
atomic number, mass number, and the subatomic particle composition of atoms.
EXAMPLE 5.4 Determining the Subatomic Makeup of an Atom Given Its

Atomic Number and Mass Number
Determine the following information for an atom that has an atomic number of 11 and a
mass number of 23.
a. The number of protons present
b. The number of neutrons present
c. The number of electrons present
d. The complete symbol (AZE) for the atom
SOLUTION
a. There are 11 protons because the atomic number is always equal to the number of
protons present.
b. There are 12 neutrons because the number of neutrons is always obtained by sub-
tracting the atomic number from the mass number (23 - 11 = 12).
(Protons + neutrons) protons
(+++++)+++++* - (++)++* = neutrons
Mass number Atomic
number
c. There are 11 electrons because the number of protons and the number of electrons
are always the same in an atom.
d. The superscript in the symbol notation (A) is the mass number; it is given
as 23. The subscript in the symbol notation (Z) is the atomic number; it is given
as 11. The identity of the atom is determined using the information found inside
the front cover. Either tabulation there gives the information that the atomic num-
ber 11 belongs to the element sodium (Na). The complete symbol of the atom is,
therefore, 23
11Na.
Answer Double Check: Are the answers reasonable? Yes. The number of protons should
always be the same as the number of electrons. Such is the case here. The mass number
is always greater than the atomic number by a factor of 2 to 2.5. Such is the case here.
The mass number, the larger of the two numbers, is always on the top in the elemental
symbol. Such is the case here.
EXAMPLE 5.5 Determining the Subatomic Makeup of an Atom Given Its

Complete Chemical Symbol
63
Determine the following information for an atom whose complete chemical symbol is 29Cu.
a. The total number of subatomic particles present in the atom

b. The total number of subatomic particles present in the nucleus of the atom
c. The total number of nucleons present in the atom
d. The total charge (including sign) associated with the nucleus of the atom
SOLUTION
a. The mass number gives the combined number of protons and neutrons present. The
atomic number gives the number of electrons present. Adding these two numbers
together gives the total number of subatomic particles present. The are 92 subatomic
particles present (63 + 29).
b. The nucleus contains all protons and all neutrons. The mass number
(protons + neutrons), thus, gives the total number of subatomic particles present in
the nucleus of an atom. There are 63 subatomic particles present in the nucleus.
c. A nucleon is any subatomic particle in the nucleus. Thus, both protons and neutrons
are nucleons. There are 63 nucleons present in the nucleus. Part (b) and part (c)
of this problem ask the same question using different terminology.
d. The charge associated with a nucleus originates from the protons present. It will
always be positive because protons are positively charged particles. The atomic
number, 29, indicates that 29 protons are present. Thus, the nuclear charge is +29.
Answer Double Check: Are the answers reasonable? Yes. The number of subatomic
particles present is always given by (A + Z). Such is the case here. The number of nucle-
ons (subatomic particles in the nucleus) is always given by A. Such is the case here. The
charge on the nucleus, which is always positive, is given by A. Such is the case here.
5.7 ISOTOPES
Student Learning Focus: Know how the isotopes of an element are related to each other and be
able to distinguish the terms isotope and isobar.
Charge neutrality in an atom (Sec. 5.5) requires the presence of an equal number of pro-
tons and electrons. Because neutrons have no electrical charge, their numbers in atoms
do not have to be the same as the number of protons or electrons. Most atoms contain
more neutrons than either protons or electrons.
Studies of atoms of various elements show that the number of neutrons present in
atoms of an element is usually not constant; it varies over a small range. This means that
not all atoms of an element have to be identical. They must have the same number of
protons and electrons, but they can differ in the number of neutrons. For example, three
kinds of naturally occurring oxygen atoms exist. All oxygen atoms have eight protons
and eight electrons. Most oxygen atoms also contain eight neutrons. Some oxygen atoms
exist, however, that contain nine neutrons, and a few exist that contain ten neutrons.
Designations for these three kinds of oxygen atoms are
16 17 18
8O 8O 8O
The word isotope comes Atoms of an element that differ in neutron count are called isotopes. Three oxygen
from the Greek iso, isotopes exist. Isotopes are atoms of an element that have the same number of protons
meaning “equal,” and and electrons but different numbers of neutrons. Isotopes always have the same atomic
topos, meaning “place.”
Isotopes occupy an equal
number and different mass numbers.
place (location) in listings The presence of one or more additional neutrons in the tiny nucleus of an atom
of elements because all has essentially no effect on the way it behaves chemically. Thus, isotopes of an element
isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties. Isotopes have the same number of electrons, and it
have the same atomic is electrons that determine chemical properties. When two atoms interact chemically, the
number.
outer part (electrons) of one interacts with the outer part (electrons) of the other. The
small nuclear centers never come in contact with each other during a chemical interaction
between atoms.
Isotopes of an element can have slightly different physical properties because they
have different numbers of neutrons and therefore different masses. Physical property dif-
ferences are greatest for elements of low atomic number. For such elements, differences
in mass between isotopes are relatively large when compared to the masses of the iso-
topes themselves. For example, 21H is twice as heavy as 11H, and the density of 21H is twice
that of 11H (0.18 g/L versus 0.090 g/L).
Most elements occurring naturally are mixtures of isotopes. The various isotopes of
a given element are of varying abundance; usually one isotope is predominant. Typical
Hydrogen isotopes are of this situation is the element magnesium, which exists in nature in three isotopic forms:
unique among isotopes 24 25 26
12Mg, 12Mg, and 12Mg. The percent abundances for these three isotopes are, respectively,
in that each isotope has a
78.70%, 10.13%, and 11.17%. A percent abundance is the percent of atoms in a natural
different name.
1 sample of a pure element that are a particular isotope of the element. Percent abundances
1H protium (symbol H)
2 are number percents (number of atoms) rather than mass percents. A sample of 10,000
1H deuterium (symbol D)
3 magnesium atoms would contain 7870 24 25
12Mg atoms, 1013 12Mg atoms, and 1117 12Mg
26
1H tritium (symbol T)
atoms. Table 5.2 gives natural isotopic abundances and isotopic masses for the elements
with atomic numbers 1 through 12. The unit used for specifying the mass of the various
isotopes, amu, will be discussed in Section 5.8.
The percent abundances of the isotopes of an element may vary slightly in samples
obtained from different locations, but such variations are ordinarily extremely small. We
will assume in this text that the isotopic composition of an element is a constant.
Isotopic masses, although not whole numbers, have values that are very close
to whole numbers. This fact can be verified by looking at the isotopic masses in
Table 5.2. If an isotopic mass is rounded off to the closest whole number, this value is
the same as the mass number of the isotope. This statement can be verified using the data
in Table 5.2.
Twenty-three elements have only one naturally occurring form; that is, they are mo-
noisotopic. For these elements, all atoms found in nature are identical to each other. Of
the simpler elements (atomic numbers of 20 or less), those with only one form are
9 19 23 27 31
4Be 9F 11Na 13Al 15P
TABLE 5.2 Isotopic Data for Elements with Atomic Numbers 1 through 12.
Information given for each isotope includes mass number, isotopic mass in amu*,
and percent abundance.
1 Hydrogen 2 Helium 3 Lithium

1
1H 1.008 amu 99.985% 6
3
2 2 He 3.016 amu trace 3 Li 6.015 amu 7.42%
1H 2.014 amu 0.015%
4 7
3 2 He 4.003 amu 100% 3 Li 7.016 amu 92.58%
1H 3.016 amu trace
4 Beryllium 5 Boron 6 Carbon

12
10 6C 12.000 amu 98.89%
5B 10.013 amu 19.6%
9 13
4 Be 9.012 amu 100% 11 6C 13.003 amu 1.11%
5B 11.009 amu 80.4% 14
6C 14.003 amu trace
7 Nitrogen 8 Oxygen 9 Fluorine
16
14 8O 15.995 amu 99.759%
7N 14.003 amu 99.63% 17 19
15 8O 16.999 amu 0.037% 9F 18.998 amu 100%
7N 15.000 amu 0.37% 18
8O 17.999 amu 0.204%
10 Neon 11 Sodium 12 Magnesium

20 24
10 Ne 19.992 amu 90.92% 12 Mg 23.985 amu 78.70%
21 23 25
10 Ne 20.994 amu 0.26% 11 Na 22.990 amu 100% 12 Mg 24.986 amu 10.13%
22 26
10 Ne 21.991 amu 8.82% 12 Mg 25.983 amu 11.17%
*The unit for specifying isotopic mass, the amu, is defined in Section 5.8.
The existence of isotopes adds clarification to the wording used in some of the
statements of atomic theory (Sec. 5.1). Statement 1 reads “All matter is made up of small
particles called atoms, of which 118 different ‘types’ are known.” It should now be ap-
parent why the word “types” was put in quotation marks. Because of the existence of
isotopes, atoms of each type are similar, but not identical. Atoms of a given element are
similar in that they have the same atomic number, but not identical since they may have
different mass numbers.
Statement 2 reads “All atoms of a given type are similar to one another and sig-
nificantly different from all other types.” All atoms of an element are similar in chemical
properties and differ significantly from atoms of other elements with different chemical
properties.
EXAMPLE 5.6 Identifying Characteristics of Isotopes of an Element
Three isotopes exist for argon, element 18. One isotope has an isotopic mass of 35.967
amu and a percent abundance of 0.337. A second isotope has an isotopic mass of
37.963 amu and a percent abundance of 0.063. The third isotope has an isotopic mass of
39.962 amu.
a. What are the mass numbers for the three argon isotopes?
b. What is the percent abundance for the third argon isotope?
SOLUTION
a. Isotopic masses, although not whole numbers, are numbers with values very close
to that of whole numbers. Rounding an isotopic mass to the nearest whole number
gives the mass number of that isotope. Thus, the mass numbers of the three argon
isotopes are 36 (35.967 amu), 38 (37.963 amu), and 40 (39.962 amu). (The reason
isotopic masses have values that are always very close to a whole number relates to
protons and neutrons having masses on the amu scale that differ only slightly from
the value 1.00 amu.)
b. The sum of the percents abundance for the three isotopes must add to 100%. Thus,
by subtraction, we obtain a percent of 99.600% for the third isotope.
(100.000 - 0.337 - 0.063)% = 99.600% (calculator and correct answer)
It is possible for isotopes of two different elements to have the same mass num-
ber. For example, the element iron (atomic number 26) exists in nature in four isotopic
forms, one of which is 58 26Fe. The element nickel, with an atomic number two units
greater than that of iron, exists in nature in five isotopic forms, one of which is 58
28Ni.
Thus, atoms of both iron and nickel exist with a mass number of 58. Thus, mass num-
bers are not unique for elements as are atomic numbers. Atoms of different elements
that have the same mass number are called isobars; 58 58
26Fe and 28Ni are isobars. Isobars
are atoms that have the same mass number but different atomic numbers. Even though
atoms of two different elements can have the same mass number (isobars), they cannot
have the same atomic number. All atoms of a given atomic number must necessarily be
atoms of the same element.
There are 286 isotopes that occur naturally. In addition, over 2000 more isotopes
have been synthesized in the laboratory. These synthetic isotopes all have the common
characteristic of being unstable (radioactive). Radioactive isotopes eventually revert
back to naturally occurring stable isotopes. Many of these unstable isotopes, despite
their instability, have important uses in chemical and biological research as well as in
medicine.
EXAMPLE 5.7 Distinguishing between Isotopes and Isobars
Indicate whether the members of each of the following pairs are isotopes, isobars, or
neither.
a. 42 43
20X and 20Q
b. 19X and 40
40
20Q
c. 44
20 X and 45
21Q
d. an atom X with 20 protons and 21 neutrons and an atom Q with 19 protons and
21 neutrons
SOLUTION
a. These atoms are isotopes. Both atoms have the same atomic number of 20. Isotopes
differ from each other in neutron count, which is the case here. Atom X has 22 neu-
trons, and atom Q has 23 neutrons.
b. These atoms are isobars. They have the same mass number (40) and different atom-
ic numbers (19 and 20).
c. These atoms are not isotopes or isobars. Isotopes must have the same atomic num-
ber and isobars must have the same mass number. Neither is the case here.
d. These atoms are not isotopes or isobars. They are not isotopes, because a differing
number of protons means differing atomic numbers. They are not isobars, because
the mass numbers differ: 41 for atom X and 40 for atom Q. The two atoms contain
the same number of neutrons. However, the definition for isobars is based on the
same mass number rather than on the same neutron count.
5.8 ATOMIC MASSES

Student Learning Focus: Understand the relationship of an atomic mass of an element to the
masses of individual atoms of the element. Be able to calculate the atomic mass for an element
using atomic masses and percent abundances for the isotopes of the element.
The existence of isotopes means that atoms of an element can have several different An analogy involving
masses. For example, magnesium atoms can have any one of three masses because there isotopes and identical
twins is helpful in
are three magnesium isotopes. Which of these three magnesium isotopic masses is used
understanding the fact
in situations in which the mass of the element magnesium needs to be specified? The that all atoms of an
answer is none of them. Instead, a weighted average mass that takes into account the ex- element need not have
istence of isotopes and their relative abundances is used. These weighted average masses the same mass. Identical
are called atomic masses. twins need not weigh
the same even though
Atomic mass values for the elements are found inside the front cover of this book.
they have identical “gene
There are two such listings there. On the inside cover’s right side (atomic number— packages.” They are
atomic mass listing), atomic masses are given to the maximum number of significant fig- identical twins by the
ures possible, which varies from element to element. Typical atomic mass values include gene criterion regardless
of their masses. Likewise,
isotopes, even though
14.0067 for the element nitrogen
they have different
32.065 for the element sulfur masses, are atoms of the
same element by atomic
126.90447 for the element iodine
number criterion (same
number of protons).
On the inside cover’s left side (periodic table; see Sec. 5.6), the atomic mass values are
the numbers underneath the symbols of the elements. (The number above each element’s
symbol is its atomic number; see Sec. 5.6.) In this periodic table listing, the atomic masses A detailed consideration
are given to the hundredths decimal place. It is this rounded form of the atomic mass that of the periodic table,
is most often used in chemical calculations (Chapters 9 and 10). its value, significance,
and use is the topic of a
Atomic mass values are not mass numbers. They cannot possibly be mass numbers considerable portion of
because they are not whole numbers. Mass numbers, which are counts of the number of Chapter 6.
protons and neutrons present in nuclei (Sec. 5.6), must be whole numbers. Atomic masses
are calculated numbers obtained from data on isotopic masses and isotopic abundances.
The starting point for understanding the origins of atomic mass values is a consider-
ation of the formal definition for an atomic mass. An atomic mass is the relative mass of
an average atom of an element on a scale using the 126C atom as the reference. The mean-
ing of two terms found within this definition, relative mass and average atom, is crucial to
understanding the definition as a whole.
Relative Mass
The usual standards of mass, such as grams or pounds, are not convenient for use with atoms,
because very small numbers are always encountered. For example, the mass in grams of a 238 92U
atom, one of the heaviest atoms known, is 3.95 * 10 - 22. To avoid repeatedly encountering
such small numbers scientists have chosen to work with relative rather than actual mass values.
A relative mass value for an atom is the mass of that atom relative to some stan-
dard rather than the actual mass value of the atom in grams. The term relative means “as
compared to.” The choice of the standard is arbitrary; this gives scientists control over the
magnitude of the numbers on the relative scale, thus avoiding very small numbers.
For most purposes in chemistry, relative mass values serve just as well as actual
mass values. Knowing how many times heavier one atom is than another, information
obtainable from a relative mass scale, is just as useful as knowing the actual mass values
of the atoms involved. Example 5.8 illustrates the procedures involved in constructing a
relative mass scale and also points out some of the characteristics of such a scale.
EXAMPLE 5.8 Constructing a Relative Mass Scale
Construct a relative mass scale for the hypothetical atoms Q, X, and Z, given the following
information about them.
1. Atoms of Q are four times heavier than those of X.
2. Atoms of X are three times heavier than those of Z.
SOLUTION
Atoms of Z are the lightest of the three types of atoms. We will arbitrarily assign atoms of
Z a mass value of one unit. The unit name can be anything we wish, and we shall choose
“snick.” On this basis, one atom of Z has a mass value of 1 snick. Atoms of Z will be our
scale reference point. Atoms of X will have a mass value of 3 snicks (three times as heavy
as Z) and Q atoms a value of 12 snicks (four times as heavy as X).
Z = 1 snick Q = 12 snicks
X = 3 snicks
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
The name snick chosen for the mass unit was arbitrary. The assignment of the value
1 for the mass of Z, the reference point on the scale, was also arbitrary. What if we had
chosen to call the unit a “smerge” and had chosen a value of 3 for the mass of an atom of Z?
If this had been the case, the resulting relative scale would have appeared as
Z = 3 smerges Q = 36 smerges
X = 9 smerges
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Which of the preceding relative scales is the “better” scale? The answer is that the
scales are equivalent. The relationships between the masses of Q, X, and Z are the same
on the two scales, even though the reference points and unit names differ. On the snick
scale, for example, Q is four times heavier than X (12/3); on the smerge scale, Q is also
four times heavier than X (36/9).
Notice that we did not need to know the actual masses of Q, X, and Z to set up ei-
ther the snick or smerge scale. All that is needed to set up a relative scale is a set of inter-
relationships among quantities. One value—the reference point—is arbitrarily assigned,
and all other values are determined by using the known interrelationships.
The information given at the start of this example is sufficient to set up an infinite
number of relative mass scales. Each scale would differ from the others in choice of ref-
erence point and unit name. All the scales would, however, be equivalent to each other,
and each scale would provide all of the mass relationships obtainable from an actual
mass scale except for actual mass values.
A relative scale of atomic masses has been set up in a manner similar to that used
in Example 5.8. The unit is called the atomic mass unit, abbreviated amu. The arbitrary
reference point involves a particular isotope of carbon, 126C. The mass of this isotope is set
at 12.00000 amu. The masses of all other atoms are then determined relative to that of 126C.
For example, if an atom is twice as heavy as a 126C atom, its mass is 24.00000 amu on the
scale, and if an atom weighs half as much as a 126C atom, its scale mass is 6.00000 amu.
The masses of all atoms have been determined relative to each other experimentally.
Actual values for the masses of selected isotopes on the 126C scale are given in Figure 5.9.
Reread the formal definition of atomic mass given earlier in this section. Note how
12
6C is mentioned explicitly in the definition because of the central role it plays in the set-
ting up of the relative atomic mass scale.
On the basis of the values given in Figure 5.9, it is possible to state, for example,
92U is 4.256 times as heavy as 26Fe (238.05 amu>55.93 amu = 4.256) and 26Fe is
that 238 56 56
2.798 times as heavy as 10Ne (55.93 amu>19.99 amu = 2.798). We do not need to know
20
the actual masses of the atoms involved to make such statements; relative masses are suf-
ficient to calculate the information.
Average Atom
Since isotopes exist, the mass of an atom of a specific element can have one of several
values. For example, oxygen atoms can have any one of three masses, since three iso-
topes exist: 168O, 178 O, and 188O. Despite mass variances among isotopes, the atoms of an
240 FIGURE 5.9 Relative

238 U 238.05
92 amu masses of selected
234 U 234.04
isotopes on the 126 C
amu
92 atomic mass scale.
230
60
56
26 Fe 55.93 amu
54 Fe 53.94 amu
26
50
40
35 Cl 34.97 amu
17
30
20 Ne 19.99 amu
20 10
12 C 12.00 amu (by definition)

6
10
7 Li 7.01 amu
3
1 H 1.01 amu

1
0
element are treated as if they all had a single common mass. The common mass value
used is a weighted average mass, which takes into account the natural abundances and
atomic masses of the isotopes of an element.
The validity of the weighted average mass concept rests on two points. First, ex-
tensive studies of naturally occurring elements have shown that the percent abundance
of the isotopes of a given element is generally constant. No matter where the element
sample is obtained on Earth, it generally contains the same percentage of each isotope.
Because of these constant isotopic ratios, the mass of an “average atom” does not vary.
Second, chemical operations are always carried out with very large numbers of atoms.
The tiniest piece of matter visible to the eye contains more atoms than can be counted by
a person in a lifetime. The numbers are so great that any collection of atoms a chemist
works with will be representative of naturally occurring isotopic ratios.
Weighted Averages
Atomic masses are weighted averages calculated from the following three pieces of
information:
1. The number of isotopes that exist for the element
2. The isotopic mass for each isotope, that is, the relative mass of each isotope on the
12
6C scale
3. The percent abundance of each isotope
Table 5.2 gives these data for selected elements.
Examples 5.9 and 5.10 illustrate the operations needed to calculate weighted aver-
ages. Example 5.9 is a general exercise concerning weighted averages, and Example 5.10
illustrates the calculation of an atomic mass by the method of weighted averages.
EXAMPLE 5.9 Calculation of a Weighted Average
Sulfur oxides are air pollutants that arise primarily from the burning of coal. A student
measures the sulfur oxide concentration in the atmosphere on five successive days, in
parts per billion (ppb), with the following results.
24 ppb 21 ppb 21 ppb 24 ppb 15 ppb
What is the average sulfur oxide concentration in the air over this time period,
based on the student’s measurements?
SOLUTION
Let us solve this problem using two different methods. The first method involves proce-
dures familiar to you—the normal way of taking an average. By this method, the average
is found by dividing the sum of the numbers by the number of values summed.
24 + 21 + 21 + 24 + 15
ppb = 21 ppb (calculator answer)
5
= 21.0 ppb (correct answer)
Now let us solve this same problem again, this time treating it as a weighted average
problem. To do this, we organize the given information in a different way. In our list of
pollutant concentrations we have three different concentration values: 24 ppb, 21 ppb,
and 15 ppb.
Two of the five values (40.0%) are 24 ppb.

Two of the five values (40.0%) are 21 ppb.
One of the five values (20.0%) is 15 ppb.
We will use the data in this percent form for our weighted average calculation.
To find the weighted average, we multiply each distinct value (24, 21, and 15) by its
fractional abundance, that is, by its percentage expressed in decimal form, and then we
sum the products from the multiplications.
0.400 * 24 ppb = 9.6 ppb

0.400 * 21 ppb = 8.4 ppb
0.200 * 15 ppb = 3.0 ppb
21.0 ppb (same average value as before)
This averaging method, although it appears somewhat more involved than the nor-
mal method, is the one that must be used in calculating atomic masses because of the
form in which data about isotopes are obtained. The percent abundances of isotopes are
experimentally determinable quantities. The total number of atoms of various isotopes
present in nature, a prerequisite for using the normal average method, is not easily deter-
mined. Therefore, we use the percent method.
Answer Double Check: Is the numerical value of the answer reasonable? Yes. In calcu-
lating an average, the result must always fall in the range defined by the highest (24 ppb)
and lowest values (15 ppb) used in taking the average. Such is the case here. The average,
21.0 ppb, falls within the 15–24 ppb range.
EXAMPLE 5.10 Calculation of Atomic Mass from Isotopic Masses

and Percent Abundances
Magnesium occurs in nature in three isotopic forms: 24 25
12Mg (78.70% abundance), 12Mg
26
(10.13% abundance), and 12Mg (11.17% abundance). The relative masses of these three
isotopes, respectively, are 23.985, 24.986, and 25.983 amu. Calculate the atomic mass of
magnesium from these data.
SOLUTION
The atomic mass of an element is calculated using the weighted average method illus-
trated in Example 5.9. Each of the isotopic masses is multiplied by the fractional abun-
dance associated with that mass, and then the products are summed.
0.7870 * 23.985 amu = 18.876195 amu = 18.88 amu
0.1013 * 24.986 amu = 2.5310818 amu = 2.531 amu
0.1117 * 25.983 amu = 2.9023011 amu = 2.902 amu
Note that the method for converting percentages to fractional abundances is always
the same. The decimal point in the percentage is moved two places to the left. For
example,
78.70% becomes 0.7870
Significant figures are always an important part of an atomic mass calculation. Both
isotopic masses and percent abundances are experimentally determined numbers.
The fractional abundance Summing, to obtain the atomic mass, gives

is the percent abundance
divided by 100%. For (18.88 + 2.531 + 2.902) amu = 24.313 amu (calculator answer)
a 92.301% abundance = 24.31 amu (correct answer)
the fraction abundance
is 0.92301. The decimal Since the number 18.88 is known only to the hundredths place, the answer can be ex-
point is shifted two places pressed only to the hundredths place.
to the left in converting
The above calculation involved an element that exists in three isotopic forms. An
percent abundance to a
fractional abundance. atomic mass calculation for an element having four isotopic forms would be carried out
in an almost identical fashion. The only difference would be four products to calculate
(instead of three) and four terms in the resulting sum.
Answer Double Check: Is the numerical value of the atomic mass reasonable? Yes.
The average mass should have a value near the mass of the isotope that is present in the
greatest abundance. That is the case here. The mass of the most abundant isotope is 23.98
amu, and the calculated average is 24.31 amu. The other isotopic masses are 24.99 amu
and 25.98 amu.
If a census bureau report In Example 5.10 the atomic mass of magnesium was calculated to be 24.31 amu.
gives the average number How many magnesium atoms have a mass of 24.31 amu? The answer is none. Magnesium
of children in a family
atoms have a mass of 23.985, 24.986, or 25.983 amu, depending on which isotope they
in a given locality as
2.7, obviously no family are. The mass 24.31 amu is the mass of an average magnesium atom. It is this average
within the area actually mass that is used in calculations even though no magnesium atoms have masses equal to
has 2.7 children. In a this average value. Only in the case where all atoms have the same mass will the isotopic
similar fashion, no atom mass and the atomic mass be the same.
of an element for which
Atomic masses are subject to change, and they do change. Every two years an up-
several isotopes exist has
the average mass that dated atomic mass listing is published by the International Union of Pure and Applied
is calculated using the Chemistry (IUPAC). This update, produced by an international committee of chemists,
methods of Example 5.10. takes into account all new research on isotopic abundances.
New atomic mass values often, but not always, have less uncertainty than the older
values they replace. This is a reflection of the increasingly sophisticated instrumentation
available to current researchers, which enables them to make better measurements.
Illustrative of the atomic mass changes that do occur are those contained in the 2007
and 2009 IUPAC biennial reviews of atomic weight determinations. The atomic masses of
three elements were changed in 2007:
Molybdenum changed from 95.94 to 94.96
Ytterbium changed from 173.04 to 173.054
Zinc changed from 65.409 to 65.38
Seven atomic masses were changed in the 2009 report.
Carbon changed from 12.01 to 12.011
Germanium changed from 72.64 to 72.63
Lithium changed from 6.941 to 6.94
Nitrogen changed from 14.01 to 14.007
Oxygen changed from 16.00 to 15.999
Silicon changed from 28.09 to 28.085
Sulfur changed from 32.07 to 32.06
Atomic mass revisions such as these explain why various textbooks (and periodic tables)
often differ in a few atomic mass values. The differing values come from different IUPAC
reports on atomic masses. Atomic mass values used in this text come from the IUPAC
2009 report on the atomic masses of the elements.
The uncertainty associated with atomic mass values varies from element to element.
For example, we have
B 10.811 amu
F 18.9984032 amu
Si 28.0855 amu
Pb 207.2 amu
What causes such variance in uncertainty? The key factor is the constancy of isotopic
percentage abundance measurements among various samples of an element. Although
all elements have an essentially constant set of isotopic percentage abundances, there are
slight variations among samples obtained from different sources. All variations are small;
however, for some elements they are greater than for others. When only one form of
an element occurs in nature, such as F, values with less uncertainty can be obtained for
atomic mass.
An atomic mass cannot be calculated for all elements. Recall, from Sec. 4.8, that
not all elements are naturally occurring substances. Thirty of the known elements are
synthetic, having been produced in the laboratory from naturally occurring elements.
Obviously a weighted average atomic mass cannot be calculated for these laboratory-
produced elements, since the amount of each isotope produced varies, depending on the
laboratory experiment carried out.
Tabulations of atomic masses do contain entries for the synthetic elements. Such
entries are the mass number of the most stable isotope of the synthetic element. (All
isotopes of all synthetic elements are unstable.) Such mass numbers are always enclosed
in parentheses to distinguish them from calculated atomic masses. Note the presence of
such entries in both the atomic mass listing and the periodic table inside the front cover.
Mass Spectrometry Experiments

Before leaving the subject of atomic masses, we need to consider one additional ques-
tion. How do scientists determine the abundances and masses of the various isotopes of
an element? An instrument known as a mass spectrometer is the key to obtaining such
information.
A schematic diagram of a mass spectrometer is given in Figure 5.10. The important
components of this instrument are a source of charged particles of the element under
investigation, an aligning system to create a narrow beam of the charged particles, a
magnetic field to affect the path of the charged particles, and a means of detecting the
charged particles (such as a photographic plate).
Suppose oxygen gas containing all three isotopes is admitted to the instrument. The
gaseous molecules are bombarded with an energetic electron beam, producing positively
Aligning slots Photographic FIGURE 5.10 A

plate simplified diagram of
a mass spectrometer,
an instrument used
m1 to obtain information
m2 about isotopic masses
Source of and abundances.
positively m3
charged Magnetic field
species
charged oxygen species. The aligning system produces a narrow beam of these charged
species, which then enters the magnetic field. The most massive particles (heaviest iso-
tope) are not deflected by the magnetic field as much as the less massive ones, so the
charged species are divided into separate beams that strike the photographic plate at dif-
ferent points depending on their masses. The more abundant isotopes will create more
intense lines on the plate. The relative intensities of the lines correlate exactly with the
relative abundances of the isotopes.
5.9 EVIDENCE SUPPORTING THE EXISTENCE AND ARRANGEMENT

OF SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
Student Learning Focus: Be familiar with how information concerning subatomic particles and the
arrangement of these particles within an atom was obtained from discharge tube experiments
and metal foil experiments.
A significant collection of evidence is consistent with and supports the existence, nature,
and arrangement of subatomic particles as given in Section 5.5. Two historically impor-
tant types of experiments illustrate some of the sources of this evidence. Discharge tube
experiments resulted in the original concept that the atom contained negatively and posi-
tively charged particles. Metal foil experiments provided evidence for the existence of a
nucleus within the atom.
Discharge Tube Experiments

Neon signs, fluorescent lights, and television tubes are all basic components of our mod-
ern technological society. The forerunner for all three of these developments was the gas
discharge tube. Gas discharge tubes also provided some of the first evidence that an atom
consisted of still smaller particles (subatomic particles).
The principle behind the operation of a gas discharge tube—that gases at low
pressure conduct electricity—was discovered in 1821 by the English chemist Humphry
Davy (1778–1829). Subsequently, gas discharge tube studies were carried out by many
scientists.
A simplified diagram of a gas discharge tube is shown in Figure 5.11. The apparatus
consists of a sealed glass tube containing two metal disks called electrodes. The glass tube
also has a side arm for attachment to a vacuum pump. During operation, the electrodes
are connected to a source of electrical power. (The electrode attached to the positive side
of the electrical power source is called the anode; the one attached to the negative side
is known as the cathode.) Use of the vacuum pump allows the amount of gas within the
tube to be varied. The smaller the amount of gas present, the lower the pressure within
the tube.
FIGURE 5.11 A Negative Positive

simplified version of a electrode electrode
gas discharge tube. (cathode) (anode)
Glass tube
(−) (+)
To vacuum pump
Early studies with gas discharge tubes showed that when the tube was almost evac-
uated (low pressure), electricity flowed from one electrode to the other and the residual
gas became luminous (it glowed). Different gases in the tube gave different colors to
the glow. After the pressure in the tube was reduced to still lower levels (very little gas
remaining), it was found that the luminosity disappeared but the electrical conductance
continued, as shown by a greenish glow given off by the tube’s glass walls. This glow was
the initial discovery of what became known as cathode rays. Their discovery marked the
beginning of nearly 40 years of discharge tube experimentation that ultimately led to the
characterization of both the electron and the proton.
The term cathode rays comes from the observation that when an obstacle is placed
between the negative electrode (cathode) and the opposite glass wall, a sharp shadow
the shape of the obstacle is cast on that wall. This indicates that the rays are coming from
the cathode.
Further studies showed that these cathode rays caused certain minerals such as
sphalerite (zinc sulfide) to glow. Glass plates were coated with sphalerite and observed
under high magnification while being bombarded with cathode rays. The light emitted by
the sphalerite coating consisted of many pinpoint flashes. This observation suggested that
cathode rays were in reality a stream of extremely small particles.
Joseph John Thomson (1856–1940), an English physicist, provided many facts about Thomson’s cathode ray
the nature of cathode rays. Using a variety of materials as cathodes, he showed that tube experiments have
evolved into today’s
cathode ray production was a general property of matter. By using a specially designed televisions and computer
cathode ray tube (see Fig. 5.12), he also found that cathode rays could be deflected by monitors (still often
charged plates or a magnetic field. The rays were repelled by the north pole, or negative called CRTs).
plate, and attracted to the south pole, or positive plate, thus indicating that they were
negatively charged. In 1897, Thomson concluded that cathode rays were streams of nega-
tively charged particles, which today we call electrons. Further experiments by others
proved that his conclusions were correct.
In 1886, a German physicist, Eugen Goldstein (1850–1930), showed that positive
particles were also present in discharge tubes. He used a discharge tube in which the
cathode was a metal plate with a large number of holes drilled in it. The usual cathode
FIGURE 5.12
J. J. Thomson’s cathode
ray tube involved the
use of both electrical
Positive Negative and magnetic fields.
electrode electrode
(anode) (cathode)
Metal
plates
+
Magnet
_
Sensitized screen
FIGURE 5.13 A
gas discharge tube
Anode
modified to detect Cathode rays Canal rays
+
canal rays.
−
Cathode
rays were observed to stream from cathode to anode. In addition, rays of light appeared
to stream from each of the holes in the cathode in a direction opposite to that of the cath-
ode rays (see Fig. 5.13). Because these rays were observed streaming through the holes
or channels in the cathode, Goldstein called them canal rays.
Further research showed that canal rays were of many different types, in contrast to
cathode rays, which are only one type, and that the particles making up canal rays were
much heavier than those of cathode rays. The type of canal rays produced depended
upon the gas in the tube. The simplest canal rays were eventually identified as the par-
ticles now called protons.
Canal rays are now known to be gas atoms that have lost one or more electrons.
Their origin and behavior in a discharge tube can be understood as follows. Electrons
(cathode rays) emitted from the cathode collide with residual gas molecules (air) on the
way to the anode. Some of these electrons have enough energy to knock electrons away
from the gas molecules, leaving behind a positive particle (the remainder of the gas
molecule). These positive particles are attracted to the cathode, and some of them pass
through the holes or channels. The fact that atoms, under certain conditions, can lose
electrons will be discussed further in Section 7.4.
On the basis of discharge tube experiments, Thomson proposed in 1898 that the
atom was composed of a sphere of positive electricity containing most of the mass, and
that small negative electrons were attached to the surface of the positive sphere. He
postulated that a high voltage could pull off surface electrons to produce cathode rays.
Thomson’s model of the atom, sometimes referred to as the “raisin muffin” or “plum pud-
ding” model—with the electrons as the raisins or plums—is now known to be incorrect. Its
significance is that it set the stage for an experiment, commonly called the gold foil experi-
ment, that led to the currently accepted arrangement of protons and electrons in the atom.
Metal Foil Experiments

In 1911 Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937; see “The Human Side of Chemistry 4”) designed
an experiment to test the Thomson model of the atom. In this experiment thin sheets of
metal foil were bombarded by alpha particles from a radioactive source. Alpha particles,
which are positively charged, are ejected at high speeds from some radioactive materials.
The phenomenon of radioactivity had been discovered in 1896 and gave further evidence
that electrical charges existed within the atom. Gold was chosen as the target metal be-
cause it is easily hammered into very thin sheets. The experimental setup for Rutherford’s
experiment is shown in Figure 5.14. Alpha particles do not appreciably penetrate lead, so
a lead plate with a slit was used to produce a narrow alpha particle beam. Each time an
alpha particle hit the fluorescent screen, a flash of light was produced.
Rutherford expected that all the alpha particles, since they were so energetic, would
pass straight through the thin gold foil. His reasoning was based on the Thomson model,
in which the mass and positive charge of the gold atoms were distributed uniformly
through each atom. As each positive alpha particle neared the foil, Rutherford assumed
that it would be confronted by a uniform positive charge. All particles would be affected
the same way (no deflection), which would support the Thomson model of the atom.
FIGURE 5.14
Rutherford’s gold
foil—alpha particle
experiment. Most of
the alpha particles
Beam of went straight through
alpha particles the foil, but a few
Source of were deflected at
alpha particles large angles.
Gold
foil
Lead block Fluorescent

Lead plate screen
with slit

Ernest Rutherford In 1899, he moved to Canada, spending Following the war, in 1919, Rutherford
(1871–1937) nine years at McGill University doing further moved to Cambridge University, assuming
research on alpha and beta particles. At McGill the position formerly held by J. J. Thomson,
Ernest Rutherford, he found that alpha particles are helium nuclei the professor who guided him as a graduate
born in 1871 on a farm and that beta particles are electrons. For this student. Here, he again was on the forefront
in Brightwater, New work he was awarded his Nobel Prize. of scientific advances, this time discovering
Zealand, was the fourth in a family of 12 chil- In 1907, he returned to England nuclear transformations, the process in which
dren. He left New Zealand for England at the (Manchester University) where further stud- an atom of an element changes into another
age of 25 after having won a scholarship to ies on alpha particles led to his famous gold element.
Cambridge University. Rutherford’s gold foil foil experiment, considered to be Rutherford’s Many of the students Rutherford guided
experiment is only one of many contributions greatest and most fruitful contribution to sci- as a professor went on to make major scientific
that he made to the sciences of chemistry and entific knowledge. Many years later Rutherford discoveries of their own. Among his graduate
physics. Indeed, three years prior to carrying out described the unexpected results of this experi- students were 10 future recipients of the Nobel
this famous experiment, in 1908, he received the ment as follows: “It was about as credible as Prize. He lived to see some of them receive
Nobel Prize in chemistry for his investigations if you had fired a 15-inch shell at a piece of their prizes.
into the nature of radioactivity. tissue paper and it came back and hit you.” Rutherford’s research work was
While in graduate school at Cambridge, World War I brought an abrupt change diverse—radioactivity at McGill, atomic phys-
his professor, J. J. Thomson, encouraged him in direction, a switch from atoms to subma- ics at Manchester, and nuclear physics at
to study the newly discovered phenomenon of rines. He studied underwater acoustics, sup- Cambridge. His research was world-class at
radioactivity. His research in this area led to plying the government with much information all three institutions. He was a very talented
the discovery of the alpha and beta radiation needed to advance the technology of subma- researcher. Element 104, rutherfordium, carries
associated with radioactivity. rine detection. Rutherford’s name. ▪
The results from the experiment were very surprising. Most of the particles—
more than 99%—went straight through as expected. A few, however, were appreciably
deflected by something that had to be much heavier than the alpha particles themselves.
A very few particles were deflected almost directly back toward the alpha particle source.
Similar results were obtained when elements other than gold were used as targets.
Extensive study of the results of his experiments led Rutherford to propose the
following explanation:
1. A very dense, small nucleus exists in the center of the atom. This nucleus contains
most of the mass of the atom and all of the positive charge.
2. Electrons occupy most of the total volume of the atom and are located outside the
nucleus.
3. When an alpha particle scores a direct hit on a nucleus, it is deflected back along
the incoming path.
4. A near miss of a nucleus by an alpha particle results in repulsion and deflection.
5. Most of the alpha particles pass through without any interference, because most of
the atomic volume is empty space.
6. Electrons have so little mass that they do not deflect the much larger alpha particles
(an alpha particle is almost 8000 times heavier than an electron).
Many other experiments have since verified Rutherford’s conclusion that at the
center of an atom there is a nucleus that is very small and very dense.
the chapter. They are a useful study aid for students as they prepare for an upcoming examination or are reviewing
for a final comprehensive examination.
1. Atoms and Molecules An atom is the small- are made, are of three major types: electrons,
est particle of an element that can exist and still protons, and neutrons. Electrons are negatively
have the properties of the element. Free isolated charged, protons are positively charged, and
atoms are rarely encountered in nature. Instead, neutrons have no charge. Protons and neutrons
atoms are almost always found together in ag- have much larger masses than electrons. All neu-
gregates or clusters. A molecule is a group of trons and protons are found at the center of the
two or more atoms that functions as a unit be- atom in the nucleus. The electrons occupy the
cause the atoms are tightly bound together. region about (around) the nucleus. Discharge
2. Types of Molecules Molecules are of two types: tube experiments played a key role in the dis-
homoatomic and heteroatomic. Homoatomic covery of electrons and protons. Metal foil ex-
molecules are molecules in which all atoms pres- periments were instrumental in establishing that
ent are of the same kind. A pure substance con- an atom had a nucleus.
taining homoatomic molecules is an element. 5. Atomic Number and Mass Number Each atom
Heteroatomic molecules are molecules in which has a characteristic atomic number (Z) and mass
two or more different kinds of atoms are present. number (A). The atomic number is equal to the
Pure substances that contain heteroatomic number of protons in the nucleus of the atom.
molecules must be compounds. The molecule is The mass number is equal to the total number of
the limit of physical subdivision. The atom is the protons and neutrons in the nucleus. In designat-
limit of chemical subdivision. ing various types of atoms, the atomic number is
3. Chemical Formulas Chemical formulas are used specified as a subscript to the left of an atom’s
to specify compound composition in a concise elemental symbol, and the mass number is speci-
manner. They consist of chemical symbols of the fied as a superscript to the left of the atom’s el-
elements present in the compound and numeri- emental symbol.
cal subscripts (located to the right of each sym- 6. Isotopes and Isobars Isotopes are atoms that
bol) that indicate the number of atoms of each have the same number of protons and electrons
element present in a molecule of the compound. but have different numbers of neutrons. The iso-
4. Subatomic Particles Subatomic particles, the topes of an element always have the same atomic
very small building blocks from which atoms number and different mass numbers. Isotopes of
an element have the same chemical properties. element on a scale using the 126C atom as the ref-
Isobars are atoms of different elements that have erence. An atomic mass depends on the percent
the same mass number. abundances and masses of the naturally occur-
7. Atomic Mass The atomic mass of an element ring isotopes of an element.
is the relative mass of an average atom of the
Key Terms Listing

given to the chapter sections where freestanding complete-sentence definitions for the terms are found.
atom Sec. 5.1 element Sec. 5.6 neutron Sec. 5.5
atomic mass Sec. 5.8 heteroatomic molecule Sec. 5.2 nucleon Sec. 5.5
atomic number Sec. 5.6 homoatomic molecule Sec. 5.2 nucleus Sec. 5.5
atomic theory or matter Sec 5.1 isobars Sec. 5.7 percent abundance Sec. 5.7
chemical formula Sec. 5.4 isotopes Sec. 5.7 subatomic particle Sec. 5.5
diatomic molecule Sec. 5.2 mass number Sec. 5.6 triatomic molecule Sec. 5.2
electron Sec. 5.5 molecule Sec. 5.2

ing the same aspect of a given topic. This matched pair arrangement creates two independent problem sets—an odd-numbered
ATOMS AND MOLECULES (SECS. 5.1 AND 5.2)

5.1 Which of the following concepts are not consis- c. d.
tent with the statements of modern-day atomic
theory?
a. Atoms are the basic building blocks for all kinds of
matter.
b. Different types of atoms exist.
c. All atoms of a given type are identical. 5.4 Classify the substances represented by the following
d. Atoms are considered indestructible during chemi- models as homoatomic or heteroatomic molecules.
cal change processes. a. b.
5.2 Which of the following concepts are not consistent
with the statements of modern-day atomic theory?
a. Only whole atoms can participate in chemical c. d.
reactions.
b. Atoms change identity during chemical change
processes.
c. One-hundred twenty different “types” of atoms are
known. 5.5 Classify the substances represented by the models in
d. Chemical change is a union, separation, or rear- Problem 5.3 as to the number of atoms present per mol-
rangement of atoms to give new substances. ecule, that is, as diatomic, triatomic, tetraatomic, and so on.
5.3 Classify the substances represented by the fol- 5.6 Classify the substances represented by the models in
lowing models as homoatomic or heteroatomic Problem 5.4 as to the number of atoms present per mol-
molecules. ecule, that is, as diatomic, triatomic, tetraatomic, and so on.
5.7 Classify the substances represented by the models in
a. b. Problem 5.3 as to the type of pure substance, that is,
as element or compound.
5.8 Classify the substances represented by the models in
Problem 5.4 as to the type of pure substance, that is,
as element or compound.
5.9 Indicate whether each of the following statements is c. d.

C
true or false. If a statement is false, change it to make A
B B C
it true. (Such a rewriting should involve more than C B B
merely converting the statement to a negative one.)
a. Molecules must contain three or more atoms. A A
b. The atom is the limit of chemical subdivision for
an element. 5.14 Write chemical formulas, using the generalized sym-
c. All compounds have molecules as their basic bols A, B, and C, for the substances represented by
structural unit. each of the following molecular models. List the sym-
d. The diameter of an atom is approximately 10-8 bols in alphabetical order in the chemical formulas.
meters. a. b.
5.10 Indicate whether each of the following statements is B
A C
true or false. If a statement is false, change it to make A
it true. (Such a rewriting should involve more than B B
merely converting the statement to a negative one.)
a. A molecule of an element may be homoatomic c. d.
or heteroatomic depending on which element is A A A A
involved. B B
b. Heteroatomic molecules do not maintain the prop- C
erties of their constituent elements.
c. Only one kind of atom may be present in a 5.15 On the basis of its chemical formula, classify each of
homoatomic molecule. the following substances as an element or compound.
d. The mass of an atom is approximately 10-23 gram. a. NaClO2 b. CO c. S8 d. Al
5.11 Assign each of the following descriptions of matter to 5.16 On the basis of its chemical formula, classify each of
one of the following categories: element, compound, the following substances as an element or compound.
or mixture. a. AlN b. CO2 c. Co d. O3
a. one substance present, two phases present, all 5.17 Write the chemical formulas for compounds in which
molecules present are homoatomic the following numbers of atoms are present in a for-
b. two substances present, one phase present, all mula unit of the compound.
molecules present are homoatomic a. 20 carbon atoms, 30 hydrogen atoms
c. one phase present, two kinds of triatomic hetero- b. 2 hydrogen atoms, 1 sulfur atom, 4 oxygen atoms
atomic molecules present c. 1 hydrogen atom, 1 carbon atom, 1 nitrogen atom
d. triatomic homoatomic and diatomic heteroatomic d. 1 potassium atom, 1 manganese atom, 4 oxygen
molecules present atoms
5.12 Assign each of the following descriptions of matter to 5.18 Write the chemical formulas for compounds in which
one of the following categories: element, compound, the following numbers of atoms are present in a for-
or mixture. mula unit of the compound.
a. one substance present, one phase present, one a. 10 carbon atoms, 14 hydrogen atoms, 2 oxygen
kind of heteroatomic molecule present atoms
b. two substances present, two phases present, all b. 2 carbon atoms, 6 hydrogen atoms, 1 oxygen atom
molecules present are heteroatomic c. 1 sodium atom, 1 oxygen atom, 1 hydrogen atom
c. one phase present, two kinds of diatomic hetero- d. 1 potassium atom, 1 nitrogen atom, 3 oxygen
atomic molecules present atoms
d. diatomic homoatomic and triatomic heteroatomic 5.19 For each of the following pairs of chemical formulas,
molecules present select the chemical formula that contains the greater
number of total atoms.
a. NH4OCN and NH4NO3
CHEMICAL FORMULAS (SEC. 5.4) b. K3PO4 and Mg(OH)2
c. AlPO4 and Al(ClO)3
5.13 Write chemical formulas, using the generalized sym-
d. Ba(NO3)2 and Ca(ClO4)2
bols A, B, and C, for the substances represented by
5.20 For each of the following pairs of chemical formulas,
each of the following molecular models. List the sym-
select the chemical formula that contains the greater
bols in alphabetical order in the chemical formulas.
number of total atoms.
a. b. a. H2SO4 and Ca(OH)2
B A B B
C C b. NH4NO2 and Be(NO3)2
c. CaSO4 and Ca(OCN)2
d. Be3(PO4)2 and Be(C2H3O2)2
5.21 For each of the pairs of chemical formulas in Problem possible that more than one term may apply in a given
5.19, select the chemical formula that contains the situation.
greater number of oxygen atoms. a. has no charge
5.22 For each of the pairs of chemical formulas in Problem b. has a charge equal to but opposite in sign to that
5.20, select the chemical formula that contains the of an electron
greater number of oxygen atoms. c. is not found in the nucleus
5.23 What difference in meaning, if any, is there in the fol- d. has a positive charge
lowing pairs of notations? 5.31 Indicate whether each of the following statements
a. NO and No b. Cs2 and CS2 about the nucleus of an atom is true or false.
c. CoBr2 and COBr2 d. H and H2 a. The nucleus of an atom is neutral.
5.24 What difference in meaning, if any, is there in the fol- b. The nucleus of an atom contains only neutrons.
lowing pairs of notations? c. The number of nucleons present in the nucleus is
a. Hf and HF b. TiN and Tin always equal to the number of electrons present
c. NICl2 and NiCl2 d. O2 and O3 outside the nucleus.
5.25 The following molecular formulas are incorrectly d. The nucleus accounts for almost all of the mass of
written. Rewrite each formula in the correct manner. an atom.
a. H3PO4 5.32 Indicate whether each of the following statements
b. SICL4 (a silicon–chlorine compound) about the nucleus of an atom is true or false.
c. NOO a. The nucleus accounts for almost all the volume of
d. 2HO (two H atoms and two O atoms) an atom.
5.26 The following molecular formulas are incorrectly b. The nucleus can be positively or negatively
written. Rewrite each formula in the correct manner. charged, depending on the identity of the atom.
a. H2CO3 c. The nucleus of an atom contains an equal number
b. ALBR3 (an aluminum–bromine compound) of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
c. HSH d. The nucleus of an atom is always positively
d. 2NO2 (two N atoms and four O atoms) charged.
5.27 Write a chemical formula for each of the following 5.33 In terms of mass, how many electrons are needed to
substances based on the information given about a equal the mass of one proton?
molecule of the substance. 5.34 In terms of mass, how many electrons are needed to
a. A molecule of hydrogen cyanide is triatomic and equal the mass of one neutron?
contains the elements hydrogen, carbon, and
nitrogen. ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER (SEC. 5.6)
b. A molecule of sulfuric acid is heptaatomic and
contains two atoms of hydrogen, one atom of sul- 5.35 Using the information inside the front cover, deter-
fur, and the element oxygen. mine which element in each of the following pairs of
5.28 Write a chemical formula for each of the following elements has the greater atomic number.
substances based on the information given about a a. magnesium and calcium
molecule of the substance. b. carbon and boron
a. A molecule of nitrous oxide contains twice as c. phosphorus and sulfur
many atoms of nitrogen as of oxygen and is d. iron and copper
triatomic. 5.36 Using the information inside the front cover, deter-
b. A molecule of nitric acid is pentaatomic and mine which element in each of the following pairs of
contains three atoms of oxygen and the elements elements has the greater atomic number.
hydrogen and nitrogen. a. oxygen and fluorine b. neon and argon
c. silver and gold d. bromine and chlorine
5.37 For each of the following atoms, specify the atomic
SUBATOMIC PARTICLES (SEC. 5.5)
number and the mass number.
5.29 Match the terms proton, neutron, and electron to each a. 53
24Cr b. 103
44Ru c. 256
101Md d. 34
16S
of the following subatomic particle descriptions. It is 5.38 For each of the following atoms, specify the atomic
possible that more than one term may apply in a given number and the mass number.
situation. a. 67
30Zn b. 94Be c. 40
20Ca d. 31H
a. possesses a negative charge 5.39 An atom has an atomic number of 20. What is its mass
b. has a mass slightly less than that of a neutron number if it contains
c. can be called a nucleon a. two more neutrons than protons
d. is the heaviest of the three particles b. the same number of neutrons and protons
5.30 Match the terms proton, neutron, and electron to each c. one less neutron than protons
of the following subatomic particle descriptions. It is d. one less proton than neutrons
5.40 An atom has an atomic number of 30. What is its mass c. mass number – atomic number
number if it contains d. mass number + atomic number
a. three more neutrons than protons 5.55 Using the information inside the front cover, identify
b. the same number of neutrons and protons the element X based on the given complete symbol
c. two less neutrons than protons for X.
d. two less protons than neutrons a. 157X b. 2713X c. 139
56X d. 197
79X
5.41 An atom has a mass number of 70. What is its atomic 5.56 Using the information inside the front cover, identify
number if it contains the element X based on the given complete symbol
a. two more neutrons than protons for X.
b. the same number of neutrons and protons a. 168X b. 199X c. 40
20X d. 109
47X
c. four less protons than neutrons 5.57 Fill in the blanks in each row in the following table.
d. two less neutrons than protons The first row is already completed as an example.
5.42 An atom has a mass number of 80. What is its atomic
number if it contains
Atomic Mass Number Number
a. two more neutrons than protons
Symbol number number of protons of neutrons
b. the same number of neutrons and protons
3
c. four less protons than neutrons 2He 2 3 2 1
d. four less neutrons than protons
a. 60 28
5.43 What is the atomic number for atoms composed of the
following sets of subatomic particles? b. 18 37
a. 5 protons, 5 electrons, and 6 neutrons
b. 8 protons, 8 electrons, and 8 neutrons c. 90 52
c. 13 protons, 13 electrons, and 14 neutrons d. 235
92U
d. 18 protons, 18 electrons, and 22 neutrons
5.44 What is the atomic number for atoms composed of the
following sets of subatomic particles?
a. 4 protons, 4 electrons, and 5 neutrons 5.58 Fill in the blanks in each row in the following table.
b. 7 protons, 7 electrons, and 8 neutrons The first row is already completed as an example.
c. 15 protons, 15 electrons, and 16 neutrons
d. 20 protons, 20 electrons, and 28 neutrons
5.45 What is the mass number for each of the atoms in Atomic Mass Number Number
Symbol number number of protons of neutrons
Problem 5.43?
5.46 What is the mass number for each of the atoms in 37
17Cl 17 37 17 20
Problem 5.44?
5.47 What is the total number of nucleons present for each a. 232 94
of the atoms in Problem 5.43?
b. 32
5.48 What is the total number of nucleons present for each 16S
of the atoms in Problem 5.44? c. 26 56

5.49 What is the charge on the nucleus for each of the
d. 40 20
atoms in Problem 5.43?
5.50 What is the charge on the nucleus for each of the
atoms in Problem 5.44?
5.51 What is the complete chemical symbol (AZE) for each 5.59 Determine the number of protons, electrons, and
of the atoms in Problem 5.43? neutrons present in atoms with the following
5.52 What is the complete chemical symbol (AZE) for each characteristics.
of the atoms in Problem 5.44? a. atomic number = 27 and mass number = 59
5.53 Indicate whether (1) the atomic number, (2) the mass b. mass number = 103 and Z = 45
number, or (3) both the atomic number and the mass c. Z = 69 and A = 169
number are needed to determine the following. d. atomic number = 9 and A = 19
a. number of protons in an atom 5.60 Determine the number of protons, electrons, and
b. number of neutrons in an atom neutrons present in atoms with the following
c. number of nucleons in an atom characteristics.
d. total number of subatomic particles in an atom a. A = 103 and atomic number = 44
5.54 What information about the subatomic particles pres- b. Z = 41 and A = 93
ent in an atom is obtained from each of the following? c. mass number = 59 and atomic number = 27
a. atomic number d. Z = 59 and mass number = 141
b. mass number
5.61 Determine the following information for an atom ISOTOPES (SEC. 5.7)
whose complete symbol is 23 11Na.
a. the total number of subatomic particles present 5.69 With the help of the information inside the front cover,
b. the total number of subatomic particles present in write the complete symbols (AZE) of the isotopes that
the nucleus of the atom are characterized as follows:
c. the total number of nucleons present a. An isotope of bromine that has 45 neutrons
d. the total charge (including sign) associated with b. An isotope of carbon that has 8 neutrons
the nucleus of the atom c. An isotope of sodium that has 12 neutrons
5.62 Determine the following information for an atom d. An isotope of tin that has 70 neutrons
whose complete symbol is 37 5.70 With the help of the information inside the front cover,
17Cl.
a. the total number of subatomic particles present write the complete symbols (AZE) of the isotopes that
b. the total number of subatomic particles present in are characterized as follows:
the nucleus of the atom a. An isotope of calcium that has 20 neutrons
c. the total number of nucleons present b. An isotope of beryllium that has 6 neutrons
d. the total charge (including sign) associated with c. An isotope of potassium that has 20 neutrons
the nucleus of the atom d. An isotope of iodine that has 75 neutrons
5.63 Write complete symbols (AZE) for atoms with the fol- 5.71 Five naturally occurring isotopes of the element zir-
lowing characteristics. conium exist. Knowing that the heaviest isotope has a
a. contains 15 electrons and 16 neutrons mass number of 96 and that the other isotopes have,
b. oxygen atom with 10 neutrons respectively, two, four, five, and six fewer neutrons,
c. chromium atom with a mass number of 54 write the complete symbol (AZE) for each of the five
d. gold atom that contains 276 subatomic particles isotopes.
5.64 Write complete symbols (AZE) for atoms with the fol- 5.72 Four naturally occurring isotopes of the element
lowing characteristics. strontium exist. Knowing that the lightest isotope
a. contains 20 electrons and 24 neutrons has a mass number of 84 and that the other isotopes
b. radon atom with a mass number of 211 have, respectively, two, four, and five more neutrons,
c. silver atom that contains 157 subatomic particles write the complete symbol (AZE) for each of the four
d. beryllium atom that contains 9 nucleons isotopes.
5.65 An atom with an atomic number of 12 contains 37 5.73 What is the mass number for each of the following
subatomic particles. How many of these subatomic atoms?
particles have each of the following characteristics? a. carbon atom with an atomic mass of 13.003 amu
a. carry a charge b. argon atom with an atomic mass of 35.968 amu
b. carry no charge c. Co atom with an atomic mass of 58.933 amu
c. located within the nucleus d. Pd atom with an atomic mass of 103.904 amu
d. not found in the nucleus 5.74 What is the mass number for each of the following
5.66 An atom with an atomic number of 17 contains 54 atoms?
subatomic particles. How many of these subatomic a. nitrogen atom with an atomic mass of 14.003 amu
particles have each of the following characteristics? b. phosphorus atom with an atomic mass of 30.974
a. carry a charge amu
b. carry no charge c. Cr atom with an atomic mass of 50.945 amu
c. located within the nucleus d. Ag atom with an atomic mass of 108.904 amu
d. not found in the nucleus 5.75 Four isotopes exist for iron, element 26. One isotope
5.67 Characterize each of the following pairs of atoms as has an isotopic mass of 53.940 amu and a percent
containing (1) the same number of neutrons, (2) the abundance of 5.82. A second isotope has an isotopic
same number of electrons, or (3) the same total num- mass of 55.935 amu and a percent abundance of 91.66.
ber of subatomic particles. The third isotope has an isotopic mass of 56.935 amu.
a. 40 41
b. 30 32 The fourth isotope has an isotopic mass of 57.933 amu
20Ca and 19K 14Si and 16S
23 24
c. 11Na and 12Mg 7 6
d. 3Li and 3Li and a percent abundance of 0.33.
5.68 Characterize each of the following pairs of atoms as a. What are the mass numbers for the four iron
containing (1) the same number of neutrons, (2) the isotopes?
same number of electrons, or (3) the same total num- b. What is the percent abundance for the third iron
ber of subatomic particles. isotope?
a. 136C and 147N b. 188O and 199F 5.76 Four isotopes exist for strontium, element 38. One
c. 37 and 36
d. 35 37 isotope has an isotopic mass of 83.913 amu and a
17Cl 18 Ar 17Cl and 17Cl
percent abundance of 0.56. A second isotope has 5.83 Indicate whether the members of each of the follow-
an isotopic mass of 85.909 amu and a percent abun- ing pairs of atoms, specified in terms of subatomic
dance of 9.86. The third isotope has an isotopic mass particle composition, are isotopes, isobars, or neither.
of 86.909 amu. The fourth isotope has an isotopic a. (24p, 24e, 26n) and (24p, 24e, 28n)
mass of 87.906 amu and a percent abundance of b. (24p, 24e, 28n) and (25p, 25e, 27n)
82.56. c. (24p, 24e, 26n) and (25p, 25e, 26n)
a. What are the mass numbers for the four strontium d. (24p, 24e, 26n) and (24p, 24e, 24n)
isotopes? 5.84 Indicate whether the members of each of the follow-
b. What is the percent abundance for the third stron- ing pairs of atoms, specified in terms of subatomic
tium isotope? particle composition, are isotopes, isobars, or neither.
5.77 Using the information given in the following table a. (30p, 30e, 39n) and (31p, 31e, 38n)
indicate whether each of the following pairs of atoms b. (30p, 30e, 35n) and (29p, 29e, 36n)
are isotopes. c. (30p, 30e, 34n) and (30p, 30e, 36n)
d. (30p, 30e, 38n) and (32p, 32e, 38n)
5.85 Isobars with a mass number of 40 exist for Ar, K, and Ca.
Protons Neutrons Electrons Write the complete symbol (AZE) for each of these isobars.
5.86 Isobars with a mass number of 50 exist for Ti, V, and Cr.
Atom A 9 10 9 Write the complete symbol (AZE) for each of these isobars.
Atom B 10 9 10
ATOMIC MASSES (SEC. 5.8)
Atom C 10 10 10
5.87 Using the information inside the front cover, deter-
Atom D 9 9 9
mine which element in each of the following pairs of
elements has the greater atomic mass.
a. atom A and atom B a. boron or nitrogen b. silver or gold
b. atom C and atom D c. xenon or uranium d. tellurium or iodine
c. atom B and atom D 5.88 Using the information inside the front cover, deter-
5.78 Using the information given in the table in Problem 5.77, mine which element in each of the following pairs of
indicate whether each of the following pairs of atoms elements has the greater atomic mass.
are isotopes. a. beryllium or neon b. iron or copper
a. atom A and atom C c. platinum or mercury d. cobalt or nickel
b. atom B and atom C 5.89 Using the information inside the front cover, identify the
c. atom A and atom D elements, by specifying their atomic numbers, that have
5.79 The following are selected properties for the most the following four-significant-figure atomic masses.
abundant isotope of a particular element. Which a. 85.47 b. 55.85 c. 92.91 d. 19.00
of these properties would also be the same for the 5.90 Using the information inside the front cover, identify the
second-most-abundant isotope of the element? elements, by specifying their atomic numbers, that have
a. mass number is 70 the following four-significant-figure atomic masses.
b. 31 electrons are present a. 44.96 b. 22.99 c. 83.80 d. 52.00
c. isotopic mass is 69.92 amu 5.91 Construct a relative mass scale for the hypothetical
d. isotope reacts with chlorine to give a green atoms Q, X, and Z, given that atoms of Q are two
compound times as heavy as those of X, atoms of X are two times
5.80 The following are selected properties for the most as heavy as atoms of Z, and the reference point for the
abundant isotope of a particular element. Which of scale is X = 4.00 bebs.
these properties would also be the same for the second- 5.92 Construct a relative mass scale for the hypothetical
most-abundant isotope of the element? atoms Q, X, and Z, given that atoms of Q are three
a. atomic number is 31 times as heavy as those of X, atoms of X are four times
b. does not react with the element gold as heavy as atoms of Z, and the reference point for the
c. 40 neutrons are present scale is Z = 2.50 bobs.
d. density is 1.0301 g/mL 5.93 The atoms of element Z each have an average mass
5.81 Indicate whether the members of each of the follow- three-fourths that of a 126C atom. Another element, X,
ing pairs of atoms are isotopes, isobars, or neither. has atoms whose average mass is three times the mass
a. 24 26
12X and 12Q b. 71 71
31X and 32Q of Z atoms. A third element, Q, has atoms with an
c. 56
25X and 54
24Q d. 57
27X and 60
27Q average mass nine times that of 126C.
5.82 Indicate whether the members of each of the follow- a. Construct a relative mass scale, based on 126C hav-
ing pairs of atoms are isotopes, isobars, or neither. ing a mass of 12 amu, for the elements Z, X, and Q.
a. 64 64
30X and 29Q b. 20 22
10X and 10Q b. Based on atomic masses rounded off to whole num-
c. 36
16X and 35
17Q d. 60
28X and 60
26Q bers, what is the identity of elements Z, X, and Q?
5.94 The atoms of element Z each have an average mass 5.100 Calculate the atomic mass of sulfur on the basis of
one-third that of a 126C atom. Another element, X, has the following percent composition and isotopic mass
atoms whose average mass is four times the mass of Z data for the naturally occurring isotopes.
atoms. A third element, Q, has atoms whose average
mass is twice the mass of X atoms. Isotope Mass (amu) Abundance(%)
a. Construct a relative mass scale, based on 126C hav-
32 31.9721 95.0
ing a mass of 12 amu, for the elements Z, X, and Q. 16S
b. Based on atomic masses rounded off to whole num- 33
16S 32.9715 0.76
bers, what is the identity of elements Z, X, and Q?
5.95 A football team has the following distribution of play- 34 33.9679 4.22
16S
ers: 22.0% are defensive linemen with an average mass
of 271 lb, 19.0% are defensive backs with an average 36 35.9671 0.014
16S
mass of 175 lb, 26.0% are offensive linemen with an
average mass of 263 lb, 15.0% are offensive backs with 5.101 Each of the following elements has only two natu-
an average mass of 182 lb, and 19.0% are specialty rally occurring isotopes. Determine, in each case,
team members with an average mass of 191 lb. What which isotope is more abundant, using only the
is the average mass of a football player on this team? atomic mass value for the element that is listed on
5.96 The assortment of automobiles on a used-car lot is the periodic table inside the front cover.
categorized as follows: 18.0% are 1 year old, 10.0% a. 147N and 157N b. 50 51
23V and 23V
are 2 years old, 33.0% are 3 years old, 4.0% are 4 years c. 12151 Sb and 123
51 Sb d. 191
77 Ir and 193
77Ir
old, 31.0% are 5 years old, and 4.0% are 6 years old. 5.102 Each of the following elements has only two natu-
What is the average age of a car on this used-car lot? rally occurring isotopes. Determine, in each case,
5.97 Calculate the atomic mass of chlorine on the basis of which isotope is more abundant, using only the
the following percent composition and isotopic mass atomic mass value for the element that is listed on
data for the naturally occurring isotopes. the periodic table inside the front cover.
a. 105B and 115B b. 69 71
31Ga and 31Ga
107 109
c. 47Ag and 47Ag d. 81Tl and 205
203
81Tl
Isotope Mass (amu) Abundance(%) 5.103 If the mass number range for the isotopes of an ele-
35 34.9689 75.53% ment is from 54 to 59, which of the following calcu-
17CI
lated atomic mass values are impossible values for
37
17CI
36.9659 24.47% the atomic mass of the element?
a. 54.23 amu
b. 57.02 amu
5.98 Calculate the atomic mass of copper on the basis of c. 58.37 amu
the following percent composition and isotopic mass d. 59.21 amu
data for the naturally occurring isotopes. 5.104 If the mass number range for the isotopes of an ele-
ment is from 75 to 82, which of the following calcu-
lated atomic mass values are impossible values for
Isotope Mass (amu) Abundance(%) the atomic mass of the element?
63 62.9298 69.09 a. 74.23 amu
29Cu
b. 75.09 amu
65
29Cu
64.9278 30.91 c. 80.37 amu
d. 82.79 amu
5.105 Fill in the blanks in each row in the following table,
5.99 Calculate the atomic mass of titanium on the basis of based on reasoning rather than the use of a calcula-
the following percent composition and isotopic mass tor. The first row is already completed as an example.
data for the naturally occurring isotopes.
Isotope Mass (amu) Abundance(%) Isotope Isotope Atomic Abundance Abundance

A B Mass %A %B
46
22Ti
45.95263 7.93
46 amu 48 amu 47 amu 50% 50%
47
22Ti
46.95176 7.28
a. 46 amu 50 amu 47 amu
48
22Ti
47.94795 73.94 b. 46 amu 50 amu 25%
49
22Ti
48.94787 5.51 c. 45 amu 50 amu 46 amu
50 49.94479 5.34 d. 45 amu 50 amu 80%
22Ti
5.106 Fill in the blanks in each row in the following table, 5.110 The atomic mass of fluorine is 19.00 amu and that of
based on reasoning rather than the use of a calculator. copper is 63.55 amu. All fluorine atoms have a mass
The first row is already completed as an example. of 19.00 amu, and not a single copper atom has a
mass of 63.55 amu. Explain.
Isotope Isotope Atomic Abundance Abundance

A B Mass %A %B EVIDENCE SUPPORTING THE EXISTENCE AND
ARRANGEMENT OF SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
36 amu 40 amu 39 amu 25% 75%
(SEC. 5.9)
a. 36 amu 40 amu 37 amu
b. 36 amu 40 amu 25% about discharge tube and metal foil experiments is
c. 35 amu 40 amu 37 amu true or false.
a. Information obtained from discharge tube exper-
d. 35 amu 40 amu 60%
iments led to the characterization of both protons
and electrons.
5.107 For each of the following pairs of elements, deter- b. Canal rays are negatively charged particles pro-
mine how many times heavier, to three significant duced in a discharge tube.
figures, an average atom of the first listed element is c. Metal foil experiments led to the discovery of
than an average atom of the second listed element. neutrons.
a. scandium and potassium d. Many different types of cathode rays are known.
b. zinc and calcium 5.112 Indicate whether each of the following statements
c. phosphorus and oxygen about discharge tube and metal foil experiments is
d. neon and boron true or false.
5.108 For each of the following pairs of elements, deter- a. In metal foil experiments almost all of the bom-
mine how many times heavier, to three significant barding particles were stopped by the metal foil.
figures, an average atom of the first listed element is b. Metal foil experiments led to the concept that an
than an average atom of the second listed element. atom has a nucleus.
a. gold and silver b. iron and hydrogen c. Cathode rays and canal rays move in opposite
c. iodine and fluorine d. barium and beryllium directions in a discharge tube.
5.109 The arbitrary standard for the atomic mass scale is d. Many different types of canal rays have been
the exact number 12 for the mass of 126C. Why, then, observed, but only one type of cathode ray is
is the atomic mass of carbon listed as 12.01? known.
numbered problems.
5.113 Based on the given information, determine the c. SOxClx; formula unit contains 5 atoms
numerical value of the subscript x in each of the d. CxH2xClx; formula unit contains 8 atoms
following chemical formulas. 5.115 A mixture contains the following five pure
a. Na2SxO3; formula unit contains 7 atoms substances: O2, N2O, H2O, CCl4, and CH2Br2.
b. Ba(ClOx)2; formula unit contains 9 atoms a. How many different kinds of heteroatomic mol-
c. NaxPxO10; formula unit contains 16 atoms ecules are present in the mixture?
d. CxH2xOx; formula unit contains 24 atoms b. How many different kinds of pentaatomic mol-
5.114 Based on the given information, determine the nu- ecules are present in the mixture?
merical value of the subscript x in each of the follow- c. How many different compounds are present in the
ing chemical formulas. mixture?
a. BaS2Ox; formula unit contains 6 atoms d. How many total atoms are present in a mixture sam-
b. Al2(SOx)3; formula unit contains 17 atoms ple containing three molecules of each component.
5.116 A mixture contains the following five pure sub- 5.124 Silver consists of two naturally occurring isotopes
stances: N2, N2H4, NH3, CH4, CH3Cl. with masses of 106.9041 amu and 108.9047 amu.
a. How many different kinds of molecules that con- a. How many protons are in the nucleus of each
tain four or fewer atoms are present in the mixture? isotope?
b. How many different kinds of homoatomic mol- b. How many electrons are in an atom of each
ecules are present in the mixture? isotope?
c. How many different kinds of atoms are present c. How many neutrons are in the nucleus of each
in the mixture? isotope?
d. How many total atoms are present in a mixture sam- 5.125 Naturally occurring aluminum has a single isotope.
ple containing five molecules of each component. Determine the following for naturally occurring
5.117 Indicate whether each of the following statements atoms of aluminum.
concerning sodium isotopes is true or false. a. atomic number
a. 23
11Na has one more electron than does 11Na.
24
b. mass number
b. 23
11Na and 24
11Na contain the same number of neutrons. c. number of neutrons in the nucleus
c. 23
11Na has one fewer subatomic particle than 24
11Na. d. isotopic mass, in amu, to three significant
23 24
d. 11Na and 11Na have the same atomic number. figures
5.118 Indicate whether each of the following statements 5.126 Naturally occurring sodium has a single isotope.
concerning magnesium isotopes is true or false. Determine the following for naturally occurring
a. 24
12Mg has one more proton than 12Mg.
25
atoms of sodium.
24 25
b. 12Mg and 12Mg contain the same number of sub- a. atomic number
atomic particles in their nucleus. b. mass number
c. 24
12Mg has one fewer neutron than 12Mg.
25
c. number of neutrons in the nucleus
d. 24
12Mg and 25
12 Mg have different mass numbers. d. isotopic mass, in amu, to three significant
5.119 Arrange the five atoms 42 39 44 37
20Ca, 19K, 21Sc, 18Ar, and 22Ti
43
figures
in order of 5.127 Identify the element with each of the following
a. increasing number of electrons. characteristics.
b. decreasing number of neutrons. a. has an atomic mass 1.679 times that of
c. increasing number of protons. phosphorus
d. decreasing mass. b. has three times as many electrons as zinc
5.120 Arrange the five atoms 92 89 94 87 93
40Zr, 39Y, 41Nb, 38Sr, and 42Mo c. has 20 more protons than beryllium
in order of d. has twice as many charged subatomic particles as
a. decreasing number of electrons. calcium
b. increasing number of neutrons. 5.128 Identify the element with each of the following
c. increasing number of nucleons. characteristics.
d. decreasing number of subatomic particles. a. has a nuclear charge twice that of magnesium
5.121 Write the complete symbol for the isotope of boron b. has 30 more electrons than potassium
with each of the following characteristics. c. has an atomic mass 2.381 times that of
a. contains two fewer neutrons than 105B bromine
b. contains three more subatomic particles than 95B d. has three times as many protons as sulfur
c. contains the same number of neutrons as 147N 5.129 Suppose it was decided to redefine the atomic mass
d. contains the same number of subatomic particles scale by choosing as an arbitrary reference point a
as 147N value of 20.000 amu to represent the naturally occur-
5.122 Write the complete symbol for the isotope of chro- ring mixture of nickel isotopes. What would be the
mium with each of the following characteristics. atomic mass of the following elements on the new
a. contains two more neutrons than 55 24Cr atomic mass scale?
b. contains two fewer subatomic particles than 52 24Cr a. silver
c. contains the same number of neutrons as 60 29Cu b. gold
d. contains the same number of subatomic particles 5.130 Suppose it was decided to redefine the atomic mass
as 60
29Cu scale by choosing as an arbitrary reference point a
5.123 Copper consists of two naturally occurring isotopes value of 40.000 amu to represent the mass of fluo-
with masses of 62.9298 amu and 64.9278 amu. rine atoms. (All fluorine atoms are identical; that is,
a. How many protons are in the nucleus of each fluorine is monoisotopic.) What would be the atomic
isotope? mass of the following elements on the new atomic
b. How many electrons are in an atom of each isotope? mass scale?
c. How many neutrons are in the nucleus of each a. sulfur
isotope? b. platinum

MC 5.1 Which of the following statements is not part of the c. three

atomic theory of matter? d. four
a. Chemical change involves a union, separation, or e. no correct response
rearrangement of atoms. MC 5.7 In which of the following sequences of chemical
b. Atoms are considered indestructible during chemical formulas do all members of the sequence fit the description
change. “heteroatomic and triatomic”
c. Only whole atoms can participate in or result from a. CO2, HCN, O3
chemical change. b. NO2, N2O, NO
d. more than one correct response c. SO2, S2O, SO3
MC 5.2 Which of the following statements about atoms is e. no correct response
correct? MC 5.8 In which of the following pairs of chemical formu-
a. An atom is the limit of physical subdivision. las do both members of the pair have the same number of
b. Free, isolated atoms are commonly found in atoms per molecule?
nature. a. HNO3 and Ca(OH)2
c. An atom is the smallest “piece” of an element that b. CoCl2 and COCl2
can exist and still have the properties of the element. c. H2SO4 and H2CO3
e. no correct response e. no correct reponse
MC 5.3 Which of the following statements about atoms is MC 5.9 Which of the following statements correctly de-
correct? scribes the subatomic particle called an electron?
a. The mass of an atom is of the order of 10−24g. a. has a mass slightly greater than that of a proton
b. The diameter of an atom is of the order of 10−5m. b. can also be called a nucleon
c. Different types of atoms are distinguished from c. has a positive charge
each other by their color. d. more than one correct response
e. no correct response MC 5.10 Which of the following statements concerning the
MC 5.4 Which of the following statements about molecules nucleus of an atom is correct?
is correct? a. It accounts for almost all of the mass of the atom.
a. All compounds have molecules as their basic b. It accounts for only a small amount of the total
structural unit. volume of the atom.
b. Heteroatomic molecules, upon chemical subdivi- c. It contains only neutrons.
sion, always yield two or more kinds of atoms. d. more than one correct response
c. No two atoms in a heteroatomic molecule may be e. no correct response
the same. MC 5.11 Atoms as a whole are neutral because
d. more than one correct response a. an equal number of protons and neutrons are al-
e. no correct response ways present.
MC 5.5 If the molecules present in a compound are tri- b. the number of subatomic particles in the nucleus
atomic, which of the following molecular characterizations is always an even number.
are an impossibility? c. neutrons neutralize the charges found on the elec-
a. Three different elements could be present. trons and protons present.
b. Three different kinds of atoms could be present. d. more than one correct response
c. Two different kinds of atoms could be present. e. no correct response
d. more than one correct reponse MC 5.12 The mass number and atomic number of an atom that
e. no correct response contains 15 electrons, 15 protons, and 16 neutrons are, respectively,
MC 5.6 What is the numerical value for the subscript x in a. 46 and 15.
the chemical formula HxPO4, given that molecules of the b. 46 and 16.
compound contain eight atoms. c. 31 and 15.
a. one d. 30 and 16.
b. two e. no correct answer
MC 5.13 Which of the following statements is correct for d. more than one correct response
40 e. no correct response
19K?
a. contains more protons than neutrons MC 5.18 Which of the following pairs of atoms, specified in
b. contains more electrons than protons terms of subatomic particle composition, are isobars?
c. contains more neutrons than electrons a. (20p, 20e, 20n) and (21p, 21e, 21n)
d. more than one correct response b. (20p, 20e, 20n) and (20p, 20e, 22n)
e. no correct response c. (20p, 20e, 22n) and (21p, 21e, 21n)
MC 5.14 Phosphorus is element 15. This means that all d. more than one correct response
atoms of phosphorus have e. no correct response
a. an atomic number of 15. MC 5.19 The atomic mass of silver is 107.87 amu. This
b. 15 protons in the nucleus. means that
c. a total of 15 subatomic particles present. a. All silver atoms have a mass of 107.87 amu.
d. more than one correct response b. 107.87 amu is the upper limit for the mass of a
e. no correct response silver atom.
MC 5.15 The difference between the mass number for an c. 107.87 amu is the most frequently encountered
atom and its atomic number mass for silver atoms.
a. gives the number of electrons present d. more than one correct response
b. gives the number of isotopes the element has e. no correct response
c. determines the chemical identity for the atom MC 5.20 What is the atomic mass of the hypothetical ele-
d. more than one correct response ment supposium, given that 40.0% of supposium atoms have
e. no correct response a mass of 16.0 amu and 60.0% of supposium atoms have a
MC 5.16 Isotopes of a given element have mass of 18.0 amu?
a. the same mass number and different numbers of a. 16.8 amu
protons. b. 17.0 amu
b. the same atomic number and the same number of c. 17.2 amu
subatomic particles. d. 17.4 amu
c. the same atomic number and different mass e. no correct response
numbers.
MC 5.17 The nuclear makeup for a sample of identical
atoms is 30 protons and 41 neutrons. Based on nuclear MC 5.1 d MC 5.8 a MC 5.15 e
makeup, which of the following samples of identical atoms MC 5.2 c MC 5.9 e MC 5.16 c
would have chemical properties similar to those of the origi- MC 5.3 a MC 5.10 d MC 5.17 a
nal atom sample? MC 5.4 b MC 5.11 e MC 5.18 c
a. 30 protons and 43 neutrons MC 5.5 e MC 5.12 c MC 5.19 e
b. 31 protons and 41 neutrons MC 5.6 c MC 5.13 c MC 5.20 c
c. 31 protons and 40 neutrons MC 5.7 e MC 5.14 d
C H A P T E R
6
Electronic Structure
and Chemical Periodicity
6.1 The Periodic Law

6.2 The Periodic Table
6.3 The Energy of an Electron
6.4 Electron Shells
6.5 Electron Subshells
6.6 Electron Orbitals
6.7 Electron Configurations
6.8 Electron Orbital Diagrams
6.9 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Law
6.10 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table
6.11 Classification Systems for the Elements
6.12 Chemical Periodicity
6.1 THE PERIODIC LAW

Student Learning Focus: Be able to state the periodic law; be familiar with how the concept of
periodicity applies to the properties of the elements.
During the mid-nineteenth century, scientists began to look for order in the increasing
amount of chemical information that had become available. They knew that certain ele-
ments had properties that were very similar to those of other elements, and they sought
to use these similarities as a means for arranging or classifying the elements.
In 1869, these efforts culminated in the discovery of what is now called the pe-
riodic law. The periodic law states that when elements are arranged in order of in-
creasing atomic number, elements with similar chemical behavior occur at periodic
182
Chapter 6 • Electronic Structure and Chemical Periodicity 183
Atomic 1 2 3 4 9 10 11 12 17 18 19 20
number
Symbol H He Li Be F Ne Na Mg Cl Ar K Ca
Unreactive Soft, Unreactive Soft, Unreactive Soft,

gas reactive gas reactive gas reactive
metal metal metal
FIGURE 6.1 An illustration of the periodicity in properties that occurs when elements are arranged in
order of increasing atomic number. He, Ne, and Ar have similar chemical properties as do Li, Na, and K.
(regularly recurring) intervals. Proposed independently by both the Russian chemist

Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (1834–1907; see “The Human Side of Chemistry 5”) and the
German chemist Julius Lothar Meyer (1830–1895), the periodic law is one of the most
important of all chemical laws.
The preceding statement of the periodic law is in modern-day language. It differs
from the original 1869 statements in that the phrase atomic number has replaced “atom
mass.” The use of atom mass in the original statements reflected theories prevalent in
1869. According to these theories, the masses of atoms were their most important dis-
tinguishing properties—a knowledge of subatomic particles (Sec. 5.5) was still 30 years
away. When the details of subatomic structure were finally discovered, it became obvi-
ous that the properties of atoms were related not to their masses but to the number and
arrangement of their electrons. Thus, the periodic law was modified to reflect this new
knowledge.
Figure 6.1 shows parts of the repeating pattern for chemical properties (periodic
law) for the sequence of elements with atomic numbers 1 through 20. The elements
shown in the same color have similar chemical properties. For the sake of simplicity, only
two of the periodic relationships (repeating patterns) are shown; for the elements listed,
similar properties are found in every eighth element.
The concept of a periodic variation or pattern should not be new to you because
numerous everyday examples of this exist. Most, but not all, involve time. Mondays occur
at regular intervals of seven days. Office workers get paid at regular intervals, such as
every two weeks. The red–green–yellow light sequence for a traffic signal repeats itself in
a periodic fashion.
To be useful, the relationships generated by the periodic law must be easily visual-
ized. This is the purpose of periodic tables, the subject of Section 6.2.
6.2 THE PERIODIC TABLE

Student Learning Focus: Know the relationship between the periodic law and a periodic table; be
able to specify the location of an element in the periodic table in terms of group and period and
know the periodic table locations of the elements known as alkali metals, alkaline earth metals,
halogens, and noble gases.
A periodic table is a tabular arrangement of the elements in order of increasing atomic

number such that elements having similar chemical behavior are grouped in vertical col-
umns. It is a graphical portrayal of the periodic law.
The most commonly used form of the periodic table is the one shown in Figure 6.2
(and also inside the front cover of this book). Note the locations in this table for the ele-
ments He, Ne, and Ar and the elements Li, Na, and K—groups of elements with similar
properties (Fig. 6.1). The elements He, Ne, and Ar are all found in the far right column of
the table and the elements Li, Na, and K are all found in the far left column of the table.
184 Chapter 6 • Electronic Structure and Chemical Periodicity
1 18
Group Group
IA VIIIA
1 2 13 14 15 16 17 2
H Group Group Group Group Group Group He
1.01 IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA 4.00
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.94 9.01 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.31 IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.06 35.45 39.95
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.87 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.38 69.72 72.63 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.96 (98) 101.07 102.91 106.42 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.76 127.60 126.90 131.29
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
132.91 137.33 138.91 178.49 180.95 183.84 186.21 190.23 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.59 204.38 207.2 208.98 (209) (210) (222)
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
(223) (226) (227) (267) (268) (271) (272) (270) (276) (281) (280) (285) (284) (289) (288) (293) (293) (294)
Metals Non-
metals
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
140.12 140.91 144.24 (145) 150.36 151.96 157.25 158.93 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.05 174.97
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
232.04 231.04 238.03 (237) (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262)
FIGURE 6.2 The most commonly used form of the periodic table. Atomic masses are based on the 2009 IUPAC table of atomic masses.

Dmitri Ivanovich “flash” cards to try to “organize things,” he “dis- Mendeleev remained a professor at
Mendeleev covered” the periodic repetition of properties of St. Petersburg until 1890, when he resigned
(1834–1907) the elements. Within a month he had written a because of a controversy with the Ministry of
paper on the subject that was delivered before Education concerning student political rights.
Dmitri Ivanovich the Russian Chemical Society. The textbook he He took the side of the students. In 1893, he be-
Mendeleev, born in was writing, General Chemistry, became a clas- came director of the Russian Bureau of Weights
Siberia in 1834, the youngest of 17 children sic, going through eight Russian editions and and Measures, a post he held until his death.
in his family, is Russia’s most famous chem- numerous English, French, and German editions. It should be pointed out that the German
ist. His periodic classification of the elements Mendeleev’s first periodic table listed chemist Julius Lothar Meyer (1830–1895) dis-
is heralded as his greatest achievement. Other the elements according to increasing atom covered the periodic law simultaneously and
areas of research for him included petroleum mass and grouped them (in columns) according independently of Mendeleev. Unknown to each
chemistry and pressure and temperature stud- to chemical reactivity. In doing this he realized other, both published papers on the subject in
ies on gases. that several “holes” existed in the elemental 1869. Because Mendeleev did more with the
Mendeleev’s talents as a prolific writer arrangement, which he interpreted as evidence periodic law once it was published, he is gen-
and a popular teacher directly influenced his of missing (yet to be discovered) elements. Two erally given more credit for its development.
discovery of the periodic law. In 1867, two of the vacant spaces were directly under alu- In 1882, when selected to receive the
years prior to his great discovery, Mendeleev minum and silicon. He named these undiscov- Davy medal of the British Royal Society for his
was appointed professor of general chemistry ered elements eka-aluminum and eka-silicon work concerning systematic classification of
at the University of St. Petersburg. To help his and predicted what their properties would the elements, Mendeleev insisted that Meyer
students, he immediately began writing a new be. Within 15 years, these elements—now be corecipient of the award, formally recog-
textbook. In preparation for writing some ma- known as gallium and germanium—were iso- nizing Meyer’s independent conception of the
terial about the elements and their properties, lated from naturally occurring minerals. Their periodic law.
he wrote down the properties of each element properties matched closely with those that Element 101, mendelevium, bears his
on separate cards. While sorting through his Mendeleev had predicted. name. ▪
From further study of the far right column of this periodic table, we can deduce that the
elements Kr, Xe, and Rn will have properties similar to those of He, Ne, and Ar since all
of these elements are in the same column of the table.
Within the periodic table each element is represented by a square box. Within each
box are given the symbol, atomic number, and atomic mass of the element, as shown in
Figure 6.3. It should be noted that some periodic tables, but not the ones in this text, also
give the element’s name within the box.
Periods and Groups of Elements

Two terms integrally connected with the use of a periodic table are the terms period and
group.
A period is a horizontal row of elements in the periodic table. For identification
purposes, the periods are numbered sequentially, with Arabic numbers, starting at the top
FIGURE 6.3
Arrangement of
8 Atomic number information about
elements within boxes
O Symbol of the periodic table.
16.00 Atomic mass

of the periodic table. (These period numbers are sometimes, but not usually, shown on
the left-hand side of a periodic table.) Period 3 is the third row of elements, period 4 the
fourth row of elements, and so forth. The elements Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl, and Ar are all
members of period 3 (see Fig. 6.2). Period 1 has only two elements—H and He.
A group is a vertical column of elements in the periodic table. The elements within
a group have similar chemical properties. Three different labeling schemes for groups are
in common use, two of which are shown in Figure 6.2 (located above each group). The
bottom set of group labels in Figure 6.2, which involve Roman numerals and the letters A
and B, is widely used in North America. Europeans use a similar convention (not shown)
that numbers the groups consecutively as IA through VIIIA and then IB through VIIIB.
North American and European group labels match for only four groups (IA, IIA, IB, and
IIB). In an effort to eliminate confusion between the two systems, the International Union
of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) has proposed a convention that numbers the
groups simply using the numbers 1 through 18 (no A’s or B’s and no Roman numerals), as
is shown in the top set of labels in Figure 6.2. We will use the traditional North American
convention because the IUPAC system is still not widely used.
The elements within Four groups of elements also have common (nonnumerical) names. On the extreme
a given periodic table left side of the periodic table are found the alkali metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs) and the alka-
group show numerous line earth metals (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba). Alkali metal is a general name for any element in
similarities in chemical
group IA of the periodic table, excluding hydrogen. The alkali metals are soft, shiny metals
properties, the degree
of similarity varying that readily react with water. Alkaline earth metal is a general name for any element
from group to group. In in group IIA of the periodic table. The alkaline earth metals are soft, shiny metals also,
no case are the group but are only moderately reactive with water. On the extreme right side of the periodic
members clones of one table are found the halogens (F, Cl, Br, I, At) and the noble gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn).
another. Each element
Halogen is a general name for any element in group VIIA of the periodic table. The halo-
has some individual
characteristics not found gens are very reactive colored substances that are gases at room temperature or become
in other elements of the such at temperatures slightly above room temperature. Noble gas is a general name for
group. By analogy, the any element in group VIIIA of the periodic table. Noble gases are unreactive gases that
members of a human undergo few, if any, chemical reactions.
family often bear many
The location of any element in the periodic table is specified by giving its group
resemblances to each
other, but each member number and its period number. The element gold (Au), with an atomic number of 79, be-
also has some (and often longs to group IB and is in period 6. Nitrogen (N), with an atomic number of 7, belongs
much) individuality. to group VA and is in period 2.
EXAMPLE 6.1 Identifying Groups, Periods, and Specially Named

Groups of Elements
Identify the element, by giving its chemical symbol, that fits each of the following peri-
odic table–related descriptions.
a. located in both period 2 and group IIIA
b. the period 2 noble gas
c. the period 3 alkaline earth metal
d. the period 4 alkali metal
SOLUTION
a. Period 2 is the second row of elements, and group IIIA is the sixth column in from
the right side of the periodic table. The element that has this row–column (period–
group) location is B (boron).
b. The noble gases are the elements of group VIIIA (the rightmost column in the peri-
odic table). The period 2 (second row) noble gas is Ne (neon).
c. The alkaline earth metals are the elements of group IIA (the second column in from
the left side of the periodic table). The period 3 (third row) alkaline earth metal is
Mg (magnesium).
d. The alkali metals are the elements of the first column (extreme left) of the periodic
table. The period 4 (fourth row) alkali metal is K (potassium).
The Shape of the Periodic Table

There is one location in the periodic table of Figure 6.2 where the practice of arrang-
ing the elements according to increasing atomic number seems to be violated. This is
the location of elements 57 and 89, which are both in group IIIB. Shown next to them,
in group IVB, are elements 72 and 104, respectively. The missing elements, 58–71 and
90–103, are located in two rows at the bottom of the periodic table. Technically, these
elements should be included in the body of the table, as shown in Figure 6.4a. However,
to have a more compact table, they are placed in the position shown in Figure 6.4b. This
arrangement should present no problems to the user of the periodic table as long as it is
recognized for what it is—a space-saving device.
Students often assume that a corollary of the fact that the elements are arranged in
the periodic table in order of increasing atomic number is that they are also arranged in
order of increasing atomic mass. This latter conclusion is correct most of the time; how-
ever, there are exceptions.
1 2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
(a)
1 2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
(b)
FIGURE 6.4 Long and short forms of the periodic table: (a) periodic table with elements 58–71 and
90–103 (in color) in their proper positions—the long form; (b) periodic table modified to conserve
space by placing elements 58–71 and 90–103 (in color) below the rest of the elements—the short form.
The following element sequences are exceptions to the generalization that atomic
mass increases with increasing atomic number. In each triad, the middle element has the
smaller atomic mass.
18 19 20 27 28 29 52 53 54
Ar K Ca Co Ni Cu Te I Xe
39.95 39.10 40.08 58.93 58.69 63.55 127.60 126.90 131.29
These inversions in atomic mass result from isotopic abundances (Sec. 5.7). Let us
consider such data for the Ar–K–Ca triad.
36 39 40
Ar 0.34% K 93.10% Ca 96.97%
38 40 42
Ar 0.07% K 0.01% Ca 0.64%
40 41 43
Ar 99.60% K 6.88% Ca 0.14%
44
Ca 2.06%
46
Ca 0.003%
48
Ca 0.18%
For argon, the heaviest isotope 1A = 402 is most abundant, and for potassium, the
lightest isotope 1A = 392 is most abundant. This results in potassium having a lower
atomic mass than argon. The atomic masses of argon and calcium are almost equal
(39.95 and 40.08 amu, respectively); the dominant isotope for both elements has a mass
number of 40.
Later in this chapter we will find that a periodic table conveys much more informa-
tion about the elements than the symbols, atomic numbers, and atomic masses that are
printed on it. Information about the arrangement of electrons in an atom is coded into the
table, as is information concerning some physical and chemical property trends. Indeed,
the periodic table is considered to be the single most useful study aid available for orga-
nizing information about the elements.
For many years after the formulation of the periodic law and the periodic table, both
were considered to be empirical. The law worked and the table was very useful, but there
was no explanation available for the law or for why the periodic table had the shape it
had. It is now known that the theoretical basis for both the periodic law and the periodic
table involves the arrangement of electrons in atoms. The properties of the elements
repeat themselves in a periodic manner because the arrangement of electrons about the
nucleus of an atom follows a periodic pattern. Electron arrangements and an explanation
of the periodic law and periodic table in terms of electronic theory are the subject matter
for most of the remainder of this chapter.
6.3 THE ENERGY OF AN ELECTRON

Student Learning Focus: Know what is meant by the statement that the energy of an electron is a
quantized property.
In Section 5.5 we learned the following facts about electrons.

1. They are one of three fundamental subatomic particles.
2. They have very little mass in comparison to protons and neutrons.
3. They are located outside the nucleus of the atom.
4. They move rapidly about the nucleus in a volume that defines the size of the
atom.
Much more must be known about electrons to understand the chemical behavior of the
various elements, why some elements have similar chemical properties, and the theoreti-
cal basis for the periodic law.
More specific information concerning the behavior and arrangement of electrons
within the extranuclear region of an atom is derived from a complex mathematical model
for electron behavior called quantum mechanics. All the early work on this subject was
done by physicists rather than by chemists.
During the early part of the twentieth century (1910–1930) a major revolution oc-
curred in the field of physics, a revolution that profoundly affected chemistry. During this
time it became clear that the established laws of physics, the laws that had been used
for many years to predict the behavior of macroscopic objects, could not explain the
behavior of extremely small objects such as atoms and electrons. The work of a number
of European physicists led to this conclusion and also beyond it. These same physicists
were able to formalize new laws that did apply to small objects. It is from these new laws,
collectively called quantum mechanics, that information concerning the arrangement and
behavior of electrons about a nucleus came.
A major force in the development of quantum mechanics was the Austrian physi-
cist Erwin Schrödinger (1887–1961; see “The Human Side of Chemistry 6”). In 1926 he
showed that the laws of quantum mechanics could be used to characterize the motion of
electrons. Most of the concepts in the remainder of this chapter come from solutions to
the equations developed by Schrödinger.
A formal discussion of quantum mechanics is beyond the scope of this course
(and many other chemistry courses also) because of the rigorous mathematics involved.
The answers obtained from quantum mechanics are, however, simple enough to be un-
derstood to a surprisingly large degree at the level of an introductory chemistry course.
A consideration of these quantum-mechanical answers will enable us to develop a
system for specifying electron arrangements around a nucleus and further to develop
basic rules governing compound formation. This latter topic will occupy our attention
in Chapter 7.
Present-day quantum-mechanical theory describes the arrangement of an atom’s The floors of a building
electrons in terms of their energies. Indeed, the energy of an electron is the property that are quantized. An eleva-
is most important to any consideration of its behavior about the nucleus. The higher an tor will stop at the 5th
electron’s total energy, the larger the average distance of the electron from the nucleus or the 6th floor, but not
at the 5.5 floor. The
with which it is associated. frets on the neck of a
A most significant characteristic of an electron’s energy is that it is a quantized prop- guitar make it quantized
erty. A quantized property is a property that can have only certain values, that is, not because the notes be-
all values are allowed. Since an electron’s energy is quantized, an electron can have only tween the frets cannot
certain specific energies. be played. An instrument
like a cello is continuous
Quantization is a phenomenon not commonly encountered in the macroscopic because it does not have
world. Somewhat analogous is the process of a person climbing a flight of stairs. In frets; any note can be
Figure 6.5a you see six steps between ground level and the entrance level. As a person played.
6 Entrance level
5
4
3
2
1 FIGURE 6.5
Ground level A stairway with
quantized position
(a) Steps—only certain positions (b) Ramp—all positions between levels (the steps) versus
above ground level are possible. ground level and the entrance a ramp with continuous
are possible. position levels.

Erwin Schrödinger professorships in Stuttgart and Zürich. During the United States. Following a short stay at
(1887–1961) his years in Switzerland his pioneering papers Princeton University, he became director of
on the equations of quantum theory were for- the School of Theoretical Physics in Dublin,
Erwin Schrödinger, an only mulated and published. Ireland. For the next 17 years he worked in
child, was bom in 1887 in To have more contact with notable Dublin. In 1956, he again returned to Austria,
Vienna, Austria. He was physicists (including Albert Einstein), he moved where he remained until his death.
taught at home until age 11, and science was in 1927 to Berlin. All went well until Hitler’s In addition to his pioneering work
always part of his environment—his father was new regime (which he could not accept) came in quantum theory, Schrödinger’s research
a botanist, and his maternal grandfather a pro- into power. With the rise of Nazism, he ac- touched the areas of thermodynamics, specific
fessor of chemistry. His formal education began cepted an invitation to be a guest professor at heats of solids, theory of color, and physical as-
in 1898 when he entered a gymnasium (high Oxford. In 1933, only a few weeks after leaving pects of the living cell.
school), where he received a sound classical Germany for England, he received the Nobel Schrödinger was many-sided. He loved
education. This early schooling in the classics Prize in physics for his quantum theory work. poetry and wrote verse of his own. He was a
influenced Schrödinger’s actions throughout his Hitler’s activities continued to af- sculptor and also widely acquainted with mod-
life. The culmination of his formal education was fect his career. After a short stay in England, ern and classical art. He quoted Greek philoso-
a doctorate in theoretical physics in 1910 from he returned to his native Austria despite an phers as he lectured on problems of theoretical
the University of Vienna. uncertain political situation there. When physics. A colleague’s tribute upon his death
After service as an artillery offi- the Germans occupied Austria in 1938, was: “The breadth of his knowledge was as
cer during World War I, Schrödinger held Schrödinger fled to Italy and from there to marvelous as the power of his thought.” ▪
climbs these stairs there are only six permanent positions he or she can occupy (with
both feet together). Thus the person’s position (height above ground level) is quan-
tized; only certain positions are allowed. The opposite of quantized is continuousness.
A person climbing a ramp up to the entrance (Fig. 6.5b) would be able to assume a
continuous set of heights above ground level; all values are allowed.
The energy of an electron determines its behavior about the nucleus. Since electron
energies are quantized, only certain behavior patterns are allowed. Descriptions of elec-
tron behaviors involve the use of the terms electron shell, electron subshell, and electron
orbital. Sections 6.4–6.6 consider the meaning of these terms and the mathematical inter-
relationships between them.
6.4 ELECTRON SHELLS

Student Learning Focus: Understand how the term electron shell is used in describing the arrange-
ment of electrons about an atom’s nucleus.
It was mentioned in Section 6.3 that electrons with higher energy will tend to be found
farther from the nucleus than those with lower energy. Based on considerations of
energy-distance from the nucleus, electrons can be grouped into electron shells or elec-
tron main energy levels. An electron shell is a region of space about a nucleus that con-
tains electrons that have approximately the same energy and that spend most of their time
approximately the same distance from the nucleus.
A shell number, n, is used to identify each electron shell. Electron shells are num-
Electrons that occupy
bered 1, 2, 3, and so on, outward from the nucleus. Electron energy increases as the
shell 1 are closer to the
nucleus and have a lower distance of the electron shell from the nucleus increases. An electron in shell 1 has the
energy than do electrons minimum amount of energy that an electron can have. No known atom has electrons
in shell 2. beyond shell 7.
TABLE 6.1 Important Characteristics of Electron Shells
Shell Number Designation (n) Electron Capacity (2n2)

1st 1 2 * 12 = 2
2nd 2 2 * 22 = 8
3rd 3 2 * 32 = 18
4th 4 2 * 42 = 32
5th 5 2 * 52 = 50*
6th 6 2 * 62 = 72*
7th 7 2 * 72 = 98*
*The maximum number of electrons in this shell has never been attained in any
element now known.
The maximum number of electrons possible in an electron shell varies; the higher
the shell energy, the more electrons the shell can accommodate. The farther electrons are
from the nucleus (a higher-energy shell), the greater the volume of space available for
them; hence, the more electrons there can be in the shell. (Conceptually, electron shells
may be considered to be nested one inside another, somewhat like the layers of flavors
inside a jawbreaker or similar type of candy.)
The lowest-energy shell 1n = 12 accommodates a maximum of 2 electrons. In the
second, third, and fourth shells, 8, 18, and 32 electrons, respectively, are allowed. A very
simple mathematical equation can be used to calculate the maximum number of electrons
allowed in any given shell:
shell electron capacity = 2n2, where n = shell number
For example, when n = 4, the value 2n2 = 21422 = 32, which is the number previ-
ously given for the number of electrons allowed in the fourth shell. Although there is a
maximum electron occupancy for each shell or main energy level, a shell may hold fewer
than the allowable number of electrons in a given situation.
Table 6.1 summarizes concepts presented in this section concerning electron shells
or electron main energy levels.
6.5 ELECTRON SUBSHELLS

Student Learning Focus: Understand how the term electron subshell is used in describing the
arrangement of electrons around an atom’s nucleus and know how the concepts of electron
shells and electron subshells are mathematically interrelated.
All (both) electrons in the first shell have the same energy, but in higher shells all the
electrons do not have the same energy. Their energies are all close to each other in mag-
nitude, but they are not identical. The range of energies for electrons in a shell is due to
the existence within an electron shell of electron subshells or electron energy sublevels.
An electron subshell is a region of space within an electron shell that contains electrons
that have the same energy.
FIGURE 6.6 Subshells

needed to describe the Shell 1 1s
electron arrangements
of the known elements.
Note that not all Shell 2 2s 2p
subshells in shells 5, 6,
and 7 are needed. Four Shell 3 3s 3p 3d
of the five subshells
in shell 5 are used,
only three of the six Shell 4 4s 4p 4d 4f
subshells in shell 6 are
used, and only two of
Shell 5 5s 5p 5d 5f —
the seven subshells in
shell 7 are used.
Shell 6 6s 6p 6d — — —
Shell 7 7s 7p — — — — —
Subshells
The early development The number of subshells within a shell varies. A shell contains the same number of
of quantum mechanics subshells as its own shell number; that is,
was closely linked to the
study of light (spectral)
emissions produced by
number of subshells in a shell = n, where n = shell number
atoms. The letters s, p, d,
and f—used to denote Thus, each successive shell has one more subshell than the previous one. Shell 3
subshells—are derived, contains three subshells, shell 4 contains four subshells, and shell 5 contains five subshells.
respectively, from old Subshells are identified by a number and a letter. The number indicates the shell to
spectroscopic termi-
nology that describes
which the subshell belongs. The letters are s, p, d, or f (all lowercase letters), which, in
spectral lines as sharp, that order, denote subshells of increasing energy within a shell. The lowest energy sub-
principal, diffuse, and shell within a shell is always the s subshell, the next higher the p subshell, then the d, and
fundamental. finally the f. Shell 1 has only one subshell, the 1s. Shell 2 has two subshells, the 2s and
2p. The 3s, 3p, and 3d subshells are found in shell 3. Shell 4 contains four subshells, the
4s, 4p, 4d, and 4f subshells. Figure 6.6 gives information concerning subshells for the first
seven shells. Note in that figure that number-and-letter designations are not given for all
the subshells in shells 5, 6, and 7; some of these subshells—those denoted with a dash—
are not needed to describe the electron arrangements of the 118 known elements. Why
they are not needed will become evident in Section 6.7. The important concept now is
that we will never need subshell types other than s, p, d, and f in describing the electron
arrangements of the known elements.
The maximum number of electrons that a subshell can hold varies from 2 to 14,
depending on the type of subshell—s, p, d, or f. An s subshell can accommodate only
2 electrons. What shell the s subshell is located in does not affect the maximum electron
occupancy figure; that is, the 1s, 2s, 3s, 4s, 5s, 6s, and 7s subshells all have a maximum
electron occupancy of 2. Subshells of the p, d, and f types can accommodate maximums
of 6, 10, and 14 electrons, respectively. Again the maximum numbers of electrons in these
types of subshells depend only on the subshell types and are independent of shell number.
Figure 6.7 summarizes the information presented in this section for subshells found in shells
1 through 4. Within a shell, the sum of the subshell electron occupancies is the same
as the shell electron occupancy 12n22. For example, in shell 4, an s subshell containing
2 electrons, a p subshell containing 6 electrons, a d subshell containing 10 electrons, and
an f subshell containing 14 electrons add up to a total of 32 electrons, which is the maxi-
mum occupancy of shell 4 as calculated by the 2n2 formula.
FIGURE 6.7 The

4f (14 electrons) distribution of electrons
32 electrons within shells and
4d (10 electrons)
total subshells for the first
Shell 4 4 subshells four electron shells.
4p (6 electrons) 2(4)2 = 32
4s (2 electrons)
3d (10 electrons)
18 electrons
Shell 3 3 subshells 3p (6 electrons) total
3s (2 electrons) 2(3)2 = 18
2p (6 electrons) 8 electrons
Shell 2 2 subshells total
2s (2 electrons) 2(2)2 = 8
2 electrons
Shell 1 1 subshell 1s (2 electrons) total
2(1)2 = 2
6.6 ELECTRON ORBITALS

Student Learning Focus: Understand how the term electron orbital is used in describing the
arrangement of electrons about an atom’s nucleus and know how the concepts of electron orbit-
als, electron subshells, and electron shells are mathematically interrelated.
The last and most basic of the three terms used in describing electron arrangements about
nuclei is electron orbital. An electron orbital is a region of space within an electron sub-
shell where an electron with a specific energy is most likely to be found.
An analogy for the relationship between shells, subshells, and orbitals can be found
in the physical layout of a high-rise condominium complex. A shell is the counterpart of
a floor of the condominium in our analogy. Just as each floor will contain apartments (of
different sizes), a shell contains subshells (of different sizes). Further, just as apartments
contain rooms, subshells contain orbitals. An apartment is a collection of rooms; a sub-
shell is a collection of orbitals. A floor of a condominium building is a collection of apart-
ments; a shell is a collection of subshells.
The characteristics of electron orbitals, the rooms in our “electron apartment house,”
include the following:
1. The number of orbitals in a subshell varies, being one for an s subshell, three for a
p subshell, five for a d subshell, and seven for an f subshell.
2. The maximum number of electrons in an orbital does not vary. It is always two.
According to the rules
3. The notation used to designate orbitals is the same as that used for subshells. Thus, of quantum mechanics
orbitals in the 4f subshell (there are seven of them) are called 4f orbitals. (Sec. 6.3), we cannot
know the exact position
We have already noted (Sec. 6.5) that all electrons in a subshell have the same of an electron within an
energy. Thus all electrons in orbitals of the same subshell will have the same energy. orbital. It is considered to
This means that shell and subshell designations are sufficient to specify the energy of an occupy the entire orbital
in a manner somewhat
electron. This statement will be of great importance in the discussions of Section 6.7. analogous to rotating
Orbitals have a definite size and shape related to the type of subshell in which they fan blades occupying a
are found. (Remember, an orbital is a region of space. We are not talking about the size defined region of space.
s orbital
p orbital d orbital f orbital

FIGURE 6.8 The shapes of atomic orbitals. To improve the perspective, the f orbital is shown within
a cube with one lobe pointing to each corner of the cube. Only two electrons may occupy an orbital
regardless of the number of lobes present in its shape. Some d and f orbitals have shapes related to,
but not identical to, those shown.
FIGURE 6.9 The z z z

orientation of the three
orbitals in a p subshell.
x x x
y y y
px py pz
FIGURE 6.10 Size

relationships among
s orbitals in different
shells.
1s 2s 3s
and shape of an electron, but rather the size and shape of a region of space where an
electron is found.) Typical s, p, d, and f orbital shapes are given in Figure 6.8. Notice that
the shapes increase in complexity in the order s, p, d, and f. Some of the d and f orbitals
have shapes related, but not identical, to those shown in Figure 6.8.
Orbitals within the same subshell differ mainly in orientation. For example, the
three 2p orbitals look the same but are aligned in different directions—along the x, y, and
z axes in a Cartesian coordinate system (see Fig. 6.9).
Orbitals of the same type but in different shells (for example, 1s, 2s, and 3s) have
the same general shape but differ in size (volume) (see Fig. 6.10).
EXAMPLE 6.2 Interrelationships among Electron Shells, Electron

Subshells, and Electron Orbitals
Determine the following information about electron shells, electron subshells, and elec-
tron orbitals.
a. The number of electron subshells in shell 4
b. The number of electron orbitals in a 3d subshell
c. The maximum number of electrons that could be contained in a 2p subshell

d. The maximum number of electrons that could be contained in a 2p orbital
SOLUTION
a. The number of subshells in a shell is the same as the shell number. Thus, shell 4 will
contain four subshells.
b. The number of orbitals in a given type of subshell (s, p, d, f ) is independent of the
shell number. Each s subshell (1s, 2s, 3s, etc.) contains one orbital, each p subshell
contains three orbitals, each d subshell contains five orbitals, and each f subshell
contains seven orbitals. Thus, a 3d subshell contains five orbitals.
c. The maximum number of electrons in a subshell depends on the number of orbitals
the subshell contains, with each orbital holding two electrons. In a p subshell there
are three orbitals. Thus, a p subshell can accommodate six electrons (two per orbital).
d. The maximum number of electrons in an orbital is two. It does not matter what type
of orbital it is (2s, 2p, 3d , etc.). All orbitals hold a maximum of two electrons.
Electron Spin
A final feature of electron behavior is that electrons possess a property called electron
spin. Electrons exhibit properties (magnetic) that can be explained by using the concept
that electrons are spinning on their own axes in either a clockwise or counterclockwise
direction. When two electrons are present in an orbital, they always have opposite spins;
that is, one is considered to be spinning clockwise and the other, counterclockwise. This
situation of opposite spins is the only state possible for two electrons in the same orbital.
Electron spin is a property of an electron associated with the concept that an electron is
spinning on its own axis. We will have more to say about electron spin when we discuss
orbital diagrams in Section 6.8.
6.7 ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS

Student Learning Focus: Be able to write an electron configuration specifying electron subshell
occupancy for atoms of a given element.
An electron configuration is a statement of how many electrons an atom has in each

of its subshells. Since subshells group electrons according to energy (Sec. 6.5), electron
configurations indicate how many electrons an atom has of various energies.
Electron configurations are not written out in words; a shorthand system with sym-
bols is used. Subshells containing electrons, listed in order of increasing energy, are
designated using number–letter combinations (1s, 2s, 2p, etc.). A superscript following
each subshell designation indicates the number of electrons in that subshell. The electron
configuration for oxygen using this shorthand notation is
1s 22s 22p4 1read ;one@s@two, two@s@two, two@p@four<2
An oxygen atom thus has an electron arrangement of two electrons in the 1s subshell,
two electrons in the 2s subshell, and four electrons in the 2p subshell.
Aufbau Principle
To determine the electron configuration for an atom, a procedure called the aufbau prin-
ciple (German aufbauen, to build) is used. The aufbau principle states that electrons
normally occupy electron subshells in an atom in order of increasing subshell energy. This
FIGURE 6.11 Relative

7p
energies and filling 6d
order for electron 5f
subshells. 7s
6p n=7
5d
4f
6s
5p n=6
Increasing energy (not drawn to scale) 4d
5s
n=5
4p
3d
4s
n=4
3p
3s
n=3
2p
2s
n=2
1s
n=1
guideline brings order to what could be a very disorganized situation. Many subshells
exist about the nucleus of any given atom. Electrons do not occupy these subshells in a
random, haphazard fashion; a very predictable pattern, governed by the aufbau principle,
exists for electron subshell occupancy. Subshells are filled in order of increasing energy.
Use of the aufbau principle requires knowledge concerning the electron capacities
of orbitals and subshells (which we already have; see Sec. 6.6) and knowledge concern-
ing the relative energies of subshells (which we now consider).
The ordering of electron subshells in terms of increasing energy, which is experi-
mentally determined, is more complex than might be expected. This is because the en-
ergies of subshells in different shells often overlap, as shown in Figure 6.11. Beginning
with shell 4, one or more lower-energy subshells of a specific shell have energies
lower than the higher-energy subshells of a preceding shell and thus acquire electrons
first. For example, the 4s subshell acquires electrons before the 3d subshell does (see
Fig. 6.11). As another example, the s subshell of the sixth energy level fills before the
d subshell of the fifth energy level or the f subshell of the fourth energy level (again,
refer to Fig. 6.11).
Aufbau Diagram
The sequence in which subshells acquire electrons must be learned before electron con-
figurations can be written. A useful mnemonic (memory) device, called an aufbau dia-
gram, helps considerably with this learning process. As can be seen from Figure 6.12, an
aufbau diagram is a listing of electron subshells in the order in which electrons occupy
them. All s subshells are located in column 1 of the diagram, all p subshells in column 2,
and so on. Subshells belonging to the same shell are found in the same row. The order of
subshell filling is given by following the diagonal arrows, starting with the top one. The
1s subshell fills first. The second arrow points to (goes through) the 2s subshell. It fills
next. The third arrow points to both the 2p and 3s subshells. The 2p fills first, followed
by the 3s. Any time a single arrow points to more than one subshell, start at the tail of
FIGURE 6.12 An
aufbau diagram is an
1s
aid to remembering
subshell filling order.
2s 2p
3s 3p 3d
4s 4p 4d 4f
5s 5p 5d 5f
6s 6p 6d
7s 7p
the arrow and work to its head to determine the proper filling sequence. The 3p subshell
fills next, and so on. An aufbau diagram is an easy way to catalog the information given
in Figure 6.11.
Writing Electron Configurations

We are now ready to write electron configurations. Let us systematically consider electron
configurations for the first few elements in the periodic table.
Hydrogen 1Z = 12 has only one electron, which goes into the 1s subshell, which
has the lowest energy of all subshells. Hydrogen’s electron configuration is written as
1s 1
Helium 1Z = 22 has two electrons, both of which occupy the 1s subshell.

(Remember, an s subshell contains one orbital, and an orbital can accommodate two elec-
trons.) Helium’s electron configuration is
1s 2
For lithium 1Z = 32, with three electrons, the third electron cannot enter the 1s
subshell since its maximum capacity is two electrons. (All s subshells are completely filled
with two electrons; see Sec. 6.6.) The third electron is placed in the next-highest energy
subshell, the 2s. The electron configuration for lithium is thus
1s 22s 1
With beryllium 1Z = 42, the additional electron is placed in the 2s subshell, which
is now completely filled, giving beryllium the electron configuration
1s 22s 2
In boron 1Z = 52, the 2p subshell, the subshell of next-highest energy (check

Fig. 6.11 or 6.12 to be sure), becomes occupied for the first time. Boron’s electron
configuration is
1s 22s 22p 1
A p subshell can accommodate six electrons since there are three orbitals within it
(Sec. 6.6). The 2p subshell can thus accommodate the additional electrons found in C, N,
O, F, and Ne. The electron configurations of these elements are
An electron configuration C 1Z = 62: 1s 22s 22p 2

is a shorthand notation
N 1Z = 72: 1s 22s 22p 3
designating the subshells
in an atom that are oc- O 1Z = 82: 1s 22s 22p4
cupied by electrons. The
F 1Z = 92: 1s 22s 22p 5
sum of the superscripts in
an electron configuration Ne 1Z = 102: 1s 22s 22p6
equals the total number
of electrons present and With sodium 1Z = 112, the 3s subshell acquires an electron for the first time.
hence equals the atomic
number of the element. Na 1Z = 112: 1s 22s 22p 63s 1
Note the pattern that is developing in the electron configurations we have written
so far. Each element has an electron configuration the same as the one just before it with
the addition of one electron.
Electron configurations for other elements are obtained by simply extending the
principles we have just illustrated. Electrons are added to subshells, always filling one of
lower energy before adding electrons to the next-highest subshell, until the correct num-
ber of electrons has been accommodated.
EXAMPLE 6.3 Writing Electron Configurations for Elements
Write the electron configurations for the following elements.

a. calcium 1Z = 202 b. selenium 1Z = 342
SOLUTION
a. The number of electrons in a calcium atom is 20. Remember, the atomic number (Z)
gives the number of electrons (Sec. 5.6). We will need to fill subshells, in order of
increasing energy, until 20 electrons have been accommodated.
The 1s, 2s, and 2p subshells fill first, accommodating a total of 10 electrons
among them.
1s 22s 22p6 c
Next, according to Figure 6.11 or 6.12, the 3s fills and then the 3p subshell.
1s 22s 22p 63s 23p6 c
We have accommodated 18 electrons at this point. We will need to add two more
electrons to get our desired number of 20.
These last two electrons are added to the 4s subshell.
1s 22s 22p63s 23p64s 2
These last two electrons completely fill the 4s subshell.
b. To write the electron configuration for selenium, we continue along the same lines
as in part (a), remembering that the maximum electron subshell populations are
s = 2, p = 6, and d = 10.
The first 18 electrons, as with calcium [part (a)], will fill the 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, and
3p subshells.
1s 22s 22p63s 23p 6 c
The 4s subshell fills next, accommodating 2 electrons, followed by the 3d subshell,

which accommodates 10 electrons.
1s 22s 22p63s 23p64s 23d 10 c
We now have a total of 30 electrons.

Four more electrons are needed, which are added to the next-higher subshell
in energy, the 4p.
1s 22s 22p63s 23p64s 23d 104p 4
The 4p subshell can accommodate 6 electrons, but we do not want it filled to capac-
ity because that would give us too many electrons.
Answer Double Check: Does each of the electron configurations contain the correct
number of electrons? Yes. Since the atomic number of an element gives the number of
electrons present, the sum of the superscripts in an electron configuration should add to
the atomic number of the element. Such is the case for the answers to both parts of the
problem. For example, in part (a), 2 + 2 + 6 + 2 + 6 + 2 = 20 (atomic number of Ca).
Chemical Insight: SELENIUM

Selenium, one of the elements whose electron configurations were written in this ex-
ample, in its pure state is a purplish-gray solid. It finds use as a semiconductor in some
photocells and has the unusual property of conducting electricity better in the light
than in the dark.
It was discovered in 1979 that trace amounts of selenium are essential to human
health. Its primary biochemical role in the human body is that of an antioxidant, where
it works in tandem with vitamin E in preventing oxidation that damages cell mem-
branes. Small amounts of selenium are found in most soils and therefore in food crops
grown in the soil. Pasta made from wheat grown in most parts of North America is a
good dietary source of selenium.
It should be noted that for a few elements in the middle of the periodic table, the
actual distribution of electrons within subshells differs slightly from that obtained using
the aufbau principle and aufbau diagram. These exceptions are caused by very small en-
ergy differences between some subshells and are not important in the uses we shall make
of electronic configurations.
Condensed Electron Configurations

The electrons in the outermost electron shell of an atom—the shell with the highest n
value—are the electrons primarily responsible for the chemical behavior of an element
(Sec. 7.2). It is these outer shell electrons that are “exposed” to other atoms when atoms
interact with each other. The electrons in completed inner electron shells normally do not
play a major role in determining the chemical behavior of an atom.
An abbreviated, or shorthand, method for writing electron configurations, which
focuses on the outer shell electrons present, exists and is in common use. Such abbrevi-
ated electron configurations, which are called condensed electron configurations, sepa-
rate the electrons present into two groups—core electrons (the inner shell electrons) and
outer electrons (the outer shell electrons).
To illustrate how condensed electron configurations are written, let us consider the
elements potassium and calcium. The full electron configurations for these two elements are
K 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 64s 1

Ca 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 64s 2
The outer electron shell for both of these elements is shell 4 (the highest numbered shell).
Potassium’s outer electron configuration is 4s1 and that for calcium is 4s2. The inner shell
electrons for both potassium and calcium are the same: 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 6. This inner
shell electron arrangement is the same as that for argon, the noble gas (Sec. 6.2) that
precedes potassium and calcium in the periodic table.
To write condensed electron configurations for potassium and calcium, the inner
core electrons are denoted by placing brackets about the chemical symbol for argon, the
noble gas whose electron configuration is the same as that of the inner core electrons.
Following this bracketed noble gas (argon) chemical symbol are the remaining electrons
in the electron configuration, which are the outer electrons.
Thus the condensed electron configurations are
K [Ar]4s 1
Ca [Ar]4s 2
In all condensed electron configurations the chemical symbol of the noble gas is always
enclosed in square brackets rather than parentheses. Two additional examples of condensed
electron configurations are
Zn [Ar]4s 23d 10
Sn [Kr]5s 24d 105p 2
Thus, a condensed electron configuration is an electron configuration in which

the chemical symbol of the nearest noble gas element of lower atomic number is used to rep-
resent the electrons in the configuration up to that of the noble gas, and the remaining ad-
ditional electrons are then appended to the chemical symbol of the noble gas. The electrons
within the condensed electron configuration denoted by the noble gas chemical symbol
are called core electrons and the remaining electrons outer electrons. Core electrons are
the inner-shell electrons of an atom that are not normally involved in determining the chem-
ical properties of the atom. The number of core electrons present in an atom is the same as
the atomic number of the noble gas whose chemical symbol is present in the condensed
electron configuration. Outer electrons are the electrons in a condensed electron configu-
ration given after the noble-gas core electrons. Among the outer electrons are those that de-
termine the chemical properties of the atom. Example 6.4 gives additional details about the
process of converting full electron configurations into condensed electron configurations.
EXAMPLE 6.4 Writing Condensed Electron Configurations
Convert each of the following electron configurations into condensed electron

configurations.
a. 7N: 1s 22s 22p 3
b. 12Mg: 1s 22s 22p 63s 2
c. 34Se: 1s 22s 22p63s 23p64s 23d104p4
d. 53I: 1s 22s 22p63s 23p64s 23d104p65s 24d105p5
SOLUTION
a. Helium, with the electron configuration 1s 2, is the noble gas that precedes nitrogen
in the periodic table. Replacing the 1s 2 portion of nitrogen’s electron configuration
with the symbol [He] produces the abbreviated electron configuration for nitrogen:
[He]2s 22p 3.
b. Neon, with the electron configuration 1s 22s 22p 6, is the noble gas that precedes mag-
nesium in the periodic table. Using the symbol [Ne] to represent the 1s 22s 22p 6 por-
tion of magnesium’s electron configuration gives [Ne]3s 2 as the condensed electron
configuration.
c. The preceding noble gas for selenium is argon, whose electron configuration is
1s 22s 22p63s 23p6. The condensed electron configuration for selenium will, thus, be
[Ar]4s 23d 104p 4.
d. Iodine’s position in the periodic table is immediately before that of the noble gas
xenon (Xe). However, condensed electron configurations are based on the preced-
ing noble gas, krypton in this case, rather than on the upcoming noble gas. Iodine’s
condensed electron configuration is thus based on krypton rather than xenon, and
is [Kr]5s 24d 105p 5, where [Kr] represents the 1s 22s 22p63s 23p64s 23d 104p 6 portion of
iodine’s electron configuration.
Answer Double Check: The number of electrons to the right of the noble gas notation in
a condensed electron configuration is always equal to the difference between the atomic
number of the element and that of the noble gas. Such is the case in the answers to this
problem. For example, in part (c) the atomic number of selenium is 34, that of argon is 18,
and their difference is 16. The notation 4s 23d 104p 4 involves 16 electrons.
Chemical Insight: IODINE

Iodine, one of the elements whose condensed electron configurations were written in
this example, like selenium (Example 6.3), is an essential element for human health.
Iodine, not as a pure element, but as a component of soluble compounds, is needed
in the synthesis of thyroid hormones.
The natural iodine content of most foods is relatively low; soils contain very little
iodine because most iodine compounds are soluble in water and are thus leached from
the soil. The primary dietary iodine source for most Americans is iodized salt, used in
home cooking and at the table as a food additive. Commercially processed foods are
generally not good iodine sources, as non-iodized salt is used in their preparation.
6.8 ELECTRON ORBITAL DIAGRAMS

Student Learning Focus: Be able to write an electron orbital diagram specifying electron orbital
occupancy for atoms of a given element.
The arrangement of electrons about a nucleus can be specified in terms of subshell oc-
cupancy or orbital occupancy. The notation for specifying subshell occupancy (electron
configurations) was considered in the previous section. In this section we consider elec-
tron arrangements at the orbital level.
Two principles are needed to specify orbital occupancy for electrons, one we have
already considered and one that is new. The principles are
1. The aufbau principle
2. Hund’s rule
The aufbau principle was used extensively in Section 6.7 in writing electron con-
figurations. Hund’s rule has not been encountered previously. The namesake for Hund’s
rule is the German physicist Friedrich Hund (1896–1997), an early worker in the field of
quantum mechanics.
Hund’s rule states that when electrons are placed in a set of orbitals of equal en-
ergy (the orbitals of a subshell), the order of filling for the orbitals is such that each or-
bital of the subshell receives an electron with the same spin before any orbital receives
a second electron (of the opposite spin). Such a pattern of orbital filling minimizes
repulsions between electrons. Numerous applications of Hund’s rule are required in
stating electron arrangements in terms of orbital occupancies, that is, in drawing or-
bital diagrams.
An electron configura- An electron orbital diagram is a diagram that shows how many electrons an atom
tion specifies subshell has in each of its occupied electron orbitals. In drawing electron orbital diagrams, we use
occupancy for electrons,
and an electron orbital
circles to represent orbitals and arrows with a single barb to denote electrons. The orbital
diagram specifies orbital diagram for hydrogen, with its one electron, is
occupancy for electrons.
H:
1s
A helium atom contains two electrons, both of which occupy the 1s orbital. The
orbital diagram for helium is
He:
1s
The two electrons present are of opposite spin (see Sec. 6.6). Note the notation used
to indicate this—one arrow points up and the other points down. The two electrons
are said to be paired. Paired electrons are two electrons of opposite spin present in the
same orbital. When only one electron is present in an orbital, it is said to be unpaired.
An unpaired electron is a single electron in an orbital. The electron configuration for
hydrogen involves an unpaired electron.
Orbital diagrams for the next two elements, lithium and beryllium, are drawn ac-
cording to reasoning similar to that followed for H and He. The two electrons in the 2s
orbital of Be are paired.
Li:
1s 2s
Be:
1s 2s
Boron has the electron configuration 1s 22s 22p 1. The fifth electron in boron must
enter a 2p orbital, since both the 1s and 2s orbitals are full. Boron’s orbital diagram is
B:
1s 2s 2p
Note that it does not matter which one of the three 2p orbitals of boron is shown It does not matter
as containing an electron. All three orbitals have the same energy. Each of the following whether the arrows de-
noting unpaired electrons
notations is equivalent. are pointing up or down.
Up and down are equiva-
lent positions. What does
matter is that all of the
2p
arrows for unpaired elec-
or trons are pointing in the
same direction, either all
2p up or all down.
or
2p
With carbon, element 6, we encounter the use of Hund’s rule for the first time.
Carbon has two electrons in the 2p subshell 11s 22s 22p 2 2. Do the two electrons go into the
same orbital (paired), or do they go into separate equivalent orbitals (unpaired)? Hund’s
rule indicates that the latter is the case. The orbital diagram for carbon is
C:
1s 2s 2p
Again, it does not matter which two of the three 2p orbitals are shown as containing elec-
trons since all three orbitals have the same energy. However, the two 2p electrons must
have the same spin. It will always be the case, for energy reasons, that unpaired electrons
in orbitals of equal energy will have the same spin.
Nitrogen, with the electron configuration 1s 22s 22p 3, contains three unpaired elec-
trons, all with the same spin.
N:
1s 2s 2p
With oxygen 11s 22s 22p4 2, two of the four 2p electrons must pair up, leaving two un-
paired electrons. Fluorine, the next element in the periodic table, has only one unpaired
electron. Finally, with neon, all of the electrons are paired up.
O:
1s 2s 2p
F:
1s 2s 2p
Ne:
1s 2s 2p
EXAMPLE 6.5 Writing Electron Orbital Diagrams for the Electrons in Atoms
Draw an electron orbital diagram for the electrons in the element titanium. The electron
configuration for titanium is
1s 22s 22p63s 23p64s 23d 2
SOLUTION
All the occupied subshells of titanium are completely filled except for the 3d . There are
five orbitals in the 3d subshell, and there are two electrons present. Following Hund’s
rule, we will put one electron in each of two 3d orbitals, giving us two unpaired elec-
trons. The two unpaired electrons will have the same spin.
Ti:
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
Answer Double Check: Do the two unpaired electrons have the same spin? Yes. The ar-
rows for the two unpaired electrons are pointing in the same direction. It does not matter
whether they are both pointing up or pointing down, but they must be pointing in the
same direction, indicating that they have the same spin.
Chemical Insight: TITANIUM

The metal titanium, the element whose orbital diagram was written in this example,
possesses two very useful properties: corrosion resistance and the highest strength-to-
weight ratio of any metal. It withstands attack from dilute sulfuric acid, hydrochloric
acid, and chlorine gas and is slow to react with air and water. It is often alloyed with
copper to harden the copper. Unalloyed titanium is as hard as many steels and yet is
45% lighter than the steel.
More than 90% of titanium-containing ore is converted to the compound titanium
dioxide 1TiO22 which has an intense white color. This compound is used in a vari-
ety of products as a coloring pigment, including toothpaste, paper, paints, and some
plastics.
Atoms may be classified as paramagnetic or diamagnetic on the basis of unpaired

electrons. A paramagnetic atom is an atom that has an electron arrangement contain-
ing one or more unpaired electrons. The presence of unpaired electrons causes para-
magnetic substances to be slightly attracted to a magnet. Measurement of paramagnetism
provides experimental verification of the presence of unpaired electrons. A diamagnetic
atom is an atom that has an electron arrangement in which all electrons are paired.
6.9 ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS AND THE PERIODIC LAW

Student Learning Focus: Be able to illustrate how electron configurations provide an explanation
for the periodic law.
A knowledge of electron configurations for the elements provides an explanation for the
periodic law. Recall, from Section 6.1, that the periodic law points out that the properties
of the elements repeat themselves in a regular manner when the elements are ordered in
sequence of increasing atomic number. Those elements with similar chemical properties
are placed one under another in vertical columns (groups) in a periodic table.
Groups of elements have similar chemical properties because of similarities that
exist in the electron configurations of the elements of the group. Chemical properties re-
peat themselves in a regular manner among the elements because electron configurations
repeat themselves in a regular manner among the elements.
To illustrate this correlation between similar chemical properties and similar elec-
tron configurations, let us look at the electron configurations of two groups of elements
known to have similar chemical properties.
We begin with the elements lithium, sodium, potassium, and rubidium—all mem-
bers of group IA of the periodic table. The electron configurations for these elements are
3Li: 1s2 2s1

11Na: 1s22s22p6 3s1
19K: 1s22s22p63s23p6 4s1
37Rb: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p6 5s1
We see that each of these elements has one outer s electron (shown in color), the
last electron added by the aufbau principle. It is this similarity in outer shell electron ar-
rangements that causes these elements to have similar chemical properties.
The elements fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine of group VIIA of the periodic
table have similar chemical properties. The electron configurations for these four ele-
ments are
9F: 1s2 2s2 2p5
17Cl: 1s22s22p6 3s2 3p5
35Br: 1s22s22p63s23p6 4s2 3d10 4p5
53I: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p6 5s2 4d10 5p5
Once again, similarities in electron configurations are readily apparent. This time the re-
peating pattern is the seven electrons (in color) in the outermost s and p subshells.
Section 7.2 will consider in depth the fact that the electrons most important in con-
trolling chemical properties are those found in the outermost shell of an atom.
6.10 ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE

Student Learning Focus: Be able to illustrate how electron configurations provide an explanation
for the shape of the periodic table. Be able to use the periodic table as an aid in writing electron
configurations.
One of the strongest pieces of supporting evidence for the assignment of electrons to
shells, subshells, and orbitals is the periodic table itself. The basic shape and structure
of this table, which were determined many years before electrons were even discovered,
are consistent with and can be explained by electron configurations. Indeed, the specific
location of an element in the periodic table can be used to obtain information about its
electron configuration.
As the first step in linking electron configurations to the periodic table, let us ana-
lyze the general shape of the periodic table in terms of columns of elements. As shown in
Figure 6.13, we have on the extreme left of the table 2 columns of elements, in the center
an area containing 10 columns of elements, to the right a block of 6 columns of elements,
and at the bottom of the table in two rows, 14 columns of elements.
The numbers of columns of elements in the various regions of the periodic table—2,
6, 10, and 14—is the same as the maximum numbers of electrons that the various types of
subshells can accommodate. We will see shortly that this is a very significant observation;
the number matchup is no coincidence. The various columnar regions of the periodic
table are called the s area (2 columns), the p area (6 columns), the d area (10 columns),
and the f area (14 columns), as shown in Figure 6.14.
The concept of distinguishing electrons is the key to obtaining electron configura-
tion information from the periodic table. For an element, the distinguishing electron is
the last electron added to the element’s electron configuration when the configuration is
FIGURE 6.13 The

periodic table can
be divided into four
areas—areas that are 2,
6, 10, and 14 columns 2 6 columns
wide. columns
10 columns
14 columns
written according to the aufbau principle. This last electron added is the one that causes
an element’s electron configuration to differ from that of the element immediately preced-
ing it in the periodic table, hence the term distinguishing electron.
For all elements located in the s area of the periodic table the distinguishing elec-
tron is always found in an s subshell. All p area elements have distinguishing electrons
in p subshells. Similarly, elements in the d and f areas of the periodic table have, respec-
tively, distinguishing electrons located in d and f subshells. Thus, the area location of an
element in the periodic table can be used to determine the type of subshell that contains
the distinguishing electron. Note that the element helium is considered to belong to the s
rather than the p area of the periodic table even though its table position is on the right-
hand side. (The reason for this placement of helium will be explained in Section 7.3.)
The extent of filling of the subshell containing an element’s distinguishing electron
can also be determined from the element’s position in the periodic table. All elements in
the first column of a specific area contain only one electron in the subshell, all elements
in the second column contain two electrons in the subshell, and so on. Thus all elements
in the first column of the p area (group IIIA) have an electron configuration ending in p1.
Elements in the second column of the p area (group IVA) have electron configurations
FIGURE 6.14 Within s area

the four periodic table
areas are elements
whose distinguishing
s area p area
electron is located,
respectively, in s, p, d,
and f subshells.
d area
f area
FIGURE 6.15 The

s2 extent of filling of the
subshell containing the
distinguishing electron
can be determined
from the element’s
position within a given
area.
s1 s2 d1 d2 d3 d4 d5 d6 d7 d8 d 9 d10 p1 p2 p3 p4 p5 p6
f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6 f7 f8 f9 f 10 f 11 f 12 f 13 f 14
ending in p 2, and so forth. Similar relationships hold in other areas of the table, as shown
in Figure 6.15. A few exceptions to these generalizations do exist in the d and f areas
(because of irregular electron configurations; see Sec. 6.7), but we will not be concerned
with them in this text.
We can also use the periodic table to determine the shell in which the distinguishing
electron is located. The relationship used involves the number of the period in which the
element is found. In the s and p areas, the period number gives the shell number directly.
In the d area, the period number minus one is equal to the shell number. (Remember that
the 3d subshell is filled during the fourth period.) For similar reasons, in the f area the
period number minus two equals the shell number. Thus, the subshell that contains the
distinguishing electron for elements of period 6 may be the 6s, 6p, 5d (period number
minus one) or 4f (period number minus two), depending on the location of the element
in period 6. It must be remembered that even though the f area is located at the bottom of
the table, it correctly belongs in periods 6 and 7. The complete matchup between period
number and shell number for the distinguishing electron is given in the periodic table of
Figure 6.16.
Shell number equals period number FIGURE 6.16

Relationship between
1 1s 1s the shell number for a
distinguishing electron
2 2s 2p and the period number
of the element’s
Shell number equals
Period number
3 3s 3p periodic table position.

period number minus one
4 4s 3d 4p
5 5s 4d 5p
6 6s 5d 6p
7 7s 6d 7p
Shell number equals period number minus two

4f
5f
EXAMPLE 6.6 Using the Periodic Table as a Guide in Obtaining

Information about Distinguishing Electrons
Using the periodic table and Figures 6.13 through 6.16, determine the following for the
elements calcium 1Z = 202, vanadium 1Z = 232, and tellurium 1Z = 522.
a. The type of subshell in which the distinguishing electron is found
b. The extent of filling of the subshell containing the distinguishing electron
c. The shell in which the subshell containing the distinguishing electron is found
SOLUTION
a. Knowing the area of the periodic table in which an element is found is sufficient to
determine the type of subshell in which the distinguishing electron is found.
Ca: Since this element is found in the s area of the periodic table, the distinguish-
ing electron will be in an s subshell.
V: Since this element is found in the d area of the periodic table, the distin-
guishing electron will be in a d subshell.
Te: Since this element is found in the p area of the periodic table, the distinguish-
ing electron will be in a p subshell.
b. The extent of filling of the subshell containing the distinguishing electron is deter-
mined by noting the column in the area that the element occupies.
Ca: Since this element is in the second column of the s area, the s subshell
involved contains two electrons 1s 2 2.
V: Since this element is in the third column of the d area, the d subshell
involved contains three electrons 1d 32.
Te: Since this element is in the fourth column of the p area, the p subshell
involved contains four electrons 1p42.
c. The shell number of the subshell containing the distinguishing electron is obtained
from the period number, sometimes directly and sometimes with modifications.
Ca: Since this element is in period 4, the s subshell involved is the 4s; therefore,
the electron configuration for Ca ends in 4s 2.
V: Since this element is in period 4, the d subshell involved is the 3d (period
number minus one); therefore, the electron configuration for V ends in 3d 3.
Te: Since this element is in period 5, the p subshell involved is the 5p; therefore,
the electron configuration for Te ends in 5p4.
Chemical Insight: CALCIUM

Calcium, one of the elements whose electron configurations were considered in this
example, is a metal whose compounds are often soluble in water. It is the metal pres-
ent in the greatest amount in the human body. About two pounds of calcium are
present in a 130–140 pound human body.
Calcium’s role as an essential component of both bones and teeth is well known.
Lesser known functions for calcium in the human body are its involvement in blood
clotting, the transmission of nerve impulses, and in muscle contraction. A single class of
foods, namely milk and milk products (cheese, yogurt, etc.), is the best dietary source
for calcium. For those who do not or cannot drink milk, white bread, rolls, crackers,
and other foods made with dairy products are an alternate calcium source; however,
a slice of bread provides only about 10% of the calcium that a glass of milk supplies.
FIGURE 6.17 Using

1s 1s the periodic table as
2p a guide to obtain the
2s
order in which subshells
3s 3p are occupied by
electrons.
4s 3d 3d 4p
5s 4d 4d 5p
6s 5d 5d 6p
7s 6d 6d 7p
4f
5f
To write complete electron configurations, you must know the order in which the
various electron subshells are filled. Up until now, we have obtained this filling order by
using an aufbau diagram (Fig. 6.12). We can also obtain this information directly from the
periodic table. To obtain it, we merely follow a path of increasing atomic number through
the table, noting the various subshells as we encounter them.
1. Begin with hydrogen and helium (the 1s elements, period 1).
2. Continue through the elements in the other periods, in order of increasing atomic
number.
3. As you move across a period
a. add electrons to the ns subshell as you pass through the s area.
b. add electrons to the np subshell as you pass through the p area.
c. add electrons to the 1n - 12d subshell as you pass through the d area.
d. add electrons to the 1n - 22f subshell as you pass through the f area.
4. Continue until you reach the element whose electron configuration you are writing.
Figure 6.17 illustrates this way of using the periodic table. “Working our way”
through successive periods of the periodic table (by following the arrows) gives the entire
filling order for the electron subshells.
1s S 2s S 2p S 3s S 3p S 4s S 3d S 4p S 5s S 4d S
5p S 6s S 4f S 5d S 6p S 7s S 5f S 6d S 7p
Note particularly how the f area of the periodic table is worked into the filling scheme.
EXAMPLE 6.7 Using the Periodic Table as a Guide in Writing

an Electron Configuration
Write the complete electron configuration of 80Hg, using the periodic table as your guide.
SOLUTION
The needed information will be obtained by working our way through the periodic table.
We will start at hydrogen and go from element to element in order of increasing atomic
number until we arrive at position 80, mercury. Every time we traverse the s area we will
fill an s subshell; the p area, a p subshell; and so on. We will remember that the shell
number for s and p subshells is the period number; for d subshells, the period number
minus one; and for f subshells, the period number minus two.
Let us begin our journey through the periodic table. As we cross period 1, we en-
counter H and He, both 1s elements. We thus add the 1s electrons.
Hg: 1s 2 c
In traversing period 2, we pass through the s area (elements 3 and 4) and the p area (ele-
ments 5–10) in that order. We add 2s and 2p electrons.
Hg: 1s 22s 22p 6 c
Our trip through period 3 is very similar to that of period 2. Only s-area elements (11 and
12) and p-area elements (13–18) are encountered. The message is to add s and p elec-
trons—3s and 3p because we are in period 3.
Hg: 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 6 c
In passing through period 4, we go through the s area (elements 19 and 20), the d area
(elements 21–30), and the p area (elements 31–36). Electrons to be added are those in the
4s, 3d (period number minus one), and 4p subshells, in that order.
Hg: 1s 22s 22p63s 23p64s 23d 104p 6 c
In period 5 we encounter scenery similar to that in period 4—the s area (elements 37
and 38), the d area (elements 39–48), and the p area (elements 49–54). Hence, the 5s, 4d
(period number minus one), and 5p subshells are filled in order.
Hg: 1s 22s 22p63s 23p64s 23d 104p65s 24d 105p 6 c
Our journey ends in period 6, which we do not completely traverse. We go through the
6s area (elements 55 and 56), the 4f area (elements 58–71), and the 5d area (elements 57
and 72–80), where we stop.
Hg: 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 64s 23d 104p 65s 24d 105p66s 24f 145d 10
Answer Double Check: As a double-check that one or more subshells have not inadver-
tently been skipped, sum the superscripts to obtain the total number of electrons present.
The total should match the atomic number for the element. Our answer is correct. The
sum of the superscripts equals 80, the atomic number for mercury.
Chemical Insight: MERCURY

Mercury is one of only two elements that is a liquid at room temperature; the other is
bromine. Mercury is a metal, bromine is a nonmetal. To convert mercury from the liq-
uid state to the solid state requires lowering the temperature to -39⬚C.
Thermometers containing mercury were invented in the early eighteenth cen-
tury, and blood-pressure devices using mercury were invented in the late nineteenth
century. Use of such mercury-containing devices is now rapidly declining. In 2002,
the U.S. Senate passed legislation to phase out the sale of non-prescription mercury
thermometers. In 2003, Washington and Maine became the first states to ban mercury
blood-pressure devices. These regulations arise from increasing concern about the
toxicity of several mercury compounds (from spills and industrial emissions) and how
this toxicity affects both the human body and the environment.
Again, let us mention that a few slightly irregular electronic configurations are en-
countered in the d and f areas of the periodic table. The generalizations in this section
do not address this problem. We will be working mostly with s- and p-area elements in
future chapters. There are no irregularities in electron configurations for these elements.
6.11 CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS FOR THE ELEMENTS

Student Learning Focus: Know the general physical properties for metallic and nonmetallic ele-
ments and be able to classify an element as a metal or nonmetal based on its location within the
periodic table. Also be able to classify an element as a representative element, transition element,
inner-transition element or noble gas element based on its electronic configuration.
The elements can be classified in several ways. The two most common classification sys-
tems are the following:
1. A system based on selected physical properties of the elements, in which elements
are described as metals or nonmetals
2. A system based on the electron configurations of the elements, in which elements
are described as noble gas, representative, transition, or inner transition elements
With two exceptions, all
On the basis of selected physical properties of the elements, the first of the two
metals are silvery-white
classification schemes divides the elements into the categories of metals and nonmetals. to silvery-gray to dull
A metal is an element that has the characteristic properties of luster, thermal conductiv- gray in color. The two
ity, electrical conductivity, and malleability. With the exception of mercury, all metals are exceptions are copper
solids at room temperature (25°C). Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. and gold.
Most metals are ductile (they can be drawn into wires) and malleable (they can be rolled
into sheets). Most metals have high luster (shine), high density, and high melting points.
Among the more familiar metals are the elements iron, aluminum, copper, silver, and gold.
A nonmetal is an element characterized by the absence of the properties of luster,
thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity, and malleability. Many of the nonmetals,
such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and the noble gases, are gases at room temperature
(25°C). The only nonmetal that is a liquid at room temperature is bromine. Solid nonmet-
als include carbon, sulfur, and phosphorus. In general, the nonmetals have lower densi-
ties and melting points than metals.
The majority of the elements are metals: Only 23 elements are nonmetals, the rest
(95) are metals. It is not necessary to memorize which elements are nonmetals and which
are metals. As can be seen from Figure 6.18, the location of an element in the periodic
table correlates directly with its classification as a metal or nonmetal. The steplike heavy
line that runs through the p area of the periodic table separates the metals from the non-
metals; metals are on the left and nonmetals on the right. Note that the element hydrogen
is a nonmetal even though it is located on the left side of the periodic table.
The fact that the vast majority of elements are metals in no way indicates that
metals are more important than nonmetals. Most nonmetals are relatively abundant and
are found in many important compounds. For example, water 1H2O2 is a compound
1 2 FIGURE 6.18
H He A portion of the
5 6 7 8 9 10 periodic table, showing
B C N O F Ne the dividing line
13 14 15 16 17 18 between metals and
Metal
Al Si P S Cl Ar nonmetals. All elements
30 31 32 33 34 35 36 that are not shown are
Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr metals.
Nonmetal 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Cn – Fl – Lv – –
FIGURE 6.19 Representative elements Noble gas

Elemental classification elements
scheme based on the 1 2
electron configurations H He
of the elements. 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
11 12 Transition elements 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Inner transition elements
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
involving two nonmetals. An analysis of the previously given abundances of the elements
in Earth’s crust (Fig. 4.13) in terms of metals and nonmetals shows that three of the four
most abundant elements, which account for 83% of all atoms, are nonmetals—oxygen,
silicon, and hydrogen.
The classification scheme based on electron configurations of the elements is de-
picted in Figure 6.19. This type of classification system is used in numerous discussions
in subsequent chapters.
The electron configura- A noble gas element is an element located in the far right column (group VIIIA) of
tions of the noble gases the periodic table. Such elements are all gases at room temperature, and they have little
will be an important focal
tendency to form chemical compounds. With one exception, the distinguishing electron
point when we consider
chemical bonding in for a noble gas completes the p subshell. Therefore, they have electron configurations
Chapter 7. ending in p6. The exception is helium, in which the distinguishing electron completes
the first shell—a shell that has only two electrons. Helium’s electron configuration is 1s 2.
A representative element is an element located in the s area or the first five col-
umns of the p area of the periodic table. The distinguishing electron for these elements
partially or completely fills an s subshell or partially fills a p subshell. Some representative
elements are nonmetals whereas others are metals. The four most abundant elements in
the human body (Sec. 4.8)—hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen—are all nonmetallic
representative elements; they constitute more than 99% of all atoms in the body.
A transition element is an element located in the d area of the periodic table. The
common feature in the electronic configurations of the transition elements is the presence
of the distinguishing electron in a d subshell. All of the transition elements are metals.
The most abundant transition element in the human body is iron.
An inner-transition element is an element located in the f area of the periodic
table. The characteristic feature of the electronic configuration for such elements is the
presence of the distinguishing electron in an f subshell. All of the inner-transition ele-
ments are metals. Many of them are laboratory-produced radioactive elements rather than
naturally occurring elements (Sec. 4.8).
In Section 6.2 it was noted that three different conventions exist for designating the
groups of the periodic table—an American convention, a European convention, and an
IUPAC system. The basis for the American convention can now be addressed since it re-
lates to the element classification systems just considered.
A
A A A A A A A
B B B B B B B B B B
(a)
B
A A B B B B B
A A A A A A A A B B
(b)
18
1 2 13 14 15 16 17
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
(c)
FIGURE 6.20 (a) American group–numbering convention. Representative elements are placed in
A groups and transition elements in B groups. Roman numerals are used to distinguish among the
A groups and among the B groups. (b) European group–numbering convention. Elements on the
left side of the periodic table are placed in A groups, and elements on the right side are placed in
B groups. Roman numerals are used to distinguish among the A groups and among the B groups.
(c) IUPAC group–numbering convention. Groups of elements are numbered using a sequential
numbering system that starts at the left side of the periodic table. The letters A and B are not part
of the convention. Roman numerals are not part of this convention.
As shown in Figure 6.20a, the American group–numbering system assigns A

group numbers to the representative elements and B group numbers to the transition
elements.
As shown in Figure 6.20b, the European group–numbering system is not based on
an element classification system. It has both representative and transition elements in
both the A and B group designations. In this convention, the left side of the periodic table
constitutes the A groups and the right side, the B groups.
The IUPAC convention, Figure 6.20c, avoids the A–B situation by using simple num-
ber designations without a letter. The IUPAC system relates to the other two conventions
in that the last digit in its group number corresponds to the Roman numeral in these latter
two conventions. For example, the 5 in the group number 15 matches with the American
group VA and the European group VB.
6.12 CHEMICAL PERIODICITY

Student Learning Focus: Know periodic table trends associated with the properties of metallic
character, nonmetallic character, and atomic size.
Chemical periodicity is the variation in properties of elements as a function of

their positions in the periodic table. In this section we consider two properties of el-
ements that exhibit chemical periodicity, metallic–nonmetallic character, and atomic
size (atomic radius). In Section 7.10 we consider a third property exhibiting chemical
periodicity—electronegativity.
Metallic and Nonmetallic Character

The physical properties that distinguish metals and nonmetals were considered in
Section 6.11. In general, these properties are opposites for the two classes of substances.
Not all metals possess metallic properties to the same extent; they have them, but
to varying degrees. For example, some metals are better conductors of electricity than
other metals. Similarly, not all nonmetals possess nonmetallic properties to the same
extent.
Metallic and nonmetallic character for the various elements—the extent to which
they possess metallic and nonmetallic properties—can be correlated with periodic table
position for the elements:
1. Metallic character increases from right to left within a given period in the periodic
table.
2. Metallic character increases from top to bottom within a group in the periodic
table.
Thus, among the period 3 elements, Na is more metallic than Mg, which in turn is
more metallic than Al. For the group IA elements, K is more metallic than Na, since it is
farther down in group IA.
Similar, but opposite, trends exist for nonmetallic character:
1. Nonmetallic character increases from left to right within a given period in the
periodic table.
2. Nonmetallic character increases from bottom to top within a group in the periodic
table.
Figure 6.21 summarizes the chemical periodicity associated with the properties of
metallic and nonmetallic character. The combined effect of these two trends is that the
FIGURE 6.21 Increase

Chemical periodicity
is associated with
the properties of
metallic character and
nonmetallic character.
Increase
Metallic character
Increase
Increase
Nonmetallic character
FIGURE 6.22
1 2 A portion of the
H He
periodic table showing
5 6 7 8 9 10 the metalloids (color),
B C N O F Ne
elements that show
13 14 15 16 17 18 some properties
Al Si P S Cl Ar
characteristic of
30 31 32 33 34 35 36
metals and some other
Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
properties characteristic
Metalloid 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe of nonmetals.
80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Cn – Fl – Lv – –
most nonmetallic elements are those in the upper right portion of the periodic table, a
generalization consistent with Figure 6.18 in the preceding section of this chapter.
In Section 6.11 a dividing line was shown for classifying elements as metals
or nonmetals (Fig. 6.18). Elements to the far left of this line have dominant metallic
character. Elements to the far right of this line have dominant nonmetallic character.
Most elements whose periodic table positions touch this metal–nonmetal dividing
line actually show some properties that are characteristic of both metals and non-
metals. These elements are frequently given a classification of their own: metalloids
(or semimetals). A metalloid is an element with properties intermediate between those
of metals and nonmetals. Figure 6.22 identifies the metalloid elements. Several of
the metalloids, including silicon, germanium, and antimony, are semiconductors.
A semiconductor is an element that does not conduct electrical current at room tem-
perature but does so at higher temperatures. Semiconductor elements are very impor-
tant in the electronics industry.
Atomic Size
The quantum-mechanical model for an atom (Sec. 6.3) suggests that the shape of an
atom is approximately spherical and that the size of the atom can be expressed in terms
of the radius of a sphere. The most commonly used unit for expressing atomic sizes
(atomic radii) is the picometer (Sec. 3.1). In this unit most atomic radii fall in the range
of 50–200 pm.
Atomic sizes exhibit chemical periodicity, as is shown in Figure 6.23, which gives
atomic radii for the representative elements and the noble gases. General periodic trends
for atomic radii are the following:
1. Atomic radii tend to decrease from left to right within a period of the periodic
table.
2. Atomic radii tend to increase from top to bottom within a periodic table group.
The trends in atomic radii values can be explained on the basis of the number of electrons
present in the atom and their energies. In traversing a period in the periodic table (from
left to right), we note that (1) nuclear charge (atomic number) increases and (2) the added
electrons enter the same shell, the outermost shell. The increased nuclear charge draws
the electrons in this outermost shell closer to the nucleus, resulting in smaller atomic radii.
Down a group in the periodic table, atomic radii increase because the electrons are added
to shells with higher numbers. Recall, from Section 6.4, that the higher the shell number,
the greater the average distances between the electrons and the nucleus.
FIGURE H He
Decreasing atomic size
6.23 Atomic
radii, in
picometers, of 37 31
the representative Li Be B C N O F Ne
elements and
noble gases.
152 112 85 77 75 73 72 71
186 160 143 118 110 103 100 98

K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
227 197 135 122 120 119 114 112

Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Increasing
atomic
size
248 215 167 140 141 142 133 131
Cs Ba Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
265 222 170 146 150 168 140 140

Fr Ra 113 114 115 116 117 118
– – – – – –
270 220
EXAMPLE 6.8 Predicting Atomic Size Relationships, Using General

Periodic Table Trends
Predict which member of each of the following pairs of elements has the smaller atomic
radius, based on periodic table atomic size trends.
a. Mg or Be
b. Al or P
c. N or O
d. Na or F
SOLUTION
In terms of periodic table trends, atomic size decreases in going from left to right across
a period and increases in going down a group.
a. Mg and Be are in the same group, with Be above Mg. Therefore, Be is the smaller
of the two elements as size increases going down a group.
b. Al and P are in the same period, with P farther to the right. Therefore, P is the small-
er of the two elements as size decreases from left to right going across a period.
c. N and O are in the same period, with O farther to the right. Therefore, O is the
smaller of the two elements as size decreases from left to right going across
a period.
d. Na is in period 3 and F is in period 2. The element Li can be used as a link between
the two elements; it is in the same group as Na and the same period as F. The pe-
riodic table group trend predicts that Li is smaller than Na, and the periodic table
period trend predicts that F is smaller than Li. Therefore, F is smaller than Na.
Chemical Insight: NITROGEN INFLATION

The atomic size of oxygen and nitrogen atoms were compared in the c) part of this
example. Nitrogen atoms were found to be larger than oxygen atoms. This is one rea-
son for the increasing popularity of inflating automobile tires with nitrogen gas (93%
purity) rather that with air (78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen). This practice is now uni-
versal for NASCAR racing vehicles. Because of the larger size of nitrogen molecules, it
is harder for them to permeate automobile tire casing than the smaller oxygen atom.
It is estimated that oxygen molecules escape 3–4 times faster than nitrogen molecules.
An additional reason for using nitrogen inflation is that nitrogen is a less reactive
gas than oxygen. Nitrogen inflation decreases the amount of the more reactive oxygen
present. Over time, oxygen causes rubber to become brittle through oxidation of tire
casing materials. The rate of such oxidation increases as the temperature of the gases
within a tire increases with vehicle movement. In contrast, nitrogen remains unreactive
even at the higher temperatures.
the chapter. They are a helpful study aid for students as they prepare for an upcoming examination or are review-
1. Periodic Law The periodic law states that cer- of electrons. These values are 2, 6, 10, and 14 for
tain sets of physical and chemical properties s, p, d, and f subshells, respectively.
occur at periodic (regularly occurring) intervals 5. Electron Orbitals An electron orbital is a re-
when the elements are arranged in order of in- gion of space within an electron subshell where
creasing atomic number. an electron with a specific energy is most likely
2. Periodic Table The periodic table is a tabular to be found. Each electron subshell contains one
arrangement of the elements, in order of increas- or more orbitals. For s, p, d, and f subshells there
ing atomic number, that places elements with are one, three, five, and seven orbitals, respec-
similar properties in the same vertical columns of tively. No more than two electrons may occupy
the table. It is a graphical portrayal of the periodic an orbital.
law. A group in the periodic table is a vertical 6. Electron Configuration An electron configu-
column of elements. Roman numerals are used ration is a statement of how many electrons an
to distinguish the various periodic table groups. atom has in each of its electron subshells. The
A period in the periodic table is a horizontal row determination of an electron configuration is
of elements. Regular numbers are used to distin- based on the aufbau principle, which is that
guish the various periodic table periods. electrons normally occupy the lowest-energy
3. Electron Shells An electron shell is a region subshell available for occupancy.
of space about a nucleus that contains electrons 7. Electron Orbital Diagram An electron orbital
that have approximately the same energy and diagram is a statement of how many electrons an
that spend most of their time approximately the atom has in each of its orbitals. Electrons occupy
same distance from the nucleus. The electron ca- the orbitals of a subshell such that each orbital with-
pacity of an electron shell is 2n2, where n is the in the subshell acquires one electron before any
shell number. orbital acquires a second electron. All electrons in
4. Electron Subshells An electron subshell is such singly occupied orbitals have the same spin.
a region of space within an electron shell that 8. Electron Configurations and the Periodic
contains electrons that have the same energy. Law Chemical properties repeat themselves in
The number of electron subshells in a particular a regular manner among the elements because
electron shell is equal to the shell number. Each electron configurations repeat themselves in a
subshell can hold a specific maximum number regular manner among the elements.
9. Electron Configurations and the Periodic Nonmetals are characterized by the absence of
Table The groups of the periodic table contain the properties associated with metals. The step-
elements with similar electron configurations. like heavy line that runs through the right third
Thus, the location of an element in the periodic of the periodic table separates the metals on the
table can be used to obtain information about its left from the nonmetals on the right. The major-
electron configuration. ity of elements are metals.
10. Classification Systems for the Elements On 11. Chemical Periodicity Metallic and nonmetallic
the basis of electron configuration, elements are character of the elements can be correlated with
classified into four categories: noble gas elements periodic table position for the elements. Metallic
(far right column of the periodic table), represen- character increases from right to left within a
tative elements (s and p area of the periodic table, given period and increases from top to bottom
with the exception of the last p-area column), within a group in the periodic table. Atom size
transition elements (d area of the periodic (atomic radii) can also be correlated with peri-
table), and inner transition elements ( f area of odic table position for the elements. Atomic radii
the periodic table). On the basis of selected phys- tend to decrease from left to right within a
ical properties, elements are classified as metals period and increase from top to bottom within a
or nonmetals. Metals exhibit luster, thermal con- periodic table group.
ductivity, electrical conductivity, and malleability.
Key Terms Listing

alkali metal Sec. 6.2 electron orbital diagram Sec. 6.8 nonmetal Sec. 6.11
alkaline earth metal Sec. 6.2 electron shell Sec. 6.4 outer electrons Sec. 6.7
aufbau diagram Sec. 6.7 electron spin Sec. 6.6 paired electrons Sec. 6.8
aufbau principle Sec. 6.7 electron subshell Sec. 6.5 paramagnetic atom Sec. 6.8
chemical periodicity Sec. 6.12 group Sec. 6.2 period Sec. 6.2
condensed electron configuration halogen Sec. 6.2 periodic law Sec. 6.1
Sec. 6.7 Hund’s rule Sec. 6.8 periodic table Sec. 6.2
core electrons Sec. 6.7 inner-transition element Sec. 6.11 quantized property Sec. 6.3
diamagnetic atom Sec. 6.8 metal Sec. 6.11 representative element Sec. 6.11
distinguishing electron Sec. 6.10 metalloid Sec. 6.12 semiconductor Sec. 6.12
electron configuration Sec. 6.7 noble gas Sec. 6.2 transition element Sec. 6.11
electron orbital Sec. 6.6 noble gas element Sec. 6.11 unpaired electron Sec. 6.8

These problems are single-concept problems that are categorized by topic (chapter section) and are arranged in the same se-
quence as the chapter textual material. These drill problems occur in matched pairs with the two members of a pair addressing
the same aspect of a given topic. This matched-pair arrangement creates two independent problem sets—an odd numbered set
PERIODIC LAW AND PERIODIC TABLE

(SECS. 6.1 AND 6.2)
6.1 Specify the location of each of the following elements 6.2 Specify the location of each of the following elements
in the periodic table by giving its period number and in the periodic table by giving its period number and
its group number. its group number.
a. 3Li b. 16S c. 47Ag d. 83Bi a. 9F b. 31Ga c. 56Ba d. 79Au
6.3 Give the chemical symbol of the element that occu- c. period 4 alkaline earth metal
pies each of the following positions in the periodic d. period 2 halogen
table. 6.11 Identify the period 2 element that fits each of the
a. period 3 and group IIIA following descriptions.
b. period 2 and group IIA a. a halogen
c. group IVA and period 5 b. an alkaline earth metal
d. group IA and period 4 c. a noble gas
6.4 Give the chemical symbol of the element that occu- d. an alkali metal
pies each of the following positions in the periodic 6.12 Identify the period 4 element that fits each of the
table. following descriptions.
a. period 4 and group IIA a. an alkali metal
b. period 5 and group IIIA b. a noble gas
c. group IVA and period 2 c. a halogen
d. group IA and period 3 d. an alkaline earth metal
6.5 For each of the following sets of elements, choose the 6.13 Determine the following for the “highlighted” ele-
two that would be expected to have similar chemical ments in the following periodic table. Specify your an-
properties. swer by giving the number of the element.
a. 19K, 29Cu, 37Rb, 41Nb
b. 13Al, 14Si, 15P, 33As
c. 9F, 40Zr, 50Sn, 53I 3
d. 11Na, 12Mg, 54Xe, 55Cs
2
6.6 For each of the following sets of elements, choose the
1 4
two that would be expected to have similar chemical
properties.
a. 11Na, 14Si, 23V, 55Cs
b. 13Al, 19K, 32Ge, 50Sn
c. 37Rb, 38Sr, 54Xe, 56Ba
d. 2He, 6C, 8O, 10Ne a. Which highlighted element is a halogen?
6.7 The following statements either define or are closely b. Which highlighted element is an alkali metal?
related to the terms periodic law, period, or group. c. Which highlighted element is in group IIA?
Match the terms to the appropriate statements. d. Which highlighted element is in period 3?
a. This is a vertical arrangement of elements in the 6.14 Determine the following for the “highlighted” elements
periodic table. in the periodic table given in Problem 6.13. Specify
b. The properties of the elements repeat in a regular your answer by giving the number of the element.
way as the atomic numbers increase. a. Which highlighted element is an alkaline earth
c. The chemical properties of elements 12, 20, and metal?
38 demonstrate this principle. b. Which highlighted element is a noble gas?
d. Elements 24 and 33 belong to this arrangement. c. Which highlighted element is in group VIIA?
6.8 The following statements either define or are closely d. Which highlighted element is in period 2?
related to the terms periodic law, period, and group.
Match the terms to the appropriate statements.
TERMINOLOGY ASSOCIATED WITH ELECTRON
a. This is a horizontal arrangement of elements in
ARRANGEMENTS (SECS. 6.3–6.6)
the periodic table.
b. Element 19 begins this arrangement in the peri- 6.15 What is the maximum number of electrons that can be
odic table. found in each of the following electron subshells?
c. The element carbon is the first member of this a. 1s b. 3d c. 2p d. 5f
arrangement. 6.16 What is the maximum number of electrons that can be
d. Elements 10, 18, 36, and 54 belong to this found in each of the following electron subshells?
arrangement. a. 6p b. 5s c. 4f d. 4d
6.9 Identify each of the following elements by name. 6.17 What is the maximum number of electrons that can be
a. period 4 halogen found in an electron orbital of each of the following
b. period 2 alkali metal types?
c. period 3 noble gas a. 2s b. 3d c. 5f d. 3p
d. period 5 alkaline earth metal 6.18 What is the maximum number of electrons that can be
6.10 Identify each of the following elements by name. found in an electron orbital of each of the following
a. period 3 alkali metal types?
b. period 1 noble gas a. 6s b. 6p c. 5d d. 5p
6.19 How many electron orbitals are there of each of the ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS (SEC. 6.7)
following types?
a. 1s b. 3s c. 5d d. 6p 6.29 According to the aufbau principle, which electron
6.20 How many electron orbitals are there of each of the subshell is filled immediately after each of the follow-
following types? ing electron subshells is filled?
a. 4d b. 3p c. 5p d. 7s a. 3s b. 4p c. 5s d. 3d
6.21 Determine the following for the fifth electron shell of 6.30 According to the aufbau principle, which electron
an atom. subshell is filled immediately after each of the follow-
a. the number of electron subshells that it contains ing electron subshells is filled?
b. the designations used to describe its two subshells a. 3p b. 4s c. 5d d. 3p
of lowest energy 6.31 According to the aufbau principle, which electron
c. the maximum number of electrons that it could subshell is filled immediately before each of the fol-
contain lowing electron subshells is filled?
d. the number of electron orbitals that it contains a. 3p b. 4s c. 5d d. 4p
6.22 Determine the following for the sixth electron shell of 6.32 According to the aufbau principle, which electron
an atom subshell is filled immediately before each of the fol-
a. the number of electron subshells that it contains lowing electron subshells is filled?
b. the designations used to describe its two subshells a. 3s b. 5p c. 5s d. 3d
of lowest energy 6.33 For a multi-electron atom, arrange the electron sub-
c. the maximum number of electrons that it could shells in each of the following listings in order of in-
contain creasing energy.
d. the number of electron orbitals that it contains a. 1s, 2s, 3s, 4s b. 4s, 4p, 4d , 4f
6.23 Indicate whether each of the following statements is c. 6s, 4f , 2p, 5d d. 3p, 3d , 4s, 5p
true or false. 6.34 For a multi-electron atom, arrange the electron sub-
a. An orbital has a definite size and shape, which shells in each of the following listings in order of in-
are related to the energy of the electrons it could creasing energy.
contain. a. 2p, 3p, 4p, 5p b. 5s, 5p, 5d , 5f
b. All shells accommodate the same number of c. 4d , 5p, 4s, 3d d. 3p, 2s, 4f , 6d
electrons. 6.35 With the help of an aufbau diagram, write the com-
c. All of the orbitals in a subshell have the same energy. plete electron configuration for atoms of each of the
d. A 2p and a 3p subshell would contain the same following elements.
number of orbitals. a. 13Al b. 26Fe c. 53I d. 88Ra
e. The fourth shell is made up of six subshells. 6.36 With the help of an aufbau diagram, write the com-
6.24 Indicate whether each of the following statements is plete electron configuration for atoms of each of the
true or false. following elements.
a. All the subshells in a shell have the same energy. a. 12Mg b. 31Ga c. 48Cd d. 86Rn
b. A d subshell always contains five orbitals. 6.37 Based on total number of electrons present, identify
c. An s orbital is shaped something like a four-leaf the element represented by each of the following
clover. electron configurations.
d. The n = 3 shell can accommodate a maximum of a. 1s 22s 22p 6
18 electrons. b. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 64s 1
e. All subshells accommodate the same number of c. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 64s 23d 2
electrons. d. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 64s 23d 10
6.25 Describe the general shape of each of the following 6.38 Based on total number of electrons present, identify
orbitals. the element represented by each of the following
a. 4s b. 4p c. 4d d. 6s electron configurations.
6.26 Describe the general shape of each of the following a. 1s 22s 22p 2
orbitals. b. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 3
a. 1s b. 2p c. 3d d. 5p c. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 64s 2
6.27 Which of the following electron subshell and electron d. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 64s 23d 6
orbital designations is not allowed? 6.39 An atom has two electrons in electron shell 1, eight
a. 3s subshell b. 3d orbital electrons in electron shell 2, and five electrons in elec-
c. 1p subshell d. 2f orbital tron shell 3.
6.28 Which of the following electron subshell and electron a. What is the chemical symbol for the atom?
orbital designations is not allowed? b. How many s electrons are present in the atom?
a. 2p orbital b. 2d subshell c. How many p electrons are present in the atom?
c. 3f orbital d. 6s subshell d. How many d electrons are present in the atom?
6.40 An atom has two electrons in electron shell 1, eight 6.52 Draw the electron orbital diagram associated with
electrons in electron shell 2, eight electrons in electron each of the following electron configurations. Use an
shell 3, and two electrons in shell 4. up or down arrow to denote each electron.
a. What is the chemical symbol for the atom? a. 1s 22s 22p 3 b. 1s 22s 22p 63s 2
2 2 6 2 5
b. How many s electrons are present in the atom? c. 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p d. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 64s 23d 7
c. How many p electrons are present in the atom? 6.53 Draw electron orbital diagrams for the following el-
d. How many d electrons are present in the atom? ements. Use an up or down arrow to denote each
6.41 Convert each of the following electron configurations electron.
into condensed electron configurations. a. 6C b. 10Ne c. 11Na d. 15P
a. 13Al: 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 1 6.54 Draw electron orbital diagrams for the following
b. 19K: 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 64s 1 elements. Use an up or down arrow to denote each
c. 30Zn: 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 64s 23d 10 electron.
d. 50Sn: 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 64s 23d 104p 65s 24d 105p 2 a. 7N b. 9F c. 12Mg d. 21Sc
6.42 Convert each of the following electron configurations 6.55 Draw the electron orbital diagram for atoms of the fol-
into condensed electron configurations. lowing elements. Use an up or down arrow to denote
a. 15P: 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 3 each electron and use the abbreviation of the preced-
b. 22Ti: 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 64s 23d 2 ing noble gas to represent inner-shell (core) electrons.
c. 33As: 1s 22s 22p 63s 33p 64s 23d 104p 3 a. chlorine b. manganese
d. 56Ba: 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 64s 23d 104p 65s 24d 105p 66s 2 c. strontium d. aluminum
6.43 Convert each of the following electron configurations 6.56 Draw the electron orbital diagram for atoms of the fol-
into condensed electron configurations. lowing elements. Use an up or down arrow to denote
a. 1s 22s 22p 4 each electron and use the abbreviation of the preced-
b. 1s 22s 22p 63s 2 ing noble gas to represent inner-shell (core) electrons.
c. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 64s 2 a. phosphorus b. vanadium
d. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 64s 23d 104p 5 c. calcium d. barium
6.44 Convert each of the following electron configurations 6.57 Draw electron orbital diagrams to show the distribu-
into condensed electron configurations. tion of electrons among orbitals in each of the follow-
a. 1s 22s 22p 2 ing electron subshells.
b. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 1 a. 3s subshell of Mg
c. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 64s 1 b. 3p subshell of Cl
d. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 24s 23d 104p 65s 2 c. 4s subshell of Ca
6.45 Give the name of the element that has each of the fol- d. 3d subshell of Co
lowing condensed electron configurations. 6.58 Draw electron orbital diagrams to show the distribu-
a. [Ne]3s 2 b. [Ne]3s 23p 5 tion of electrons among orbitals in each of the follow-
c. [Kr]5s 24d 105p 4 d. [Xe]6s 2 ing electron subshells.
6.46 Give the name of the element that has each of the fol- a. 2p subshell of N
lowing condensed electron configurations. b. 3p subshell of Ar
a. [Ne]3s 23p 4 b. [Ar]4s 23d 3 c. 4s subshell of K
c. [Ar]4s 23d 104p 5 d. [Xe]6s 1 d. 4p subshell of Se
6.47 How many core electrons are present in each of the con- 6.59 For each of the following pairs of atoms, select the
densed electron configurations given in Problem 6.45? atom that contains the greater number of unpaired
6.48 How many core electrons are present in each of the con- electrons.
densed electron configurations given in Problem 6.46? a. Li or Be b. N or O
6.49 How many outer electrons are present in each of c. Na or S d. Zn or Ga
the condensed electron configurations given in 6.60 For each of the following pairs of atoms, select the
Problem 6.45? atom that contains the greater number of unpaired
6.50 How many outer electrons are present in each of electrons.
the condensed electron configurations given in a. Mg or Al b. O or F
Problem 6.46? c. K or Ca d. C or P
6.61 Classify each of the following atoms as being para-
magnetic or diamagnetic.
ELECTRON ORBITAL DIAGRAMS (SEC. 6.8)
a. boron b. nitrogen
6.51 Draw the electron orbital diagram associated with c. fluorine d. sulfur
each of the following electron configurations. Use an 6.62 Classify each of the following atoms as being para-
up or down arrow to denote each electron. magnetic or diamagnetic.
a. 1s 22s 1 b. 1s 22s 22p 5 a. beryllium b. aluminum
2 2 6 2 3
c. 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p d. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 64s 23d 8 c. oxygen d. neon
ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS AND THE c. has two electrons in the subshell that contains the
PERIODIC LAW (SEC. 6.9) distinguishing electron
d. distinguishing electron is in shell 4
6.63 Indicate whether the elements represented by the 6.72 Determine the number of “highlighted” elements in
given pairs of electron configurations have similar the periodic table in Problem 6.71 that have each of
chemical properties. the following electronic characteristics.
a. 1s 22s 1 and 1s 22s 2 a. located in the periodic table’s f area
b. 1s 22s 22p 6 and 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 6 b. distinguishing electron is in a d subshell
c. 1s 22s 22p 3 and 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 64s 23d 3 c. has six electrons in the subshell that contains the
d. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 6 and 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 64s 23d 104p 6 distinguishing electron
6.64 Indicate whether the elements represented by the d. distinguishing electron is in shell 3
given pairs of electron configurations have similar 6.73 Indicate the position in the periodic table where each
chemical properties. of the following occurs, by giving the symbol of the
a. 1s 22s 22p 4 and 1s 22s 22p 5 element.
b. 1s 22s 2 and 1s 22s 22p 2 a. The 3p subshell begins filling.
c. 1s 22s 1 and 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 64s 1 b. The 2s subshell begins filling.
d. 1s 22s 22p 6 and 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 64s 23d 6 c. The 5d subshell begins filling.
d. The 3d subshell begins filling.
ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS AND THE 6.74 Indicate the position in the periodic table where each
PERIODIC TABLE (SEC. 6.10) of the following occurs, by giving the symbol of the
element.
6.65 Specify position in the periodic table, in terms of s, p, a. The 4p subshell begins filling.
d, or f area, for each of the following elements. b. The 5f subshell begins filling.
a. 16S b. 24Cr c. silver d. barium c. The 3s subshell begins filling.
6.66 Specify position in the periodic table, in terms of s, p, d. The 7s subshell begins filling.
d, or f area, for each of the following elements. 6.75 Indicate the position in the periodic table where each
a. 20Ca b. 30Zn c. bromine d. gold of the following occurs, by giving the symbol of the
6.67 Identify the type of subshell (s, p, d or f) that contains element.
the distinguishing electron for each of the elements in a. The 4p subshell becomes completely filled.
Problem 6.65. b. The 2s subshell becomes half-filled.
6.68 Identify the type of subshell (s, p, d or f) that contains c. The fourth shell begins filling.
the distinguishing electron for each of the elements in d. The fourth shell becomes completely filled.
Problem 6.66. 6.76 Indicate the position in the periodic table where each
6.69 Identify the specific subshell (3p, 4s, 5d , etc.) that of the following occurs, by giving the symbol of the
contains the distinguishing electron for each of the element.
elements in Problem 6.65. a. The 3d subshell becomes completely filled.
6.70 Identify the specific subshell (3p, 4s, 5d , etc.) that b. The 4p subshell becomes half-filled.
contains the distinguishing electron for each of the el- c. The third shell becomes half-filled.
ements in Problem 6.66. d. The third shell becomes completely filled.
6.71 Determine the number of “highlighted” elements in 6.77 Using only the periodic table, determine the com-
the following periodic table that have each of the fol- plete electron configuration for each of the following
lowing electronic characteristics. elements.
a. 33As b. 51Sb c. 37Rb d. 48Cd
6.78 Using only the periodic table, determine the com-
plete electron configuration for each of the following
elements.
a. 22Ti b. 56Ba c. 35Br d. 19K
6.79 Using only the periodic table, determine the complete
electron configuration for the elements with the fol-
lowing condensed electron configurations.
a. [Ne]3s 2 b. [Ar]4s 2
2 10
c. [Ar]4s 3d d. [Kr]5s 24d 105p 2
6.80 Using only the periodic table, determine the complete
electron configuration for the elements with the fol-
lowing condensed electron configurations.
a. located in the periodic table’s d area a. [He]2s 2 b. [Ne]3s 23p 4
2 5
b. distinguishing electron is in a p subshell c. [Ar]4s 3d d. [Kr]5s 24d 10
6.81 How many 3d electrons are found in atoms of each of 6.92 Using the two-category “metal-nonmetal” classification
the following elements? system, identify the highest-atomic-numbered element
a. titanium b. nickel that fits each of the following descriptions.
c. selenium d. palladium a. period 4 metal
6.82 How many 4d electrons are found in atoms of each of b. period 2 nonmetal
the following elements? c. group IIA metal
a. zinc b. yttrium d. group VA nonmetal
c. silver d. iodine 6.93 Determine the following for the “highlighted” ele-
6.83 Using the periodic table as a guide, indicate the num- ments in the following periodic table.
ber of
a. 3p electrons in a 16S atom.
b. 3d electrons in a 29Cu atom.
c. 4s electrons in a 37Rb atom. 2 3
d. 4d electrons in a 30Zn atom.
6.84 Using the periodic table as a guide, indicate the num-
1 4
ber of
a. 3s electrons in a 12Mg atom.
b. 4p electrons in a 32Ge atom.
c. 3d electrons in a 47Ag atom.
d. 4p electrons in a 15P atom. a. Is 冷 1 冷 a metal or nonmetal?
b. Is 冷 3 冷 a metal or nonmetal?
CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS FOR THE ELEMENTS c. Is 冷 2 冷 a good or poor conductor of electricity?
(SEC. 6.11) d. Is 冷 4 冷 a good or poor conductor of heat?
6.94 Determine the following for the “highlighted” ele-
6.85 Classify each of the following general properties as ments in the periodic table given in Problem 6.93.
characteristic of metallic elements or of nonmetallic a. Is 冷 2 冷 a metal or nonmetal?
elements.
b. Is 冷 4 冷 a metal or nonmetal?
a. ductile
c. Is 冷 1 冷 a good or poor conductor of electricity?
b. low electrical conductivity
d. Is 冷 3 冷 a good or poor conductor of heat?
c. high thermal conductivity
6.95 Select from the following list of six elements
d. good heat insulator
6.86 Classify each of the following general properties as 30Zn 34Se 36Kr 38Sr 58Ce 74W
characteristic of metallic elements or of nonmetallic those elements that are
elements. a. transition elements
a. nonmalleable b. noble gas elements
b. high luster c. representative elements
c. low thermal conductivity d. inner-transition elements
d. brittle 6.96 Select from the following list of six elements
6.87 Using the two-category “metal-nonmetal” classification
system, classify each of the elements in period 2 of the 29Cu 33As 54Xe 56Ba 70Yb 82Pb
periodic table as a metal or nonmetal. those elements that are

6.88 Using the two-category “metal-nonmetal” classification a. transition elements
system, classify each of the elements in period 3 of the b. noble gas elements
periodic table as a metal or nonmetal. c. representative elements
6.89 Using the two-category “metal-nonmetal” classification d. inner-transition elements
system, classify each of the elements in group VA of 6.97 Using the two-category “metal-nonmetal” classification
the periodic table as a metal or nonmetal. system, identify the lowest-atomic-numbered element
6.90 Using the two-category “metal-nonmetal” classification that is
system, classify each of the elements in group VIA of a. a nonmetal
the periodic table as a metal or nonmetal. b. a transition metal
6.91 Using the two-category “metal-nonmetal” classification c. a period 4 representative metal
system, identify the lowest-atomic-numbered element d. a period 4 representative nonmetal
that fits each of the following descriptions. 6.98 Using the two-category “metal-nonmetal” classification
a. period 4 metal system, identify the lowest-atomic-numbered element
b. period 2 nonmetal that is
c. group IIA metal a. a period 5 metal
d. group VA nonmetal b. a period 5 transition metal
c. a period 5 representative metal b. The nonmetallic character for a group of ele-

d. a period 5 representative nonmetal ments decreases in proceeding down a group in
6.99 Answer the following questions concerning groups the periodic table.
and periods of the periodic table. c. The atomic radius for a period of elements in-
a. How many periods are there that contain transi- creases in proceeding from left to right in the
tion elements? periodic table.
b. How many groups are there that contain repre- 6.104 Based on general periodic table trends, indicate whether
sentative elements? each of the following statements is true or false.
c. How many periods are there that contain metals? a. The nonmetallic character for a period of ele-
d. How many periods are there that consist of all ments decreases in proceeding from left to right
metals? in the periodic table.
6.100 Answer the following questions concerning groups b. The atomic radius for a group of elements de-
and periods of the periodic table. creases in proceeding down a group in the peri-
a. How many periods are there that contain inner- odic table.
transition elements? c. The metallic character for a group of elements
b. How many groups are there that contain both increases in proceeding down a group in the pe-
metals and nonmetals? riodic table.
c. How many groups are there that consist of all 6.105 Classify each of the elements in period 2 as a metal,
nonmetals? metalloid, or nonmetal.
d. How many periods are there that consist of all 6.106 Classify each of the elements in period 3 as a metal,
nonmetals? metalloid, or nonmetal.
6.101 Determine the number of “highlighted” elements in 6.107 Based on periodic table trends, indicate which mem-
the following periodic table that belong to each of ber of each pair of elements is the more metallic.
the following element classifications. a. 11Na or 37Rb b. 22Ti or 32Ge
c. 34Se or 35Br d. 30Zn or 56Ba
6.108 Based on periodic table trends, indicate which mem-
ber of each pair of elements is the more metallic.
a. 12Mg or 16S b. 47Ag or 79Au
c. 20Ca or 27Co d. 4Be or 37Rb
6.109 Using the periodic table, indicate which member of
each pair is more nonmetallic.
a. 9F or 35Br b. 14Si or 15P
c. 25Mn or 30Zn d. 17Cl or 33As
6.110 Using the periodic table, indicate which member of
each pair is more nonmetallic.
a. 6C or 8O b. 12Mg or 20Ca
c. 50Sn or 52Te d. 53I or 81Tl
6.111 Identify the element that fits each of the following
a. noble gas element
descriptions.
b. inner-transition element
a. most metallic element in group VA
c. nonmetal
b. most nonmetallic element in group IIA
d. metallic representative element
c. most metallic element in period 4
6.102 Determine the number of “highlighted” elements in
d. most nonmetallic element in period 2
the periodic table in Problem 6.101 that belong to
6.112 Identify the element that fits each of the following
each of the following element classifications.
descriptions.
a. transition element
a. most nonmetallic element in group VIA
b. nonmetallic representative element
b. most metallic element in group IA
c. metal
c. most nonmetallic element in period 3
d. metallic inner-transition element
d. most metallic element in period 2
6.113 Indicate which member of each of the following
CHEMICAL PERIODICITY (SEC. 6.12)
pairs of elements has the larger atomic radius.
6.103 Based on general periodic table trends, indicate a. 5B or 6C b. 17Cl or 31Ga
whether each of the following statements is true or c. 19K or 35Br d. 19K or 37Rb
false. 6.114 Indicate which member of each of the following
a. The metallic character for a period of elements pairs of elements has the larger atomic radius.
increases in proceeding from left to right in the a. 15P or 16S b. 15P or 33As
periodic table. c. 35Br or 52Te d. 37Rb or 53I
6.115 Identify the element that fits each of the following 6.116 Identify the element that fits each of the following
descriptions. descriptions.
a. smallest atomic radius in group VA a. largest atomic radius in group VIA
b. largest atomic radius in group IIA b. smallest atomic radius in group IA
c. smallest atomic radius in period 4 c. largest atomic radius in period 3
d. largest atomic radius in period 2 d. smallest atomic radius in period 1
mesh together (complement each other) in problem-solving situations. Answers are given at the back of the book for the odd-
numbered problems.
6.117 What is wrong with each of the following attempts to immediately above and immediately below each of
write an electron configuration? the following elements.
a. 1s 22s 3 b. 1s 22s 22p 23s 2 a. [Ar]4s 23d 104p 1 b. [Kr]5s 24d 3
c. 1s 22s 23s 2 d. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23d 10 c. [Ne]3s 23p 2 d. [Kr]5s 24d 105p 5
6.118 What is wrong with each of the following attempts to 6.127 Write electron configurations for the following elements.
write an electron configuration? a. the group IVA element in the same period as 15P
a. 1s 21p 6 b. 1s 22s 4 b. the period 2 element in the same group as 50Sn
c. 1s 22s 22p 43s 2 d. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 63d 10 c. the lowest atomic-numbered nonmetal in pe-
6.119 In what period and group in the periodic table is an riod VA
element with each of the following electron configu- d. the period 2 element that has three unpaired
rations located? electrons
a. 1s 22s 22p 63s 1 6.128 Write electron configurations for the following elements.
b. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 1 a. the group IIIA element in the same period as 4Be
c. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 64s 23d 1 b. the period 3 element in the same group as 5B
d. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 64s 23d 104p 5 c. the lowest atomic-numbered metal in group IA
6.120 In what period and group in the periodic table is an d. the period 3 element that has three unpaired
element with each of the following electron configu- electrons
rations located? 6.129 Referring only to the periodic table, determine the
a. 1s 22s 22p 2 element of lowest atomic number whose electron
b. 1s 22s 22p 63s 2 configuration contains the following.
c. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 64s 23d 2 a. two completely filled orbitals
d. 1s 22s 22p 63s 33p 64s 23d 104p 65s 2 b. two completely filled subshells
6.121 Specify the number of unpaired electrons associated c. two completely filled shells
with each of the electron configurations given in d. two completely filled p subshells
Problem 6.119. 6.130 Referring only to the periodic table, determine the
6.122 Specify the number of unpaired electrons associated element of lowest atomic number whose electron
with each of the electron configurations given in configuration contains the following.
Problem 6.120. a. three completely filled orbitals
6.123 Specify whether the atoms with the electron configu- b. three completely filled subshells
rations given in Problem 6.119 are paramagnetic or c. three completely filled shells
diamagnetic. d. three completely filled s subshells
6.124 Specify whether the atoms with the electron configu- 6.131 In what group(s) in the periodic table would you
rations given in Problem 6.120 are paramagnetic or expect to find each of the following?
diamagnetic. a. a representative element with two unpaired
6.125 Write condensed electron configurations for the ele- electrons
ments that occupy the periodic table positions im- b. a transition element with three unpaired electrons
mediately above and immediately below each of the c. an element with two unpaired d electrons
following elements. d. an element with one unpaired s electron
a. [Ar]4s 2 b. [Kr]5s 24d 3 6.132 In what group(s) in the periodic table would you
c. [Ne]3s 23p 5 d. [Kr]5s 24d 105p 1 expect to find each of the following?
6.126 Write condensed electron configurations for the a. a transition element with no unpaired electrons
elements that occupy the periodic table positions b. a nonmetal with no unpaired electrons
c. an element with three unpaired p electrons c. twelve electrons in shell 3

d. an element with one unpaired d electron d. six 5p electrons (note that more than one ele-
6.133 Indicate which element or elements have the elec- ment qualifies)
tron characteristics below. In those cases where a 6.135 Referring only to the periodic table, determine the
series of elements have the indicated characteristics, element of lowest atomic number whose electron
do not write all the symbols, but write the atomic configuration contains the following.
numbers of the first and last elements in the series, a. more p electrons than s electrons
for example, elements 70–83. b. more d electrons than p electrons
a. a total of 84 electrons 6.136 Referring only to the periodic table, determine the
b. only four 3d electrons element of lowest atomic number whose electron
c. two 7s electrons (note that more than one ele- configuration contains the following.
ment qualifies) a. more f electrons than s electrons
d. a total of six s electrons (note that more than one b. more d electrons than s electrons
element qualifies) 6.137 Give the name of each of the following elements.
6.134 Indicate which element or elements have the elec- a. heaviest alkaline earth metal
tron characteristics below. In those cases where a b. lightest metalloid in group VA
series of elements has the indicated characteristics, c. halogen in period 6
do not write all the symbols, but write the atomic d. lightest representative element
numbers of the first and last elements in the series, 6.138 Give the name of each of the following elements.
for example, elements 70–83. a. heaviest alkali metal
a. only one electron in shell 7 b. lightest period 5 metalloid
b. a total of fifteen p electrons (they are not all in c. lightest period 4 transition element
the same subshell) d. heaviest group VIA nonmetal

MC 6.1 Which of the following pieces of information about c. 19K and 34Se
an element is not found on a standard periodic table? d. more than one correct response
a. atomic number e. no correct response
b. mass number MC 6.5 Which of the following is an incorrect element
c. atomic mass characterization?
d. more than one correct response a. Element 11 is an alkali metal.
e. no correct response b. Element 9 is a halogen.
MC 6.2 Which of the following pairings of concepts per- c. Element 2 is a noble gas.
taining to the periodic table is an incorrect pairing? d. more than one correct response
a. group and column e. no correct response
b. period and row MC 6.6 Both a number and a letter are used in designating
c. periodic table and “graphical portrayal of the peri- an electron subshell. The letter
odic law” a. indicates the shell to which the subshell belongs.
d. more than one correct response b. may be s, p, d, or f.
e. no correct response c. gives information about the maximum number of
MC 6.3 The elements constituting a group in the periodic table electrons the subshell may hold.
a. have similar chemical properties. d. more than one correct response
b. are called isotopes. e. no correct response
c. have consecutive atomic numbers. MC 6.7 Which of the following statements concerning elec-
d. more than one correct response tron shells are correct?
e. no correct response a. The shell number gives the number of electrons
MC 6.4 In which of the following pairs of elements are present.
both members of the pair in the same periodic table period? b. All electrons present in a shell have the same energy.
a. 4Be and 12Mg c. The number of subshells present is the same as
b. 10Ne and 11Na the shell number.
MC 6.8 Which of the following statements about a d sub- MC 6.16 Which of the following statements concerning
shell is correct? atoms of the elements 9F and 10Ne is correct?
a. Seven orbitals are present within it. a. Both F and Ne atoms are diamagnetic.
b. The maximum number of electrons it can contain b. Both F and Ne atoms are paramagnetic.
is 14. c. F atoms are diamagnetic and Ne atoms are
c. All electrons present have the same energy. paramagnetic.
MC 6.9 Which of the following is the correct electron con- MC 6.17 In which of the following pairs of elements is one
figuration for the element 20Ca? element a metal and the other element a nonmetal?
a. 1s22s22p63s2 a. 30Zn and 31Ga
b. 1s22s23s24s2 b. 16S and 17Cl
c. 1s22s22p63s23p64s2 c. 15P and 83Bi
d. 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s2 d. more than one correct response
MC 6.10 Which of the following statements is consistent MC 6.18 Which of the following statements about element
with the electron configuration 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 4? classification systems is correct?
a. There are 4 electrons in a 3p orbital. a. All of the elements in the p area of the periodic
b. There are 4 electrons in a 3p subshell. table are representative elements.
c. There are 4 electrons in the third shell. b. All of the elements in the d area of the periodic
d. more than one correct response table are transition elements.
e. no correct response c. All of the elements in the s area of the periodic
MC 6.11 How many core electrons are present in an atom table are inner-transition elements.
whose condensed electron configuration is [Ne]3s 23p 4? d. more than one correct response
a. 6 b. 10 c. 16 d. 18 e. no correct response
e. no correct response MC 6.19 Which of the following concept pairings relating
MC 6.12 Which electron subshell fills with electrons imme- to element classifications is incorrect?
diately before the 3d subshell fills with electrons? a. inner-transition element—distinguishing electron
a. 3s b. 3p c. 4s d. 4p is found in a f subshell
e. no correct response b. representative element—some are metals and
MC 6.13 Which of the following statements concerning pe- some are nonmetals
riodic table “position” and electron configurations is correct? c. noble gas element—electron configurations ends
a. The 3p subshell begins filling at element 13. in p 5 or p 6
b. The 4s subshell becomes completely filled at ele- d. more than one correct response
ment 19. e. no correct response
c. The third shell becomes completely filled at ele- MC 6.20 Which of the following statements concerning
ment 18. atomic radii is correct?
d. more than one correct response a. 17Cl has a larger atomic radius than 13Al.
e. no correct response b. 17Cl has a larger atomic radius than 35Br.
MC 6.14 Which of the following statements concerning pe- c. 17Cl has a larger atomic radius than 18Ar.
riodic table locations of elements is correct? d. more than one correct response
a. 27Co and 30Zn are in the d area of the periodic e. no correct response
table.
b. 80Hg and 82Pb are in the p area of the periodic
table.
c. 37Rb and 56Ba are in the s area of the periodic MC 6.1 b MC 6.8 c MC 6.15 d
table. MC 6.2 e MC 6.9 c MC 6.16 e
d. more than one correct response MC 6.3 a MC 6.10 b MC 6.17 c
e. no correct response MC 6.4 c MC 6.11 b MC 6.18 b
MC 6.15 Two unpaired electrons are present in the orbital MC 6.5 e MC 6.12 c MC 6.19 c
diagram of which of the following elements? MC 6.6 d MC 6.13 a MC 6.20 c
a. 14Si b. 20Ca c. 34Se MC 6.7 c MC 6.14 d
C H A P T E R
7
Chemical Bonds
7.1 Types of Chemical Bonds

7.2 Valence Electrons and Lewis Symbols
7.3 The Octet Rule
7.4 The Ionic Bond Model
7.5 The Sign and Magnitude of Ionic Charge
7.6 Lewis Structures for Ionic Compounds
7.7 Chemical Formulas for Ionic Compounds
7.8 Structure of Ionic Compounds
7.9 Polyatomic Ions
7.10 The Covalent Bond Model
7.11 Lewis Structures for Molecular Compounds
7.12 Single, Double, and Triple Covalent Bonds
7.13 Valence Electron Count and Number of Covalent Bonds Formed
7.14 Coordinate Covalent Bonds
7.15 Resonance Structures
7.16 Systematic Procedures for Drawing Lewis Structures
7.17 Molecular Geometry
7.18 Electronegativity
7.19 Bond Polarity
7.20 Molecular Polarity
7.1 TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS

Student Learning Focus: Define the term chemical bond and be able to describe the two major
types of chemical bonds.
In Section 5.2 we considered the fact that chemical compounds are conveniently divided
into two broad classes called ionic compounds and molecular compounds. Ionic and
228
Chapter 7 • Chemical Bonds 229
molecular compounds can be distinguished from each other on the basis of general Another designation for
physical properties. Ionic compounds tend to have high melting points 150092000⬚C2 and a molecular compound is
covalent compound. The
are good conductors of electricity when they are in a molten (liquid) state. Molecular modifier molecular draws
compounds, on the other hand, generally have much lower melting points and tend to be attention to the basic
gases, liquids, or low-melting solids. They do not conduct electricity in the molten state. structural unit present
Ionic compounds, unlike molecular compounds, do not have molecules as their basic (the molecule) and the
structural unit. Instead, an extended array of positively and negatively charged particles modifier covalent focuses
on the mode of bond for-
called ions is present. mation (electron sharing).
Some combinations of elements produce ionic compounds, whereas other com-
binations of elements form molecular compounds. What determines whether the inter-
action of two elements produces ions (an ionic compound) or molecules (a molecular
compound)? An answer to this question requires information concerning the nature of
chemical bonds. A chemical bond is the attractive force that holds two atoms together in
a more complex unit. Chemical bonds form as the result of interactions between electrons
found in the combining atoms. Thus, chemical bond considerations are closely linked to
electron configurations (Sec. 6.7).
Corresponding to the two broad categories of chemical compounds are two types
of chemical attractive forces (chemical bonds): ionic bonds and covalent bonds. An ionic
bond is a chemical bond formed through the transfer of one or more electrons from one
atom or group of atoms to another. As suggested by its name, the ionic bond model (elec-
tron transfer) is used in describing the attractive forces in ionic compounds. A covalent
bond is a chemical bond formed through the sharing of one or more pairs of electrons
between two atoms. The covalent bond model (electron sharing) is used in describing the
attractions between atoms in molecular compounds.
It is important to emphasize, even before we consider the details of these two
bond models, that the concepts of ionic and covalent bonds are actually “convenience” Purely ionic bonds in-
concepts. Most bonds are not 100% ionic or 100% covalent. Instead, most bonds have volve complete transfer
some degree of both ionic and covalent character, that is, some degree of both the of electrons from one
atom to another. Purely
transfer and sharing of electrons. However, it is easiest to understand these intermediate covalent bonds involve
bonds (the real bonds) by relating them to the pure or ideal bond types called ionic equal sharing of elec-
and covalent. trons. Experimentally, it
There are two fundamental concepts that are common to and necessary for under- is found that most actual
standing both the ionic and covalent bonding models. These concepts are the following: bonds have some degree
of both ionic and cova-
1. Not all electrons in an atom participate in chemical bonding. Those that are available lent character. The excep-
are called valence electrons. tion is bonds between
identical atoms; here,
2. Certain arrangements of electrons are more stable than other arrangements of elec- the bonding is purely
trons. The octet rule addresses this situation. covalent.
Section 7.2 deals with the concept of valence electrons and Section 7.3 discusses the octet
rule.
7.2 VALENCE ELECTRONS AND LEWIS SYMBOLS

Student Learning Focus: Determine the number of valence electrons that a representative element
has given its location in the periodic table or its electron configuration, and write a Lewis symbol
for an element based on the number of valence electrons present.
Certain electrons, called valence electrons, are particularly important in determining

the bonding characteristics of a given atom. A valence electron is an electron in the
outermost electron shell of a representative element or noble gas element. Valence elec-
trons are always found in either s or p subshells or both. Note the restriction on the use
230 Chapter 7 • Chemical Bonds
The term valence is of this definition; it applies only for representative and noble gas elements (Sec. 6.11).
derived from the Latin Many commonly encountered elements are representative elements; hence the defini-
valentia, meaning tion finds much use. (We will not consider in this text the more complicated valence
“capacity” (to form bonds).
electron definitions for transition or inner transition elements (Sec. 6.11); the presence
of incompletely filled inner d or f subshells is the complicating factor in definitions for
these elements.)
The number of valence electrons in an atom of a representative element can be
determined from the atom’s electron configuration, as is illustrated in Example 7.1.
EXAMPLE 7.1 Determining the Number of Valence Electrons

an Atom Possesses
Determine the number of valence electrons present in atoms of each of the following
elements.
a. 12Mg b. 17Cl c. 34Se
SOLUTION
a. The element magnesium has two valence electrons, as can be seen by examining its
electron configuration.
Number of valence electrons

1s22s22p6 3 s 2
Highest value of the
electron shell number
The highest value of the electron shell number is n = 3. Only two electrons are
found in shell 3, two electrons in the 3s subshell.
b. The element chlorine has seven valence electrons.
Total of seven valence electrons

2
1s22s22p6 3s 3p5
Electrons in two different subshells can simultaneously be valence electrons. The

highest shell number is 3, and both the 3s and 3p subshells belong to shell number 3.
Hence, all electrons in both subshells are valence electrons.
c. The element selenium has six valence electrons.
Total of six valence electrons

1s22s22p63s23p6 4 s 2 3d10 4 p 4
The 3d electrons are not counted as valence electrons because the 3d subshell is in
shell 3 and shell 3 is not the shell with the maximum n value. Shell 4 is the outer-
most shell, the shell with the maximum n value.
IA VIIIA FIGURE 7.1 Lewis

symbols of the first
H He 20 elements.
IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA
Li Be B C N O F Ne
K Ca
Representative
Noble gases
elements
It seems reasonable that the outermost electrons of atoms are those involved in
bonding when you remember that when atoms collide—an event that is necessary before
atoms can combine—it will be the outermost parts of the atoms that come into contact
with each other. Also, since the outermost electrons are located the farthest from the nu-
cleus, they are therefore the least tightly bound (attraction to the nucleus decreases with
distance) and thus the most susceptible to change (transfer or sharing).
Chemists have developed a shorthand system for designating the number of va-
lence electrons present in an atom. This system uses Lewis symbols. A Lewis symbol is
the chemical symbol of an element surrounded by dots equal in number to the number of
valence electrons present in atoms of the element. Lewis symbols for the first 20 elements,
arranged as in the periodic table, are given in Figure 7.1. Lewis symbols, named in honor
of the American chemist Gilbert Newton Lewis, an early contributor to chemical bonding
theory and the person who first used them (see “The Human Side of Chemistry 7”), are
also frequently called electron-dot structures.
The general practice when writing Lewis symbols is to place the first four dots sepa- In a Lewis symbol, the
rately on the four sides of the chemical symbol and then begin pairing the dots as further chemical symbol repre-
dots are added. It makes no difference on which side of the symbol the process of adding sents the nucleus and
all of the nonvalence
dots begins. The following notations for the Lewis symbol of the element magnesium are electrons. The valence
all equivalent. electrons are then shown
# # # as dots.
Mg # M
# g
# # Mg
#
# Mg M
# g
# Mg #
Three important generalizations about valence electrons can be drawn from a study
of the Lewis symbols in Figure 7.1.
1. Representative elements in the same group of the periodic table have the same num-
ber of valence electrons. This should not be surprising to you. Elements in the
same group in the periodic table have similar chemical properties as a result of
having similar outer shell electron configurations (Sec. 6.9). The electrons in the
outermost shell are the valence electrons.
2. The number of valence electrons for representative elements in a group is the same
as the periodic table group number. For example, the Lewis symbols for O and S,
both members of group VIA, show six dots. Similarly, the Lewis symbols for H, Li,
Na, and K, all members of group IA, show one dot.
3. The maximum number of valence electrons for any element is eight.
Only the noble gases (Sec. 6.11), beginning with Ne, have the maximum number
of eight electrons. Helium, with only two valence electrons, is the exception in the
noble gas family; obviously an element with a grand total of two electrons cannot
have eight valence electrons. Although shells with n greater than 2 are capable of
holding more than eight electrons, they do so only when they are no longer the out-
ermost shell and thus are not the valence shell. For example, selenium (Example 7.1)
has 18 electrons in its third shell; however, shell 4 is the valence shell in selenium.
EXAMPLE 7.2 Writing Lewis Symbols for Elements
Write Lewis symbols for the following elements.

a. S, Se, and Te b. Be, B, and C
SOLUTION
a. These elements are all group VIA elements and thus possess the same number of
valence electrons, which is six. (The number of valence electrons and the periodic
table group number will always be the same for representative elements.) The Lewis
symbols, which all have six dots, are
S Se Te
b. These elements are sequential elements in period 2 of the periodic table; Be is in

group IIA (two valence electrons), B is in group IIIA (three valence electrons),
and C is in group IVA (four valence electrons). The Lewis symbols for these ele-
ments are
Be B C

Gilbert Newton After two years of study in Germany while he was lecturing to an introductory
Lewis (1875–1946) and a stint as a government chemist in the chemistry class.
Philippines, he became a professor of chemistry Lewis also made significant contri-
Gilbert Newton Lewis, at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology butions in many other areas of chemistry
an American chemist, is (1905–1912). From 1912 to his death in 1946, b esides bonding theory. Thermodynamic
recognized as one of the the University of California at Berkeley was his studies were a major interest during most
foremost chemists of the twentieth century. home. of his career. In 1938 a generalized theory
The son of a lawyer, he received his primary In 1916 he published a paper proposing for acids and bases (now called Lewis acid–
education at home. He read at age 3 and was that a chemical bond involved a pair of elec- base theory) came from his mind and pen.
intellectually precocious. trons shared or held jointly by two atoms. This Still later, he was the first to isolate heavy
Lewis was born in Weymouth, proved to be one of the most fruitful ideas in hydrogen (12H).
Massachusetts (1875), but was raised in the history of chemistry. Within a few years of Lewis was not only a profound re-
Nebraska where his family moved in 1884. In his 1916 paper, with contributions from other searcher but also a teacher of renown. He
1889, at age 14, he received his first formal ed- scientists, a formal theory of chemical bonding strongly felt that students learn by doing.
ucation, attending the University of Nebraska based on sharing of electron pairs had been de- Among his teaching techniques was the use
preparatory school. He studied for two years veloped. Lewis is also the one who developed of large problem sets to reinforce concepts
at the University of Nebraska and then in 1893 the symbolism now called Lewis symbols, or taught in lecture. This problem-set approach
transferred to Harvard University, where he ob- electron-dot structures. His memoirs indicate is still a part of most chemistry classes
tained a Ph.D. in chemistry in 1899. that he first had the idea of shared electrons today. ▪
7.3 THE OCTET RULE

Student Learning Focus: State the octet rule and understand the basis for the rule.
A key concept in modern bonding theory is that certain arrangements of valence electrons
are more stable than others. The term stable as used here refers to the idea that a system (in
this case an arrangement of electrons) does not easily undergo spontaneous change.
The valence electron configurations possessed by the noble gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, The outermost electron
Xe, and Rn; see Sec. 6.11) are considered to be the most stable of all valence electron con- shell of an atom is also
called the valence elec-
figurations. For helium, this most stable electron configuration involves two outer shell
tron shell.
electrons. The rest of the noble gases have eight outer shell electrons.
He: 1s2
Ne: 1s2 2s22p6
Ar: 1s22s22p6 3s23p6
Kr: 1s22s22p63s23p6 4s2 3d10 4p6
Xe: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p6 5s2 4d10 5p6
Rn: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p6 6s2 4f 145d10 6p6
The common feature among these noble gas electron configurations is completely filled
outermost s and p subshells.
The conclusion that a noble gas configuration is the most stable of all outer shell
electron configurations is based on the chemical properties of the noble gases. These ele-
ments are the most unreactive of all the elements. They are the only elemental gases found
in nature in the form of individual uncombined atoms. There are no known compounds of
He and Ne, and only a few compounds of Ar, Kr, Xe, and Rn. The noble gases appear to The majority of noble gas
be “happy” the way they are. They have little or no “desire” to form bonds to other atoms. compounds contain the
element xenon. The first
Atoms of many elements that lack the very stable outer shell electron configuration
was synthesized in 1962.
of the noble gases tend to attain it in chemical reactions that result in compound forma- The three most studied
tion. This observation has become known as the octet rule because of the eight outer xenon compounds are all
shell electrons possessed by five of the six noble gases. A formal statement of the octet xenon fluorides—XeF2,
rule is: In forming compounds, atoms of elements lose, gain, or share electrons in such a XeF4, and XeF6. All three
xenon fluorides are white
way as to produce a noble gas electron configuration for each of the atoms involved.
solids at room tempera-
Application of the octet rule to many different systems has shown that it has value ture that react rapidly
in predicting correctly the observed combining ratios of atoms. For example, it explains with water, even traces
why two hydrogen atoms rather than some other number are bonded to one oxygen of moisture.
atom in the molecular compound water. It explains why the formula of the ionic com-
pound sodium chloride is NaCl rather than NaCl2, NaCl3, or Na2 Cl.
There are exceptions to the octet rule, but it is still used because of the large amount
of information that it is able to correlate. It is particularly effective in explaining compound
formation involving only representative elements. Often complications arise with transition
and inner transition elements because of the involvement of d and f electrons in the bonding.
7.4 THE IONIC BOND MODEL

Student Learning Focus: Define the term ion, describe the notation used to denote ions, and be
able to write chemical symbols for ions.
Electron transfer between two or more atoms is the basic premise for the ionic bond The pronunciation for the
model. This electron transfer produces charged particles called ions. An ion is an atom word ion is “eye-on.”
(or group of atoms) that is electrically charged as the result of loss or gain of electrons. An
atom is neutral only when the number of its protons (positive charges) is equal to the
number of its electrons (negative charges). Loss or gain of electrons destroys this proton–
electron balance and leaves a net charge on the atom.
An atom’s nucleus never If one or more electrons are gained by an atom, a negatively charged ion is produced;
changes during the pro- excess negative charge is present because electrons now outnumber protons. The loss of
cess of ion formation.
one or more electrons by an atom results in the formation of a positively charged ion; more
The numbers of neutrons
and protons remain protons than electrons are now present, resulting in excess positive charge. Note that the
constant. excess positive charge associated with a positive ion is never caused by proton gain but
always by electron loss. If the number of protons remains constant and the number of elec-
trons decreases, the result is net positive charge. The number of protons, which determines
the identity of the element (Sec. 5.7), never changes during ion formation.
The term anion is pro- The terms anion and cation describe ions of opposite charge. An anion is a nega-
nounced “an-eye-on,” and tively charged ion. A cation is a positively charged ion.
the term cation is pro- The charge on an ion is directly correlated with the number of electrons lost or
nounced “cat-eye-on.”
gained. Loss of one, two, or three electrons gives cations with +1, +2, or +3 charges,
respectively. Similarly, a gain of one, two, or three electrons gives anions with -1, -2, or
-3 charges, respectively. (Atoms that have lost or gained more than three electrons are
very seldom encountered.)
The notation for charges on ions is a superscript placed to the right of the elemental
symbol. Some examples of ion symbols are
positive ions 1cations2 Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Al3+
negative ions 1anions2 Cl-, Br-, O2-, S2-, N3-
Note that a single plus or minus sign is used to denote a charge of one, instead of
using the notation 1+ or 1-. Also note that in multicharged ions the number precedes
the charge sign; that is, the correct notation for a charge of plus two is 2+ rather than +2.
The chemical properties of a particle (atom or ion) depend on the particle’s elec-
tron arrangement. Because an ion has a different electron configuration (fewer or more
electrons) than the atom from which it was formed, it has different chemical properties as
well. For example, water solutions containing Na+ ions are very stable even though the
element sodium (neutral Na) reacts vigorously with water.
EXAMPLE 7.3 Writing Chemical Symbols for Ions
Give the chemical symbol for each of the following ions:

a. the ion formed when an aluminum atom loses three electrons
b. the ion formed when a sulfur atom gains two electrons
SOLUTION
a. A neutral aluminum atom contains 13 protons and 13 electrons, since the atomic
number of aluminum is 13 (obtained from the periodic table). The aluminum ion
formed by the loss of three electrons would still contain 13 protons but would have
only 10 electrons because three electrons were lost.
13 protons = 13 + charges
10 electrons = 10 - charges
net charge = 3 +
The chemical symbol for the aluminum ion is Al3+.
b. The atomic number of sulfur is 16. Thus, 16 protons and 16 electrons are present in
a neutral sulfur atom. A gain of two electrons raises the electron count to 18.
16 protons = 16 + charges
18 electrons = 18 - charges
net charge = 2 -
The chemical symbol for the sulfur ion is thus S2-.
Answer Double Check: Are the ion charges consistent with the concepts of loss and
gain of electrons? Loss of electrons always produces a positively charged ion, and gain of
electrons always produces a negatively charged ion. The answers are in accord with these
generalizations.
EXAMPLE 7.4 Determining the Number of Protons and Electrons in Ions
Determine the number of protons and electrons present in the following ions.
a. P3- b. Mg2+
SOLUTION
a. The number of protons present is the same as in a neutral atom and is therefore
given by the atomic number, which is 15 for phosphorus.
number of protons = atomic number = 15
The number of electrons in a neutral phosphorus atom is 15. The charge of -3 on
the ion indicates the gain of three electrons.
number of electrons = 15 + 3 = 18
b. The atomic number of magnesium is 12.
number of protons = atomic number = 12
The number of electrons in a neutral Mg atom is 12. The charge of +2 on the ion
indicates the loss of two electrons.
number of electrons = 12 - 2 = 10
Answer Double Check: The number of protons never changes during ion formation.
Is such the case here? Yes. The proton count remained constant in both cases. Electron
count decreases when forming a positively charged ion and increases when forming a
negatively charged ion. Is such the case here? Yes.
So far, our discussion about electron transfer and ion formation has focused on the
loss or gain of electrons by isolated individual atoms. During ionic bond formation, ion
formation occurs only when atoms of two elements are present—an element that can lose
electrons and an element that can gain electrons. The total number of electrons lost by
atoms of the one element is the same as the total number gained by atoms of the other
element. Thus, positive and negative ions must always be formed at the same time (see
Fig. 7.2).
FIGURE 7.2 Electron

transfer always Neutral Na atom:
produces positive and 11 electrons (11−)
negative ions at the 11 protons (11+)
same time. You cannot
form positive ions Elect
ron lo
without also forming ss Na+ ion:
negative ions. Proton 10 electrons (10−)
count does not change 11 protons (11+)
during ion formation.
It is electrons that are
transferred.
Positive ion
Na atom loses
Electron one electron;
transfer Cl atom gains
one electron
Cl− ion:
18 electrons (18−)
ain
ron g 17 protons (17+)
Elect
Neutral Cl atom:
17 electrons (17−) Negative ion
17 protons (17+)
The mutual attraction between the positive and negative ions that results from elec-
tron transfer constitutes the force that holds the ions together as an ionic compound. This
force is referred to as an ionic bond. An ionic bond is the chemical bond resulting from
the attraction of positive and negative ions for each other.
7.5 THE SIGN AND MAGNITUDE OF IONIC CHARGE

Student Learning Focus: Based on the octet rule, be able to determine the sign and magnitude
of ionic charge for simple ions of the representative elements; be able to determine whether an
atom or ion or two ions are isoelectronic with each other.
Figure 7.2 illustrates the ion formation process that occurs when the elements sodium and
chlorine interact to form the compound NaCl. Sodium atoms lose (transfer) one electron
to chlorine atoms, producing Na+ and Cl- ions. These ions combine in a 1:1 ratio to give
the compound NaCl.
Why do sodium atoms form Na+ and not Na2+ or Na- ions? Why do chlorine atoms
form Cl- ions rather than Cl2- or Cl+ ions? In general, what determines the specific num-
ber of electrons lost or gained in electron transfer processes?
The octet rule (Sec. 7.3) provides a very simple and straightforward explanation for
the charge magnitude associated with ions of the representative elements. Atoms tend to
gain or lose electrons until they have obtained an electron configuration that is the same
as that of a noble gas.
Consider the element sodium, which has the electron configuration
1s22s22p63s1
It can attain a noble gas configuration by losing one electron (to give it the electron configu-
ration of neon) or by gaining seven electrons (to give it the electron configuration of argon).
o fle
−
Na+ (1s22s22p6)
Loss Electron configuration of neon
Na (1s22s22p63s1)
Gain
of 7
e− Na7− (1s22s22p63s23p6)
Electron configuration of argon
The first process, the loss of one electron, is more energetically favorable than the gain
of seven electrons and is the process that occurs. The process that involves the fewer
number of electrons will always be the more energetically favorable process and will be
the process that occurs.
Consider the element chlorine, which has the electron configuration
1s22s22p63s23p5
It can attain a noble gas configuration by losing seven electrons (to give it the electron
configuration of neon) or by gaining one electron (to give it the electron configuration of
argon). The latter occurs for the reason cited previously.
e− Cl7+ (1s22s22p6)
of 7
Loss Electron configuration of neon
Cl (1s22s22p63s23p5)
Gain
of 1
e− Cl− (1s22s22p63s23p6)
Electron configuration of argon
The type of consideration we have just used for the elements sodium and chlorine
leads to the following generalizations:
1. Metal atoms containing one, two, or three valence electrons (the metals in groups
IA, IIA, and IIIA of the periodic table) tend to lose electrons to acquire a noble gas
electron configuration. The noble gas involved is the one preceding the metal in the
periodic table.
Group IA metals form +1 ions. The positive charge on

metal ions from groups
Group IIA metals form +2 ions. IA, IIA, and IIIA has a
Group IIIA metals form +3 ions. magnitude equal to the
metal’s periodic table
group number.
Group IA metals are all located one periodic table position past a noble gas. Thus,
they will each have one more electron than the preceding noble gas. This electron
must be lost if a noble gas configuration is to be obtained. Group IIA and IIIA met-
als are two and three periodic table positions, respectively, beyond a noble gas.
Consequently, two and three electrons, respectively, must be lost for these metals to
attain a noble gas electron configuration.
2. Nonmetal atoms containing five, six, or seven valence electrons (the nonmetals in
groups VA, VIA, and VIIA of the periodic table) tend to gain electrons to acquire a
noble gas configuration. The noble gas involved is the one following the nonmetal Nonmetals from groups
VA, VIA, and VIIA form
in the periodic table. negative ions whose
charge is equal to the
Group VIIA nonmetals form -1 ions. group number minus
8. For example, S,
Group VIA nonmetals form -2 ions.
in group VIA, forms
Group VA nonmetals form -3 ions. S2- ions 16 - 8 = - 22.
The nonmetal ionic charge guidelines can be explained by reasoning similar to that
for the metals; only this time, the periodic table positions are those immediately
preceding the noble gases. Consequently, electrons must be gained to attain noble
gas configurations.
3. Elements in group IVA occupy unique positions relative to the noble gases. They
are located equidistant between two noble gases. For example, the element carbon
is four positions beyond helium and four positions before neon. Theoretically, ions
with charges of +4 or -4 could be formed by carbon, but in most cases the bond-
ing that results is more adequately described by the covalent bond model to be
discussed in Section 7.10.
EXAMPLE 7.5 Predicting Sign and Magnitude of Ionic Charge
How many electrons must each of the following atoms lose or gain in order to obtain a
noble gas electron configuration and what is the chemical symbol for the ion produced
from such loss or gain?
a. N b. S c. K d. Mg
SOLUTION
Elements with more than four valence electrons achieve an octet of electrons via electron
gain. Conversely, electrons with less than four valence electrons achieve an octet of elec-
trons through electron loss.
a. Nitrogen, a group VA element, has five valence electrons and the electron configura-
tion 1s22s22p3. It will need to gain three more electrons to achieve an octet of elec-
trons. Gain of three electrons produces a triply-charged negative ion.
N3- 1s22s22p6 (neon configuration)
b. Sulfur, a group VIA element, has six valence electrons and the electron configura-
tion 1s22s22p63s23p4. An octet of electrons is achieved through gain of two electrons.
Such electron gain produces a doubly-charged negative ion.
S2- 1s22s22p63s23p6 (argon configuration)
c. Potassium, a member of group IA, possesses one valence electron. Loss of this one
electron from its electron arrangement (1s22s22p63s23p64s1) produces an ion with a
charge of + 1.
K+ 1s22s22p63s23p6 (argon configuration)
d. Magnesium, a member of group IIA, possesses two valence electrons (1s22s22p63s2),
both of which will be lost during ion formation. The resulting positive ion carries a
+ 2 charge.
Mg2+ 1s22s22p6 (neon configuration)
Isoelectronic Species
An ion formed in the preceding manner with an electronic configuration the same as that
of a noble gas is said to be isoelectronic with the noble gas. Isoelectronic species are
ions, or an atom and ions, having the same number and configuration of electrons. An
atom and an ion or two ions may be isoelectronic. Numerous ions that are isoelectronic
with a given noble gas exist, as can be seen from the entries in Table 7.1.
TABLE 7.1 Ions Isoelectronic with Selected Noble Gases
Electron Configuration Anions Noble Gas Cations

- +
1s 2 H He Li Be2+
1s22s22p6 N3- O2- F- Ne Na+ Mg2+ Al3+
1s22s22p63s23p6 P3- S2- Cl- Ar K+ Ca2+ Sc3+
TABLE 7.2 Comparison of the Structure of an Mg2ⴙ Ion and an Ne Atom, the Noble
Gas Atom Isoelectronic with the Ion
Ne Atom Mg2ⴙ Ion

Protons (in the nucleus) 10 12
Electrons (around the nucleus) 10 10
Atomic number 10 12
Charge 0 2+
It should be emphasized that an ion that is isoelectronic with a noble gas does not
have the properties of the noble gas. It has not been converted into the noble gas. The
number of protons in the nucleus of the isoelectronic ion is different from that in the
noble gas. These points are emphasized by the comparison in Table 7.2 between Mg2+
and Ne, the noble gas with which Mg2+ is isoelectronic.
7.6 LEWIS STRUCTURES FOR IONIC COMPOUNDS

Student Learning Focus: Use Lewis structures to describe the bonding in simple ionic compounds.
The use of Lewis structures is helpful in visualizing the formation of simple ionic com-
pounds. A Lewis structure is a grouping of Lewis symbols that shows either the transfer
of electrons or the sharing of electrons in chemical bonds. Lewis symbols involve atoms of
individual elements. Lewis structures involve compounds. The reaction between sodium
(with one valence electron) and chlorine (with seven valence electrons) is represented as
follows with a Lewis structure.
Na + Cl Na+ [ Cl ]− NaCl
The loss of an electron by sodium empties its valence shell. The next inner shell, which con-
tains eight electrons (a noble gas configuration), then becomes the valence shell. After the
valence shell of chlorine gains one electron, it then has the “desired” eight valence electrons.
When sodium, which has one valence electron, combines with oxygen, which has
six valence electrons, two sodium atoms are needed to meet the “electron requirements”
of one oxygen atom.
Na
Na+
O [ O ]2− Na2O
Na+
Na
Note how oxygen’s need for two additional electrons dictates that each of the two sodium
atoms supply one electron to the oxygen atom; hence the formula is Na2O.
An opposite situation to that for Na2O occurs in the reaction between calcium,
which has two valence electrons, and chlorine, which has seven valence electrons. Here,
two chlorine atoms are required to accommodate electrons transferred from one calcium
atom because a chlorine atom can accept only one electron. (It has seven valence elec-
trons and needs only eight.)
Cl [ Cl ]−
Ca Ca2+ CaCl2
Cl [ Cl ]−
We can usually tell whether a compound is ionic (consisting of ions) or co-

valent (consisting of molecules) from its composition. In general, metals tend to
form cations (positive ions) and nonmetals tend to form anions (negative ions).
Therefore, ionic compounds are generally compounds in which both a metal and
nonmetal are present, as in NaCl, Na2 O, and CaCl2. In contrast, covalent compounds
are generally compounds in which only nonmetals are present, as in H2O (see
Sec. 7.10).
EXAMPLE 7.6 Using Lewis Structures to Depict Ionic

Compound Formation
Show the formation of the following ionic compounds using Lewis structures.
a. K3 P b. NaF c. Al2 O3
SOLUTION
a. Potassium (a group IA element) has one valence electron, which it would “like”
to lose. Phosphorus (a group VA element) has five valence electrons and would
thus like to acquire three more. Three potassium atoms will be required to supply
enough electrons for one phosphorus atom.
K K+
K P K+ [ P ]3− K3P
K K+
b. Sodium (a group IA element) has one valence electron, and fluorine (a group VIIA
element) has seven valence electrons. The transfer of the one sodium valence elec-
tron to a fluorine atom will result in each atom’s having a noble gas electron con-
figuration. Thus, these two elements combine in a 1:1 ratio.
Na F Na+ [ F ]− NaF
c. Aluminum (a group IIIA element) has three valence electrons, all of which need
to be lost through electron transfer. Oxygen (a group VIA element) has six valence
electrons and thus needs to acquire two more. Three oxygen atoms are needed to
accommodate the electrons given up by two aluminum atoms.
O [ O ]2−
Al Al3+
O [ O ]2− Al2O3
Al Al3+
O [ O ]2−
Chemical Insight: ALUMINUM OXIDE

Aluminum oxide 1Al2O3 2, one of the three compounds considered in the preceding
example, occurs widely in nature as the mineral corundum. Owing to its hardness,
corundum is used as an abrasive in grinding and polishing.
Rubies and sapphires are high quality corundum crystals naturally colored with
transition metal impurities. The deep red color of rubies comes from trace amounts of
chromium present. Sapphire color depends on the transition metal present—white (no
impurity), blue (iron and titanium), green (cobalt), and yellow (nickel).
Artificial rubies and sapphires are industrially made on a large scale by melting
Al2O3 with small amounts of transition metals compounds (to produce the desired
color) and then cooling the melt in such a way as to produce large crystals.
7.7 CHEMICAL FORMULAS FOR IONIC COMPOUNDS

Student Learning Focus: Using the concept of charge balance and the charges on the ions present,
write the chemical formula for an ionic compound.
Since total electron loss always equals total electron gain in an electron transfer process, ionic
compounds are always neutral; no net charge is present. The total positive charge on the
ions that have lost electrons is always exactly counterbalanced by the total negative charge
on the ions that have gained electrons. Thus, the ratio in which positive and negative ions
combine is the ratio that achieves charge neutrality for the resulting compound. This general-
ization can be used instead of Lewis structures to determine ionic compound formulas. Ions
are combined in the ratio that causes the positive and negative charges to add to zero.
The correct combining ratio when K+ and S2- ions combine is two to one. Two K+
ions (each of +1 charge) will be required to balance the charge on a single S2- ion.
21K+2: 12 ions2 * 1charge of +12 = +2 In any ionic compound

the total positive charge
S2-: 11 ion2 * 1charge of -22 = -2 (from the cations) plus
net charge = 0 the total negative charge
(from the anions) must
add up to zero. Ionic
Hence, the formula is K2 S. compounds cannot have
Example 7.7 gives further illustration of the procedures needed to determine correct a net charge.
combining ratios between ions and to write correct ionic formulas from the combining
ratios. Written ionic formulas are consistent with the following guidelines:
1. The symbol for the positive ion is always written first.
2. The charges on the ions that are present are not shown in the chemical formula.
Knowledge of charges is necessary to determine the chemical formula, but once it
is determined, the charges are not explicitly written.
3. The numbers in the formula (the subscripts) give the combining ratio for the ions.
EXAMPLE 7.7 Using Ionic Charges to Determine the Chemical Formula

of an Ionic Compound
Determine the chemical formula for the compound that is formed when each of the fol-
lowing types of ions interact.
a. Mg2+ and Cl- b. Mg2+ and S2- c. Mg2+ and N3-
SOLUTION
a. Mg2+ and Cl- ions will combine in a one-to-two ratio because this combination will
cause the total charge to add up to zero. One Mg2+ ion gives a total positive charge
of 2. Two Cl- ions give a total negative charge of 2. Thus, the chemical formula of
the compound is MgCl2.
b. The chemical formula of this compound is simply MgS (a one-to-one ratio between
ions). One Mg2+ ion contributes two units of positive charge, and that is counterbal-
anced by two units of negative charge from the S2- ion.
c. The numbers in the charges for these ions are 2 and 3. The lowest common multiple
of 2 and 3 is 6 12 * 3 = 62. Thus, we will need six units of positive charge and six
units of negative charge. Three Mg2+ ions are needed to give the six units of posi-
tive charge, and two N3- ions are needed to give the six units of negative charge.
The combining ratio of ions is three to two, and the chemical formula is Mg3 N2. The
strategy used in determining this formula, finding the lowest common multiple in
the charges of the ions, will always work.
Answer Double Check: When writing the chemical formula for an ionic compound, the
charges associated with the ions present are never explicitly shown in the finished chemi-
cal formula. Such is the case with these answers. Subscripts giving the combining ratio of
the ions are used in the chemical formula, but the charges on the ions (even though they
are needed to generate the chemical formula) are never shown.
Chemical Insight: MAGNESIUM CHLORIDE

A major use for MgCl2 (magnesium chloride), one of the compounds whose formula
was derived in the preceding example, is that of a de-icer. Sold in a white crystalline
form for home use, it is applied to driveways and sidewalks after a snow or ice storm
to aid in ice removal.
Many state highway departments are increasing MgCl2 use and decreasing rock
salt (NaCl) and sand use on roadways during winter months. The MgCl2 is consider-
ably less toxic than rock salt to plant life and is also less corrosive to concrete than
rock salt. In contrast to home use, MgCl2 is applied to highways before a storm rather
than after the storm. The liquid MgCl2 formulation is sprayed on dry pavement to pre-
vent ice from adhering to roadways. There is an economic drawback to MgCl2 use: It
is more expensive than is rock salt.
Before leaving the subject of ions, ionic bonds, and chemical formulas for ionic com-
pounds, let us quickly review the key principles about ionic bonding that have been presented.
1. Ionic compounds usually contain both a metallic and a nonmetallic element.
2. The metallic element atoms lose electrons to produce positive ions, and the nonme-
tallic element atoms gain electrons to produce negative ions.
3. The electrons lost by the metal atoms are the same ones that are gained by the non-
metal atoms. Electron loss must always equal electron gain.
4. The ratio in which positive metal ions and negative nonmetal ions combine is the low-
est whole-number ratio that achieves charge neutrality for the resulting compound.
5. Metals from groups IA, IIA, and IIIA of the periodic table form ions with charges of
+1, +2, and +3, respectively. Nonmetals of groups VIIA, VIA, and VA of the peri-
odic table form ions with charges of -1, -2, and -3, respectively. Table 7.3 lists, in
general terms, all of the possible metal–nonmetal combinations from these periodic
table groups that result in the formation of ionic compounds.
TABLE 7.3 General Formulas for Ionic Compounds as a Function of Periodic Table
Position of the Metal and Nonmetal
Nonmetals (X)
Metals (M) VIIA (ⴚ1 ions) VIA (ⴚ 2 ions) VA (ⴚ 3 ions)

IA 1ⴙ1 ions2 MX M2X M3 X
IIA 1ⴙ2 ions2 MX2 MX M3 X2
IIIA 1ⴙ3 ions2 MX3 M2 X3 MX
7.8 STRUCTURE OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

Student Learning Focus: Understand the general structural characteristics of ionic compounds
including the concept of a formula unit.
Ionic solids consist of positive and negative ions arranged in such a way that each ion
is surrounded by nearest neighbors of the opposite charge. Any given ion is bonded by
electrostatic (positive–negative) attractions to all of the other ions of opposite charge
immediately surrounding it. Figure 7.3 gives two three-dimensional depictions of the ar-
rangement of ions for the ionic compound NaCl (table salt).
The alternating array of positive and negative ions present in an ionic compound
means that discrete molecules do not exist in such compounds (Sec. 5.4). Therefore, the
chemical formulas of ionic compounds cannot represent the composition of molecules of
these substances. Instead, such formulas represent the simplest combining ratio for the
ions present. The chemical formula for sodium chloride, NaCl, indicates that sodium and
chloride ions are present in a one-to-one ratio in this compound. Chemists use the term
formula unit, rather than molecule, to refer to the smallest unit of an ionic compound.
A formula unit is the smallest whole-number repeating ratio of ions present in an ionic
compound that results in charge neutrality. A formula unit is hypothetic, because it does
not exist as a separate entity; it is only a part of the extended array of ions that constitute
an ionic solid (see Fig. 7.4).
Although the chemical formulas for ionic compounds represent only ratios, they are
used in equations and chemical calculations in the same way as the chemical formulas for
molecular species. Remember, however, that they cannot be interpreted as indicating that
molecules exist for these substances. They represent the simplest ratio of ions.
FIGURE 7.3 The

arrangement of ions
Cl− Na+ Cl−
in sodium chloride.
Na+ Cl− Na+ Each of the Na+ ions
Cl− Na+ Cl− is surrounded on all
Na+ sides by Cl- ions, and
Na+ Cl− Na+ Cl− each of the Cl- ions is
Cl− Na+ Cl− surrounded on all sides
by Na+ ions.
Na+ Cl− Na+
Cl− Na+ Cl−
Na+ Cl− Na+
Cl− Na+ Cl−
FIGURE 7.4 Two-

dimensional cross Na+ Cl− Na+ Cl− Na+ Cl− Na+ Cl− Na+
section of an ionic solid
(NaCl). No molecule can Cl− Na+ Cl− Na+ Cl− Na+ Cl− Na+ Cl−
be distinguished in this
structure. Instead, we
can recognize a basic Na+ Cl− Na+ Cl− Na+ Cl− Na+ Cl− Na+
formula unit that is
repeated indefinitely. Cl− Na+ Cl− Na+ Cl− Na+ Cl− Na+ Cl−
One formula
unit
Looked at closely, salt The ions present in an ionic solid adopt an arrangement that maximizes attractions
grains reveal the cubic between ions of opposite charge and minimizes repulsions between ions of like charge.
shape of the NaCl crystal.
The intricate shapes of
The specific arrangement that is adopted depends on ion sizes and on the ratio between
many gems such as ru- positive and negative ions. Arrangements are usually very symmetrical and result in crys-
bies and emeralds reflect talline solids—that is, solids with highly regular shapes. Crystalline solids usually have flat
the arrangement of their surfaces or faces that make definite angles with one another.
microscopic ionic arrays.
7.9 POLYATOMIC IONS

Student Learning Focus: Be able to distinguish between monoatomic and polyatomic ions and to
write chemical formulas for ionic compounds containing polyatomic ions.
To this point in this chapter, all references to and comments about ions have involved
monoatomic ions. A monoatomic ion is an ion formed from a single atom through loss
or gain of electrons. Such ions are very common and very important. Another large and
A polyatomic ion is an important category of ions, called polyatomic ions, exists. A polyatomic ion is an ion
ion (either positively or formed from a group of atoms (held together by covalent bonds) through loss or gain of
negatively charged) that electrons. Numerous ionic compounds exist in which the positive or negative ion (some-
contains more than one
atom.
times both) contains more than one atom. Polyatomic ions are very stable species, gener-
ally maintaining their identity during chemical reactions.
An example of a polyatomic ion is the sulfate ion, SO4 2-. This ion contains four
oxygen atoms and one sulfur atom, and the whole group of five atoms has acquired a -2
charge. The whole sulfate group is the ion rather than any one atom within the group.
Covalent bonding, discussed in Section 7.10, holds the sulfur and oxygen atoms together.
Polyatomic ions are not molecules. They never occur alone as molecules do. Instead,
they are always found associated with ions of opposite charge. Polyatomic ions are pieces
of compounds, not compounds. Ionic compounds require the presence of both positive
and negative ions and are neutral overall. Polyatomic ions are always charged species.
Chemical formulas for ionic compounds containing polyatomic ions are determined
in the same way as those for ionic compounds containing monoatomic ions (Sec. 7.7). The
basic rule is the same: The total positive and negative charge present must add up to zero.
Two conventions not encountered previously in chemical formula writing often
arise when writing chemical formulas where polyatomic ions are present. They are the
following:
1. When more than one polyatomic ion of a given kind is required in a chemical for-
mula, the polyatomic ion is enclosed in parentheses, and a subscript is placed after
the parentheses to indicate the number of polyatomic ions needed.
2. To preserve the identity of polyatomic ions, the same elemental symbol may be
used more than once in a chemical formula.
Example 7.8 contains examples illustrating the use of both of these new conven-
tions. Besides the sulfate ion, four other polyatomic ions are involved in this example:
OH- (hydroxide ion), NO3 - (nitrate ion), NH4 + (ammonium ion), and CN- (cyanide ion).
The chemical formulas for numerous other polyatomic ions are considered in Section 8.4.
EXAMPLE 7.8 Writing Chemical Formulas for Ionic Compounds Containing

Polyatomic Ions
Determine the chemical formulas for the ionic compounds containing the following pairs
of ions, one or both of which are polyatomic.
a. K+ and SO42-
b. Na+ and NO3 -
c. Ca2+ and OH-
d. NH4 + and CN-
SOLUTION
a. To equalize the total positive and negative charges, we need two K+ ions for each
SO42- ion. We indicate the presence of the two K+ ions with the subscript 2 fol-
lowing the symbol of the ion. The chemical formula of the compound is K2 SO4.
The convention that the positive ion is always written first in the formula still holds
when polyatomic ions are present.
b. Since both of these ions possess a charge of one, combining them in a one-to-one
ratio will balance the charge. The chemical formula of the compound is NaNO3.
c. Two OH- ions are needed to balance the charge on one Ca2+ ion. Since more
than one polyatomic ion is needed, the chemical formula will contain parentheses:
Ca1OH22. The subscript 2 after the parentheses indicates two of what is inside the
parentheses. If parentheses were not used, the chemical formula would appear to
be CaOH2, which is not intended and which actually conveys false information. The
formula Ca1OH22 indicates a formula unit containing one Ca atom, two O atoms,
and two H atoms (Sec. 5.4); the formula CaOH2 would indicate a formula unit con-
taining one Ca atom, one O atom, and two H atoms. Verbally the correct formula,
Ca1OH22, would be read as “C-A” (pause) “O-H-taken-twice.”
d. In this compound both ions are polyatomic, a perfectly legal situation. Since the
ions have equal but opposite charges, they will combine in a one-to-one ratio. The
chemical formula is thus NH4 CN. No parentheses are needed because we need only
one polyatomic ion of each type in a formula unit. Parentheses are used only when
there are two or more polyatomic ions of a given kind in a formula unit. What is dif-
ferent about this chemical formula is the appearance of the symbol for the element
nitrogen (N) at two locations in the formula. This could be prevented by combining
the two nitrogens, giving the chemical formula N2 H4 C. However, combining is not
done in situations like this because the identity of the polyatomic ions present is lost
in the resulting combined formula. The chemical formula N2 H4 C does not convey
the message that NH4 + and CN- ions are present; the formula NH4 CN does. Thus,
in writing chemical formulas that contain polyatomic ions, we always maintain the
identities of these ions even if it means having the same elemental symbol at more
than one location in the chemical formula.
Answer Double Check: Is the use of parentheses in the chemical formulas appropriate?
Yes. Only one of the chemical formulas contains parentheses: the one in which more
than one polyatomic ion of a given kind is present. In the other three chemical formulas
parentheses are not needed, because only one polyatomic ion of a given kind is present.
FIGURE 7.5 Ionic

components of selected
+ +
K O 2− K
compounds in which K2SO4
polyatomic ions are Potassium sulfate O S O
present.
O
−
+ O
NaNO3
Na N
Sodium nitrate
O O
− 2+ −
Ca(OH)2
O H Ca O H
Calcium hydroxide
+
NH4CN H −
Ammonium cyanide H N H C N
H
Figure 7.5 gives pictorial representations of the ionic makeup of the four com-
pounds whose formulas were determined in Example 7.8.
7.10 THE COVALENT BOND MODEL

Student Learning Focus: Be able to explain the major differences between the covalent bond
model for compounds and the ionic bond model for compounds.
We begin our discussion of covalent bonding and the molecular compounds that result
from such bonding by listing several key differences between ionic bonding (Sec. 7.4)
and covalent bonding and the resulting ionic and molecular compounds.
1. Ionic bonds form between atoms of a metal and a nonmetal. Covalent bond forma-
tion occurs between two nonmetal atoms. The two nonmetal atoms can be identical
but need not be so.
2. Electron transfer is the mechanism by which ionic bond formation occurs. Covalent
bond formation involves electron sharing.
3. In an ionic compound, discrete molecules do not exist since such compounds in-
volve an extended array of alternating positive and negative ions. In covalently
bonded compounds, the basic structural unit is the molecule. Indeed, such com-
pounds are called molecular compounds.
4. All ionic compounds are solids at room temperature. Molecular compounds may be
solids (glucose), liquids (water), or gases (carbon dioxide).
5. An ionic solid, if soluble in water, forms an aqueous solution that conducts electric-
ity. The electrical conductance is related to the presence of ions (charged particles)
in the solution. A molecular compound, if soluble in water, usually produces a non-
conducting aqueous solution.
A covalent bond is a chemical bond resulting from two nuclei attracting the same
shared electrons. A consideration of the simple hydrogen 1H22 molecule provides initial
1s electrons Shared electron pair FIGURE 7.6 Electron

sharing can occur
only when electron
H H H H orbitals from two
atoms overlap. In the
H2 molecule it is the 1s
Two hydrogen atoms A hydrogen molecule orbitals that overlap.
H + H H H
insights into the nature of the covalent bond. When two hydrogen atoms, each with a
single electron, are brought together, the orbitals containing these electrons overlap (as
shown in Fig. 7.6) to produce an orbital common to both atoms. The two electrons, one
from each H atom, move throughout this new orbital and are said to be shared by the
two nuclei.
Once two orbitals overlap, the most favorable location for the shared electrons is
the area directly between the two nuclei. Here the two electrons can simultaneously inter-
act with (be attracted to) both nuclei, a situation that produces increased stability.
In terms of Lewis structures, this sharing of electrons by the two hydrogen atoms is
diagrammed as
Shared electron pair
H H HH
The two shared electrons do double duty, helping each of the hydrogen atoms
achieve a helium noble gas configuration.
7.11 LEWIS STRUCTURES FOR MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS

Student Learning Focus: Be able to use Lewis structures to represent the bonding in simple mo-
lecular compounds and to distinguish between bonding and nonbonding electrons in a given
Lewis structure.
Using the octet rule, which applies to both electron transfer and electron sharing (Sec. 7.3)
and Lewis symbols (Sec. 7.2), let us now consider the formation of selected simple cova-
lently bonded molecules containing the element chlorine. Chlorine, located in group VIIA
of the periodic table, has seven valence electrons. Its Lewis symbol is
Cl
Chlorine needs one additional electron to achieve the octet of electrons that makes it In covalent bonding, hy-
isoelectronic with the noble gas argon. In ionic compounds, where it bonds to metals, drogen atoms violate the
“octet part” of the octet
the Cl receives the needed electron via electron transfer. When Cl combines with another rule—they need only two
nonmetal, a common situation, the octet of electrons is completed via electron sharing. electrons—but they do
Representative of the situation where chlorine obtains its eighth valence electron through not violate the “noble gas
an electron-sharing process are the molecules HCl, Cl2, and BrCl, whose Lewis structures part” of the octet rule—
are as follows. after sharing electrons,
they are isoelectronic
with helium.
H Cl H Cl
Cl Cl Cl Cl
Br Cl Br Cl
The HCl and BrCl molecules illustrate the point that the two atoms involved in a covalent
bond need not be identical (as in H2 or Cl2).
A common practice when writing Lewis structures for covalently bonded molecules
is to represent the shared electron pairs with dashes. Using this notation, the previously
discussed H2, HCl, Cl2, and BrCl molecules are written as
H—H H — Cl Cl — Cl Br — Cl
Nonbonding electron The atoms in covalently bonded molecules often possess both bonding and non-
pairs are often also re- bonding electrons. Bonding electrons are pairs of valence electrons that are shared
ferred to as unshared
electron pairs or lone
between atoms in a covalent bond. Each of the chlorine atoms in the molecules HCl, Cl2,
electron pairs (or simply, and BrCl possess one pair of bonding electrons. Nonbonding electrons are pairs of
lone pairs). valence electrons about an atom that are not involved in electron sharing. Each of the
chlorine atoms in HCl, Cl2, and BrCl possesses three pairs of nonbonding electrons, as
does the bromine atom in BrCl.
Nonbonding
H H H Cl Cl Cl Br Cl electrons
Bonding
electrons
Bonding electrons (black)
Nonbonding electrons (blue)
In Section 7.17 we will The number of covalent bonds that an atom forms is equal to the number of elec-
learn that nonbonding trons it needs to achieve a noble gas configuration. Note that the chlorine atoms in HCl,
electron pairs play an im-
portant role in determin-
Cl2, and BrCl all formed one covalent bond. For chlorine, seven valence electrons plus
ing the shape (geometry) one electron acquired by electron sharing (one bond) give the eight valence electrons
of molecules in which needed for a noble gas electronic configuration. The elements oxygen, nitrogen, and
three or more atoms are carbon have, respectively, six, five, and four valence electrons. Therefore, these ele-
present. ments form, respectively, two, three, and four covalent bonds. The number of covalent
bonds these three elements form is reflected in the formulas of their simplest hydro-
gen compounds H2O, NH3, and CH4. Lewis structures for these three molecules are as
follows.
Oxygen has six H

H H
—
valence electrons
and gains two more O HO or H — O
through sharing
H
Nitrogen has five H
valence electrons H H
and gains three more H N H N or H N
through sharing H
H H
Carbon has four H

valence electrons H
H
—
and gains four more H

through sharing C H C H or H — C — H
—
H H
H
H
Thus, we see that just as the octet rule was useful in determining the ratio of ions in
ionic compounds, we can use it to predict chemical formulas for molecular compounds.
Example 7.9 gives additional illustrations of the use of the octet rule to determine chemi-
cal formulas for molecular compounds.
EXAMPLE 7.9 Writing Lewis Structures for Simple Molecular Compounds
Write Lewis structures for the simplest molecular compound formed from the following
pairs of nonmetals.
a. phosphorus and hydrogen
b. sulfur and fluorine
c. oxygen and chlorine
SOLUTION
a. Phosphorus is in group VA of the periodic table and thus has five valence electrons.
It will form three covalent bonds, which through electron sharing will give it eight va-
lence electrons (noble gas configuration). Hydrogen, in group IA of the periodic table,
has one valence electron and will form only one covalent bond. For H an octet is two
electrons; the noble gas that hydrogen “mimics” is helium, which has only two valence
electrons. Using Lewis structures, we obtain a compound with the formula PH3.
H
H H
—
H P H P or H — P
—
H H
H
b. Sulfur has six valence electrons, and fluorine has seven valence electrons. Thus sul-
fur will form two covalent bonds 16 + 2 = 82, and fluorine will form one covalent
bond 17 + 1 = 82. The formula of the compound is SF2.
F
F F
—
S F S or F — S
F
c. Oxygen, with six valence electrons, will form two covalent bonds, and chlorine,
with seven valence electrons, will form only one covalent bond. The formula of the
compound is thus Cl2 O, which has the following Lewis structure.
Cl
O Cl O or Cl — O
—
Cl
Cl Cl
Chemical Insight: PHOSPHINE

The compound PH3, one of the substances whose Lewis structure was drawn in
the preceding example, has the name phosphine. Phosphine is a colorless, flam-
mable, toxic gas. Pure phosphine is odorless, but commercial preparations have a
strong odor that varies from garlic to rotting fish because of trace amounts of other
phosphorus-hydrogen compounds present (particularly P2H4). Such impure phosphine

is spontaneously flammable in air.
Phosphine-generating formulations have farm use as grain fumigants and as ro-
denticides. For rodents, the phosphine-generating substances are mixed with bait food,
which is ingested by the rodents. Inhalation is the major route of phosphine toxicity
for humans, where it functions as a respiratory-tract irritant that affects the cardiovas-
cular and respiratory systems.
7.12 SINGLE, DOUBLE, AND TRIPLE COVALENT BONDS

Student Learning Focus: Understand how single, double, and triple covalent bonds differ from
each other and be able to recognize such bond types in Lewis structures.
A single covalent bond is a covalent bond in which two atoms share one pair of valence
electrons. All bonds in all of the molecules discussed in the previous section were single
covalent bonds.
Single covalent bonds are not adequate to explain covalent bonding in all mol-
ecules. Sometimes two atoms must share two or three pairs of electrons in order to pro-
vide a complete octet of electrons for each atom involved in the bonding. Such bonds are
called double covalent bonds and triple covalent bonds respectively. A double covalent
bond is a covalent bond in which two atoms share two pairs of valence electrons. A dou-
ble covalent bond between two atoms is stronger than a single covalent bond between
the same two atoms; that is, it takes more energy to break the double bond than it takes
to break the single bond. A triple covalent bond is a covalent bond in which two atoms
share three pairs of valence electrons. For covalent bonds between the same two atoms,
a triple covalent bond is stronger than a double covalent bond, which in turn is stronger
than a single covalent bond. The term multiple covalent bond is a designation that applies
collectively to both double and triple covalent bonds. This designation is often shortened
to simply multiple bond.
One of the simplest molecules possessing a multiple covalent bond is the N2 mol-
ecule; a triple covalent bond is present. A nitrogen atom has five valence electrons and
needs three additional electrons to complete its octet.
N
In a N2 molecule the only sharing that can take place is between the two nitrogen atoms.
They are the only atoms present. Thus, to acquire a noble gas electron configuration,
each nitrogen atom must share three of its electrons with the other nitrogen atom.
N N N N or N N
The triple bond that
holds the N2 molecule
together is very strong, Notice how all three shared electron pairs are placed in the area between the two
and thus N2 is a very un- nitrogen atoms in the above bonding diagrams. Note also that three lines are used to denote
reactive substance. Many a triple covalent bond, paralleling the use of one line to denote a single covalent bond.
manufacturers package In “bookkeeping” electrons in a Lewis structure, to make sure that all atoms in the
their products in nitrogen
to keep them fresh
molecule have achieved their octet of electrons, all electrons in a multiple covalent bond
because of N2’s lack are considered to “belong” to both of the atoms involved in that bond. The bookkeeping
of reactivity. for the N2 molecule would be
N N
Each of the circles about a N atom contains eight valence electrons. Again, all the electrons
in a multiple covalent bond are considered to belong to each of the atoms in the bond.
Circles are never drawn to include just some of the electrons in a multiple covalent bond.
A slightly more complicated molecule containing a triple covalent bond is the mol-
ecule C2 H2 (acetylene). A carbon–carbon triple covalent bond is present as well as two
carbon–hydrogen single covalent bonds. The arrangement of valence electrons in C2 H2
is as follows.
H C C H HC CH or H— C C —H
The two atoms in a triple covalent bond are commonly the same element. However,
they do not have to be. The molecule HCN (hydrogen cyanide) contains a heteroatomic
triple covalent bond.
HC N or H— C N
Double covalent bonds are found in numerous molecules. A very common mol- A single line (dash) is
ecule that contains bonding of this type is carbon dioxide 1CO22. In fact, there are two used to denote a single
carbon–oxygen double covalent bonds present in CO2. covalent bond, two lines to
denote a double covalent
bond, and three lines to
O C O O C O or O C O denote a triple covalent
bond.
Note in the following diagram how the circles are drawn for the octet of electrons
about each of the atoms in CO2.
O C O
7.13 VALENCE ELECTRON COUNT AND NUMBER OF COVALENT

BONDS FORMED
Student Learning Focus: Be able to describe the octet-rule-based bonding behaviors possible for
the common nonmetallic elements.
Not all elements can form multiple covalent bonds. There must be at least two vacancies
in an atom’s valence electron shell prior to bond formation if it is to participate in a mul-
tiple covalent bond. This requirement eliminates group VIIA elements (F, Cl, Br, I) and
hydrogen from participating in such bonds. The group VIIA elements have seven valence
electrons and one vacancy, and hydrogen has one valence electron and one vacancy. All
bonds formed by these elements are single covalent bonds.
Double bonding becomes possible for elements needing two electrons to com-
plete their octet, and triple bonding becomes possible when three or more electrons are
needed to complete an octet. Note that the word possible was used twice in the previous
sentence. Multiple bonding does not have to occur when an element has two or three
or four vacancies in its octet; single covalent bonds can be formed instead. The bonding
behavior of an element, when more than one behavior is possible, is determined by what
other element or elements it is bonded to.
Let us consider the possible bonding behaviors for O (six valence electrons; two
octet vacancies), N (five valence electrons; three octet vacancies), and C (four valence
electrons; four octet vacancies).
To complete its octet by electron sharing, an oxygen atom can form either two
single bonds or one double bond.
—
O— O
Two single bonds One double bond
Nitrogen is a very versatile element with respect to bonding. It can form single,
double, or triple covalent bonds as dictated by the other atoms present in a molecule.
— N— —N N
—
Three single bonds One single and One triple bond
one double bond
Note that in each of these bonding situations a nitrogen atom forms three bonds. A
double bond counts as two bonds, and a triple bond as three bonds. Since nitrogen has
only five valence electrons, it must form three covalent bonds to complete its octet.
Carbon is an even more versatile element than nitrogen, with respect to variety of
types of bonding as illustrated by the following possibilities for bonding.
—
—C— —C C —C
—
Four single bonds Two single bonds and Two double bonds One single bond and
one double bond one triple bond
EXAMPLE 7.10 Predicting Chemical Formulas for Simple

Molecular Compounds
For each of the following pairs of elements, predict the chemical formula of the com-
pound formed when the two elements interact with each other.
a. carbon and bromine b. sulfur and chlorine
SOLUTION
a. Carbon, with four valence electrons, will need to form four bonds. Bromine, with
seven valence electrons, will need to form only one bond. Four bromine atoms
are needed to meet carbon’s need to form four bonds. Such interaction produces a
compound with the chemical formula CBr4.
b. Sulfur, with six valence electrons, will form two covalent bonds. Chlorine, with seven
valence electrons, will form one covalent bond. Thus, two chlorine atoms are needed
to react with one sulfur atom, giving a compound whose chemical formula is SCl2.
7.14 COORDINATE COVALENT BONDS

Student Learning Focus: Be able to distinguish between a coordinate covalent bond and a
“normal” covalent bond and recognize how a coordinate covalent bond affects standard covalent
bonding patterns for nonmetallic elements.
In the covalent bonds considered so far (single, double, and triple), each of the partici-
pating atoms in the bond contributed an equal number of electrons to the bond. There
is another less common way in which a covalent bond can form. It is possible for both
electrons in a shared electron pair to come from the same atom; that is, one atom sup-
plies two electrons and the other atom none. Such a covalent bond is called a coordinate
covalent bond.
A coordinate covalent bond is a covalent bond in which both electrons of a shared An “ordinary” covalent
electron pair come from one of the two atoms involved in the bond. Coordinate covalent bond can be thought of
bonding allows an atom that has two (or more) vacancies in its valence shell to share a as a “Dutch treat” bond;
each atom “pays” its part
pair of nonbonding electrons located on another atom. of the bill. A coordinate
The ammonium ion, NH4+, is an example of a species containing a coordinate co- covalent bond can be
valent bond. The formation of an NH4 + ion can be viewed as resulting from the reaction thought of as a “you
of a hydrogen ion, H+, with an ammonia molecule, NH3. Doing the bookkeeping on all treat” bond; one atom
the valence electrons involved in this reaction, using x’s for nitrogen electrons and dots pays the entire bill.
for hydrogen electrons, we get
H ⎤ H ⎤+
H N + H+ ⎥H N H ⎥
⎥ ⎥
H ⎦ H ⎦
Coordinate covalent bond
An H+ ion has no electrons, hydrogen having lost its only electron when it became
an ion. The H+ ion has two vacancies in its valence shell; that is, it needs two electrons to
become isoelectronic with the noble gas helium. The nitrogen in NH3 possesses a pair of
nonbonding electrons. These electrons are used in forming the new nitrogen–hydrogen
bond. The new species formed, the NH4 + ion, is charged, since the H+ was charged. The
+1 charge on the NH4+ ion is dispersed over the entire molecule; it is not localized on
the “new” hydrogen atom.
The element oxygen quite often forms coordinate covalent bonds. Consider the
Lewis structures of the molecules HOCl (hypochlorous acid) and HClO2 (chlorous acid).
H O Cl H O Cl O
In the first structure, all the bonds are ordinary covalent bonds. In the second structure, Atoms participating in
which differs from the first in that a second oxygen atom is present, the new chlorine– coordinate covalent
oxygen bond is a coordinate covalent bond. The second oxygen atom with six valence bonds generally do not
form their normal num-
electrons (denoted by x’s) needs two more electrons for an octet. It shares one of the ber of covalent bonds.
nonbonding electron pairs present on the chlorine atom. (The chlorine atom does not
need any of the oxygen’s electrons since it already has an octet.)
Atoms participating in coordinate covalent bonds generally deviate from the com-
mon bonding pattern (Sec. 7.13) expected for that type of atom. For example, oxygen
normally forms two bonds; yet in the molecules N2 O (dinitrogen monoxide) and CO (car-
bon monoxide), which contain coordinate covalent bonds, oxygen forms one and three
bonds, respectively.
N NO or N N— O
C O or C O
Once a coordinate covalent bond is formed, there is no way to distinguish it from

any of the other covalent bonds in a molecule; all electrons are identical regardless of
their source. The main use of the concept of coordinate covalency is to help rationalize
the existence of certain molecules and polyatomic ions whose bonding electron arrange-
ment would otherwise present problems. Figure 7.7 contrasts the formation of a regular
covalent bond with that of a coordinate covalent bond.
FIGURE 7.7 (a) A Half-filled orbitals Shared electron pair

regular covalent single
bond results from the
overlap of two half- X + Y X Y
filled orbitals. (b) A
coordinate covalent (a) Regular covalent single bond
single bond results from
the overlap of a filled
and an empty orbital. Filled orbital Vacant orbital Shared electron pair
X + Y X Y
(b) Coordinate covalent single bond
7.15 RESONANCE STRUCTURES

Student Learning Focus: Understand how the concept of resonance affects the drawing of Lewis
structures for molecules.
In Section 7.12 it was noted that, in general, triple covalent bonds are stronger than
double covalent bonds, which in turn are stronger than single covalent bonds. Bond
strength is a measure of the energy it takes to break a covalent bond; that is, to separate
bonded atoms to give neutral particles. It can be determined experimentally.
Another experimentally determinable parameter of bonds is bond length. Bond
length is the distance between the nuclei of covalently bonded atoms (see Fig. 7.8). A
definite relationship exists between bond strength and bond length. It is found that as
bond strength increases, bond length decreases; that is, the stronger the bond, the shorter
the distance between the nuclei of the atoms of the bond. Thus, in general, triple covalent
bonds are shorter than double covalent bonds, which are shorter than single covalent
bonds.
Most Lewis structures for molecules give bonding pictures that are consistent with
available experimental information on bond strength and bond length. However, there
are some molecules for which no single Lewis structure that is consistent with such infor-
mation can be written.
The molecule sulfur dioxide 1SO22 is an example of a situation in which a single
Lewis structure does not adequately describe bonding. A plausible Lewis structure for
SO2, in which the octet rule is satisfied for all three atoms, is
O S O or O — S O
However, this Lewis structure suggests that one sulfur–oxygen bond, the double bond,
should be stronger and shorter than the other sulfur–oxygen bond, the single bond.
Experiment shows that this is not the case; both sulfur–oxygen bonds are equivalent,
with both bond length and bond strength characteristics intermediate between those for
FIGURE 7.8 The Bond length

length of a covalent
bond between two
atoms is the distance
separating the nuclei of
the atoms. A B
sulfur–oxygen single and double bonds. A Lewis structure depicting this intermediate
situation cannot be written.
The solution to the phenomenon in which no single Lewis structure adequately
describes bonding involves the use of two or more Lewis structures, known as resonance
structures, to represent the bonding in the molecule. Resonance structures are two or
more Lewis structures for a molecule or polyatomic ion that have the same arrangement
of atoms, contain the same number of electrons, and differ only in the location of the
electrons.
Two resonance structures exist for an SO2 molecule.
O S O O S O or O — S O O S— O
A double-headed arrow is used to connect resonance structures. The only difference

between the two SO2 resonance structures is in the location of two pairs of electrons. The
positioning of these pairs of electrons determines whether the oxygen atom on the right
or the left is the oxygen atom involved in the double bond.
The actual bonding in an SO2 molecule is said to be a resonance hybrid of the two
contributing resonance structures. Beginning chemistry students frequently misinterpret
the concept of a resonance hybrid. They incorrectly envision that a molecule—SO2 in this
case—is constantly changing (resonating) between various resonance structure forms.
This is not the case. For example, SO2 is not a mixture of two kinds of molecules, nor
does a single type of molecule flip-flop back and forth between the two resonance forms.
There is only one kind of SO2 molecule, and the bonding in it is an average of that de-
picted by the resonance structures. SO2 molecules exist full time in this average state. A
mule, the offspring of a donkey and horse, can be considered a hybrid of a donkey and
a horse. However, it is not a horse at one instant and a donkey at another; it is always
a mule. Likewise, a molecule has only one real structure, which is different from any of
the resonance structures; it has characteristics of each one but does not match any one
of them exactly.
Sometimes three, four, or even more resonance structures can be drawn for a mol-
ecule. Again, such resonance structures must all contain the same number of electrons
and have the same arrangement of atoms; the structures may differ only in the location of
the electrons about the atoms.
7.16 SYSTEMATIC PROCEDURES FOR DRAWING LEWIS STRUCTURES

Student Learning Focus: Using systematic procedures, be able to draw Lewis structures for
“complex” molecules and polyatomic ions.
The task of constructing Lewis structures for molecules and polyatomic ions containing
many electrons or for which several resonance hybrids must be used to describe the
bonding can become quite frustrating if it is approached in a nonsystematic trial-and-
error manner. Use of a systematic approach to writing Lewis structures will enable a
student to avoid most of this frustration. The following guidelines make the drawing of a
Lewis structure for any molecule or polyatomic ion that obeys the octet rule, even a very
complicated structure, a straightforward procedure.
Step 1 Determine the total number of valence electrons present in the molecule, that is,
the total number of dots that must appear in the Lewis structure.
The total number of valence electrons is found by adding up the number of valence
electrons that each atom in the molecule or ion possesses. If the species is a polyatomic
ion, add one electron for each unit of negative charge present or subtract one electron for
each positive charge. Do not worry about keeping track of which electrons come from
which atoms. Only their total number is needed.
Step 2 Write the symbols of the atoms in the molecule, arranged in the way in which
they are bonded to each other, and then place a single covalent bond (two elec-
trons) between each pair of bonded atoms. Either a pair of dots or a dash can be
used in denoting the single bond(s).
Determining which atom is the central atom, that is, which atom has the most other
atoms bonded to it, is the key to determining the arrangement of atoms in a molecule or
ion. Most other atoms present will be bonded to the central atom. For most molecular
compounds containing just two elements, the molecular formula is of help in deciding the
identity of the central atom. The central atom is the atom that appears only once in the
formula; for example, S is the central atom in SO3, O is the central atom in H2O, and P is
the central atom in PF3. In a molecular compound containing hydrogen, oxygen, and an
additional element, it is the additional element that is the central atom; for example, N is
the central atom in HNO3, and S is the central atom in H2 SO4. In compounds of this type,
the oxygen atoms are bonded to the central atom and the hydrogen atoms are bonded
to the oxygens. Carbon is the central atom in almost all carbon-containing compounds.
Hydrogen and fluorine are never the central atom.
Step 3 Add nonbonding electron pairs to the molecular structure such that each atom
bonded to the central atom has an octet of electrons.
Remember that for hydrogen an octet of electrons is only two electrons. The noble
gas electron configuration acquired by hydrogen is that of helium, and helium has only
two electrons.
Step 4 Place any remaining electrons on the central atom in the structure.
The number of remaining electrons is obtained by subtracting from the total num-
ber of valence electrons (step 1) the number of electrons used in steps 2 and 3.
Step 5 If there are not enough electrons to give the central atom an octet, form multiple
covalent bonds by shifting nonbonding electron pairs from surrounding atoms
into bonding locations.
The elements C, N, and O are the elements most frequently involved in multiple
bonding situations. The elements H, F, Cl, Br, and I in terminal atom positions do not
participate in multiple bond formation.
Step 6 Count the total number of electrons in the completed Lewis structure to make
sure it is equal to the total number of valence electrons available for bonding, as
calculated in step 1.
This step serves as a double-check on the correctness of the Lewis structure.

The three examples that follow illustrate the use of the preceding procedures for
drawing Lewis structures. In each part of each example, the outlined procedure is fol-
lowed step by step so that you will become familiar with it.
EXAMPLE 7.11 Drawing a Lewis Structure for a Molecular Compound,

Using Systematic Procedures
Using systematic procedures, draw the Lewis structure for H2 SO4.
SOLUTION
Step 1 Both sulfur and oxygen atoms have six valence electrons and hydrogen has one
valence electron. The total number of valence electrons present in this molecule
is 32.
1 S: 1 * 6 = 6 valence electrons
4 O: 4 * 6 = 24 valence electrons
2 H: 2 * 1 = 2 valence electrons
32 valence electrons
Step 2 In compounds containing H, O, and an additional element, the additional ele-

ment (S in this case) is the central atom. The oxygen atoms are attached to
this central S atom, and the hydrogen atoms are attached to the oxygen atoms.
Drawing this atomic arrangement with single covalent bonds (two electrons)
placed between all bonded atoms gives
O
— —
H — O — S — O —H
Step 3 Adding nonbonding electrons to the structure to complete the octets of all atoms
bonded to the central atom gives
O
—
H— O — S— O —H
—
Step 4 We started out with 32 valence electrons (step 1). Twelve were used in step 2
and 20 in step 3. This accounts for all of the available electrons. None is
available to add to the central atom. This is fine because the central sulfur
atom already has an octet of electrons; it is participating in four single bonds
(eight electrons).
Step 5 No double or triple bonds are needed since all atoms have an octet of electrons
with only single bonds present.
Step 6 There are 32 electrons in the Lewis structure, the same number of electrons as
Answer Double Check: Does each atom, except for hydrogen atoms, have an octet of
electrons? The answer is yes. Remembering that bonding electrons are counted as belong-
ing to each atom in the bond, each oxygen has eight electrons as does the sulfur atom.
Each hydrogen atom has two electrons (its octet), the two electrons of the single bond
that the hydrogen participates in.
Chemical Insight: ACID RAIN

Sulfuric acid, whose Lewis structure was drawn in the preceding example, is the acid
present in the greatest amount in acid rain. All rainfall, even that in the most pristine
(unpolluted) areas, is acidic. This acidity results from the presence of carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere, which reacts with water to produce carbonic acid. Acid rain is rain
with an acidity greater than normal.
The cause of acid rain is sulfur oxide and nitrogen oxide air pollution. After
being discharged into the atmosphere, these pollutants are chemically converted into
sulfuric acid and nitric acid. The most observable effect of acid rain is the slow, but
definite, corrosion of carbonate-based building materials (limestone and marble). Such
corrosion is particularly observable on outdoor statues made of these materials.
EXAMPLE 7.12 Drawing a Lewis Structure for a Polyatomic Ion,

Using Systematic Procedures
Using systematic procedures, draw the Lewis structure of the sulfite ion, SO32- .
SOLUTION
Step 1 The sulfur atom has six valence electrons and each oxygen atom also has six
valence electrons. (Sulfur and oxygen are in the same group in the periodic
table.) There are two additional valence electrons present because of the -2
charge associated with this polyatomic ion.
1 S: 1 * 6 = 6 valence electrons
3 O: 3 * 6 = 18 valence electrons
charge of -2 = 2 valence electrons
26 valence electrons
If the polyatomic ion had had a positive charge instead of a negative one, we
would have had to subtract valence electrons from the total instead of adding.
A positive charge would have denoted loss of electrons, and the electrons lost
would have been valence electrons.
Step 2 The sulfur atom is the central atom with all three oxygen atoms individually
attached to it. Drawing this atomic arrangement with single covalent bonds (two
electrons) placed between all bonded atoms gives
O — S— O
—
Step 3 Adding nonbonding electrons to the structure to complete the octets of the
oxygen atoms gives
O — S— O
—
Step 4 We started out with 26 electrons (step 1). Six electrons were used in step 2
(single bonds) and 18 electrons in step 3 (nonbonding electron pairs). This
leaves 2 electrons not yet used. These 2 remaining electrons are available for
placement on the central sulfur atom, which needs 2 more electrons to com-
plete its octet.
O—S— O
—
O
Step 5 No double or triple bonds are needed since the action in step 4 causes the cen-
tral sulfur atom to have an octet of electrons.
We must remember, however, that the Lewis structure we have just gener-
ated is that of a polyatomic ion. We therefore need to enclose it in large brackets
and place the ionic charge for it outside the right bracket in a superscript position.
⎤ ⎤ 2−
⎥ O—S—O ⎥
⎥ ⎥
—
⎦ O ⎦
Step 6 There are 26 electrons in the Lewis structure, the same number of electrons as
In this example we have shown the bonding within a polyatomic ion. This polyatomic
ion, as well as all other polyatomic ions, is not a stable entity that exists alone. Polyatomic
ions are parts of ionic compounds. The ion SO32- would be found in ionic compounds
such as Na2 SO3, K2 SO3, and 1NH422 SO3. Ionic compounds containing polyatomic ions
offer an interesting combination of both ionic and covalent bonds: covalent bonding
within the polyatomic ion and ionic bonding between it and ions of opposite charge.
Answer Double Check: Does each atom in the structure have an octet of electrons? Yes.
Sulfur is involved in three single bonds (six electrons), and it has a nonbonding pair also
(two electrons). Each oxygen atom participates in one single bond (two electrons) and
has three nonbonding pairs (six electrons). Also, large square brackets are placed around
the entire structure, as should be, and the charge on the polyatomic ion is placed outside
the brackets as a superscript.
Chemical Insight: SODIUM SULFITE

The compound sodium sulfite 1Na2SO3 2, which contains the polyatomic sulfite ion
(whose structure was drawn in the preceding example), is used as an antioxidant food
additive in many processed foods. Exposure to oxygen causes many foods to undergo
changes in color and/or flavor. The color changes that occur in sliced apples and
peeled potatoes over time are representative of such changes. These changes present
no hazard to health but simply change the foods’ appearance.
Antioxidants prevent or slow down such changes. Among the antioxidants ap-
proved for use in foods are vitamin C, vitamin E, and sulfites (which cost less than
the vitamins). Sulfites were formerly heavily used in restaurant salad bars to keep raw
fruits and vegetables looking fresh. This practice has been discontinued after some
people experienced allergic symptoms. For most people, sulfites pose no problems in
the amounts used in food products.
EXAMPLE 7.13 Drawing a Lewis Structure for a Molecule That Has

Resonance Forms
Using systematic procedures, draw the Lewis structures for the molecule ozone 1O32;
there is more than one structure because of resonance.
SOLUTION
Step 1 There is a total of 18 valence electrons present, 6 from each oxygen atom.
Step 2 One of the oxygen atoms may be considered the central atom, and the other two
oxygen atoms are attached to it. Drawing this atomic arrangement with single
covalent bonds (two electrons) placed between all bonded atoms gives
O:O:O
Step 3 Adding six nonbonding electrons to each of the terminal oxygen atoms to com-
plete their octets gives
O— O —O
Step 4 We started out with 18 electrons (step 1). Four electrons were used in step 2
(single bonds) and 12 in step 3 (nonbonding electron pairs). This leaves two
electrons available for placement on the central oxygen atom.
O— O —O
Step 5 The addition of the two nonbonding electrons to the central oxygen atom is not
sufficient to give this oxygen an octet of electrons. It still lacks two electrons. This
problem is solved by moving a nonbonding pair of electrons from one of the ter-
minal oxygen atoms into the oxygen–oxygen bonding region. This action, which
produces a double bond, gives the central oxygen atom an octet of electrons.
O—O—O
There are two choices for the terminal oxygen atom that is involved in double
bond formation. The ramification of this situation is that resonance structures
exist. The availability of choices for multiple bond formation (to give a central
atom an octet of electrons) is always a signal for the existence of resonance struc-
tures. In this case, the resonance structures are
O — O O O O — O
Step 6 There are 18 electrons in each of the resonance Lewis structures, the same num-
ber of electrons as calculated in step 1.
Answer Double Check: Both structures have the same relative placement of atoms (a re-
quirement for resonance structures). Both structures contain the same number of electrons,
differing only in the placement of the electrons (another requirement for resonance structures).
Chemical Insight: OZONE

Naturally occurring oxygen exists in two forms—in large amounts as O2 (the oxygen
needed to sustain human life), and in relatively small amounts as O3 (ozone). Ozone,
when found in the lower atmosphere, is considered to be an air pollutant. Air pollutants
are of two types: primary and secondary. Primary pollutants are directly emitted into
the atmosphere from natural and human-related sources. Secondary air pollutants are
produced within the atmosphere from the interaction of primary pollutants. Ozone is
a secondary air pollutant. It is formed in a two-step process from the interactions of
NO2 (nitrogen dioxide, a primary pollutant), O2 (normal atmospheric oxygen), and
sunlight.
As a secondary air pollutant, ozone irritates the eyes and the mucous membranes
of the nose and throat. Its effects are more severe in individuals with chronic lung dis-
ease. Ozone concentrations are usually higher during the summer months, when there
is more sunlight than during winter months.
The systematic approach to drawing Lewis structures for molecules and poly-
atomic ions illustrated in Examples 7.11 to 7.13 does not take into account the origin
of the electrons in a chemical bond, that is, which atoms contribute which electrons
to the bond. Thus, no distinction between normal covalent bonds and coordinate
covalent bonds is made by the procedures of this system. This is acceptable. Each
electron in a bond belongs to the bond as a whole. Electrons do not have labels of
genealogy.
7.17 MOLECULAR GEOMETRY

Student Learning Focus: Given a Lewis structure for a molecule or polyatomic ion, determine its
molecular geometry using VSEPR theory.
Lewis structures give the number and types of bonds present in molecules. They do not,
however, convey any information about molecular shape, that is, molecular geometry.
Molecular geometry is a description of the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms
within a molecule. Indeed, Lewis structures falsely imply that all molecules have flat, two-
dimensional shapes.
Molecular geometry is an important factor in determining the physical and chem-
ical properties of substances. Dramatic relationships between geometry and proper-
ties are often observed in research associated with the development of prescription
drugs. A small change in overall molecular geometry, caused by addition or removal
of atoms, can enhance drug effectiveness and/or decrease drug side effects. Studies
also show that the human senses of taste and smell depend in part on the shapes of
molecules.
For simple molecules (only a few atoms), molecular geometry can be predicted,
using the information present in a molecule’s Lewis structure and a procedure called
valence-shell-electron-pair-repulsion theory (VSEPR theory). VSEPR theory is a set of The acronym VSEPR is
procedures for predicting the geometry of a molecule from the information contained in pronounced “vesper.”
the molecule’s Lewis structure.
The central concept of VSEPR theory is that electron pairs in the valence shell
of an atom adopt an arrangement in space about the nucleus that minimizes the re-
pulsions between the like-charged (all negative) electron pairs. Minimization occurs
when the electron pairs are as far away from each other as possible. Repulsion-
minimizing arrangements about a nucleus for two, three, and four electron pairs are
as follows:
1. Two electron pairs, to be as far apart as possible from each other, will be found on
opposite sides of a nucleus, that is, at 180⬚ angles to each other. Such an electron
pair arrangement is said to be linear.
180° Linear
The preferred arrange-

ment of a given number
2. Three electron pairs are as far apart as possible when they are found at the corners
of valence electron pairs of an equilateral triangle. In such an arrangement, they are separated by angles of
about a central atom is 120⬚, giving a trigonal planar arrangement of the electron pairs.
the one that maximizes
the separation among
them. Such an arrange-
ment minimizes repul- Trigonal
sions between electron 120° planar
pairs.
3. A tetrahedral arrangement of electron pairs minimizes repulsions between four sets

of electron pairs. A tetrahedron is a four-sided geometric figure, all four sides being
identical equilateral triangles. The angle between any two electron pairs is 109.5⬚.
109.5°
Tetrahedral
Figure 7.9 shows these three electron-pair arrangements—linear, trigonal planar,

and tetrahedral—using balloons that have their ends tied together. When two, three, and
four like-sized balloons are tied together, they naturally assume the shapes we are talking
about.
Most simple molecules have a central atom to which all other atoms are bonded. The
first step in applying VSEPR theory to such molecules involves determining the number
FIGURE 7.9 When

balloons of the same
size and shape are
tied together, they
will assume positions
in space similar to
those taken by pairs
of valence electrons
around a central atom.
Two balloons, linear Three balloons, trigonal planar Four balloons, tetrahedral
of electron pairs present on the central atom. This count is obtained from the molecule’s
Lewis structure, using an expanded concept of what constitutes an “electron pair.”
Electron Pairs versus Electron Groups

Expansion of the concept of an electron pair to an electron group is needed prior to using
VSEPR theory to predict molecular geometry. The electron group concept facilitates the
extension of VSEPR theory to molecules in which double covalent bonds and triple cova-
lent bonds are present. A VSEPR electron group is a group of valence electrons present
in a localized region about an atom in a molecule. An electron group may contain two
electrons (a single covalent bond or a nonbonding electron pair), four electrons (a double
covalent bond) or six electrons (a triple covalent bond). Electron groups that contain four
and six electrons repel other electron groups in the same way electron pairs do. This
makes sense. The four electrons in a double covalent bond or the six electrons in a triple
covalent bond are localized in the region between two bonded atoms in a manner similar
to the two electrons in a single covalent bond.
Based on these conventions, the VSEPR electron group count about the central
atom in molecules with the following Lewis structures is as indicated.
Central atom has two VSEPR electron groups (single bond and triple
N N— O
bond)
Central atom has three VSEPR electron groups (single bond, double
O—S O
bond, and nonbonding electron pair)
Central atom has four VSEPR electron groups (two single bonds and
H— O —H
two nonbonding electron pairs)
Let us now apply VSEPR theory to molecules in which two, three, and four VSEPR
electron groups are present about a central atom. Our operational rules will be the
following:
1. Draw a Lewis structure for the molecule and identify the specific atom for which
geometric information is desired. (This atom will usually be the central atom in the
molecule.)
2. Determine the number of VSEPR electron groups present about the central atom.
The following conventions govern this determination.
a. No distinction is made between bonding and nonbonding electron groups. Both
are counted.
b. Single, double, and triple covalent bonds are all counted equally as one electron
group because each takes up only one region of space about a central atom.
3. Predict the VSEPR electron group arrangement about the atom by assuming that the
electron groups orient themselves in a manner that minimizes repulsions (Fig. 7.9).
Molecules with Two VSEPR Electron Groups

All molecules with two VSEPR electron groups are linear. Two common molecules in this
category are carbon dioxide 1CO22 and hydrogen cyanide (HCN), whose Lewis structures are
O C O H— C N
In CO2 the central carbon atom’s two VSEPR groups are the two double bonds. In
HCN the central carbon atom’s two VSEPR groups are a single bond and a triple bond. In
both molecules the VSEPR electron groups arrange themselves on opposite sides of the
carbon atom to produce a linear molecule.
Molecules with Three VSEPR Electron Groups

Two molecular geometries are associated with molecules that have three VSEPR electron
groups: trigonal planar and angular (or bent) (see Fig. 7.10). The former results when all
three VSEPR groups are bonding, and the latter when one of the three VSEPR groups is
nonbonding. Illustrative of these two situations are the molecules H2 CO (formaldehyde)
and SO2 (sulfur dioxide), whose Lewis structures are
:
C S
VSEPR electron-group H H O O
arrangement and mo- Trigonal planar Angular or bent
lecular geometry are not
the same when a central
atom possesses nonbond- The shape of the SO2 molecule is described as angular rather than trigonal planar, be-
ing electron pairs. The cause molecular geometry describes only atom positions. The positions of nonbonding
word used to describe the
electron pairs are ignored when coining words to describe molecular geometry. Do not
geometry in such cases
does not include the po- interpret this to mean that nonbonding electron pairs are unimportant in molecular ge-
sitions of the nonbonding ometry determinations; indeed, in the case of SO2 it is the presence of the nonbonding
electron pairs. electron pair that makes the molecule angular rather than linear.
FIGURE 7.10 Two VSEPR Electron Groups

Molecular geometries
associated with Two double bonds One triple bond and
various combinations one single bond
of bonding and X A X X A X
nonbonding electrons
about a central atom
Linear Linear
that obeys the octet rule. CO2 HCN
Three VSEPR Electron Groups
One double bond and One double bond, one single
two single bonds bond, and one nonbonding pair
X
A A
X X X X
Trigonal planar Angular or bent
H2CO, COCl2 SO2, S2O
Four VSEPR Electron Groups
Four single bonds Three single bonds and Two single bonds and two
one nonbonding pair nonbonding pairs
X
X A X A X A
X X
X X X
Tetrahedral Trigonal pyramidal Angular or bent
CH4, SiCl4 NH3, PF3 H2O, OF2
Note: The figure does not consider cases where only one bond is present—for example, one single
bond and three nonbonding pairs. If only one bond is present, the molecule is diatomic. All diatomic
molecules have the same geometry: The two atoms lie along a straight line.
Molecules with Four VSEPR Electron Groups

Three molecular geometries are possible for molecules with four VSEPR electron groups:
tetrahedral (no nonbonding electron pairs present), trigonal pyramidal (one nonbonding
electron pair present), and angular (two nonbonding electron pairs present). The
molecules CH4 (methane), NH3 (ammonia), and H2 O (water) illustrate this sequence of
molecular geometries.
:
C N O
H H H :
H H H
H H
Tetrahedral Trigonal pyramidal Angular or bent
Again, note how the word that is used to describe the geometry of a molecule does not
take into account the positions of nonbonding electron pairs.
Figure 7.10 summarizes the relationships among the number of VSEPR electron
groups about a central atom, molecular geometry, and terminology used to describe mo-
lecular geometry.
VSEPR theory can also be used to predict the molecular geometry of molecules that
contain more than one central atom. In such situations, each central atom is considered
separately and then the results of the separate analyses are combined to obtain the overall
molecular geometry. Figure 7.11 shows the results of such procedures for selected
molecules containing more than one central atom.
FIGURE 7.11 Using

Lewis Structure
Molecular and VSEPR Electron-Pair VSEPR theory to predict
Formula Analysis Molecular Geometry molecular geometry for
molecules containing
C2H2 H C C H H C C H more than one central
(acetylene) Straight chain of atom.
four atoms — linear
Two VSEPR Two VSEPR
electron electron
groups; groups;
linear C linear C
center center
HN3 H N N N N N N
(hydrogen
H
azide)
Three VSEPR Two VSEPR Chain of four atoms
electron electron with one bend
groups; groups;
angular N linear N
center center
H2O2 H O O H O O
(hydrogen
H H
peroxide)
Four VSEPR Four VSEPR Chain of four atoms
electron electron with two bends
groups; groups;
angular O angular O
center center
EXAMPLE 7.14 Using VSEPR Theory to Predict Molecular Geometry
Using VSEPR theory, predict the molecular geometry of each of the following molecules
given their Lewis structures.
a. Cl b. F —P —F c. H H
—
—
—
—
H— C —H F H— C C —H
—
Cl
SOLUTION
a. The Lewis structure for this molecule shows that the central carbon atom has four
VSEPR electron groups present (four single bonds). No nonbonding valence shell
electrons are present on the carbon atom.
The arrangement of the four electron groups about the central atom is tetrahedral.
Since each electron group is a bonding group, the molecular shape will also be
tetrahedral.
Cl
H C
H
Cl
b. Electrons are present in four locations about the central atom—three electron groups
involved in single bonds and one electron pair that is nonbonding.
The arrangement of four electron groups about a central atom is always tetrahe-
dral. It does not matter whether the groups are bonding or nonbonding. Arrangement
depends only on the number of groups and not on how the groups function.
However, the molecular geometry will be different from the electron group geom-
etry since a nonbonding electron pair is present. The molecular geometry is trigonal
pyramidal.
F P
F
F
Note that the vacant corner of the tetrahedron (the corner that has a nonbonding
electron pair instead of an atom) is not considered when coining a word to describe
the molecular geometry. Molecular geometry describes the arrangement of atoms
only.
c. This molecule has two central atoms, the two carbon atoms. A VSEPR theory analy-
sis needs to be carried out for each of the carbon atoms, and then the results of the
two analyses combined.
Each of the two carbon atoms has three VSEPR electron groups about it (two
single bonds and a double bond). The geometry associated with three VSEPR elec-
tron groups is always trigonal planar.
Since all positions about the carbon atoms are bonding positions (no non-
bonding electron pairs are present on the carbon atoms) there will also be a trigonal
planar arrangement of atoms about each carbon atom. The geometry of the mol-
ecule is therefore the following.
H H
Trigonal planar C C Trigonal planar

C atom C atom
H H
A simpler representation of the geometry of this molecule is the following
H H
C C
H H
Answer Double Check: The answers are consistent with the information in Figure 7.10.
Four VESPR electron groups, all of which are bonding, correlate with a tetrahedral geom-
etry. Four VESPR electron groups, three of which are bonding, correlate with a trigonal
pyramidal geometry. Three VESPR electron groups, all of which are bonding, correlate
with a trigonal planar geometry.
7.18 ELECTRONEGATIVITY
Student Learning Focus: Be able to define the term electronegativity and understand the relation-
ship between the magnitude of an element’s electronegativity value and the element’s position in
the periodic table.
The ionic and covalent bonding models we have developed in this chapter seem to rep-
resent two very distinct forms of bonding. Actually, the two models are closely related to
each other; they are the extremes of a broad continuum of bonding patterns. The close
relationship between the two bonding models becomes apparent when the concepts of
electronegativity (discussed in this section) and bond polarity (discussed in the next sec-
tion) are considered.
The electronegativity concept has its origins in the fact that the nuclei of various
elements have differing abilities to attract shared electrons (in a bond) to themselves.
Different electron-attracting abilities result from differences in size, nuclear charge, and
number of nonvalence electrons present for atoms of various elements. As a result of
these factors, some elements are better electron attractors than other elements.
Electronegativity is a measure of the relative attraction that an atom has for
the shared electrons in a bond. Electronegativity values are unitless numbers on a rel-
ative scale that are obtained from bond energies and other related experimental data.
Electronegativities are calculated numbers that cannot be directly measured in the labora-
tory. A number of electronegativity scales exist. The most widely used one, a scale devel-
oped by the American chemist Linus Carl Pauling (1901–1994; see “The Human Side of

Linus Carl Pauling (as a chemical engineer) and then three years one of the founders of molecular biology. In
(1901–1994) later obtained a Ph.D. in chemistry from the this area he made important contributions
California Institute of Technology (Caltech). After concerning the three-dimensional structures
In 1960, an undergradu- two years of further study in Europe, he returned of proteins and how enzymes and antibodies
ate chemistry student to Caltech as a faculty member. function.
asked Linus Carl Pauling During the 1930s, Pauling made numer- In later years, he was concerned with
the question: “Professor Pauling, I’d like to know ous key contributions to chemistry, including a what he called “orthomolecular medicine,” in
what goes through your mind when you decide scale of electronegativity that could be used particular with the concept that large doses of
that you understand something.” Pauling’s an- to determine the ionic and covalent character ascorbic acid (vitamin C) could ward off com-
swer was: “When I say ‘Aha! So that’s how it of chemical bonds, the concept of bond orbital mon colds and prevent cancer.
works!’ But it isn’t long before I realize that what hybridization (the organization of orbitals of Pauling also became an ardent advo-
I thought I had gotten right begged a number atoms in configurations that favor bonding), cate for peace and for a ban on the testing of
of questions. I realize that I hadn’t really under- and the theory of resonance (distribution of nuclear weapons. He set in motion a petition
stood; that there’s more to the problem than I had electrons between two or more possible Lewis that was signed by more than 11,000 scientists
thought. So I puzzle over the problem some more structures for a molecule). During this time worldwide calling for such a ban. He also took
until I again say, ‘Aha! So that’s how it really period, the chairman of Caltech’s chemistry vocal antiwar stands.
works.’ Of course, that isn’t the end of it, because department is said to have remarked, “Were Pauling is the only person to receive
still more questions arise, still more ‘Aha’s!’” all the rest of the chemistry department wiped two unshared Nobel Prizes. In 1954, for his
Pauling, who died in 1994 at age 93, is away except Pauling, it would still be one of contributions to chemistry, especially his work
considered one of the greatest chemists of all the most important departments of chemistry on chemical bonding theory, Pauling received
time. Born in Portland, Oregon, the son of a phar- in the world.” the Nobel Prize in chemistry. In 1962, Pauling
macist, he graduated from Oregon Agricultural In the 1940s, Pauling’s interests includ- received the Nobel Peace Prize in recognition of
College (now Oregon State University) in 1922 ed biological chemistry, where he is considered his efforts to end nuclear weapons testing. ▪
H He FIGURE 7.12
2.1 – Electronegativities of
the elements.
Li Be B C N O F Ne
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 –
0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0 –
0.8 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.5 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.6 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.4 2.8 –
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 1.9 2.2 2.2 2.2 1.9 1.7 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.5 –
Cs Ba 57–71 Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
0.7 0.9 1.1–1.2 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.4 1.9 1.8 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.2 –
Fr Ra
0.7 0.9
Chemistry 8”), is given in the format of a periodic table in Figure 7.12. On this scale, fluo-
rine, the most electronegative of all elements, has arbitrarily been assigned a value of 4.0
(the maximum on the scale) and serves as the reference element. The higher the electro-
negativity of an element, the greater the electron-attracting ability of atoms of that element.
Patterns and trends in the electronegativity values given in Figure 7.12 include the
following:
1. For representative elements (Sec. 6.11), electronegativity values generally increase
from left to right within a period of the periodic table.
2. For the period 2 elements this left-to-right increase is regular, being 0.5 units.
Li Be B C N O F
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
3. It is important to note how the electronegativity of hydrogen (period 1) compares Before VSEPR theory
with that of the period 2 elements. Hydrogen’s value of electronegativity, 2.1, is be- (Sec. 7.17) can be applied
to a molecule, one must
tween that of B and C.
know which atom is
4. For the period 3 elements the left-to-right increase is 0.3 units until the last two ele- the central atom in the
ments are reached, where it is 0.4 and 0.5. molecule. In general,
the least electronegative
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl of the atoms present
0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0 occupies the position of
central atom.
5. Electronegativity values generally increase from bottom to top within a periodic
table group.
The group and period trends in electronegativity values result in nonmetals generally hav-
ing higher electronegativities than metals. This fact is consistent with our previous gener-
alization (Sec. 7.5) that metals tend to lose electrons and nonmetals tend to gain electrons
when an ionic bond is formed. Metals (low electronegativities, poor electron attractors) will
give up electrons to nonmetals (high electronegativities, good electron attractors).
EXAMPLE 7.15 Predicting Electronegativity Relationships, Using General

Periodic Table Trends
Predict which member of each of the following pairs of elements has the greater electro-
negativity, based on periodic table electronegativity trends.
a. Be or C b. O or S c. Na or Cl d. Mg or N
SOLUTION
In terms of periodic table trends, electronegativity increases in going from left to right
across a period and decreases in going down a group.
a. Be and C are in the same period, with C being farther to the right. Therefore C has
the greater electronegativity as electronegativity increases in going across a period.
b. O and S are in the same group, with O being above S. Therefore O is the more
electronegative element as electronegativity decreases going down a group.
c. Na and Cl are in the same period, with Cl being farther to the right. Therefore Cl
has the greater electronegativity as this property increases in going to the right in a
period of the periodic table.
d. Mg is in period 3 and N is in period 2. The element Be can be used as a link be-
tween the two elements; it is in the same group as Mg and the same period as N.
The periodic table group trend predicts that Be has a higher electronegativity than
Mg and the periodic table period trend predicts that N is more electronegative than
Be. Therefore, N is more electronegative than Mg.
7.19 BOND POLARITY

Student Learning Focus: Be able to classify a bond as nonpolar covalent, polar covalent, or ionic
based on the electronegativity difference between the two bonded atoms.
Numerical quantification When two atoms of equal electronegativity share one or more pairs of electrons, each atom
for the terms nonpolar exerts the same attraction for the electrons, which results in the electrons’ being equally
covalent bond and polar
covalent bond occurs
shared. This type of bond is called a nonpolar covalent bond. A nonpolar covalent bond
later in this section. The is a covalent bond in which there is an equal sharing of electrons between two atoms.
electronegativity differ- When the two atoms involved in a covalent bond have different electronegativities,
ence between bonded the electron-sharing situation is not equal. The atom that has the higher electronegativ-
atoms will be used to dis- ity will attract the electrons more strongly than the other atom; this results in an unequal
tinguish nonpolar cova-
lent bonds, polar covalent
sharing of electrons. This type of covalent bond is called a polar covalent bond. A polar
bonds, and ionic bonds covalent bond is a covalent bond in which there is an unequal sharing of electrons be-
from each other. tween two atoms. Figure 7.13 pictorially contrasts a nonpolar covalent bond and a polar
covalent bond using the molecules H2 and HCl.
The significance of unequal sharing of electrons in a covalent bond is that it creates
partial (fractional) positive and negative charges on the atoms involved in a bond. Although
each atom involved in a polar covalent bond is initially uncharged, the unequal sharing of
H H H Cl
(a) (b)
FIGURE 7.13 (a) In the nonpolar covalent bond
present in H2 (H—H), there is a symmetrical
distribution of electron density between the two
atoms, that is, equal sharing of electrons occurs.
(b) In the polar covalent bond present in HCl
(H—Cl), electron density is displaced toward the
Cl atom because of its greater electronegativity,
that is, unequal sharing of electrons occurs.
electrons means the electrons spend more time near the more electronegative atom of the
bond (producing a partial negative charge). The presence of such partial charges on atoms
within a molecule often significantly affects molecular properties (Sec. 7.20).
The unequal sharing of electrons in a covalent bond is often indicated by a nota- Different types of sharing
tion that uses the lowercase Greek letter d (delta). A d- symbol, meaning a “partial nega- are seen in everyday life.
tive charge,” is placed above the relatively negative atom of the bond, and a d+ symbol, Partners in a business can
own it equally, or one
meaning a “partial positive charge,” is placed above the relatively positive atom. partner can have more
With delta notation, the bond in hydrogen chloride (HCl) would be depicted as than the other. It can be
owned 60:40, 70:30, and
d+ d- so on.
H i Cl
Chlorine has an electronegativity of 3.0, and hydrogen’s electronegativity is 2.1 (see
Fig. 7.12). Since Cl is the more electronegative of the two elements, it dominates the
electron-sharing process and draws the electrons closer to it. Hence, the Cl end of
the bond has the d- designation. Again, the d- over the Cl atom indicates a partial
negative charge; that is, the chlorine end of the molecule is negative with respect to the
hydrogen end. The meaning of the d+ over the H is that the H end of the molecule is
positive with respect to the Cl end. Partial charges are always charges less than +1 or -1.
Charges of +1 and -1, full charges, would result when an electron is transferred from one
atom to another. With partial charges we are talking about an intermediate charge state
between 0 and 1. Figure 7.14 contrasts the use of formulas to denote electron transfer,
unequal sharing of electrons, and equal sharing of electrons.
The direction of polarity of a polar covalent bond, that is, which atom of the bond
bears the partial negative charge, can also be designated, using an arrow with a cross at
its other end ( ). The crossed end of the arrow is placed near the atom bearing the
partial positive charge, and the arrow’s head is placed near the atom bearing the partial
negative charge. Using this notation, the bond in the molecule HCl would be denoted as
H — Cl
Bond polarity is a measure of the degree of inequality in the sharing of electrons in All bonds, except those
a chemical bond. The absolute value of the difference in electronegativity of two bonded between identical atoms,
atoms gives a rough measure of the polarity to be expected in a bond. The greater the have some degree of
polarity associated with
numerical difference in electronegativities, the greater the inequality of electron sharing them.
and the greater the polarity of the bond. Note that it is the magnitude of the electronega-
tivity difference, not the actual electronegativities of the bonded atoms, that determines
the extent of polarity of a bond.
As the polarity of a bond increases, the bond is becoming increasingly ionic; that
is, the percent ionic character of the bond is increasing. Percent ionic character of a
bond is a measure of how the actual charge separation (partial charge) in a bond be-
cause of electronegativity difference of the bonded atoms compares to the complete charge
FIGURE 7.14 Notation

δ+ δ−
M+ X −
Y X X X used to denote electron
transfer, unequal
sharing of electrons,
Ionic Polar covalent Nonpolar covalent and equal sharing of
(full charges) (partial charges) (no charges) electrons in chemical
bonds.
Electron transfer Unequal sharing Equal sharing

of electrons of electrons
separation associated with ions. Percent ionic character values are calculated from data
obtained from experiments involving the behavior of molecules in electric fields.
A rough scale relating the difference in electronegativity to percent ionic character
of a bond is as follows:
No known compound
has a percent ionic Electronegativity Percent Ionic
character of 100%. Difference Character
1.0 20%
1.5 40%
2.0 60%
2.5 80%
A bond that has 50% ionic character correlates with an electronegativity difference of 1.7.
The answer to the ques- The message of the preceding discussion of bond polarity is that there is no natural
tion “Is the bond ionic boundary between ionic and covalent bonding. Most bonds are a mixture of pure ionic and
or covalent?” is usually
“both.” A better question
pure covalent bonds; that is, unequal sharing of electrons occurs. Most bonds have both ionic
is “How ionic or covalent and covalent character. Nevertheless, it is still convenient to use the terms ionic and covalent
is the bond?” The exis- in describing chemical bonds, based on the following arbitrary, but useful (though not infal-
tence of partial charges lible), guidelines, which relate to electronegativity difference between bonded atoms.
on atoms because of un-
equal sharing of electrons 1. Bonds that involve atoms with the same or very similar electronegativities are called
means that all polar co- nonpolar covalent bonds. “Similar” here means an electronegativity difference of 0.4
valent bonds have partial or less (less than 10% ionic character).
ionic character.
Technically, the only pure nonpolar covalent bonds (totally equal sharing) are
those between identical atoms. However, bonds with a small electronegativity differ-
ence behave very similarly to pure nonpolar covalent bonds.
2. Bonds with an electronegativity difference greater than 0.4 but less than 1.5 are
called polar covalent bonds.
3. Bonds with an electronegativity difference of 2.0 or greater are called ionic bonds.
Such bonds have 60% or greater ionic character.
4. Bonds with an electronegativity difference between 1.5 and 2.0 are considered to
be ionic if the bond involves a metal and a nonmetal and polar covalent if the bond
involves two nonmetals. In the 1.5–2.0 electronegativity-difference range some com-
pounds exhibit characteristics associated with molecular compounds, while others
exhibit characteristics associated with ionic compounds (see Sec. 7.1). This rule
helps in dealing with this borderline area.
Figure 7.15 summarizes the interrelationships among the concepts of electronega-
tivity difference between bonded atoms, bond type, a bond’s covalent character, and a
bond’s ionic character.
FIGURE 7.15 The

Electronegativity
relationships among
difference None Intermediate Large
the ionic and covalent between the
characters of a bonded atoms
chemical bond and
electronegativity Bond type Covalent Polar covalent Ionic
difference between the
bonded atoms.
Covalent character Decreases
Ionic character Increases

EXAMPLE 7.16 Predicting the Polarity Characteristics of Chemical Bonds
Predict whether a chemical bond between each of the following pairs of atoms would be
nonpolar covalent, polar covalent, or ionic. If polar covalent, specify which atom would
carry the partial positive charge and which would carry the partial negative charge.
a. calcium and fluorine
b. carbon and oxygen
c. boron and hydrogen
d. phosphorus and bromine
SOLUTION
a. Calcium has an electronegativity of 1.0 and fluorine an electronegativity of 4.0. The
electronegativity difference of 3.0 indicates that the bond is ionic. An electronegativ-
ity difference of 2.0 or greater produces an ionic bond.
b. The electronegativity difference between carbon (2.5) and oxygen (3.5) is 1.0.
Bonds within the electronegativity difference range 0.4 to 1.5 are classified as polar
covalent. In such bonds the more electronegative atom, oxygen in this case, bears
the partial negative charge and the less electronegative atom, carbon in this case,
bears the partial positive charge.
c. Boron (2.0) and hydrogren (2.1) have almost identical electronegatives. Such a situ-
ation, 0.4 difference or less, produces a bond classified as nonpolar covalent.
d. The electronegativity difference between phosphorus (2.1) and bromine (2.8) is
sufficiently great to produce a polar covalent bond with phosphorus bearing the
partial positive charge and bromine bearing the partial negative charge.
7.20 MOLECULAR POLARITY

Student Learning Focus: Given its Lewis structure and molecular geometry, predict whether a
molecule is polar or nonpolar.
Molecules, as well as bonds (Sec. 7.19), can have polarity. Molecular polarity is a mea- A prerequisite for deter-
sure of the degree of inequality in the attraction of bonding electrons to various locations mining molecular polarity
within a molecule. In terms of electron attraction, if one part of a molecule is favored is a knowledge of mo-
lecular geometry.
over other parts, then the molecule is polar. A polar molecule is a molecule in which
there is an unsymmetrical distribution of electronic charge. In a polar molecule, bonding
electrons are more attracted to one part of the molecule than to other parts. A nonpolar
molecule is a molecule in which there is a symmetrical distribution of electronic charge.
Attraction for bonding electrons is the same in all parts of the molecule.
Molecular polarity depends on two factors: (1) bond polarities and (2) molecular ge-
ometry (Sec. 7.17). The presence of polar bonds within a molecule does not automatically
mean that the molecule as a whole is polar. In molecules that are symmetrical, the effects of
polar bonds may cancel each other, resulting in a molecule as a whole having no polarity.
Determining the molecular polarity of a diatomic molecule is simple because only
one bond is present. If that bond is nonpolar, the molecule is nonpolar; if the bond is
polar, the molecule is polar.
Molecular polarity determination in triatomic molecules is more complicated. Two
different molecular geometries are possible in triatomic molecules: linear and angular. In
addition, the symmetrical or unsymmetrical nature of the molecule must be considered.
Let us consider the polarities of three specific triatomic molecules: CO2 (linear), H2 O
(angular), and HCN (linear).
Molecules in which all Both bonds in the symmetrical linear CO2 are polar. For both bonds, the direction of
bonds are polar can, as a polarity is toward oxygen since oxygen is more electronegative than carbon.
whole, be nonpolar if the
bonds are so oriented in
direction that the polarity O C O
effects cancel each other.
Despite the presence of the two polar bonds, CO2 molecules are nonpolar. The effects
of the two polar bonds cancel. The shift of electronic charge toward one oxygen atom is
exactly compensated for by the shift of electronic charge toward the other oxygen atom.
Thus, one end of the molecule is not negatively charged relative to the other end (a re-
quirement for polarity), and the molecule is nonpolar.
The nonlinear (angular) triatomic H2 O molecule is polar. The bond polarities as-
sociated with the two hydrogen–oxygen bonds do not cancel each other, because of the
nonlinearity of the molecule.
It is the polarity of water
molecules that makes —O —
cooking in microwave H H
ovens possible. The elec-
tromagnetic field of the As a result of their orientation, both bonds contribute to an accumulation of negative
microwave interacts with charge on the oxygen atom. The two bond polarities are equal in magnitude but are not
the polar water molecules opposite in their direction.
causing them to shake.
The generalization that linear triatomic molecules are nonpolar and nonlinear tri-
The food is cooked by
the heat generated by atomic molecules are polar, which is consistent with our discussion of CO2 and H2O mo-
the motion of the water lecular polarities, is not valid. The linear molecular HCN, which is polar, invalidates this
molecules. generalization. Both bond polarities contribute to nitrogen’s acquiring a partial negative
charge relative to hydrogen in HCN.
H— C N
(Note that the two polarity arrows were drawn in the same direction because nitrogen
is more electronegative than carbon and carbon is more electronegative than hydrogen.)
Commonly encountered geometries for molecules containing four and five atoms
are, respectively, trigonal planar and tetrahedral. Molecules with those geometries in
which all of the atoms attached to the central atom are identical, such as SO3 (trigonal
planar) and CH4 (tetrahedral), are nonpolar. The individual bond polarities cancel as
the result of the highly symmetrical arrangement of atoms around the central atom (see
Fig. 7.16).
FIGURE 7.16
Examples of nonpolar Cancellation
Type of Polar Bonds Example
molecules in which
all bonds present
Linear molecules with B—A—B CO2
are polar.
two identical bonds
B
Trigonal planar molecules
A
with three identical bonds SO3
B B
B
Tetrahedral molecules
with four identical bonds CH4
A
B B
B
FIGURE 7.17
H Cl (a) Methane 1CH42 is a
nonpolar tetrahedral
molecule; (b) methyl
chloride 1CH3Cl2 is
C H C H a polar tetrahedral
H H molecule. Bond
polarities cancel in the
H H first case but not in the
second one.
(a) CH4, a nonpolar molecule (b) CH3Cl, a polar molecule
If two or more kinds of atoms are attached to the central atom in a trigonal planar or
tetrahedral molecule, the molecule will be polar. The high degree of symmetry required
for cancellation of the individual bond polarities is no longer present. For example, if one
of the hydrogen atoms in CH4 (a nonpolar molecule) is replaced by a chlorine atom, a
polar molecule results, even though the resulting CH3 Cl is still a tetrahedral molecule. A
carbon–chlorine bond has a greater polarity than a carbon–hydrogen bond; chlorine has
an electronegativity of 3.0 and hydrogen has an electronegativity of only 2.1. Figure 7.17
contrasts the polar CH3Cl and nonpolar CH4 molecules. Note that the direction of polarity
of the carbon–chlorine bond is opposite that of the carbon–hydrogen bonds.
EXAMPLE 7.17 Predicting the Polarity of Molecules Given Their Lewis

Structure and Molecular Geometry
Predict the polarity of each of the following molecules.

a. NH3 (trigonal pyramidal) b. H2 S (angular)
N —S—
H
—
H H H
H
c. N2 O (linear) d. C2 H2 (linear)
N N— O H— C C —H
SOLUTION
Knowledge of molecular geometry, which is given for each molecule in this example, is a
prerequisite for predicting molecular polarity.
a. Noncancellation of the individual bond polarities in the trigonal pyramidal NH3
molecule results in its being a polar molecule.
N N Net polarity
H H
—
toward nitrogen
H H H H
The bond polarity arrows all point toward the nitrogen atom because nitrogen is
more electronegative than hydrogen.
b. For the bent H2 S molecule, the shift in electron density in the polar sulfur–hydrogen
bonds will be toward the sulfur atom because sulfur is more electronegative than
hydrogen. The H2 S molecule as a whole is polar because of the noncancellation of

the individual sulfur–hydrogen bond polarities.
— S— S Net polarity
H H H H toward sulfur
c. The structure of the linear N2O molecule is unsymmetrical; a nitrogen atom rather
than the oxygen atom is the central atom. The nitrogen–nitrogen bond is nonpolar;
the nitrogen–oxygen bond is polar. The molecule as a whole is polar because of the
polarity of the nitrogen–oxygen bond.
Net polarity
N N— O N N toward oxygen
O
d. The carbon–carbon bond is nonpolar. The two carbon–hydrogen bonds are polar
and are “equal but opposite” in terms of effect; that is, they cancel. The molecule as
a whole is thus nonpolar.
H— C C —H H C C H No net polarity
Chemical Insight: HYDROGEN SULFIDE

The angular molecular geometry of H2S (hydrogen sulfide), which was determined in
the preceding example, is the same as that for a water molecule. Water (H2O) and H2S
are structural analogs; a central sulfur atom has replaced the central oxygen atom.
H2S is a gas at room temperature with an odor that resembles rotten eggs. Its
natural sources include bacterial decomposition of proteins and volcanic eruptions.
H2S’s odor is detectable at concentrations as low as 0.02 parts per million. Despite its
easy detection, its presence can be dangerous because it exerts an anesthetic effect on
nasal passages, causing the nose to rapidly lose its ability to detect its presence.
Decomposition of the sulfur-rich protein albumin present in eggs produces H2S.
The pale green color often found at the interface of the yolk and white portion of a
cooked egg is caused by the presence of this H2S. Egg yolk is rich in iron-containing
proteins, and the H2S produced from albumin during cooking reacts with these pro-
teins to form iron sulfide, the source of the green color.
1. Chemical Bonds Chemical bonds are the at- particularly important in determining the bond-
tractive forces that hold atoms together in more ing characteristics of a given atom.
complex units. Chemical bonds result from the 3. Lewis Structure A Lewis structure for an atom
transfer of electrons between atoms (ionic bond) is a notation for designating the number of va-
or from the sharing of electrons between atoms lence electrons present in the atom. It consists
(covalent bond). of an element’s symbol with one dot for each
2. Valence Electrons Valence electrons, for rep- valence electron placed about the elemental
resentative elements, are the electrons in the symbol.
outermost electron shell, which is the shell with 4. Octet Rule In compound formation, atoms of
the highest shell number. Valence electrons are elements lose, gain, or share electrons in such a
way as to produce a noble gas electron configu- between atoms to give double and triple cova-
ration for each of the atoms involved. lent bonds. Most often, both atoms of the bond
5. Ions An ion is an atom (or group of atoms) that contribute an equal number of electrons to the
has acquired a charge as the result of loss or gain bond. In a few cases, both electrons of a shared
of electrons. The notation for charges on ions is electron pair come from the same atom; this is a
a superscript placed to the right of the elemental coordinate covalent bond.
symbol. An anion is a negatively charged ion. A 14. Number of Covalent Bonds Formed There is
cation is a positively charged ion. a strong tendency for nonmetals to form a par-
6. Ionic Compound Ionic compounds usually ticular number of covalent bonds. The number
contain a metallic element and a nonmetallic ele- of valence electrons the nonmetal has and the
ment. Metal atoms lose one or more electrons, number of covalent bonds it forms gives a sum
producing cations. Nonmetal atoms acquire the of eight.
electrons lost by the metal atoms, producing an- 15. Resonance Structures Resonance structures
ions. The oppositely charged ions attract one an- are two or more Lewis structures for a molecu-
other, creating ionic bonds. lar compound that have the same arrangement
7. Charge Magnitude for Ions Metal atoms con- of atoms, contain the same number of electrons,
taining one, two, or three valence electrons tend and differ only in the location of the electrons.
to lose such electrons, producing ions of +1, +2, 16. Molecular Geometry and VSEPR Theory
and +3 charge, respectively. Nonmetal atoms Molecular geometry describes the way atoms
containing five, six, or seven valence electrons in a molecule are arranged in space relative to
tend to gain electrons, producing ions of -3, -2, one another. VSEPR theory is a set of procedures
and -1 charge, respectively. used to predict molecular geometry from a com-
8. Formulas for Ionic Compounds The ratio in pound’s Lewis structure. VSEPR theory is based
which positive and negative ions combine is the on the concept that valence shell electron groups
ratio that causes the total amount of positive and about an atom (bonding and nonbonding) orient
negative charges to add up to zero. themselves as far away from one another as pos-
9. Structure of Ionic Compounds Ionic solids sible (to minimize repulsions).
consist of positive and negative ions arranged in 17. Electronegativity Electronegativity is a measure
such a way that each ion is surrounded by ions of the relative attraction that an atom has for the
of the opposite charge. Individual molecules are shared electrons in a bond. Electronegativity val-
not present in an ionic compound. ues are useful in predicting the polarity of a bond.
10. Polyatomic Ions A polyatomic ion is a group 18. Bond Polarity Bond polarity is a function of
of covalently bonded atoms that has acquired the electronegativity difference between the
a charge through the loss or gain of electrons. bonded atoms and sometimes the type of atoms
Polyatomic ions are very stable entities that gen- (metal or nonmetal) present in the bond. For
erally maintain their identity during chemical re- small electronegativity differences (0.4 or less),
actions. Polyatomic ions never occur alone as do the bond is classified as nonpolar covalent. In
molecules; they are a part of an ionic compound. the electronegativity difference range greater
11. Molecular Compound Molecular compounds than 0.4 but less than 1.5, the bond is considered
usually involve two or more nonmetals and co- polar covalent. In the range between 1.5 and 2.0,
valent bonds. Covalent bond formation occurs bond classification depends on metal–nonmetal
through electron sharing between nonmetal atoms. makeup of the bond. The bond is considered
The covalent bond results from the common at- polar covalent if two nonmetals are present, and
traction of two nuclei for the shared electrons. ionic if a metal and nonmetal are present. For
12. Bonding and Nonbonding Electron Pairs electronegativity differences of 2.0 or greater, the
Bonding electrons are pairs of valence electrons bond is always classified as ionic.
that are shared between atoms in a covalent 19. Molecular Polarity Molecules as a whole can
bond. Nonbonding electrons are pairs of valence have polarity. If individual bond polarities do not
electrons about an atom that are not involved in cancel because of the symmetrical nature of a
electron sharing. molecule, then the molecule as a whole is polar.
13. Types of Covalent Bonds One shared pair Molecular polarity is a measure of the degree of
of electrons constitutes a single covalent bond. inequality in the attraction of bonding electrons
Two or three pairs of electrons may be shared to various locations within a molecule.
Key Terms Listing

anion Sec. 7.4 ion Sec. 7.4 percent ionic character of a bond
bond length Sec. 7.15 ionic bond Secs. 7.1 and 7.4 Sec. 7.19
bond polarity Sec. 7.19 isoelectronic species Sec. 7.5 polar covalent bond Sec. 7.19
bond strength Sec. 7.15 Lewis structure Sec. 7.6 polar molecule Sec. 7.20
bonding electrons Sec. 7.11 Lewis symbol Sec. 7.2 polyatomic ion Sec. 7.9
cation Sec. 7.4 molecular geometry Sec. 7.17 resonance structures Sec. 7.15
chemical bond Sec. 7.1 molecular polarity Sec. 7.20 single covalent bond Sec. 7.12
coordinate covalent bond Sec. 7.14 monoatomic ion Sec. 7.9 triple covalent bond Sec. 7.12
covalent bond Secs. 7.1 and 7.10 nonbonding electrons Sec. 7.11 valence electron Sec. 7.2
double covalent bond Sec. 7.12 nonpolar covalent bond Sec. 7.19 VSEPR electron group Sec. 7.17
electronegativity Sec. 7.18 nonpolar molecule Sec. 7.20 VSEPR theory Sec. 7.17
formula unit Sec. 7.8 octet rule Sec. 7.3
Practice Problems by Topic

VALENCE ELECTRONS (SEC. 7.2)

7.1 How many valence electrons do atoms with the fol- 7.6 How many valence electrons do atoms of the follow-
lowing electron configurations have? ing representative elements have?
a. 1s22s22p3 a. carbon b. potassium
b. 1s22s22p63s2 c. beryllium d. sulfur
c. 1s22s22p63s23p64s 23d 5 7.7 How many of the “highlighted” elements in the fol-
d. 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p4 lowing periodic table have each of the valence elec-
7.2 How many valence electrons do atoms with the fol- tron characteristics listed?
lowing electron configurations have?
a. 1s22s22p1
b. 1s22s22p5
c. 1s22s22p63s23p64s2
d. 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p3
7.3 How many valence electrons do atoms with the fol-
lowing condensed electron configurations have?
a. [He]2s22p2
b. [Ne]3s23p1
c. [Ar]4s23d104p4
d. [Kr]5s24d 7 a. Five valence electrons are present.
7.4 How many valence electrons do atoms with the fol- b. Seven valence electrons are present.
lowing condensed electron configurations have? c. Two valence electrons are present.
a. [He]2s22p5 d. Eight valence electrons are present.
b. [Ne]3s2 7.8 How many of the “highlighted” elements in the pe-
c. [Ar]4s23d 3 riodic table of Problem 7.7 have each of the valence
d. [Kr]5s24d105p2 electron characteristics listed?
7.5 How many valence electrons do atoms of the follow- a. Four valence electrons are present.
ing representative elements have? b. One valence electron is present.
a. lithium b. nitrogen c. Three valence electrons are present.
c. chlorine d. aluminum d. Six valence electrons are present.
7.9 Give the periodic table group number and the number NOTATION FOR IONS (SEC. 7.4)
of valence electrons present for each of the following
representative elements. 7.21 Give the symbol for each of the following ions.
a. lithium b. neon a. a lithium atom that has lost one electron
c. calcium d. iodine b. a phosphorus atom that has gained three electrons
7.10 Give the periodic table group number and the number c. a bromine atom that has gained one electron
of valence electrons present for each of the following d. a barium atom that has lost two electrons
representative elements. 7.22 Give the symbol for each of the following ions.
a. magnesium b. potassium a. an iodine atom that has gained one electron
c. phosphorus d. bromine b. a zinc atom that has lost two electrons
7.11 Identify the element with each of the following c. a gallium atom that has lost three electrons
characteristics. d. a sodium atom that has lost one electron
a. period 2 element with four valence electrons 7.23 Fill in the blanks in each row of the following table.
b. period 2 element with seven valence electrons The first row is already completed as an example.
c. period 3 element with two valence electrons Number of Number of
d. period 3 element with five valence electrons Chemical Ion Electrons Protons
7.12 Identify the element with each of the following Symbol Formed in Ion in Ion
characteristics. Ca Ca2+ 18 20
a. period 2 element with one valence electron
a. Be 2+ 4
b. period 2 element with three valence electrons
c. period 3 element with three valence electrons b. 54 53
d. period 3 element with six valence electrons c. AI 10
d. 2-
S
LEWIS SYMBOLS FOR ATOMS (SEC. 7.2)

7.24 Fill in the blanks in each row of the following table.
7.13 Draw Lewis symbols for the atoms of the following The first row is already completed as an example.
elements.
a. 6C b. 14Si c. 17Cl d. 56Ba Number of Number of
Chemical Ion Electrons Protons in
7.14 Draw Lewis symbols for atoms of the following elements.
Symbol Formed in Ion Ion
a. 7N b. 15P c. 35Br d. 55Cs
7.15 Each of the following Lewis symbols represents a Mg Mg2 + 10 12
period 2 representative element. Determine the ele- a. K+ 19
ment’s identity in each case. b. 36 34
a. X b. X c. X d. X c. P 18
d. 2-
7.16 Each of the following Lewis symbols represents a O
period 3 representative element. Determine the ele-
ment’s identity in each case. 7.25 Indicate whether each of the following atoms or ions
a. X b. X c. X d. X is (1) a neutral species, (2) a negatively charged spe-
cies, or (3) a positively charged species.
7.17 Indicate whether each of the following Lewis symbols
a. contains 5 electrons, 5 protons, and 5 neutrons
is correct or incorrect.
b. contains 18 electrons, 19 protons, and 20 neutrons
a. O b. Al c. Cl d. Se c. contains 18 electrons, 20 protons, and 20 neutrons
7.18 Indicate whether each of the following Lewis symbols d. contains 36 electrons, 35 protons, and 46 neutrons
is correct or incorrect. 7.26 Indicate whether each of the following atoms or ions
a. F b. Si c. Kr d. Cs is (1) a neutral species, (2) a negatively charged spe-
7.19 Draw Lewis symbols for elements whose atoms have cies, or (3) a positively charged species.
the following electron configurations. a. contains 6 electrons, 6 protons, and 6 neutrons
a. 1s22s2 b. contains 18 electrons, 15 protons, and 16 neutrons
b. 1s22s22p63s2 c. contains 18 electrons, 16 protons, and 16 neutrons
c. 1s22s22p63s23p4 d. contains 36 electrons, 37 protons, and 48 neutrons
d. 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p2 7.27 Identify element X by giving its chemical symbol,
7.20 Draw Lewis symbols for elements whose atoms have based on the following information about the ion that
the following electron configurations. it forms.
a. 1s22s1 a. forms a X2 + ion containing 10 electrons
b. 1s22s22p63s23p1 b. forms a X2 + ion containing 18 electrons
c. 1s22s22p63s23p3 c. forms a X3 - ion containing 18 electrons
d. 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p5 d. forms a X - ion containing 10 electrons
7.28 Identify element X by giving its chemical symbol, 7.39 Predict the general kind of behavior, that is, loss or
based on the following information about the ion that gain of electrons, you would expect from atoms with
it forms. the following electron configurations.
a. forms a X2 - ion containing 10 electrons a. 1s22s2
b. forms a X2 - ion containing 18 electrons b. 1s22s22p63s2
c. forms a X3 + ion containing 10 electrons c. 1s22s22p63s23p1
d. forms a X + ion containing 10 electrons d. 1s22s22p63s23p5
7.29 What would be the most likely chemical symbol for the 7.40 Predict the general kind of behavior, that is, loss or
period 2 ion with each of the following characteristics? gain of electrons, you would expect from atoms with
a. two more protons than electrons the following electron configurations.
b. two fewer protons than electrons a. 1s22s22p4
c. three fewer protons than electrons b. 1s22s22p3
d. four fewer protons than electrons c. 1s22s1
7.30 What would be the most likely chemical symbol for d. 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p1
the period 3 ion with each of the following 7.41 How many valence electrons are present in each of
characteristics? the following ions?
a. one more proton than electrons a. N3 - b. P3 - c. Al3 + d. Li+
b. one fewer proton than electrons 7.42 How many valence electrons are present in each of
c. three fewer protons than electrons the following ions?
d. four more protons than electrons a. O2 - b. S2 - c. Mg2 + d. Be2 +
7.31 Classify each of the following species as (1) a cation, 7.43 Give the chemical formula of the Group IIA posi-
(2) an anion, or (3) not an ion. tive ion that would have the following number of
a. Cl- b. Na+ c. F d. N3- electrons.
7.32 Classify each of the following species as (1) a cation, a. 18 b. 2 c. 10 d. 36
(2) an anion, or (3) not an ion. 7.44 Give the chemical formula of the Group VIA nega-
a. O2- b. Mg2+ c. K d. F- tive ion that would have the following number of
electrons.
a. 18 b. 54 c. 10 d. 36
THE SIGN AND MAGNITUDE OF IONIC 7.45 Give the chemical formula of the Group VIIA negative
CHARGE (SEC. 7.5) ion that would have the same number of electrons as
each of the following positive ions.
7.33 Based on periodic table position, predict whether
a. K + b. Mg2 + c. Al3 + d. Ca2 +
each of the following elements forms a positive ion or
7.46 Give the chemical formula of the Group VIIA negative
negative ion.
ion that would have the same number of electrons as
a. nitrogen
each of the following positive ions.
b. beryllium
a. Na +
c. magnesium
b. Sr2 +
d. chlorine
c. Ba2 +
d. Rb +
each of the following elements forms a positive ion or
7.47 How many of the “highlighted” elements in the fol-
negative ion.
lowing periodic table will form ions with each of the
a. selenium
following characteristics?
b. rubidium
c. iodine
d. strontium
each of the elements in Problem 7.33 forms a cation or
an anion.
each of the elements in Problem 7.34 forms a cation or
an anion.
7.37 Based on periodic table position, predict the actual
number of electrons lost or gained when each of the a. forms a positively charged ion
elements in Problem 7.33 forms an ion. b. forms an anion
7.38 Based on periodic table position, predict the actual c. forms an ion that has a charge magnitude of 2
number of electrons lost or gained when each of the d. forms an ion that involves loss of two or more
elements in Problem 7.34 forms an ion. electrons
7.48 How many of the “highlighted” elements in the peri- CHEMICAL FORMULAS FOR IONIC COMPOUNDS
odic table in Problem 7.47 will form ions with each of (SEC. 7.7)
the following characteristics?
a. forms a negatively charged ion 7.59 Write the chemical formula for the ionic compound
b. forms a cation formed from each of the following types of ions.
c. forms an ion that has a charge magnitude of 1 a. Ca2+ and Cl-
d. forms an ion that involves gain of two or more b. Be2+ and O2-
electrons c. Al3+ and N3-
7.49 In which group in the periodic table would repre- d. K+ and S2-
sentative elements that form ions with the following 7.60 Write the chemical formula for the ionic compound
charges most likely be found? formed from each of the following types of ions.
a. + 1 b. -2 c. -3 d. +4 a. Mg2+ and S2- b. Na+ and Br-
3+ 2-
7.50 In which group in the periodic table would repre- c. Al and O d. Be2+ and N3-
sentative elements that form ions with the following 7.61 Fill in the blanks to complete the following table of
charges most likely be found? chemical formulas for ionic compounds. For each
a. + 3 b. - 4 c. + 2 d. - 1 compound the positive ion present is listed on the left
7.51 Select from each of the following sets of ions the ion side of the table and the negative ion present is listed
that is isoelectronic with the noble gas neon. at the top. The first row of the table is already com-
a. Li+, Na+, K+ pleted as an example.
b. F-, Cl-, Br-
Fⴚ O2ⴚ N3ⴚ C4ⴚ
c. Ca2+, O2-, Be2+
ⴙ NaF Na2O Na3N Na4C
d. Mg2+, P3-, S2- Na
7.52 Select from each of the following sets of ions the ion a. Ca2ⴙ
that is isoelectronic with the noble gas argon. b. Al3ⴙ
a. Be2+, Mg2+, Ca2+ b. O2-, S2-, Se2- c. Agⴙ
c. K+, N3-, Al3+ d. F-, O2-, P3-
d. Zn2ⴙ
7.53 In which of the following are the two members of the
pair isoelectronic with each other?
a. Ar and S2- b. Ne and Be2+ 7.62 Fill in the blanks to complete the following table of
c. Ca2+ and P3- d. Li+ and O2- chemical formulas for ionic compounds. For each
7.54 In which of the following are the two members of the compound the negative ion present is listed on the
pair isoelectronic with each other? left side of the table and the positive ion present is
a. He and Li+ b. Kr and Ca2+ listed at the top. The first row of the table is already
c. F- and Cl- d. Al3+ and N3- completed as an example.
Naⴙ Mg2ⴙ Al3ⴙ Si4ⴙ

ⴚ
LEWIS STRUCTURES FOR IONIC COMPOUNDS Cl NaCl MgCl2 AlCl3 SiCl4
(SEC. 7.6) a. Brⴚ
b. S2ⴚ
7.55 Show the formation of the following ionic compounds
using Lewis structures. c. P3ⴚ
a. CaBr2 b. MgS c. Be3 N2 d. Na3 P d. N3ⴚ
7.56 Show the formation of the following ionic compounds
using Lewis structures. 7.63 Write the complete chemical formula (symbol and
a. K2O b. MgF2 c. AlP d. Na2S charge) for the positive ion present in each of the fol-
7.57 Using Lewis structures, show how ionic compounds lowing ionic compounds.
are formed from the following pairs of elements. a. KCl b. CaS c. MgF2 d. Al2S3
a. lithium and nitrogen 7.64 Write the complete chemical formula (symbol and
b. magnesium and oxygen charge) for the negative ion present in each of the fol-
c. chlorine and barium lowing ionic compounds.
d. fluorine and potassium a. MgO b. AlN c. Na2S d. Be3P2
7.58 Using Lewis structures, show how ionic compounds 7.65 Indicate whether or not the positive and negative ions
are formed from the following pairs of elements. present in each of the ionic compounds in Problem
a. sodium and bromine 7.63 are isoelectronic with each other.
b. aluminum and sulfur 7.66 Indicate whether or not the positive and negative ions
c. phosphorus and beryllium present in each of the ionic compounds in Problem
d. oxygen and calcium 7.64 are isoelectronic with each other.
7.67 Write the chemical formula of the ionic compound 7.73 Answer the following questions about the ionic com-
that could form from the elements X and Z if pound formed from the ions Al3 + and CO23 - .
a. X has two valence electrons and Z has four va- a. What is the chemical formula for the compound?
lence electrons. b. How many total ions are present in one formula
b. X has three valence electrons and Z has seven va- unit of the compound?
lence electrons. c. How many polyatomic ions are present in one for-
c. X has one valence electron and Z has five valence mula unit of the compound?
electrons. d. How many monoatomic ions are present in one
d. X has seven valence electrons and Z has two va- formula unit of the compound?
lence electrons. 7.74 Answer the following questions about the ionic com-
7.68 Write the chemical formula of the ionic compound pound formed from the ions Ca2 + and PO34 - .
that could form from the elements X and Z if a. What is the chemical formula for the compound?
a. X has two valence electrons and Z has seven va- b. How many total ions are present in one formula
lence electrons. unit of the compound?
b. X has one valence electron and Z has six valence c. How many polyatomic ions are present in one for-
electrons. mula unit of the compound?
c. X has three valence electrons and Z has five va- d. How many monoatomic ions are present in one
lence electrons. formula unit of the compound?
d. X has six valence electrons and Z has two valence 7.75 Fill in the blanks to complete the following table of
electrons. chemical formulas for polyatomic-ion-containing ionic
7.69 Determine the chemical formulas for the ionic com- compounds. For each compound the positive ion
pounds that form when each of the listed pairs of present is listed on the left side of the table and the
“highlighted” elements in the following periodic table negative ion present is listed at the top. The first row
interact with each other. of the table is already completed as an example.
OHⴚ CNⴚ NO3ⴚ SO42ⴚ
Naⴙ NaOH NaCN NaNO3 Na2SO4
1 5 6
ⴙ
2 4 7
a. K
8 b. Mg2ⴙ
3 c. Al3ⴙ
d. NH4ⴙ
7.76 Fill in the blanks to complete the following table of

chemical formulas for polyatomic-ion-containing ionic
a. elements 1 and 5 compounds. For each compound the positive ion
b. elements 2 and 8 present is listed on the left side of the table and the
c. elements 3 and 6 negative ion present is listed at the top. The first row
d. elements 7 and 4 of the table is already completed as an example.
7.70 Determine the chemical formulas for the ionic com- OHⴚ CNⴚ NO3ⴚ SO42ⴚ
pounds that form when each of the following pairs ⴙ
Na NaOH NaCN NaNO3 Na2SO4
of “highlighted” elements in the periodic table of
Problem 7.69 interact with each other. a. Ca 2ⴙ
a. elements 1 and 6 b. Liⴙ

b. elements 2 and 7 c. Ga3ⴙ
c. elements 3 and 8
d. NH4ⴙ
d. elements 5 and 4
POLYATOMIC-ION-CONTAINING IONIC LEWIS STRUCTURES FOR COVALENT COMPOUNDS

COMPOUNDS (SEC. 7.9) (SECS. 7.10–7.15)
7.71 Classify each of the following ions as a monoatomic 7.77 Show the formation of the following covalent mole-
ion, a polyatomic ion, or not an ion. cules, using Lewis structures.
a. CN - b. Ca2 + c. NH3 d. NH4+ a. I2 b. ClF c. H2 S d. PF3
7.72 Classify each of the following ions as a monoatomic 7.78 Show the formation of the following covalent mole-
ion, a polyatomic ion, or not an ion. cules, using Lewis structures.
a. OH - b. Mg2 + c. NO2 d. NO3- a. Br2 b. IF c. PCl3 d. CBr4
7.79 Write a Lewis structure for the simplest covalent com- 7.85 How many single covalent bonds, double covalent
pound most likely to be formed between each of bonds, and triple covalent bonds are present in each of
these pairs of elements. the molecules in Problem 7.83?
a. hydrogen and bromine 7.86 How many single covalent bonds, double covalent
b. oxygen and fluorine bonds, and triple covalent bonds are present in each of
c. nitrogen and chlorine the molecules in Problem 7.84?
d. silicon and iodine 7.87 Which of the following is a normally expected bond-
7.80 Write a Lewis structure for the simplest covalent coming pattern for the element shown?
pound most likely to be formed between each of
a. — O — b. N c. C d. O
these pairs of elements.
7.88 Which of the following is a normally expected bond-
a. hydrogen and iodine
ing pattern for the element shown?
b. nitrogen and bromine
c. phosphorus and chlorine a. — N
d. silicon and hydrogen b. O
7.81 Determine the chemical formulas for the molecular c. C
compounds most likely to form when each of the d. C
listed pairs of highlighted elements in the following 7.89 What is a coordinate covalent bond?
periodic table interact with each other. 7.90 Once formed, how (if at all) does a coordinate cova-
lent bond differ from a regular covalent bond?
1 7.91 Identify the coordinate covalent bond(s) present, if
2 3 4 5 any, in each of the following molecules by listing the
6 7 two atoms involved in the bond. Name the atom on
8 the left or below in the bond first.
a. N N— O b. H — O — F
c. O — Cl — O — H d. O — Br — O — H
—
O
a. elements 1 and 6 7.92 Identify the coordinate covalent bond(s) present, if
b. elements 2 and 8 any, in each of the following molecules by listing the
c. elements 3 and 7 two atoms involved in the bond. Name the atom on
d. elements 4 and 5 the left or below in the bond first.
7.82 Determine the chemical formulas for the molecular
compounds most likely to form when each of the a. S S— O b. H — O — Br
listed pairs of highlighted element in the periodic
table of Problem 7.81 interact with each other. c. O—I—O—H d. O Cl O H
a. elements 1 and 4
O
b. elements 2 and 7
c. elements 3 and 5 7.93 What are resonance structures?
d. elements 6 and 8 7.94 Explain why the Lewis structures H i C ‚ N ⬊ and
7.83 How many bonding electron pairs and nonbonding H i N ‚ C ⬊ are not resonance structures.
electron pairs are present in each of the following 7.95 The following is one of the three resonance structures
Lewis structures? that exist for the nitrate ion.
a. N N b. H C C H ⎤ — — ⎤−
H H ⎥O N O ⎥
⎥ ⎥
c. O C O d. N C — C N ⎦ O ⎦
7.84 How many bonding electron pairs and nonbonding Draw the other two resonance structures.
electron pairs are present in each of the following 7.96 The following is one of the three resonance structures
Lewis structures? that exist for the carbonate ion.
a. H C C H b. H P Cl
⎤ O— C 2−
H ⎥ O ⎤⎥
—
⎥ ⎥
c. O d. F—N N— F ⎦ O ⎦
H—C—H Draw the other two resonance structures.
SYSTEMATIC PROCEDURES FOR DRAWING LEWIS that specifies atomic arrangement, as explained in
STRUCTURES (SEC. 7.16) Problem 7.103.
a. Cl2CCH2 1C2H2Cl22 b. H3CCN 1C2H3N2
7.97 Without actually writing the Lewis structure, deter- c. HCCCH3 1C3H42 d. FNNF 1N2F22
mine the total number of valence electrons available 7.108 Using systematic procedures, write the Lewis structure
for use in drawing the Lewis structure of each of the for each of the following molecules, each of which
following molecules or polyatomic ions. contains at least one multiple bond. The formulas
a. HNO3 b. NCl3 c. NO3- d. SO4 2 - of the molecules are written in a way that specifies
7.98 Without actually writing the Lewis structure, deter- atomic arrangement, as explained in Problem 7.103.
mine the total number of valence electrons available a. H2 NCN 1CH2N22 b. Cl2CO
for use in drawing the Lewis structure of each of the c. ClCCCl 1C2Cl22 d. NCCN 1C2N22
following molecules or polyatomic ions. 7.109 Using systematic procedures, write the Lewis structure
a. H3PO4 b. PH3 c. PO4 3 - d. ClO3- for each of the following molecules or polyatomic
7.99 Without actually writing the Lewis structure, de- ions. Resonance structures will be needed in each
termine the total number of “dots” (electrons) that case. Some formulas are written in a way that specifies
should be present in the Lewis structure of each of atomic arrangements, as explained in Problem 7.103.
the molecules or polyatomic ions in Problem 7.97. a. H3 CNO2 b. NNO
7.100 Without actually writing the Lewis structure, de- c. CO32- d. SCN-
termine the total number of “dots” (electrons) 7.110 Using systematic procedures, write the Lewis structure
that should be present in the Lewis structure for each of the following molecules or polyatomic
of each of the molecules or polyatomic ions in ions. Resonance structures will be needed in each
Problem 7.98. case. Some formulas are written in a way that specifies
7.101 Without actually writing the Lewis structure, deter- atomic arrangements, as explained in Problem 7.103.
mine how many bonding and nonbonding electron a. HONO b. H2 NNO2
pairs are present in each of the following diatomic c. NO3 - d. OCN-
molecules or ions. 7.111 The Lewis structure for the polyatomic ion ClO4 n- is
a. HF b. CO c. Cl2 d. OH -
7.102 Without actually writing the Lewis structure, deter- ⎤ O ⎤ n−
⎥ ⎥
— —
mine how many bonding and nonbonding electron ⎥ ⎥
pairs are present in each of the following diatomic ⎥ O — Cl — O ⎥
molecules or ions. ⎥ ⎥
⎦ O ⎦
a. ClF b. HS - c. H2 d. CN -
7.103 Using systematic procedures, write the Lewis struc- What is the value of n, the magnitude of the ionic
ture for each of the following molecules. charge, in the formula ClO4n-?
a. H3 CCH3 1C2H62 b. H2NNH2 1N2H42 7.112 The Lewis structure for the polyatomic ion BeCl4 n- is
c. F2 CH2 1CH2F22 d. H3CCCl3 1C2H3Cl32
The above formulas are written in a form that speci- ⎤ Cl ⎤ n−
⎥ ⎥
— —
fies atomic arrangement. When an elemental symbol ⎥ Cl — Be — Cl ⎥

carries a subscript, these atoms are directly and sepa- ⎥ ⎥
rately bonded to the atom immediately following or ⎥ ⎥
⎦ Cl ⎦
immediately preceding the subscripted symbol.
7.104 Using systematic procedures, write the Lewis struc- What is the value of n, the magnitude of the ionic
ture for each of the following molecules. charge, in the formula BeCl4n-?
a. H2PPH2 1P2H42 b. H3 CCBr3 1C2H3Br32
c. F2CCl2 1CF2Cl22 d. H3SiSiH3 1Si2H62
MOLECULAR GEOMETRY (VSEPR THEORY)
The formulas are written in a way that specifies
(SEC. 7.17)
atomic arrangement, as explained in Problem 7.103.
7.105 Using systematic procedures, write the Lewis struc- 7.113 What is the molecular geometry that VSEPR theory
ture for each of the following polyatomic ions. predicts for a molecule whose sole central atom has
a. NH4 + b. BeH4 2- c. ClO3 - d. IO4 - the environment of
7.106 Using systematic procedures, write the Lewis struc- a. two single bonds and two nonbonding electron
ture for each of the following polyatomic ions. pairs?
a. BH4 - b. AlCl4 - c. PF4 + d. ClO2 - b. one single bond and one triple bond?
7.107 Using systematic procedures, write the Lewis struc- c. one single bond, one double bond, and one non-
ture for each of the following molecules, each of bonding electron pair?
which contains at least one multiple bond. The d. one double bond and two nonbonding electron
formulas of the molecules are written in a way pairs?
7.114 What is the molecular geometry that VSEPR theory 7.122 Using VSEPR theory, predict the geometry of the fol-
predicts for a molecule whose sole central atom has lowing molecules, which have more than one central
the environment of atom. The formulas are written in a way that speci-
a. four single bonds? fies atomic arrangements as explained in Problem
b. two double bond? 7.103.
c. three single bonds and one nonbonding electron a. H2 CCCl2 b. H3COCH3
pair?
d. one triple bond and one nonbonding electron
pair? ELECTRONEGATIVITY (SEC. 7.18)
7.115 Using VSEPR theory, predict the geometry of the fol-
lowing triatomic molecules or ions. 7.123 What general trends in electronegativity values occur
in the periodic table?
a. H S H b. I C N
7.124 If an element has a low electronegativity, is it
+
c. [O N O[ d. OO O likely to be a metal or a nonmetal? Explain your
answer.
7.116 Using VSEPR theory, predict the geometry of the fol-
7.125 Using only a periodic table, select the more electro-
lowing triatomic molecules or ions.
negative element in each of the following pairs of
a. N S F b. N N O elements.
− −
c. [ H N H [ d. [ S C N[ a. Be and O b. Be and Ca
c. H and C d. Cs and Ca
7.117 Using VSEPR theory, predict the geometry of the fol- 7.126 Using only a periodic table, select the more electro-
lowing sulfur-containing molecules or ions. negative element in each of the following pairs of
+
a. F — S— O b. [ S N S[ elements.
—
a. Mg and S b. Mg and Ca
F c. H and B d. Sb and Se
7.127 Using only a periodic table, select the element in
c. O— S O d. ⎤ O ⎤ 2−
⎥ ⎥ each of the following sets of four elements that has
⎥ ⎥ the highest electronegativity value.
⎥O S O⎥
a. N, P, As, Sb b. Li, Be, B, C
⎥ ⎥
⎦ S ⎦ c. B, Na, Al, Mg d. F, Cl, S, P
7.128 Using only a periodic table, select the element that
7.118 Using VSEPR theory, predict the geometry of the fol- has the lowest electronegativity value in each of the
lowing nitrogen-containing molecules or ions. sets of elements given in Problem 7.127.
⎤ ⎤– 7.129 Use the information in Figure 7.12 as a basis for an-
a. ⎥ O N O⎥ b. F— N — F
swering the following questions.
—
⎥ ⎥
⎦ O ⎦ F a. Which elements have electronegativity values
that exceed that of the element carbon?
− b. Which elements have electronegativity values of
c. ⎤ H ⎤
+ d. [ O — N O[
⎥ ⎥ less than 1.0?
⎥H N H⎥ c. What are the four most electronegative elements
⎥ ⎥ listed in Figure 7.12?
⎦ H ⎦
d. By what constant amount do the electronega-
7.119 Using VSEPR theory, predict the geometry of the fol- tivity values for sequential period 2 elements
lowing molecules or polyatomic ions. Some formulas differ?
are written in a way that specifies atomic arrange- 7.130 Use the information in Figure 7.12 as a basis for an-
ments as explained in Problem 7.103. swering the following questions.
a. AlCl4 - b. CS2 c. OSCl2 d. PO3 3- a. Which elements have electronegativity values
7.120 Using VSEPR theory, predict the geometry of the fol- that exceed that of the element sulfur?
lowing molecules or polyatomic ions. Some formulas b. What are the four least electronegative elements
are written in a way that specifies atomic arrange- listed in Figure 7.12?
ments as explained in Problem 7.103. c. Which three elements in Figure 7.12 have an
a. H3 CBr b. BeCl4 2- c. NO2 - d. Cl2 O electronegativity value of 2.5?
7.121 Using VSEPR theory, predict the geometry of the fol- d. Which period 2 element has an electronegativity
lowing molecules, which have more than one central value closest to that of hydrogen?
atom. The formulas are written in a way that specifies 7.131 Indicate whether each of the statements relating to
atomic arrangements as explained in Problem 7.103. electronegativity values of the “highlighted” elements
a. H2NNH2 b. H3COH in the following periodic table are true or false. Use
periodic table trends rather than actual electronega- 7.137 Based on the rules given in Section 7.19, classify the
tivity values in solving this problem. bond formed between oxygen and each of the fol-
lowing elements as nonpolar covalent, polar cova-
lent, or ionic.
1 4 5 6
a. hydrogen b. sulfur
2
c. lithium d. fluorine
3 7 8
7.138 Based on the rules given in Section 7.19, classify the
bond formed between nitrogen and each of the fol-
lowing elements as nonpolar covalent, polar cova-
lent, or ionic.
a. hydrogen b. phosphorus
a. Element 1 has a higher electronegativity value c. sodium d. chlorine
than element 2. 7.139 Fill in the blanks in each row of the following
b. Element 4 has a higher electronegativity value table that involves characteristics of various bonds
than element 5. between representative elements. The first row is
c. Element 3 has a higher electronegativity value already completed.
than element 8.
Atom with
d. Element 7 has a higher electronegativity value More Negative
than element 6. Bond Electronegative Partial Bond
7.132 Indicate whether each of the statements relating to Identity Atom Charge 1d -2 Type
electronegativity values of the “highlighted” elements polar
in the periodic table in Problem 7.131 are true or N—S N N covalent
false. Use periodic table trends rather than actual a. Se—S
electronegative values in solving this problem. b. O—S
a. Element 2 has a higher electronegativity value
c. Br—S
than element 4.
d. F—S
b. Element 5 has a higher electronegativity value
than element 6. 7.140 Fill in the blanks in each row of the following
c. Element 7 has a higher electronegativity value table that involves characteristics of various bonds
than element 8. between representative elements. The first row is
d. Element 3 has a higher electronegativity value already completed.
than element 1.
Atom with
More Negative
BOND POLARITY (SEC. 7.19) Bond Electronegative Partial Bond
Identity Atom Charge 1d -2 Type
7.133 Show the direction of polarity for each of the follow-
nonpolar
ing bonds using d + >d - notation.
H—C C C covalent
a. N i S b. N i Br c. N i O d. N i F
a. P—C
7.134 Show the direction of polarity for each of the follow-
b. O—C
ing bonds using d + >d - notation.
a. C i H b. C i O c. C i N d. C i P c. As—C
7.135 Identify the bond in the bond set d. F—C
P–O C–S H–Cl N–F
that has the 7.141 Indicate whether bonds with the following electro-
a. greatest polarity. negativity differences between atoms would be clas-
b. least ionic character. sified as ionic, polar covalent, or nonpolar covalent.
c. least covalent character. a. 0.3 b. 1.2 c. 1.9 d. 2.1
d. greatest partial positive charge 1d +2 on the less 7.142 Indicate whether bonds with the following electro-
electronegative element. negativity differences between atoms would be clas-
7.136 Identify the bond in the bond set sified as ionic, polar covalent, or nonpolar covalent.
S–P B–N C–F O–H a. 0.2 b. 0.9 c. 1.8 d. 2.2
that has the 7.143 Indicate whether bonds with the electronegativity
a. greatest polarity. differences given in Problem 7.141 would have more
b. least ionic character. ionic character or more covalent character.
c. least covalent character. 7.144 Indicate whether bonds with the electronegativity
d. greatest partial positive charge 1d +2 on the less differences given in Problem 7.142 would have more
electronegative element. ionic character or more covalent character.
MOLECULAR POLARITY (SEC. 7.20) 7.149 In which of the following pairs of molecules do
both members of the pair have the same polarity,
7.145 Indicate whether each of the following triatomic that is, both members are polar or both members are
molecules is polar or nonpolar. The molecular nonpolar?
geometry for each molecule is given in parentheses. a. F2 and BrF b. HOCl and HCN
a. CS2 (linear with C in the center position) c. CH4 and CCl4 d. SO3 and NF3
b. H2 Se (angular with Se in the center position) 7.150 In which of the following pairs of molecules do
c. FNO (angular with N in the center position) both members of the pair have the same polarity,
d. N2 S (linear with N in the center position) that is, both members are polar or both members are
7.146 Indicate whether each of the following triatomic nonpolar?
molecules is polar or nonpolar. The molecular a. HBr and HCl
geometry for each molecule is given in parentheses. b. CO2 and SO2
a. SCl2 (angular with S in the center position) c. SO2 and SO3
b. OF2 (angular with O in the center position) d. CH4 and CH3 Cl
c. SO2 (angular with S in the center position) 7.151 How many polar covalent bonds and how many
d. ClCN (linear with C in the center position) nonpolar covalent bonds are present in each of the
7.147 All of the following molecules have a tetrahedral following molecules?
geometry with carbon as the central atom. Classify a. CH4 b. H2O c. CO2 d. O3
each of the molecules as polar or nonpolar. 7.152 How many polar covalent bonds and how many
a. CCl4 b. CH3 Br c. CH2 F2 d. CBr4 nonpolar covalent bonds are present in each of the
7.148 All of the following molecules have a trigonal pyra- following molecules?
midal geometry with nitrogen as the central atom. a. CS2 b. NH3 c. SO3 d. O2
Classify each of the molecules as polar or nonpolar.
a. NF3 b. NF2 Cl c. NH2 Cl d. NCl3
numbered problems.
7.153 Write the electron configurations for the following 7.158 Indicate whether each of the following compounds
atoms and ions. is most likely to be an ionic compound or a molecu-
a. Mg and Mg2+ b. F and F- lar compound.
3-
c. N and N d. Ca2+ and S2- a. Cu2 O b. CO c. NaBr d. Be3 P2
7.154 Write the electron configurations for the following 7.159 Indicate whether the basic structural unit for each
atoms and ions. of the following compounds is a formula unit or a
a. Na and Na+ b. O and O2- molecule.
c. Al and Al 3+
d. K+ and Cl- a. CO2 b. NaCl c. Li2 O d. HOCl
7.155 Classify the members of each of the following pairs 7.160 Indicate whether the basic structural unit for each of the
of ions as (1) isoelectronic cations, (2) isoelectronic following compounds is a formula unit or a molecule.
anions, (3) nonisoelectronic cations, or (4) noniso- a. SO2 b. KF
electronic anions. c. Mg1OH22 d. BrCl
a. Li+ and Na+ b. F- and Br- 7.161 Indicate whether each of the following compounds
c. K+ and Ca2+ d. S2- and N3- contains ions with a charge of + 2.
7.156 Classify the members of each of the following pairs a. CaO b. MgF2
of ions as (1) isoelectronic cations, (2) isoelectronic c. Na2 S d. NO
anions, (3) nonisoelectronic cations, or (4) noniso- 7.162 Indicate whether each of the following compounds
electronic anions. contains ions with a charge of + 2.
a. S2- and Cl- b. Mg2+ and Ca2+ a. AlN b. MgS
3-
c. N and P 3-
d. Na+ and Be2+ c. KCl d. CaCl2
7.157 Indicate whether each of the following compounds 7.163 Identify the period 2 element that X represents in
is most likely to be an ionic compound or a molecu- each of the following ionic compounds.
lar compound. a. Na2 X b. Be3 X2
a. Al2 O3 b. H2O2 c. K2 S d. N2 H4 c. CaX d. MgX2
7.164 Identify the period 3 element that X represents in 7.173 In each of the following Lewis structures, X repre-
each of the following ionic compounds. sents a period 3 nonmetal. Identify the nonmetal in
a. Na3X b. BeX each case.
c. CaX2 d. Mg3 X2 ⎤ ⎤−
a. O b. ⎥ O — X ⎥
7.165 A student incorrectly says that the compound N2O3 is
—
—
⎥ ⎥
an ionic compound that contains N3 - ions and O2 - H— O—X— O ⎦ O⎦
ions. Explain why this interpretation of the chemical
7.174 In each of the following Lewis structures, X repre-
formula N2O3 is incorrect.
sents a period 3 nonmetal. Identify the nonmetal in
7.166 A student incorrectly says that the compound OF2 is
each case.
an ionic compound that contains O2 - ions and F -
ions. Explain why this interpretation of the chemical a. O b. H O X
formula OF2 is incorrect.
Cl — X — Cl
7.167 Specify the reason each of the following electron-
dot structures is incorrect, using the choices (1) not 7.175 Give a Lewis structure description of the bonding in
enough electron dots, (2) too many electron dots, or each of the following compounds that takes into ac-
(3) improper placement of a correct number of elec- count the presence of both ionic and covalent bond-
tron dots. ing in each compound.
a. N N b. F O F a. CaSO4
b. NH4 NO3
−
c. Br Cl d. H O 7.176 Give a Lewis structure description of the bonding in
7.168 Specify the reason each of the following electron- each of the following compounds that takes into ac-
dot structures is incorrect, using the choices (1) not count the presence of both ionic and covalent bond-
enough electron dots, (2) too many electron dots, or ing in each compound.
(3) improper placement of a correct number of elec- a. NaOH
tron dots. b. NH4 CN
a. O O b. H O Cl 7.177 For the indicated atom in each of the following mol-
− ecules or polyatomic ions, give the number of and
c. H O OH d. ⎤⎥O N O ⎤⎥ arrangement of the electron groups about each of
⎥ O ⎥
⎦ ⎦ the indicated atoms.
a. S in SO24 - b. S in HS -
7.169 Four hypothetical elements, A, B, C, and D, have
c. S in H2S d. S in SO2
electronegativities A = 3.8, B = 3.3, C = 2.8, and
7.178 For the indicated atom in each of the following mol-
D = 1.3. These elements form the compounds
ecules or polyatomic ions, give the number of and
BA, DA, DB, and CA. Arrange the compounds in
arrangement of the electron groups about each of
order of
the indicated atoms.
a. increasing ionic bond character.
a. N in NO3-
b. decreasing covalent bond character.
b. N in NH4+
7.170 Four hypothetical elements, A, B, C, and D, have
c. N in NH3
electronegativities A = 3.6, B = 3.0, C = 2.7, and
d. N in CN -
D = 0.9. These elements form the compounds CA,
7.179 Give an approximate value for the indicated bond
CB, DA, and DC. Arrange the compounds in order of
angle in each of the following molecules.
a. increasing ionic bond character.
b. decreasing covalent bond character. a. H — O — H b. Cl — C C — Cl
—
—
7.171 In which of the following pairs of diatomic species

do both members of the pair have bonds of the same H H
multiplicity (single, double, triple)? 7.180 Give an approximate value for the indicated bond
a. BrCl and ClF b. F2 and N2 angle in each of the following molecules.
c. NO+ and NO- d. CN- and SN-
7.172 In which of the following pairs of diatomic species a. H— N— H b. H
— —
—
do both members of the pair have bonds of the same

H H— C — O — H
multiplicity (single, double, triple)?
a. HCl and HF b. S2 and Cl2 H
c. CO and NO+ d. OH- and HS-

MC 7.1 For which of the following elements is the listed MC 7.7 In which of the following pairs of ionic compounds
number of valence electrons correct? do both members of the pair contain positive ions with a +1
a. Mg (two valence electrons) charge?
b. N (three valence electrons) a. CaS and MgO
c. F (one valence electron) b. Na3N and Li2S
d. more than one correct response c. AlCl3 and BaCl2
MC 7.2 Which of the following elements would have a e. no correct response
Lewis symbol that contains five dots? MC 7.8 The mechanism for ionic bond formation always
a. 5B involves the transferring of
b. 7N a. electrons from nonmetallic atoms to metallic
c. 15P atoms.
d. more than one correct response b. protons from the nucleus of metallic atoms to the
e. no correct response nucleus of nonmetallic atoms.
MC 7.3 Which of the following is an incorrect statement c. sufficient electrons to produce ions of equal but
about the number of electrons lost or gained by a represen- opposite charge.
tative element during ion formation? d. more than one correct response
a. The number does not usually exceed three electrons. e. no correct response
b. The number is related to the position of the ele- MC 7.9 In which of the following pairs of ions are the two
ment in the periodic table. members of the pair isoelectronic?
c. The number is always the same as the number of a. F- and Cl-
valence electrons present. b. Na+ and Ca2+
d. more than one correct response c. Al3+ and O2-
MC 7.4 Which of the following elements would be ex- e. no correct response
pected to form a monoatomic ion with a charge of 3- ? MC 7.10 The structure of an ionic compound, in the solid
a. 13Al state, involves
b. 15P a. individual molecules in which positive and nega-
c. 20Ca tive ions are present.
d. more than one correct response b. individual formula units in which positive and
e. no correct response negative ions are present.
MC 7.5 The atomic number of F is 9. How many protons c. a highly ordered three-dimensional array of posi-
and electrons are present in a F - ion? tive and negative ions.
a. 9 protons and 9 electrons d. a highly random array of positive and negative
b. 10 protons and 9 electrons ions.
c. 9 protons and 10 electrons e. no correct response
d. 10 protons and 10 electrons MC 7.11 In which of the following pairs of compounds are
e. no correct response both members of the pair molecular compounds?
MC 7.6 In which of the following ion pairings is the chemi- a. PCl3 and LiBr
cal formula given not consistent with the ionic charges? b. CCl4 and KOH
a. M2+ and X3-, chemical formula M3X2 c. CO2 and NH3
b. M2+ and X-, chemical formula MX2 d. more than one correct response
c. M+ and X3-, chemical formula MX3 e. no correct response
MC 7.12 Eighteen electrons are present in the Lewis struc- MC 7.17 Which of the following sets of elements is ar-
ture of which of the following molecules? ranged in order of increasing electronegativity?
a. CO2 a. Cl, S, P, Si
b. N2O b. B, O, H, F
c. SO2 c. F, Cl, Br, I
MC 7.13 Which of the following statements concerning MC 7.18 When the electronegativity difference between
Lewis structures is correct? two atoms in a bond is 0.9 the bond is classified as
a. The Lewis structure for N2 contains six nonbond- a. a nonpolar covalent bond.
ing electrons. b. a polar covalent bond.
b. The Lewis structure for CH4 contains eight bond- c. a coordinate covalent bond.
ing electrons. d. an ionic bond.
c. The Lewis structure for HCN contains a triple bond. e. no correct response
d. more than one correct response MC 7.19 Which of the following molecules would be clas-
e. no correct response sified as a polar molecule?
MC 7.14 Which of the following is a possible bonding be- a. linear CO2 molecule
havior for an element that has four valence electrons? b. linear HCN molecule
a. formation of four single bonds c. angular H2O molecule
b. formation of two double bonds d. more than one correct response
c. formation of one single bond and one triple e. no correct response
bond MC 7.20 Both ionic and covalent bonding are present in
d. more than one correct response which of the following chemical species?
e. no correct response a. SO24 -
MC 7.15 An angular geometry is associated with molecules b. H2SO4
in which the central atom has which of the following? c. Na2SO4
a. three bonding groups and one nonbonding d. more than one correct response
group e. no correct response
b. two bonding groups and one nonbonding group
c. two bonding groups and two nonbonding groups
MC 7.16 In which of the following pairs of molecules do MC 7.1 a MC 7.8 e MC 7.15 d
both members of the pair have the same molecular geometry? MC 7.2 d MC 7.9 c MC 7.16 c
a. SO2 and CO2 MC 7.3 c MC 7.10 c MC 7.17 e
b. H2S and HCN MC 7.4 b MC 7.11 c MC 7.18 b
c. H2O and OF2 MC 7.5 c MC 7.12 c MC 7.19 d
d. more than one correct response MC 7.6 c MC 7.13 d MC 7.20 c
e. no correct response MC 7.7 b MC 7.14 d
C H A P T E R
8
Chemical Nomenclature
8.1 Classification of Compounds for Nomenclature Purposes

8.2 Types of Binary Ionic Compounds
8.3 Nomenclature for Binary Ionic Compounds
8.4 Chemical Formulas for Polyatomic Ions
8.5 Nomenclature for Ionic Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions
8.6 Nomenclature for Binary Molecular Compounds
8.7 Nomenclature for Acids
8.8 Systematic Procedures for Using Nomenclature Rules
8.1 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOUNDS FOR NOMENCLATURE

PURPOSES
Student Learning Focus: Be able to classify compounds as ionic or molecular for nomenclature
purposes.
Just as it is important to be able to write formulas for compounds, it is also important

to be able to name compounds. When a chemist gives a description of a chemical com-
pound, almost invariably he or she will use the compound’s name and/or formula early
in the description process.
Chemical nomenclature is the system of names used to distinguish compounds
from each other and the rules needed to devise these names. In the early history of chem-
istry, there was no system for naming compounds. Early names included quicksilver,
blue vitriol, Glauber’s salt, gypsum, sal ammoniac, and laughing gas. As chemistry grew,
it became clear that the anything-goes system was not acceptable. Without a system for
naming compounds, coping with the multitude of known substances would be a hope-
less task.
A systematic set of rules for naming compounds is available for use by scientists.
These rules, known as IUPAC rules, have been formulated by the nomenclature commit-
tees of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). The committees
291
292 Chapter 8 • Chemical Nomenclature
of this international scientific organization meet periodically to revise and update the
nomenclature rules to accommodate any newly discovered types of compounds.
IUPAC rules are based on the premise that a compound’s name should convey
information about the composition of the compound. The majority of the nomenclature
considered in this chapter will be based on IUPAC rules.
Unsystematic names (common names) also exist for some compounds. A few such
names will also be considered in this chapter since these common names are used more
frequently than IUPAC names. The compound H2O always goes by the name water (its
common name) and not by hydrogen oxide (its IUPAC name).
Distinguishing between ionic compounds and molecular compounds (Secs. 5.2 and 7.1)
is an important key to becoming successful at chemical nomenclature. The rules for naming
ionic compounds differ from those for naming molecular compounds. Hence, the initial step in
chemical nomenclature is classifying a compound as ionic or molecular.
Although there is no sharp dividing line between ionic and covalent bonds
(Sec. 7.19) and thus between ionic and molecular compounds, we will create such a line
for nomenclature purposes with the following simple generalizations:
1. Compounds resulting from the combination of a metal and one or more nonmetals
are considered ionic.
2. Compounds resulting from combinations of a nonmetal with other nonmetals are
considered molecular.
An important exception to the generalization that compounds containing only non-
metals are molecular compounds is compounds in which a positively charged polyatomic
ion is present. In such compounds, the positively charged polyatomic ion (a combination
of nonmetals) is considered to have replaced the positively charged metallic ion ordinarily
present in an ionic compound and to be functioning as a metal.
The most commonly encountered positive polyatomic ion is the ammonium ion
1NH4 + 2. Examples of compounds containing this ion are NH4Cl, 1NH4 22S, NH4CN, and
1NH4 22SO4. Note that, in all cases, no metal atoms are present even though all of these
compounds are ionic.
Metalloid elements (Sec. 6.12) are considered to be nonmetals for purposes of no-
menclature. Thus, a compound resulting from the combination of a metalloid and a non-
metal is named as a molecular compound. A compound resulting from the combination
of a metal and metalloid is named as an ionic compound.
EXAMPLE 8.1 Classifying Compounds for Nomenclature Purposes
Classify each of the following compounds as ionic or molecular for nomenclature

purposes.
a. Al2S3 b. NO2 c. KF d. NH4Br
SOLUTION
a. ionic: a metal (Al) and a nonmetal (S) are present
b. molecular: two nonmetals are present
c. ionic: a metal (K) and a nonmetal (F) are present
d. ionic: the polyatomic NH4 + ion and the monoatomic Br - ion are present
8.2 TYPES OF BINARY IONIC COMPOUNDS

Student Learning Focus: Be able to classify binary ionic compounds as fixed-charge or variable-
charge based on the identity of the metal present.
Chapter 8 • Chemical Nomenclature 293
The term binary means “two.” A binary compound is a compound in which only two
elements are present. The compounds NaCl, CO2, NH3, and P4O10 are all binary com-
pounds. Any number of atoms of the two elements may be present in a molecule or
formula unit of a binary compound, but only two elements may be present. A binary
ionic compound is an ionic compound in which one element present is a metal and the
other element present is a nonmetal. The metal is always present as the positive ion, and
the nonmetal is always present as the negative ion. The joint presence of a metal and a
nonmetal in a binary compound is the “recognition key” that the compound is a binary
ionic compound. A consideration of nomenclature rules for binary ionic compounds will
be our entry point into the realm of chemical nomenclature.
Binary ionic compounds, which are the simplest type of ionic compound, may be
divided into two categories based on the identity of the metal ion that is present:
1. Fixed-charge binary ionic compounds contain a metal that can form only one type
of positive ion.
2. Variable-charge binary ionic compounds contain a metal that can form more than
one type of positive ion.
In general, all metals lose electrons when forming ions. Fixed-charge metals always
exhibit the same behavior in ion formation; that is, they always lose the same number of
electrons. A fixed-charge metal is a metal that forms only one type of positive ion, which
always has the same charge magnitude.
Variable-charge metals do not always lose the same number of electrons upon ion All the inner transition
formation. For example, the variable-charge metal iron sometimes forms an Fe2 + ion and metals (f area of the
at other times an Fe3 + ion. A variable-charge metal is a metal that forms more than one periodic table), most
of the transition
type of positive ion, with the ion types differing in charge magnitude. metals (d area),
Which metals are fixed-charge metals and which metals are variable-charge met- and a few representative
als? This information is a prerequisite for naming binary ionic compounds. Fixed-charge metals (p area) exhibit
binary ionic compounds are named in one way, and variable-charge binary ionic com- variable-charge behavior
(see Fig. 8.1).
pounds are named in a slightly different way.
A limited number of fixed-charge metals exist. If these are learned, then all other
metals will be variable-charge metals. The fixed-charge metals are the group IA and IIA
metals plus Al, Ga, Zn, Cd, and Ag. Figure 8.1 shows the periodic table positions for these
15 fixed-charge metals. The charge magnitude for these metals can be related to their
position in the periodic table. Looking at Figure 8.1, we see that all group IA elements
form +1 ions. The charges for ions of elements in groups IIA and IIIA are +2 and +3,
respectively. Group numbers and charge also directly correlate for Zn, Cd, and Ag, the
other fixed-charge metallic ions. The reason for this charge–periodic table correlation, the
octet rule, was considered in Section 7.3.
The vast majority of metals, all except the 15 fixed-charge metals, are variable-
charge metals. Charge magnitude for ions of such metals cannot be easily related
IA FIGURE 8.1 Periodic

IIA IIIA table showing the
Li+ Be2+
fixed-charge metallic
ions. For these metals,
Na+ Mg2+ IB IIB Al
3+
ionic charge correlates
K+ Ca2+ Zn2+ Ga3+ with periodic table
group number.
Rb+ Sr2+ Ag+ Cd2+
Cs+ Ba2+
TABLE 8.1 Ionic Charges Associated with Ions of the

More Common Variable-Charge Metals
Element Ions Formed

Chromium Cr2 + and Cr3 +
Cobalt Co2 + and Co3 +
Copper Cu + and Cu2 +
Gold Au + and Au3 +
Iron Fe2 + and Fe3 +
Lead Pb2 + and Pb4 +
Manganese Mn2 + and Mn3 +
Tin Sn2 + and Sn4 +
to periodic table position. (The presence of d or f electrons in most of these metals com-
plicates octet rule considerations in a manner beyond what we consider in this book.)
Table 8.1 gives the charges for selected commonly encountered variable-charge metal
ions. Note that the charges of +2 and +3 are a common combination. However, there are
also other combinations: Two +2 and +4 pairings (Pb and Sn), a +1 and +2 pairing (Cu),
and a +1 and +3 pairing (Au) are listed in Table 8.1.
8.3 NOMENCLATURE FOR BINARY IONIC COMPOUNDS

Student Learning Focus: Be familiar with when a Roman numeral is or is not used in the name of
a binary ionic compound. Be able to name a binary ionic compound given its chemical formula or
vice versa.
The names of binary ionic compounds are based on the names of the ions of which they
are composed. Ion names are obtained as follows.
A fixed-charge metal 1. Fixed-charge metal ions take the full name of the element plus the word “ion.”
ion has the same
name as its parent Na + sodium ion
element.
Ca2 + calcium ion
Al3 + aluminum ion
2. Variable-charge metal ions take the full name of the element followed by a Roman
numeral (in parentheses) that gives the ionic charge plus the word “ion.”
Fe2 + iron1II2 ion

Fe3 + iron1III2 ion
Cu2 + copper1II2 ion
3. Nonmetal ions take the stem of the name of the element followed by the suffix -ide
plus the word “ion.”
Cl - chloride ion
S2 - sulfide ion
2-
O oxide ion
TABLE 8.2 Names for the More Common Nonmetal Ions
Element Stem Name of Ion Formula

Bromine brom- bromide ion Br -
Carbon carb- carbide ion C4 -
Chlorine chlor- chloride ion Cl -
Fluorine fluor- fluoride ion F-
Hydrogen hydr- hydride ion H-
Iodine iod- iodide ion I-
Nitrogen nitr- nitride ion N3 -
Oxygen ox- oxide ion O2 -
Phosphorus phosph- phosphide ion P3 -
Sulfur sulf- sulfide ion S2 -
The stem of the name of the nonmetal is always the first few letters of the nonmetal’s
name, that is, the name of the nonmetal with its ending chopped off. Table 8.2 gives the
stem part of the name for the more common nonmetallic ions.
Fixed-Charge Binary Ionic Compounds

Names for fixed-charge binary ionic compounds are assigned using the following rule: Fixed-charge binary ionic
compounds contain a
The full name of the metallic element is given first, followed by a separate word consisting metal that can form only
of the stem of the nonmetallic element name and the suffix -ide. one type of cation.
Thus, to name the compound NaF, we start with the name of the metal (sodium), follow
it with the stem of the name of the nonmetal (fluor-), and then add the suffix -ide. The
name becomes sodium fluoride.
The name of the metal ion present is always exactly the same as the name
of the metal itself. The metal’s name is never shortened as are nonmetal names.
Example 8.2 illustrates further the use of the preceding rule in naming fixed-charge bi-
nary ionic compounds.
EXAMPLE 8.2 Naming Fixed-Charge Binary Ionic Compounds, Given Their

Chemical Formulas
Name the following fixed-charge binary ionic compounds given their chemical formulas.
a. KCl b. MgF2 c. Na2O d. Be3N2
SOLUTION
The general pattern for naming compounds of this type is
First word: name of metal
Second word: stem of name of nonmetal + @ide
a. The metal is potassium, and the nonmetal is chlorine. Thus, the compound’s name
is potassium chloride (the stem of the nonmetal name is underlined).
b. The metal is magnesium, and the nonmetal is fluorine. Hence, the name is
magnesium fluoride. Note that no mention is made of the subscript 2 found after the
symbol for fluorine in the formula. The name of an ionic compound never contains
any reference to formula subscript numbers. Since magnesium is a fixed-charge
metal, there is only one ratio in which magnesium and fluorine may combine.
Thus, just telling the names of the elements present in the compound is adequate
nomenclature.
c. Sodium (Na) and oxygen (O) are present in the compound. Its name is sodium
oxide.
d. This compound is named beryllium nitride.
Answer Double Check: Is there consistency in the manner in which the compound
names have been written? Yes. All of the names contain two separate words; the first
word is the name of the metal, and the second word contains the stem of the name of the
nonmetal followed by the suffix -ide.
A major consideration in formulating rules for naming compounds is that the name
given a compound contain sufficient information that the chemical formula of the com-
pound can be derived from the name. Example 8.3 considers this reverse process of
going from compound name to chemical formula of the compound.
EXAMPLE 8.3 Writing Chemical Formulas for Fixed-Charge Binary Ionic

Compounds, Given Their Names
Write the chemical formulas for the following fixed-charge binary ionic compounds, given
their names.
a. magnesium oxide b. sodium sulfide

c. aluminum chloride d. lithium nitride
SOLUTION
a. The name magnesium oxide conveys the message that the metal magnesium is
present as a positive ion, and the nonmetal oxygen in present as a negative
ion. Magnesium is in group IIA of the periodic table and thus forms a +2 ion
(Section 7.5). Oxygen is in group VIA of the periodic table and thus forms a –2
ion (Section 7.5). Combining the two ions, Mg2+ and O2 - , in a one-to-one ratio,
the ratio that causes overall charge to add to zero (Section 7.7), gives the chemi-
cal formula MgO.
b. Sodium, a group IA element, forms an Na+ ion. Sulfur, a group VIA element, forms
an S2 - ion. The combining ratio for the ions is two-to-one (Section 7.7) giving the
chemical formula Na2S.
c. The metallic ion is Al3+ since aluminum is a group IIIA element. The nonmetallic
ion is Cl - since chlorine is a group VIIA element. Three Cl - ions are needed
to counterbalance the charge on one Al3+ ion. The chemical formula is, thus,
AlCl3 .
d. The chemical formula resulting from the combination of Li+ ions (group IA) and
N3 - ions (group VA) is Li3N.
Answer Double Check: Is there consistency in the manner in which all of the chemical
formulas have been written? Yes. In each case the positive ion has been written first in the
formula as it should be.
Variable-Charge Binary Ionic Compounds

Names for variable-charge binary ionic compounds are assigned using the following Variable-charge binary
rule: ionic compounds contain
a metal that can form
The full name of the metallic element with a Roman numeral appended to it is given
more than one type
first, followed by a separate word consisting of the stem of the nonmetallic element name of ion.
and the suffix -ide.
Two different iron chlorides are known: One contains Fe2 + ions 1FeCl22, and the The positive ion name
other contains Fe3 + ions 1FeCl32. The names of these two chlorides are, respectively, precedes the negative ion
name in the names of all
iron(II) chloride and iron(III) chloride. Without the use of Roman numerals (or some binary ionic compounds
equivalent system), these two compounds would have the same name (iron chloride), an (both fixed-charge and
unacceptable situation. variable-charge).
In naming variable-charge binary ionic compounds, the Roman numeral to be used
in the name is the metal ion charge, which can be calculated using the charge on the
nonmetal ion and the principle of charge neutrality. The charge neutrality principle is that
the total positive charge and the total negative charge must add to zero (Sec. 7.7). The
calculation of metal ion charge (Roman numeral) using this technique, as well as the use
of Roman numerals in the names of variable-charge binary ionic compounds, is illustrated
in Example 8.4. As you work through Example 8.4, be sure to note that Roman numerals
are never a part of the formula of a variable-charge binary ionic compound but always a
part of the name of a variable-charge binary ionic compound.
EXAMPLE 8.4 Naming Variable-Charge Binary Ionic Compounds, Given

Their Chemical Formulas
Name the following variable-charge binary ionic compounds given their chemical
formulas.
a. CuO b. Cu2O c. Mn2S3 d. AuCl3
SOLUTION
The general pattern for naming compounds of this type is
First word: name of metal + Roman numeral
Second word: stem of name of nonmetal + @ide
a. The metal ion charge in this compound, a quantity needed to determine the
Roman numeral to be used in the name, is easily calculated using the following
procedure.
copper charge + oxygen charge = 0
The oxide ion has a –2 charge (Sec. 7.5). Therefore,
copper charge + 1-22 = 0
Solving, we get
copper charge = +2
Therefore, the copper ions present are Cu2 + , and the name of the compound is
copper1II2 oxide.
b. For charge balance in this compound we have the equation
21copper charge2 + oxygen charge = 0
Note that we have to take into account the number of copper ions present, two in
this case. The oxide ion carries a –2 charge (Sec. 7.5). Therefore,
21copper charge2 + 1-22 = 0

21copper charge2 = +2
copper charge = +1
Here we note that we are interested in the charge on a single copper ion 1+12
The names copper(II) and not in the total positive charge present 1+22. Since Cu + ions are present, the
oxide and copper(I)
oxide are pronounced
compound is named copper1I2 oxide. As is the case for all ionic compounds, the
“copper-two oxide” and name does not contain any reference to the numerical subscripts in the compound’s
“copper-one oxide.” formula.
c. The charge balance equation is
21manganese charge2 + 31sulfur charge2 = 0
Substituting a charge of –2 into the equation for sulfur (Sec. 7.5), we get
21manganese2 + 31-22 = 0
21manganese2 = +6
manganese = +3
The compound is thus named manganese(III) sulfide.

d. This compound is gold(III) chloride. Chloride ions carry a -1 charge (Sec. 7.5).
Since the compound contains three chloride ions (-3 total charge), the single gold
ion must bear a +3 charge to counterbalance the -3 charge of the chlorides. Hence,
Au3 + ions are present.
Answer Double Check: Is there consistency in the manner in which the compound
names have been written? Yes. In each case the first word in the name, the name of
the metal, has a Roman numeral appended to the metal name. The Roman numeral is
needed, as all metals are variable-charge metals, and the Roman numeral specifies the
charge on the metal ion.
As was done when discussing nomenclature for fixed-charge binary ionic com-
pounds, the reversal of the naming process, going from name to chemical formula is now
considered. Here the reversed process is easier than in the previous consideration. The
charge on the metal ion is obtained directly from the Roman numeral present in the name
rather than from periodic table considerations. (The periodic table cannot be used to ob-
tain the charge on the metal ion; that is why the Roman numeral is needed.) Example 8.5
illustrates this new situation.
EXAMPLE 8.5 Writing Chemical Formulas for Variable-Charge Binary Ionic

Write the chemical formulas for the following variable-charge binary ionic compounds,
given their names.
a. nickel(II) chloride b. nickel(III) chloride

c. chromium(III) oxide d. chromium(II) oxide
SOLUTION
a. The nickel ion present is Ni2 + ; the Roman numeral (II) gives the message that the
nickel ion has a +2 charge. Periodic table location, group VIIA, is used to derive the
charge on the chloride ion 1Cl - 2. Combining the ions in the ratio that causes
the charges to add to zero gives the chemical formula NiCl2.
b. The only difference between this situation and part (a) is that nickel is present as the
Ni3 + ion. The chemical formula is, thus, NiCl3.
c. The ions present are Cr3 + (Roman numeral III) and O2 - (group VIA element). The
chemical formula for the compound is Cr2O3 (six units of positive charge and six
units of negative charge).
d. The ions present are Cr2 + (Roman numeral II) and O2 - (group VIA element).
Combining the ions in a one-to-one ratio gives the chemical formula CrO.
An older method exists, which still sees some use, for indicating the charge on
variable-charge metal ions. It uses suffixes rather than Roman numerals. This suffix
system is often encountered on the labels of bottles of chemicals (see Fig. 8.2). When a
metal has two common ionic charges, the suffix -ous is used for the ion of lower charge
and the suffix -ic for the ion of higher charge. Table 8.3 compares the Roman numeral
system and the suffix system for the metals, where the suffix system is most often en-
countered. Note, from this table, that in the suffix system the Latin names for metals are
used (Sec. 4.9).
The -ic, -ous system for denoting metal ion charge has several limitations. First,
the actual charge on the metal ions is not specified by the -ic and -ous suffixes; all that
is specified is which is the higher charge and which is the lower charge. The -ic, -ous
system is not useful when a metal can form ions with three or more different positive
FIGURE 8.2 An older method of naming ionic

compounds containing a variable-charge metal
is still used on the labels of many laboratory
chemicals. (Fisher Scientific)
TABLE 8.3 Comparison of Roman Numeral and Suffix

System Names for Selected Metal Ions
Element Ions Preferred Name Old System Name

Copper Cu + copper(I) ion cuprous ion
2+ copper(II) ion cupric ion
Cu
Iron Fe2 + iron(II) ion ferrous ion
Fe3 + iron(III) ion ferric ion
Tin 2+ tin(II) ion stannous ion
Sn
4+ tin(IV) ion stannic ion
Sn
Lead 2+ lead(II) ion plumbous ion
Pb
Pb4 + lead(IV) ion plumbic ion
Gold Au + gold(I) ion aurous ion
Au3 + gold(III) ion auric ion
charges; such is the case for the metal manganese (Mn2 + , Mn3 + , and Mn4 + ). In such a
case the suffix system is ambiguous and is not used.
EXAMPLE 8.6 Naming Variable-Charge Binary Ionic Compounds Using the

-ic, -ous System for Denoting Metal Ion Charge
Two systems exist for indicating the charge on the metal ion present in variable-charge
binary ionic compounds: (1) a system that uses Roman numerals and (2) a system that
uses the suffixes -ic and -ous. Change the following compound names from one system
to the other system.
a. iron(III) chloride b. copper(I) fluoride
c. stannic bromide d. plumbous fluoride
A mnemonic device SOLUTION
for remembering the
relationship between -ic
The information found in Table 8.3 is needed to bring about the desired name
and -ous and higher and changes.
lower ion charge is that
there is an o in -ous and
a. The given name indicates that Fe3 + ion is present. The alternative name for Fe3 +
lower, and an i in -ic and ion, from Table 8.3, is ferric ion. The name iron(III) chloride thus becomes ferric
higher. chloride.
b. The alternative name for the copper(I) ion, Cu + , is cuprous ion. Therefore, copper(I)
fluoride becomes cuprous fluoride.
c. The stannic ion, from Table 8.3, is Sn4 + ion; the alternative name for this ion is
tin(IV). Therefore, the changed (and preferred) name for this compound is tin(IV)
bromide.
d. Since the plumbous ion and Pb2 + ion are equivalent (Table 8.3), the names plum-
bous fluoride and lead(II) fluoride are equivalent.
The overall strategy for naming binary ionic compounds, as discussed in this sec-
tion, is summarized in the “nomenclature decision tree” of Figure 8.3.
FIGURE 8.3 A
Does the compound
nomenclature decision
contain a metal and
tree for naming binary
a nonmetal?
ionic compounds.
No Yes
Not a binary Binary ionic

ionic compound compound
Is the metal present a fixed-

charge or variable-charge metal?
Fixed Variable
charge charge
Full metal name Full metal name

Stem of nonmetal name Roman numeral
Suffix -ide Stem of nonmetal name
Suffix -ide
8.4 CHEMICAL FORMULAS FOR POLYATOMIC IONS

Student Learning Focus: Be familiar with the names and chemical formulas of commonly occurring
polyatomic ions.
In Section 7.9 the topic of polyatomic ions was considered, and at that time a limited
number of such ions were introduced in the context of formula writing. We now consider
some additional facts about polyatomic ions.
Hundreds of different polyatomic ions exist. Table 8.4 gives the names and formu-
las for the most common ones. Note that almost all the polyatomic ions listed in Table 8.4
contain oxygen atoms. The names, but not necessarily the formulas, of some of these com-
mon polyatomic ions should be familiar to you. Many of these ions are found in commercial
products. Examples are fertilizers (phosphates, sulfates, nitrates), baking soda and baking
powder (bicarbonates), and building materials (carbonates, sulfates).
There is no easy way to learn the formulas and names for all the common polyatomic
ions. Memorization is required. The charges and formulas for the various polyatomic ions
cannot be related easily to the periodic table as was the case for many of the monoatomic
ions. In Table 8.4 the most frequently encountered polyatomic ions are in color. Their
formulas and names should definitely be memorized. Your instructor may want you to
memorize others, too. The inability to recognize the presence of polyatomic ions (both
by name and by formula) in a compound is a major stumbling block for many chemistry
students. It requires some effort to overcome this obstacle.
The following interrelationships among polyatomic ion names and formulas should
be helpful as you become more familiar with the information in Table 8.4:
1. Most of the ions have a negative charge, which can vary from –1 to –3. Only two
positive ions are listed in the table: NH4 + (ammonium) and H3O + (hydronium).
2. Four of the polyatomic ions have names ending in -ide: OH - (hydroxide), CN -
(cyanide), N3 - (azide), and O2 2 - (peroxide). These names represent exceptions to the
rule that the suffix -ide be reserved for use in naming monoatomic ions.
TABLE 8.4 Formulas and Names of Some Common Polyatomic Ions
Key Element Present Formula Name of Ion

-
Nitrogen NO3 nitrate ion
NO2 - nitrite ion
+ ammonium ion
NH4
N3 - azide ion
Sulfur 2- sulfate ion
SO4
-
HSO4 hydrogen sulfate ion (bisulfate ion)**
2- sulfite ion
SO3
-
HSO3 hydrogen sulfite ion (bisulfite ion)**
2- thiosulfate ion
S2O3
Phosphorus 3- phosphate ion
PO4
HPO42 - hydrogen phosphate ion
-
Polyatomic-ion-containing H2PO4 dihydrogen phosphate ion
compounds found in the 3- phosphite ion
PO3
home:
Carbon 2- carbonate ion
NaHCO3 Baking soda CO3
-
MgSO4 Epsom salt HCO3 hydrogen carbonate ion (bicarbonate ion)**
Na3PO4 Cleaning agent 2-
C2O 4 oxalate ion
Al1OH23 Antacid
NaOH Drain cleaner C2H3O2- acetate ion
MgCO3 Plaster of Paris -
CN cyanide ion
NaClO Clorox
CaCO3 Chalk OCN - cyanate ion
-
SCN thiocyanate ion
Chlorine ClO4 - perchlorate ion
-
ClO3 chlorate ion
-
ClO2 chlorite ion
-
ClO hypochlorite ion
Oxygen 2- peroxide ion
O2
Boron BO33 - borate ion
Hydrogen + hydronium ion*
H3O
-
OH hydroxide ion
Metals MnO4 - permanganate ion
2- chromate ion
CrO4
2- dichromate ion
Cr2O7
*This ion is encountered only in aqueous solutions.
**These alternate names are often encountered.
3. A number of -ate, -ite pairs of ions exist, for example, SO4 2 - (sulfate) and SO32 -
(sulfite). The ion in the pair with the higher number of oxygens is always the -ate
The prefix bi- in ion. The -ite ion always contains one less oxygen than the -ate ion.
polyatomic ion names 4. A number of pairs of ions exist where one member of the pair differs from the other
means hydrogen rather by having a hydrogen atom present, for example, CO32 - (carbonate) and HCO3 -
than the number two.
(hydrogen carbonate or bicarbonate). In such pairs, the charge on the hydrogen-
containing ion is always one less than the charge on the other ion.
5. Two pairs of ions exist in which the difference between pair members is that a sul-
fur atom has replaced an oxygen atom in one member of the pair: 1SO42 - , S2O32 - 2
and 1OCN - , SCN - 2. The prefix thio- is used to denote this replacement of oxygen
by sulfur. The names of these pairs of ions, respectively, are sulfate–thiosulfate and
cyanate–thiocyanate.
8.5 NOMENCLATURE FOR IONIC COMPOUNDS CONTAINING

POLYATOMIC IONS
Student Learning Focus: Be able to name a polyatomic-ion–containing ionic compound given its
chemical formula or vice versa.
The names of ionic compounds containing polyatomic ions are derived in the same way Note that the word “ion”
as those of binary ionic compounds (Sec. 8.3). Recall that the rule for naming binary ionic is never used in the name
compounds is to give the name of the metallic element first (including, when needed, a of an ionic compound.
Ions are charged
Roman numeral indicating ion charge), and then as a separate word give the stem of the particles. When cations
nonmetallic element name to which the suffix -ide is appended. and anions combine to
For our present situation, if the polyatomic ion is positive, its name is substituted for form an ionic compound,
that of the metal. If the polyatomic ion is negative, its name is substituted for the nonmetal which is neutral, the
stem plus -ide. In the case where both positive and negative ions are polyatomic, dual word ion is no longer
applicable.
substitution occurs and the resulting name includes just the names of the polyatomic ions.
Example 8.7 illustrates the use of these rules.
EXAMPLE 8.7 Naming Polyatomic-Ion-Containing Compounds,

Given Their Chemical Formulas
Name the following polyatomic-ion-containing compounds given their chemical formulas.
a. Na3PO4 b. Fe1NO323 c. Cu2SO4 d. NH4CN

SOLUTION
a. The positive ion present is the sodium ion 1Na + 2. The negative ion is the poly-
atomic phosphate ion 1PO43 - 2. The name of the compound is sodium phosphate.
No Roman numeral is needed in the name since sodium is a fixed-charge metal.
As in naming binary ionic compounds (Sec. 8.3), subscripts in the formula are not
incorporated into the name.
b. The positive ion present is iron, and the negative ion is the nitrate ion 1NO3 - 2. Since
iron is a variable-charge metal, a Roman numeral must be used to indicate ionic charge.
In this case, the Roman numeral is III. The fact that iron ions carry a +3 is deduced by
noting that there are three nitrate ions present, each of which carries a –1 charge. The
charge on the single iron ion present must be a +3 in order to counterbalance the total
negative charge of –3. The name of the compound, therefore, is iron(III) nitrate.
c. The positive ion present is Cu(I) ion. The negative ion is the polyatomic sulfate ion
1SO42 - 2. The name of the compound is copper(I) sulfate. The determination that
copper (a variable-charge metal) is present as copper(I) involves the following cal-
culation dealing with charge balance.
21copper charge2 + 1sulfate charge2 = 0
21copper charge2 + 1-22 = 0
21copper charge2 = +2
copper charge = +1
d. Both the positive and negative ions in this compound are polyatomic—the ammonium
ion 1NH4 + 2 and the cyanide ion 1CN - 2 . The name of the compound is simply the
combination of the names of the two polyatomic ions: ammonium cyanide.
Answer Double Check: The presence of a negatively charged polyatomic ion in an ionic com-
pound does not eliminate the need to classify the metal ion present as fixed-charge or variable-
charge. For fixed-charged metals a Roman numeral must be included in the name. Parts (b) and
(c) involve compounds with variable-charge metals. In each case the name contains a Roman
numeral, as it should. A Roman numeral is not needed in part (a) (fixed-charge metal) and in
part (d) the compound contains a positively charged polyatomic ion in lieu of the metal ion.
EXAMPLE 8.8 Writing Chemical Formulas for Polyatomic-Ion-Containing

Write the chemical formulas for the following polyatomic-ion-containing compounds,
given their names.
a. potassium cyanide b. iron(II) hydroxide
c. aluminum phosphate d. copper(II) nitrate
SOLUTION
a. Potassium and cyanide ions are present. Potassium is a fixed-charge metal; the
charge is +1 1K + 2 since potassium is located in group IA. The formula of the cya-
nide ion is CN - (Table 8.4). Combining the like-charged ions in a one-to-one ratio
produces the chemical formula KCN.
b. The iron ion present is Fe2 + since the Roman numeral is (II). The hydroxide ion has
the chemical formula OH - (Table 8.4). Two hydroxide ions are needed per iron ion
for charge balance. The chemical formula is Fe1OH22.
c. The fixed-charge aluminum ion is present, Al3 + (group IIIA). The phosphate ion has the
chemical formula PO4 3 - (Table 8.4). The chemical formula of the compound is AlPO4.
d. The Roman numeral (II) indicates that the copper ion present is Cu2 + . The chemical
formula of the nitrate ion is NO3 - . Combining the ions in a one-to-two ratio pro-
duces the chemical formula Cu1NO3 22.
Answer Double Check: Is the positive ion written first in each of the chemical formu-
las? Yes. Are parentheses present in each of the chemical formulas where more than one
polyatomic ion is needed (Sec. 7.9)? Yes.
A ternary compound is a compound containing three different elements. Many,

but not all, polyatomic-ion-containing compounds are ternary compounds. Such is the
case when one of the ions present is monoatomic and the other ion present is a poly-
atomic ion containing two elements. The compounds sodium sulfate [Na2SO4], potassium
nitrate [KNO3], and ammonium chloride [NH4Cl] represent this situation. A ternary ionic
compound is an ionic compound in which three elements are present, one element in a
monoatomic ion and two other elements in a polyatomic ion.
Exceptions to the generalization that polyatomic-ion-containing compounds are
ternary ionic compounds exist. Several common polyatomic-ion-containing compounds
exist that have four elements present and there are a few polyatomic-ion-containing com-
pounds in which only two elements are present. The following are such exceptions:
1. Compounds that contain four elements become possible when both ions pres-
ent are polyatomic ions. Common examples of this situation are the compounds
ammonium chlorate [NH4ClO3] and ammonium sulfate [1NH4 22SO4]. Note, however,
that the compounds ammonium nitrate [NH4NO3] and ammonium cyanide [NH4CN],
where both polyatomic ions contain a common element (nitrogen in this case), con-
tain only three elements, and are thus ternary ionic compounds.
2. Compounds that contain four elements are also possible when the polyatomic ion
itself contains three elements as for the acetate ion 1C2H3O2- 2 or bicarbonate ion
1HCO3- 2. Examples of such compounds are NaC2H3O2 and KHCO3.
3. Interestingly, ionic compounds that contain only two elements, that is, are bi-
nary (Sec. 8.2), are possible with a polyatomic ion present. This occurs when
the homoatomic polyatomic ions peroxide [O2 2 - ] or azide [N3 - ] are present
and the other ion present is monoatomic. Examples of such binary compounds
include sodium peroxide [Na2O2] and potassium azide [KN3]. Peroxide and
azide are the only two polyatomic ions listed in Table 8.4 that are homoatomic;
all others are heteroatomic.
Ionic peroxide compounds are not common. Only group IA and group IIA metals form
such compounds. A number of metals besides those in groups IA and IIA form ionic
azide compounds.
Nomenclature-wise, the set of rules presented in this section of the text for naming
polyatomic-ion-containing compounds applies to all such compounds. The number of
elements present—two, three, or four—does not affect the rules.
The overall strategy for naming ionic compounds—both binary (Sec. 8.3) and
polyatomic-ion-containing (Sec. 8.5)—is summarized in the nomenclature decision tree
of Figure 8.4.
Does the compound FIGURE 8.4 A

contain a metal and/or nomenclature decision
polyatomic ion? tree for naming binary
and polyatomic-ion-
containing ionic
No Yes compounds.
Not an ionic Ionic compound

compound
Is a polyatomic
ion present?
Yes No
Polyatomic-ion-containing Binary ionic

compound compound
Positive ion Negative ion Both ions Neither ion

is polyatomic. is polyatomic. are polyatomic. is polyatomic.
Polyatomic ion name Full metal name Positive polyatomic Full metal name
Stem of nonmetal name Roman numeral if ion name Roman numeral if
Suffix -ide variable-charge metal Negative polyatomic variable-charge metal
Polyatomic ion name ion name Stem of nonmetal name
Suffix -ide
8.6 NOMENCLATURE FOR BINARY MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS

Student Learning Focus: Be familiar with the order in which chemical symbols are listed in the
chemical formula of a binary molecular compound. Be able to name a binary molecular com-
pound given its chemical formula or vice versa.
A binary molecular compound is a molecular compound in which only two nonme-

tallic elements are present. The order in which the two nonmetals in a binary molecular
compound are listed in its chemical formula is established by convention. This order con-
vention, which approximately parallels increasing nonmetallic character of the elements
(Sec. 6.12) is
Element B Si C Sb As P N H Te Se S I Br Cl O F
Group IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA
This order sequence is based, first, on periodic table group sequence (left to right, as is
shown in the listing) and, second, on position within the group. Within a group, the ele-
ments are listed from bottom to top. Two important refinements to this order sequence
are (1) the element hydrogen is placed in the order between groups VA and VIA, and
(2) the element oxygen is moved from its group VIA position to a position immediately
before fluorine (the last element in the order).
Using this order sequence, the first element listed in the chemical formula of a bi-
nary molecular compound is the more metallic of the two elements. This situation paral-
lels, to a degree, the convention used for binary ionic compounds of listing the positive
ion (the metal) first.
EXAMPLE 8.9 Determining the Correct Order of Elemental Symbols in the

Chemical Formula of a Binary Molecular Compound
Select the correct ordering of elemental symbols, from the choices given, for the chemical
formulas of the following binary molecular compounds.
a. HBr or BrH b. CO2 or O2C c. ClF or FCl d. SCl2 or Cl2S
SOLUTION
The order determination for the chemical symbols is based on decreasing metallic
character for the elements as is depicted in the order listing preceding this example.
a. HBr. Bromine is to the right of H in the order.
b. CO2. Oxygen is next to the last in the order and will be last in all formulas except
those that involve oxygen and fluorine. Fluorine is the last element in the order
listing.
c. ClF. Chlorine and fluorine are in the same group. Since fluorine is higher up in the
group, it is listed last.
d. SCl2. Group VIIA (Cl) is farther to the right in the periodic table than group VIA (S).
In binary molecular compound nomenclature, the two nonmetals present are named
in the order in which they appear in the formula, in a manner consistent with the follow-
ing rule.
The name of the first nonmetal is used in full, followed by a separate word contain-
ing the stem of the name of the second nonmetal and the suffix -ide. Numerical prefixes,
giving numbers of atoms present, precede the names of both nonmetals.
TABLE 8.5 Numerical Prefixes

from 1 to 10
Prefix Number
Mono- 1
Di- 2
Tri- 3
Tetra- 4
Penta- 5
Hexa- 6
Hepta- 7
Octa- 8
Nona- 9
Deca- 10
The use of numerical prefixes in binary molecular compound names is in direct You cannot predict
contrast to the procedures used for naming ionic compounds. For ionic compounds, for- the formulas of most
molecular compounds in
mula subscripts are not mentioned in the name.
the same way that you
Prefixes are needed in naming binary molecular compounds because numerous can predict the formulas
different compounds exist for many pairs of nonmetallic elements. For example, all of of ionic compounds.
the following nitrogen–oxygen molecular compounds exist: NO, NO2, N2O, N2O3, N2O4, That is why we name
and N2O5 . The prefixes used are standard numerical prefixes, which are given in them using prefixes that
explicitly indicate their
Table 8.5 for the numbers 1 through 10, and which are used in words such as mono-
composition.
nucleosis, dichromatic, triangle, tetragram, pentagon, hexapod, heptathlon, octave,
nonagon, and decade. Example 8.10 shows how these prefixes are used in naming
binary molecular compounds.
EXAMPLE 8.10 Naming Binary Molecular Compounds, Given Their

Chemical Formulas
Name the following binary molecular compounds given their chemical formulas.
a. N2O5 b. PF3 c. S4N4 d. SiCl4
SOLUTION
The name of each of these compounds will consist of two words with the following gen-
eral formats.
First word: numerical prefix + full name of the first nonmetal
Second word: numerical prefix + stem of name of second nonmetal + @ide
a. The elements present are nitrogen and oxygen. The two portions of the name be-
fore adding numerical prefixes are nitrogen and oxide. Adding the prefixes gives
dinitrogen (two nitrogen atoms are present) and pentoxide (five oxygen atoms are
present). (When an element name begins with an a or o, the a or o at the end of
the numerical prefix is dropped for ease of pronunciation—pentoxide instead of
pentaoxide.) The name of this compound is dinitrogen pentoxide.
b. When there is only one atom of the first nonmetal present, it is standard procedure
to omit the prefix mono- for the element. Following this guideline, we have for the
name of the compound phosphorus trifluoride. The prefix mono- is never used in
the first position in the name of a binary molecular compound.
c. The prefix for four atoms is tetra-. This compound is, therefore, tetrasulfur
tetranitride.
d. Omitting the initial mono- [see part (b)], we name this compound silicon tetrachloride.
Binary molecular compounds in which hydrogen is the first listed element in the
Numerical prefixes are chemical formula are named without use of numerical prefixes. In essence, they are
not used in naming named as if they were ionic compounds (no prefix used). Unlike other nonmetals, hy-
molecular compounds
that have hydrogen as
drogen readily forms a positive ion, the H + ion. Positive ion formation is a general char-
the first element in the acteristic of metals rather than nonmetals. Thus, in naming these hydrogen-containing
chemical formula, such as molecular compounds hydrogen is treated as if it were a metal. The compounds H2S and
HCl, HBr, and H2S. HCl are named hydrogen sulfide and hydrogen chloride, respectively.
Common Names for Binary Molecular Compounds

All procedures for naming compounds so far presented in this chapter have been based
on IUPAC rules (Sec. 8.1) and have produced systematic names. A systematic name is a
name for a compound based on IUPAC rules that conveys information about the composi-
tion of the compound. A few binary molecular compounds have names completely un-
related to the IUPAC rules for naming such compounds. They have “common” or “trivial”
names, which were coined before the development of the systematic rules. A common
name is a name for a compound not based on IUPAC rules that does not convey informa-
tion about the composition of the compound. At one time, in the early history of chemistry,
all compounds had common names. With the advent of systematic nomenclature, most
common names were discontinued. A few, however, have persisted and are now officially
accepted. The most familiar example of this is the compound H2O, which has the system-
atic name hydrogen oxide. This name is never used; H2O is known as water, a name that
is not going to be changed. Another very common example of common nomenclature
involves the compound NH3, which is ammonia. Table 8.6 gives additional examples of
compounds for which common names are used in preference to systematic names. Such
exceptions are actually very few compared to the total number of compounds named by
systematic rules.
The nomenclature decision tree in Figure 8.5 contrasts the strategy used in naming
binary molecular compounds and binary ionic compounds.
TABLE 8.6 Some Binary Molecular Compounds

that Have Common Names
Compound Formula Accepted Common Name

H2 O water
H2 O 2 hydrogen peroxide
NH3 ammonia
N2 H4 hydrazine
CH4 methane
C2 H6 ethane
NO nitric oxide
N2 O nitrous oxide
FIGURE 8.5 A
Does the compound
contain just two
elements? tree for naming binary
molecular compounds
and binary ionic
No Yes compounds.
Not a binary
compound Binary compound
Is a metal present?
Yes No
Binary ionic compound Binary molecular compound
Full metal name Numerical prefix (except mono)

Roman numeral if Full nonmetal name
variable-charge metal Numerical prefix
Stem of nonmetal name Stem of nonmetal name
Suffix -ide Suffix -ide
Writing formulas for binary molecular compounds, given their names, is a very easy
task. The prefixes in the names of such compounds tell you exactly how many atoms of
each kind are present. For example, the compounds dinitrogen pentoxide and carbon
dioxide have, respectively, the formulas N2O5 (di- and penta-) and CO2 (mono- and di-).
Remember, the prefix mono- is always dropped at the start of a name, as in carbon diox-
ide, as was noted in Example 8.10.
8.7 NOMENCLATURE FOR ACIDS

Student Learning Focus: Be able to name various acids based on the identity of the negative ion
produced when the acid interacts with water.
The rules for naming binary molecular compounds do not carry over to naming ternary Acids, when dissolved in
molecular compounds in a manner similar to that in ionic compound nomenclature. water, have a sour taste.
Different sets of new rules exist for naming various families of ternary molecular com- (The word acid comes
from the Latin word
pounds. We will consider in this section one set of such rules—those for naming acids, acidus, which means
most of which are ternary molecular compounds. “sour.”) Acids cause the
Many hydrogen-containing molecular compounds dissolve in water to give solu- dye litmus to change
tions with properties markedly different from those of the compounds that were dis- from blue to red. (Litmus
solved. These solutions, which we will discuss in detail in Chapter 14, are called acids. is a naturally occurring
vegetable dye obtained
Not all hydrogen-containing molecular compounds are acids. Those that are acids from lichens.) When
can be recognized by their formulas, which have hydrogen written as the first element in certain metals, such as
the formula. zinc and iron, are placed
in acids, they dissolve,
Acids: HCl, H2S, H2SO4, HNO3 liberating hydrogen gas.
Nonacids: NH3, CH4, PH3, SiH4
Water, which is the solvent for most acidic solutions, is generally not considered to be an
acid. Despite this, H is written first in its formula 1H2O2.
Although it was done in Acids are molecular compounds (no ions are present). When acids are dissolved in
earlier times, the tasting water, the interaction with the water produces ions. The acid molecules can be consid-
of compounds (such ered to break apart to form ions in the presence of water. (No ion formation occurs if the
as acids) as part of the
identification process is
water is not present.)
not generally considered An acid is a hydrogen-containing molecular compound whose molecules yield hy-
a good idea these days. drogen ions 1H + 2 when dissolved in water. The production of the positive H + ion, which
is the species that gives acids their characteristic properties, is common to all acids. The
negative ion produced varies from acid to acid. For example,
HCl, in water, produces H + and Cl - ions.
HNO3, in water, produces H + and NO3 - ions.
H2SO4, in water, produces H + and SO4 2 - ions.
Because of differences in the properties of acids and the anhydrous (without water)
compounds from which they are produced, the acids and the anhydrous compounds are
given different names. Acid nomenclature is derived from the names of the parent anhy-
drous compounds (which we considered in Sec. 8.6).
The names of acids are derived from the names of the negative ions produced from
the acids interaction with water. There are three nomenclature rules based on whether
the name of the negative ion ends in -ide, -ate, or -ite.
Not all acids are ternary 1. -ide rule: When the name of the negative ion produced from the acid ends in -ide
molecular compounds. the acid name has four parts:
The acids HCl and HBr
(hydrochloric acid and
1. the prefix hydro-
hydrobromic acid) are 2. the stem of the name of the negative ion
examples of binary 3. the suffix -ic
molecular compounds. 4. the word acid
Examples of the application of this rule are
HCl 1chloride2 is named hydrochloric acid.
HCN 1cyanide2 is named hydrocyanic acid.
2. -ate rule: When the name of the negative ion produced from the acid ends in -ate
the acid name has three parts:
1. the name of the negative ion less the -ate ending
2. the suffix -ic
3. the word acid
HNO3 1nitrate2 is named nitric acid.
HClO4 1perchlorate2 is named perchloric acid.
3. -ite rule: When the name of the negative ion produced from the acid ends in -ite the
acid name has three parts:
1. the name of the negative ion less the -ite ending
2. the suffix -ous
3. the word acid
HNO2 1nitrite2 is named nitrous acid.
HClO 1hypochlorite2 is named hypochlorous acid.
Figure 8.6 summarizes the three ways in which anion names and acid names are related,
and Examples 8.11 and 8.12 illustrate the use of these relationships in naming acids.
Anion Acid FIGURE 8.6 Summary

of the ways in which
_______ ide addH+ hydro____ ic acid anion names and acid
(chloride, Cl−) ions (hydrochloric acid, HCl) names are related.
_______ ate add H+ _______ ic acid

(chlorate, ClO3−) (chloric acid, HClO3)
(perchlorate, ClO4−) ions (perchloric acid, HClO4)
_______ ite add H+ _______ ous acid

(chlorite, ClO2−) (chlorous acid, HClO2)
(hypochlorite, ClO−) ions (hypochlorous acid, HClO)
EXAMPLE 8.11 Naming Hydrogen-Containing Compounds as Acids,

Given Their Chemical Formulas
Name the following hydrogen-containing compounds as acids, given their chemical
formulas.
a. H2CO3 b. HF c. HClO2 d. H2SO4
SOLUTION
a. The negative ion present in solutions of this acid is the carbonate ion 1CO32 - 2.
Removing the -ate ending from the word carbonate and replacing it with the suffix
-ic (rule 2) and then adding the word acid gives the name carbonic acid.
b. The negative ion present in solutions of this acid is the fluoride ion 1F - 2. This is a
rule 1 (-ide) situation. The name of the acid is formed from using the prefix hydro-,
the suffix -ic, and the word acid. The acid name is hydrofluoric acid.
c. The negative ion present in solutions of this acid is the chlorite ion 1ClO2 - 2. (If you
are unsure of the identity of a particular negative ion, you can consult Table 8.4.)
This is a rule 3 (-ite) situation. Removing the -ite ending from the word chlorite and
replacing it with the suffix -ous and then adding the word acid produces the name
chlorous acid.
d. The negative ion present in solutions of this acid is the sulfate ion 1SO42 - 2.
Changing the -ate ending to -ic (rule 2) and adding the word acid gives the name
sulfuric acid. (For acids involving sulfur, ur from sulfur is reinserted into the acid
name for phonetic reasons.)
Answer Double Check: Are the acid names consistent with the names of the negative
ions that can be considered to be present in the acids? Yes. The two acids that can be
considered to possess -ate anions have names that end, as they should, in -ic acid. The
acid that can be considered to possess an -ite anion has a name that ends, as it should, in
-ous acid. The acid that can be considered to possess an -ide anion, is named, as it should
be, as a hydro_____ic acid.
EXAMPLE 8.12 Writing Chemical Formulas for Acids, Given Their Names
Give the chemical formulas of each of the following acids.

a. chloric acid b. hydrocyanic acid
SOLUTION
In this problem we will go through a reasoning process that is the reverse of that in
Example 8.11. Students often find this reverse process to be more challenging than the
forward process.
a. The -ic ending in the acid’s name indicates that the negative ion it forms in solution
is an -ate ion. It is the chlorate ion. From Table 8.4, the chlorate ion has the chemi-
cal formula ClO3 - . The hydrogen present in the acid, for formula-writing purposes,
is considered to be H + ion. Combining these two ions, H + and ClO3 - , in a one-to-
one ratio will produce the neutral compound HClO3 (chloric acid).
b. Since this is a hydro_____ic acid, the negative ion present in acid solution will be an
-ide ion. It is the cyanide ion, whose formula is CN - (Table 8.4). Combining the H +
and CN - ions in the ratio that produces neutrality, one to one, gives the chemical
formula HCN for hydrocyanic acid.
The overall strategy for identifying and naming acids is summarized in the nomen-
clature decision tree of Figure 8.7.
Acids are often subclassified into the categories nonoxyacid and oxyacid. A non-
oxyacid is a molecular compound composed of hydrogen and one or more nonmetals
other than oxygen that produce H + ions in an aqueous solution. All common nonoxy-
acids, with one exception, HCN, are binary compounds. An oxyacid is a molecular
FIGURE 8.7 A decision

Is hydrogen present
tree for naming acids.
in the compound?
Yes No
Possibly an acid Not an acid
Is hydrogen written
first in the formula?
No Yes
Not an acid An acid
What is the ending on the

name of the negative ion
produced in an aqueous
solution of the acid?
-ide -ate -ite
hydro____ic ic ous
acid acid acid
TABLE 8.7 The Dual Naming System for Molecular Compounds

Containing Hydrogen and a Nonmetal Other Than Oxygen
Formula Name of Pure Compound Name of Water Solution

HF hydrogen fluoride hydrofluoric acid
HBr hydrogen bromide hydrobromic acid
HI hydrogen iodide hydroiodic acid
H2 S hydrogen sulfide hydrosulfuric acid*
*For acids involving sulfur, ur from sulfur is reinserted in the acid name for
pronunciation reasons.
compound composed of hydrogen, oxygen, and one or more other elements that produces
H + ions in an aqueous solution.
Nonoxyacids, but not oxyacids, exist as both pure compounds and water solutions.
Conventions for distinguishing between the two situations are as follows, using HCl (a gas
in the pure state) as the example.
HCl in the pure state: HCl1g2 is hydrogen chloride

HCl in an aqueous solution: HCl1aq2 is hydrochloric acid
Table 8.7 gives other examples of this dual naming system for nonoxyacids. Since oxyacids
are encountered only as aqueous solutions, a dual naming system is not needed for them.
For several nonmetals a series of oxyacids exist. The formulas of the members of the
series differ from each other only in oxygen content. For example, there are four chlorine-
containing oxyacids whose formulas are
HClO4, HClO3, HClO2, and HClO
In such a series of oxyacids, one of the acids is the -ic acid, the acid whose name has no
prefix and ends in -ic. The names of the other acids in the series are related, in a constant
manner, to the -ic acid by prefixes and suffixes as follows:
1. An oxyacid containing one less oxygen atom than the -ic acid is the -ous acid.
2. An oxyacid containing two fewer oxygen atoms than the -ic acid is the hypo-_____
-ous acid.
3. An oxyacid containing one more oxygen atom than the -ic acid is the per-_____-ic
acid.
These relationships between names for a series of oxyacids can be summarized as fol-
lows, where n represents the number of oxygen atoms in the -ic acid.
Number of Oxygen Atoms Name
n + 1 per_____ic acid
n _____ic acid
n - 1 _____ous acid
n - 2 hypo_____ous acid
FIGURE 8.8 The Group IVA Group VA Group VIA Group VIIA
maximum oxygen
content of and the Period 2 CO322 NO32
charge on oxyanions Carbonate ion Nitrate ion
that contain C, N, P, S,
Period 3 PO432 SO422 ClO42
and Cl. Phosphate ion Sulfate ion Perchlorate ion
Most nonmetals do not form a complete series of four simple oxyacids as does chlo-
rine. Bromine is the only other nonmetal for which such a series of oxyacids exists. For
both sulfur and nitrogen, only the -ic and -ous acids are known. For both phosphorus and
iodine, there are three oxyacids; there is no n + 1 acid (per_____ic acid) for phospho-
rus and no n - 1 acid (_____ous acid) for iodine. Hypofluorous acid, HOF, is the only
known fluorine-containing oxyacid.
To effectively navigate the interrelationships among the various members of a se-
ries of oxyanions (or their corresponding oxyacids), the oxygen content of one member
of the series must be known. All the other relationships can then be derived from this
starting point. Figure 8.8 can be used as an aid in remembering the oxygen content and
charge of the one needed member of each of the common oxyanion series. Formatted
as a small portion of the upper-right corner of the periodic table, Figure 8.8 lists the
oxyanion that contains the most oxygen atoms for the five most common oxyanion series
(C, N, P, S, and Cl).
The following periodic patterns exist among the five oxyanions shown in Figure 8.8:
1. For period 2 nonmetals (C and N), the maximum number of oxygen atoms present
in an oxyanion is three. For period 3 nonmetals (P, S, and Cl), the maximum number
of oxygen atoms present in an oxyanion is four.
2. For period 2 oxyanions, charge increases in going from right to left in the period
(-1 to -2). For period 3 oxyanions, a similar charge increase pattern exists (-1 to
-2 to -3).
3. Four of the five oxyanions in Figure 8.8 are -ate anions (carbonate, nitrate, phos-
phate, and sulfate). The fifth anion is a per_____ate anion (perchlorate).
Based on knowledge of the names and chemical formulas of these five anions, the names
of all other members of these oxyanion series can easily be derived using the oxyanion
interrelationship previously considered in this section.
A final item concerning oxyacids is to formally recognize that they are ternary mo-
lecular compounds, as contrasted to binary molecular compounds. A ternary molecular
compound is a molecular compound that contains three different nonmetallic elements.
Oxyacids are the only ternary molecular compounds that have been encountered is this
chapter. All other molecular compounds have been binary, including nonoxyacids (ex-
cept for HCN). It should also be noted that ternary molecular compounds that are not
acids do exist. The compounds POCl3 and SO2Cl2 (no H is present) are examples of such.
Specialized rules, which we will not consider in this text, exist for naming such compounds.
8.8 SYSTEMATIC PROCEDURES FOR USING NOMENCLATURE RULES

Student Learning Focus: Be able to name a chemical compound given its chemical formula or vice
versa using systematic procedures to decide which nomenclature rules apply.
Within this chapter, various sets of nomenclature rules have been presented. Students
sometimes have problems deciding which set of rules to use in a given situation. This
FIGURE 8.9 A
Is a metal or
polyatomic ion present?
tree for deciding the
classification of a
Yes No compound that is to
be named.
Ionic Molecular
compound compound
Is a polyatomic ion Is hydrogen present and

present? listed first in the formula?
Yes No Yes No
Polyatomic-ion- Binary Acidic Nonacidic

containing ionic ionic compound molecular compound molecular compound
compound
Use Section 8.5 Use Section 8.3 Use Section 8.7 Use Section 8.6
procedures procedures procedures procedures
dilemma can be avoided if, when confronted with the request to name a compound, the
following reasoning pattern is used in this order:
1. Decide, first, whether the compound is ionic or molecular. If a metal or polyatomic
ion is present, the compound is ionic. If not, the compound is molecular.
2. If the compound is ionic, then classify it as binary ionic or polyatomic-ion-containing
ionic and use the rules appropriate for that classification.
3. If the compound is molecular, classify it as an acid or nonacid. An acid must have
the element hydrogen present (written first in the chemical formula), and the com-
pound must be in water solution. If the compound is a nonacid, name it according
to the rules for binary molecular compounds.
Figure 8.9 portrays the preceding information in the format of a nomenclature deci-
sion tree.
EXAMPLE 8.13 Naming Compounds Given Their Chemical Formulas Using

Systematic Procedures to Decide Which Nomenclature
Rules Apply
Name the following chemical compounds given their chemical formulas using systematic
procedures to decide which nomenclature rules govern each situation.
a. N2O4 b. Cu1NO3 22 c. H2S1aq2 d. Na3N
SOLUTION
The reasoning pattern summarized in Figure 8.9 will be used in each part of this example
to determine which of the various sets of nomenclature rules presented in this chapter
apply to the given naming situation.
a. Neither a metal nor a polyatomic ion is present. Thus, the compound is not ionic.
If it is not ionic, it must be molecular. Since no hydrogen is present, the compound
is a nonacidic molecular compound. Such compounds are named using numerical
prefixes to denote the number of atoms present. The name of the compound is
dinitrogen tetroxide.
b. This compound meets both tests for an ionic compound. Both a metal and a poly-
atomic ion are present. The metal present is a variable-charge metal, which means
the name of the compound will have a Roman numeral in it. The metal ion present
is copper(II), and the polyatomic ion is the nitrate ion. The name of the compound
is copper(II) nitrate.
c. This compound does not meet either test for an ionic compound. It is thus a mo-
lecular compound. Hydrogen is present, and it is listed first in the formula. We have
an acid. The (aq) means the compound is in solution rather than the pure state. The
negative ion produced from the acid is sulfide ion. Using the -ide rule for naming
acids, the name of the acid becomes hydrosulfuric acid.
d. A metal is present but no polyatomic ion is present. Thus, we have a binary ionic
compound. The metal present is a fixed-charge metal, meaning that no Roman
numeral is needed in the name. The name of the compound is sodium nitride.
Numerical prefixes are never used in naming ionic compounds. (The name triso-
dium nitride would be wrong.)
Example 8.13 involved naming compounds, given their formulas. It is important to

be able to do the reverse of this also—to write chemical formulas when given chemical
names. Often students who can go forward without difficulty have problems with this
reverse process. Example 8.14 involves writing chemical formulas given the names of the
compounds.
EXAMPLE 8.14 Writing Chemical Formulas for Compounds Given Their

Names Using Systematic Procedures to Decide Which
Nomenclature Rules Govern Each Situation
Write chemical formulas for the following compounds given their names using systematic
procedures to decide which nomenclature rules govern each situation.
a. magnesium sulfide
b. beryllium hydroxide
c. copper(II) carbonate
d. heptasulfur dioxide
SOLUTION
The reasoning pattern summarized in Figure 8.9 will be helpful in each part of this ex-
ample to determine which of the various sets of nomenclature rules presented in this
chapter apply, in a reverse manner, to each situation.
a. Magnesium is a metal, and sulfur is a nonmetal. We have a binary ionic compound.

The lack of a Roman numeral in the name indicates that the metal is a fixed-charge
metal. Magnesium forms +2 ions (Fig. 8.1). The sulfide ion has a charge of –2 (Sec. 7.5).
Combining the ions Mg2 + and S2 - in a one-to-one ratio, the ratio that will cause their
charges to add to zero, gives the formula MgS.
b. This is also an ionic compound. Both a metal (beryllium) and a polyatomic ion
(hydroxide) are present. Beryllium is a fixed-charge metal, forming ions with a +2
charge (Sec. 7.5). The formula of the hydroxide ion is OH - (Table 8.4). Combining
these ions, Be2 + and OH - , in the ratio that causes their charges to add to zero gives
the formula Be1OH22. Remember that any time more than one polyatomic ion is
needed in a formula, parentheses must be used. (Review Examples 7.5 and 7.6 if
you are still having trouble determining the ratio in which ions combine.)
c. This is another ionic compound containing a polyatomic ion. The Roman numeral
associated with the word copper indicates that the copper ions present are Cu2 +
ions. The Roman numeral gives the charge on the ions. The formula of the poly-
atomic carbonate ion is CO32 - (Table 8.4). Combining Cu2 + and CO32 - ions in a
one-to-one ratio gives the formula CuCO3. Note, again, that a Roman numeral in
the name of a compound never becomes part of the formula of the compound.
The Roman numeral’s purpose is to give information about the ionic charge of a
variable-charge metal.
d. Both the presence of only nonmetals and the presence of numerical prefixes in-
dicate that this is a molecular compound. The numerical prefixes give directly the
number of each type of atom present. The chemical formula is S7O2.
1. Chemical Nomenclature Chemical nomen- ions are polyatomic, dual substitution occurs and
clature is the system of names used to distin- the resulting name includes just the names of the
guish compounds from each other and the rules polyatomic ions.
needed to devise these names. 5. Binary Molecular Compounds Binary mo-
2. IUPAC Nomenclature Rules IUPAC nomencla- lecular compounds are those in which just two
ture rules are a systematic set of rules for naming nonmetallic elements are present. The two non-
compounds based on the premise that a com- metals are named in the order they occur in the
pound’s name should convey information about formula of the compound. The name of the first
the composition of the compound. nonmetal is used in full. The name of the sec-
3. Binary Ionic Compounds Binary ionic com- ond nonmetal is treated as was the nonmetal in
pounds contain positively charged monoatomic binary ionic compounds; the stem of the name
metal ions and negatively charged monoatomic is given and the suffix -ide is added. Numerical
nonmetal ions. They are divided into two cat- prefixes, giving numbers of atoms, precede the
egories: those containing fixed-charge metal ions names of both nonmetals. A few binary molecu-
and those containing variable-charge metal ions. lar compounds have common names—names
Binary ionic compounds are named by giving not based on systematic rules.
the full name of the metallic element first, fol- 6. Acids An acid is a hydrogen-containing molecu-
lowed by a separate word containing the stem lar compound whose molecules yield H + ions
of the nonmetallic element name and the suffix when dissolved in water. Acids are subclassified
-ide. A Roman numeral (in parentheses) specify- into the categories nonoxyacids and oxyacids.
ing ionic charge is appended to the name of the Nonoxyacids have names that contain the prefix
metallic element if it is a variable-charge metal. hydro- and the suffix -ic acid. Oxyacids that pro-
4. Polyatomic-Ion-Containing Ionic Compounds duce a negative ion in a solution that has a name
Polyatomic-ion-containing ionic compounds are ending in -ate are named -ic acids. Oxyacids that
named in a way similar to binary ionic com- produce a negative ion in a solution that has a
pounds, with the following modifications. If the name ending in -ite are named -ous acids.
polyatomic ion is positive, its name is substituted 7. Systematic Naming Procedures Which no-
for that of the metal. If the polyatomic ion is menclature rules apply in a given situation can
negative, its name is substituted for the nonmetal be determined using the following reasoning
stem plus -ide. When both positive and negative pattern. Decide, first, whether the compound
is ionic or molecular. If the compound is ionic, for that classification. If the compound is mo-
classify it as binary ionic or polyatomic-ion- lecular, classify it as an acid or a nonacid and use
containing ionic and use the appropriate rules the appropriate rules for that classification.
Key Terms Listing

acid Sec. 8.7 chemical nomenclature Sec. 8.1 systematic name Sec. 8.6
binary compound Sec. 8.2 common name Sec. 8.6 ternary compound Sec. 8.5
binary ionic compound Sec. 8.2 fixed-charge metal Sec. 8.2 ternary ionic compound Sec. 8.5
binary molecular compound nonoxyacid Sec. 8.7 ternary molecular compound Sec. 8.7
Sec. 8.6 oxyacid Sec. 8.7 variable-charge metal Sec. 8.2

quence as the chapters textual material. These drill problems occur in matched pairs with the two members of a pair addressing
NOMENCLATURE CLASSIFICATIONS FOR

COMPOUNDS (SEC. 8.1)
8.1 Classify each of the following compounds as ionic or 8.8 Indicate whether or not each of the following com-
molecular for nomenclature purposes. pounds is a binary compound.
a. SO2 b. BaCl2 c. Cu2S d. NH3 a. N2H4 b. Na2O c. KOH d. CO
8.2 Classify each of the following compounds as ionic or 8.9 Indicate whether or not each of the compounds in
molecular for nomenclature purposes. Problem 8.7 is an ionic compound.
a. CO2 b. AlBr3 c. Fe2O3 d. CH4 8.10 Indicate whether or not each of the compounds in
8.3 Classify each of the following compounds as ionic or Problem 8.8 is an ionic compound.
molecular for nomenclature purposes. 8.11 Indicate whether or not each of the compounds in
a. NaCN b. Al1NO3 23 Problem 8.7 is a binary ionic compound.
c. NH4Cl d. CuSO4 8.12 Indicate whether or not each of the compounds in
8.4 Classify each of the following compounds as ionic or Problem 8.8 is a binary ionic compound.
molecular for nomenclature purposes. 8.13 Classify each of the following metals as a fixed-charge
a. KOH b. Na2SO4 c. P4O10 d. NH4CN metal or a variable-charge metal.
8.5 In which of the following pairs of compounds is one a. Mg b. Ni c. Ca d. Au
member of the pair an ionic compound and the other 8.14 Classify each of the following metals as a fixed-charge
member of the pair a molecular compound? metal or a variable-charge metal.
a. AlN and HF b. CuCO3 and H2CO3 a. Ba b. Ag c. Cr d. Li
c. SO3 and H2SO4 d. NaCl and Mg1OH22 8.15 In which of the following pairs of fixed-charge metals do
8.6 In which of the following pairs of compounds is one both members of the pair form ions with the same charge?
member of the pair an ionic compound and the other a. Be and Mg b. Ag and Zn
member of the pair a molecular compound? c. Al and K d. Na and Li
a. CO and CO2 b. Be3N2 and Cl2O 8.16 In which of the following pairs of fixed-charge metals do
c. HNO3 and KNO3 d. MgO and CaS both members of the pair form ions with the same charge?
a. Ag and Na b. Al and Ga
c. Be and Cd d. Ca and Zn
TYPES OF BINARY IONIC COMPOUNDS (SEC. 8.2) 8.17 Classify each of the following compounds as a fixed-
8.7 Indicate whether or not each of the following com- charge binary ionic compound or a variable-charge
pounds is a binary compound. binary ionic compound.
a. NO b. HCN c. Cu2S d. CO2 a. FeO b. NiCl2 c. K2O d. Al2S3
8.18 Classify each of the following compounds as a fixed- 8.39 Name each compound in the following pairs of
charge binary ionic compound or a variable-charge variable-charge binary ionic compounds.
binary ionic compound. a. FeBr2 and FeBr3 b. Cu2S and CuS
a. Cu2S b. AgCl c. AuCl d. Na3N c. SnS and SnS2 d. NiO and Ni2O3
8.40 Name each compound in the following pairs of
variable-charge binary ionic compounds.
NOMENCLATURE FOR BINARY IONIC
a. SnCl4 and SnCl2
b. FeS and Fe2S3
8.19 Indicate whether or not the names of each of the fol- c. Cu3N and Cu3N2
lowing metal ions contain a Roman numeral. d. NiI2 and NiI3
a. Zn2 + b. Co3 + c. Pb4 + d. Ag + 8.41 The second part of each of the following statements
8.20 Indicate whether or not the names of each of the fol- is incorrect. Provide the correct compound name or
lowing metal ions contain a Roman numeral. chemical formula.
a. Mg2 + b. Cu2 + c. Co2 + d. K + a. Sodium oxide has the chemical formula NaO.
8.21 Name each of the following metal ions. b. Copper(II) sulfide has the chemical formula Cu2S.
a. Be2 + b. Pb2 + c. Au + d. Li + c. AlCl3 has the name aluminum(III) chloride.
8.22 Name each of the following metal ions. d. AuCl3 has the name gold chloride.
a. Ga3 + b. Au3 + c. Cu + d. Cd2 + 8.42 The second part of each of the following statements
8.23 Indicate whether or not the names of each of the fol- is incorrect. Provide the correct compound name or
lowing nonmetal ions contain a Roman numeral. chemical formula.
a. Br - b. P3 - c. S2 - d. I - a. Magnesium chloride has the chemical formula
8.24 Indicate whether or not the names of each of the fol- MgCl.
lowing nonmetal ions contain a Roman numeral. b. Tin(II) sulfide has the chemical formula SnS2.
a. N3 - b. CI - c. F - d. O2 - c. FeBr3 has the name iron(II) bromide.
8.25 Name each of the nonmetal ions listed in Problem 8.23. d. Ag2S has the name silver(I) sulfide.
8.26 Name each of the nonmetal ions listed in Problem 8.24. 8.43 Change each of the following compound names from
8.27 Name each of the following monoatomic ions. the Roman numeral to the -ic, -ous system, or vice
a. Ca2 + b. H + c. Fe3 + d. As3 - versa.
8.28 Name each of the following monoatomic ions. a. lead(IV) oxide b. gold(III) chloride
a. Na + b. Se2 - c. Ni3 + d. Ni2 + c. ferric iodide d. stannous bromide
8.29 What is the chemical formula of each of the following 8.44 Change each of the following compound names from
monoatomic ions? the Roman numeral to the -ic, -ous system, or vice
a. zinc b. lead(II) c. calcium d. nitride versa.
8.30 What is the chemical formula of each of the following a. cuprous chloride b. ferrous sulfide
monoatomic ions? c. tin(IV) nitride d. lead(II) oxide
a. silver b. gold(I) 8.45 In which of the following pairs of compound names
c. selenide d. bromide do the two names in the pair denote the same
8.31 Indicate whether each of the following compounds compound?
is a fixed-charge or variable-charge binary ionic a. cupric chloride and copper(I) chloride
compound. b. stannic bromide and tin(IV) bromide
a. AlCl3 b. NiCl3 c. ZnO d. CoO c. ferrous oxide and iron(II) oxide
8.32 Indicate whether each of the following compounds d. plumbous sulfide and lead(IV) sulfide
is a fixed-charge or variable charge binary ionic 8.46 In which of the following pairs of compound names
compound. do the two names in the pair denote the same
a. Au2O b. Ag2O c. CuCl d. KCl compound?
8.33 Indicate whether or not a Roman numeral is needed in a. auric chloride and gold(III) chloride
the names of each of the compounds in Problem 8.31. b. ferric bromide and iron(III) bromide
8.34 Indicate whether or not a Roman numeral is needed in c. cuprous oxide and copper(I) oxide
the names of each of the compounds in Problem 8.32. d. stannous sulfide and tin(II) sulfide
8.35 Name each of the binary ionic compounds listed in 8.47 Write chemical formulas for the following fixed-charge
Problem 8.31. binary ionic compounds, given their names.
8.36 Name each of the binary ionic compounds listed in a. lithium sulfide b. zinc sulfide
Problem 8.32. c. aluminum sulfide d. silver sulfide
8.37 Name each of the following binary ionic compounds. 8.48 Write chemical formulas for the following fixed-charge
a. Al2O3 b. CoF3 c. Ag3N d. BaS binary ionic compounds, given their names.
8.38 Name each of the following binary ionic compounds. a. sodium nitride b. calcium nitride
a. CaO b. Ag2S c. Cu2O d. FeBr3 c. aluminum nitride d. zinc nitride
8.49 Write chemical formulas for the following variable- 8.58 Write chemical formulas for both ions in each of the
charge binary ionic compounds, given their names. following pairs of polyatomic ions.
a. copper(II) sulfide b. copper(II) nitride a. nitrate and nitrite
c. tin(II) oxide d. tin(IV) oxide b. chlorate and perchlorate
8.50 Write chemical formulas for the following variable- c. cyanide and azide
charge binary ionic compounds, given their names. d. cyanate and thiocyanate
a. iron(II) chloride b. iron(III) chloride
c. gold(I) oxide d. gold(I) iodide
8.51 Fill in the blanks in the following table of chemical NOMENCLATURE FOR POLYATOMIC-ION-
formulas and compound names. The first row of the CONTAINING COMPOUNDS (SEC. 8.5)
table is already completed as an example.
8.59 What is the charge on the positive ion present in each
Formula of Formula of Compound Compound of the following ionic compounds?
Positive Ion Negative Ion Formula Name
a. AgNO3 b. ZnSO4
Mg2 + Cl - MgCl2 magnesium chloride c. Pb1CN22 d. Cu3PO4
3+
a. Al O2 - 8.60 What is the charge on the positive ion present in each
b. PbBr2 of the following ionic compounds?
c. S2 - iron(II) sulfide a. Ba1OH22 b. FeCO3
d. zinc bromide
c. Ni1NO3 22 d. KClO4
8.61 Classify each of the ionic compounds in Problem 8.59
8.52 Fill in the blanks in the following table of chemical as a fixed-charge ionic compound or a variable-charge
formulas and compound names. The first row of the ionic compound.
table is already completed as an example. 8.62 Classify each of the ionic compounds in Problem 8.60
as a fixed-charge ionic compound or a variable-charge
Formula of Formula of Compound Compound
ionic compound.
8.63 What is the name of each of the compounds in
Ca2 + S 2- CaS calcium sulfide
Problem 8.59?
a. Fe3 + O2 - 8.64 What is the name of each of the compounds in
b. SnBr4 Problem 8.60?
c. N3 - potassium nitride 8.65 Name each compound in the following pairs of
d. copper(I) chloride polyatomic-ion-containing compounds.
a. Fe21CO3 23 and FeCO3
b. Au2SO4 and Au21SO4 23
CHEMICAL FORMULAS FOR POLYATOMIC IONS c. Sn1OH22 and Sn1OH24
(SEC. 8.4) d. Cr1C2H3O2 23 and Cr1C2H3O2 22
8.66 Name each compound in the following pairs of
8.53 Write the chemical formulas, including ionic charge, polyatomic-ion-containing compounds.
for each of the following polyatomic ions. a. CuNO3 and Cu1NO3 22
a. hydroxide b. ammonium b. Pb31PO4 22 and Pb31PO4 24
c. nitrate d. perchlorate c. Mn1CN23 and Mn1CN22
8.54 Write the chemical formulas, including ionic charge, d. Co1ClO3 22 and Co1ClO3 23
for each of the following polyatomic ions. 8.67 Write chemical formulas for the following polyatomic-
a. sulfate b. carbonate ion-containing compounds.
c. cyanide d. phosphate a. silver carbonate b. gold(I) nitrate
8.55 With the help of Table 8.4, give the names for the fol- c. ferric sulfate d. cuprous cyanide
lowing polyatomic ions. 8.68 Write chemical formulas for the following polyatomic-
a. O2 2 - b. S2O32 - c. C2O42 - d. ClO3 - ion-containing compounds.
8.56 With the help of Table 8.4, give the names for the fol- a. copper(II) sulfate b. iron(III) hydroxide
lowing polyatomic ions. c. cupric chlorate d. ferrous nitrate
a. N3 - b. BO3 3 - 8.69 The second part of each of the following statements
-
c. SCN d. CrO4 2 - is incorrect. Provide the correct compound name or
8.57 Write chemical formulas for both ions in each of the chemical formula.
following pairs of polyatomic ions. a. Sodium sulfate has the chemical formula NaSO3.
a. sulfate and sulfite b. Copper(II) nitrate has the chemical formula
b. phosphate and hydrogen phosphate Cu2NO3.
c. hydroxide and peroxide c. CaCO3 has the name calcium cyanide.
d. chromate and dichromate d. AuPO4 has the name gold phosphate.
8.70 The second part of each of the following statements 8.78 Name the following binary molecular compounds.
is incorrect. Provide the correct compound name or a. S4N2 b. SO3 c. IF7 d. N2O4
chemical formula. 8.79 Write chemical formulas for the following binary mo-
a. Magnesium hydroxide has the chemical formula lecular compounds, all of which are “sulfur oxides.”
MgOH. a. sulfur monoxide b. disulfur monoxide
b. Tin(II) cyanide has the chemical formula Sn2CN. c. sulfur dioxide d. heptasulfur dioxide
c. FeSO4 has the name iron sulfite. 8.80 Write chemical formulas for the following binary mo-
d. AgNO3 has the name silver(I) nitrate. lecular compounds, all of which are “chlorine oxides.”
8.71 Fill in the blanks in the following table of chemical a. dichlorine monoxide b. chlorine dioxide
formulas and compound names. The first row of the c. dichlorine hexoxide d. dichlorine heptoxide
table is already completed as an example. 8.81 The second part of each of the following statements
is incorrect. Provide the correct compound name or
Formula of Formula of Compound Compound
chemical formula.
a. Carbon dioxide has the chemical formula C2O.
Mg2 + NO3 - Mg1NO3 22 magnesium
b. N2O5 has the name dinitrogen tetraoxide.
nitrate
c. SO3 has the name sulfurtrioxide.
a. Al3 + SO42 - d. SF2 has the name monosulfur difluoride.
b. Cu1CN22 8.82 The second part of each of the following statements
c. OH - iron(II) hydroxide is incorrect. Provide the correct compound name or
d. zinc azide chemical formula.
a. Sulfur dioxide has the chemical formula SO3.
8.72 Fill in the blanks in the following table of chemical b. N2O3 has the name dinitro trioxide.
formulas and compound names. The first row of the c. CBr4 has the name carbontetrabromide.
table is already completed as an example. d. S2Cl2 has the name sulfur chloride.
Formula of Formula of Compound Compound 8.83 Name the following binary molecular compounds.
Positive Ion Negative Ion Formula Name a. H2S b. HF c. NH3 d. CH4
Ca2 + NO3 - Ca1NO3 22 calcium nitrate 8.84 Name the following binary molecular compounds.
a. Fe 3+
PO4 3- a. HCl b. H2Se c. N2H4 d. H2O2
8.85 Write chemical formulas for the following binary mo-
b. SnCO3
lecular compounds.
c. ClO4 - aluminum
a. nitrous oxide b. hydrogen bromide
perchlorate
c. ethane d. hydrogen telluride
d. potassium
8.86 Write chemical formulas for the following binary mo-
peroxide
lecular compounds.
a. hydrogen iodide b. hydrazine
c. hydrogen peroxide d. nitric oxide
NOMENCLATURE FOR BINARY MOLECULAR
NOMENCLATURE FOR ACIDS (SEC. 8.7)
8.73 Select the correct ordering of elemental symbols, from
the choices given, for the chemical formulas of the fol- 8.87 Indicate whether each of the following hydrogen-
lowing binary molecular compounds. containing compounds forms an acid in an aqueous
a. CO or OC b. Cl2O or OCl2 solution.
c. N2O or ON2 d. HI or IH a. CH4 b. H2S c. HCN d. NH3
8.74 Select the correct ordering of elemental symbols, from 8.88 Indicate whether each of the following hydrogen-
the choices given, for the chemical formulas of the fol- containing compounds forms an acid in an aqueous
lowing binary molecular compounds. solution.
a. SiH4 or H4Si b. Br2O or OBr2 a. HCl b. HClO c. SiH4 d. CH4
c. NCl3 or Cl3N d. IBr or BrI 8.89 What is the chemical formula for the negative ion pro-
8.75 Write the number that corresponds to each of the fol- duced when each of the following acids dissolve in
lowing prefixes. water? (Assume all hydrogen atoms present become
a. hepta- b. penta- c. tri- d. deca- H + ions.)
8.76 Write the number that corresponds to each of the fol- a. HNO3 b. HI c. HClO d. H3PO3
lowing prefixes. 8.90 What is the chemical formula for the negative ion pro-
a. tetra- b. octa- c. hexa- d. nona- duced when each of the following acids dissolve in water?
8.77 Name the following binary molecular compounds. (Assume all hydrogen atoms present become H + ions.)
a. P4O10 b. SF4 c. CBr4 d. NO2 a. HClO3 b. HClO4 c. H2S d. HCl
8.91 What is the chemical formula for the acids that pro- 8.101 Supply the missing name in each of the following
duce each of the following negative ions in an aque- pairs of name–formula combinations.
ous solution? a. H3AsO4 (arsenic acid); H3AsO3 (?)
a. CN - b. SO4 2 - c. NO2 - d. BO3 3 - b. HIO3 (iodic acid); HIO4 (?)
8.92 What is the chemical formula for the acids that pro- c. H3PO3 (phosphorous acid); H3PO2 (?)
duce each of the following negative ions in an aque- d. HBrO (hypobromous acid); HBrO2 (?)
ous solution? 8.102 Supply the missing name in each of the following
a. NO3- b. I - pairs of name–formula combinations.
3-
c. PO3 d. C2O4 2 - a. HIO3 (iodic acid); HIO (?)
8.93 Name each of the compounds in Problem 8.89 as an b. H2SeO4 (selenic acid); H2SeO3 (?)
acid. c. HBrO (hypobromous acid); HBrO4 (?)
8.94 Name each of the compounds in Problem 8.90 as an d. HNO2 (nitrous acid); HNO3 (?)
acid. 8.103 Name each of the following compounds.
8.95 Name the acids that produce each of the negative a. HBr(g) b. HCN(aq)
ions in Problem 8.91. c. H2S(g) d. HI(aq)
8.96 Name the acids that produce each of the negative 8.104 Name each of the following compounds.
ions in Problem 8.92. a. HBr(aq) b. HCN(g)
8.97 What is the chemical formula for each of the follow- c. H2S1aq2 d. HI(g)
ing acids? 8.105 The second part of each of the following statements
a. hydrochloric acid is incorrect. Provide the correct compound name or
b. carbonic acid chemical formula.
c. chloric acid a. Nitrous acid has the chemical formula H2NO2.
d. sulfuric acid b. Sulfurous acid has the chemical formula H2SO4.
8.98 What is the chemical formula for each of the follow- c. HCN has the name cyanic acid.
ing acids? d. H3PO4 has the name phosphate acid.
a. hydrobromic acid 8.106 The second part of each of the following statements
b. nitrous acid is incorrect. Provide the correct compound name or
c. hypochlorous acid chemical formula.
d. phosphoric acid a. Chloric acid has the chemical formula HCl.
8.99 Fill in the blanks in the following table of chemical b. Carbonic acid has the chemical formula HClO3.
formulas and names for acids. The first row of the c. HNO3 has the name nitrate acid.
table is already completed as an example. d. HClO has the name hydrochlorous acid.
Positive Ion Negative Chemical
Present in Ion Present Formula of
Solution in Solution Acid Name of Acid SYSTEMIC PROCEDURES FOR USING
H+ SO3 2- H2SO3 sulfurous acid NOMENCLATURE RULES (SEC. 8.8)
a. NO2 - 8.107 Classify each of the following compounds as
b. H3PO4 (1) binary ionic, (2) polyatomic-ion-containing ionic,
c. H+ hydrocyanic acid (3) molecular nonacid, or (4) molecular acid.
d. hypochlorous acid a. HNO3 b. Na2SO4
c. SO3 d. BaCl2
8.100 Fill in the blanks in the following table of chemical 8.108 Classify each of the following compounds as
formulas and names for acids. The first row of the (1) binary ionic, (2) polyatomic-ion-containing ionic,
table is already completed as an example. (3) molecular nonacid, or (4) molecular acid.
a. N2O5 b. HClO
Positive Ion Negative Chemical
Present in Ion Present Formula of c. KCN d. Al2O3
Solution in Solution Acid Name of Acid 8.109 Name each of the compounds listed in Problem
H + 2- H2CO3 carbonic acid 8.107.
CO3
8.110 Name each of the compounds listed in Problem
a. NO3 -
8.108.
b. H3PO3
8.111 Name each of the following compounds.
c. H+ hydrobromic acid a. CaI2 b. HCl(aq)
d. chlorous acid c. Cu2SO4 d. N2O
8.112 Name each of the following compounds. c. FeO and BaO

a. AgCl b. HCl(g) d. NiS and Cu31PO4 22
c. Cu2S d. PCl3 8.119 In which of the following pairs of compounds would
8.113 Name each of the following compounds. both members of the pair have names that contain
a. Ca3N2 numerical prefixes?
b. Ca1NO3 22 a. SO3 and NO2
c. Ca1NO2 22 b. AlN and CO
d. Ca1CN22 c. HCl and H2S
8.114 Name each of the following compounds. d. PCl3 and NF3
a. Na2S 8.120 In which of the following pairs of compounds would
b. Na2SO3 both members of the pair have names that contain
c. Na2SO4 numerical prefixes?
d. Na2S2O3 a. CO and CO2
8.115 Determine the name for the simplest compound that b. Cl2O and K2O
would be expected to form when each of the listed c. OF2 and BaF2
pairs of “highlighted” elements in the following peri- d. HBr and H2Se
odic table interact with each other. 8.121 Write chemical formulas for each of the following
compounds.
1 a. iron(II) hydroxide
2 5 6 b. silver bromide
c. nitrogen trifluoride
3 4 7
d. chlorous acid
8 8.122 Write chemical formulas for each of the following
compounds.
a. iron(III) nitrate
b. zinc chloride
c. tetraphosphorus decaoxide
d. perchloric acid
a. elements 1 and 6 8.123 Write chemical formulas for the following
b. elements 3 and 7 compounds.
c. elements 2 and 5 a. potassium phosphide
d. elements 7 and 8 b. potassium phosphate
8.116 Determine the name for the simplest compound that c. potassium hydrogen phosphate
would be expected to form when each of the listed d. potassium dihydrogen phosphate
pairs of “highlighted” elements in the periodic table 8.124 Write chemical formulas for the following
in Problem 8.115 interact with each other. compounds.
a. elements 1 and 5 a. magnesium carbide
b. elements 2 and 6 b. magnesium bicarbonate
c. elements 4 and 7 c. magnesium carbonate
d. elements 6 and 8 d. magnesium hydrogen carbonate
8.117 In which of the following pairs of compounds would 8.125 Indicate which compounds in each of the following
both members of the pair have names that contain groups have names that contain the prefix di-.
Roman numerals? a. Cl2O, Li2O, CO2, K2S
a. NaCl and CuCl b. K2O, K2CO3, NO2, SO2
b. Al2O3 and Fe2O3 c. BeF2, BeCl2, SF2, SCl2
c. Cu1NO3 22 and NiO d. Au2O3, Fe2O3, Al2O3, N2O3
d. Ag2SO4 and CuSO4 8.126 Indicate which compounds in each of the following
8.118 In which of the following pairs of compounds would groups have names that contain the suffix -ide.
both members of the pair have names that contain a. CaS, CO, SO3, Be3N2
Roman numerals? b. K3N, KNO3, KNO2, KClO
a. AuCl3 and FeCl3 c. MgO, AlN, KF, KOH
b. K3N and AlN d. NaCN, NaOH, Na2CO3, NaF
8.127 Indicate which compounds in each of the follow- 8.128 Indicate which compounds in each of the
ing groups have names that contain the suffix -ous following groups have names that contain the suffix
or -ate. -ic or -ite.
a. CaCO3, H2CO3, Ca1NO2 22, HNO2 a. HBr(g), HBr(aq), HCN(g), HCN(aq)
b. NaClO4, NaClO3, NaClO2, NaClO b. K2SO4, KCN, KMnO4, K3PO3
c. HClO4, HClO3, HClO2, HClO c. NH4Cl, NH4CN, 1NH4 22SO4, NH4NO2
d. LiOH, LiCN, Li2CO3, Li3PO4 d. Li3N, LiN3, LiNO3, LiNO2
numbered problems.
8.129 The second part of each of the following statements c. beryllium oxide, iron(II) oxide, iron(III) oxide,
is incorrect. Provide the correct compound name. sulfur dioxide
a. Cu2SO4 has the name dicopper sulfur tetraoxide. d. gold(I) cyanide, gold(III) cyanide, gold(I) chlo-
b. MgCl2 has the name magnesium dichloride. rate, gold(III) chlorate
c. CO has the name carbon oxide. 8.136 Indicate which compounds in each of the following
d. N2O5 has the name dinitrogenpentoxide. groups possess molecules or formula units that are
8.130 The second part of each of the following statements heptatomic.
is incorrect. Provide the correct compound name. a. magnesium cyanide, magnesium oxalate, magne-
a. NaCN has the name sodium carbon nitride. sium chlorite, magnesium perchlorate
b. S2Cl2 has the name disulfuric dichloride. b. aluminum oxide, calcium thiosulfate, beryllium
c. BrCl3 has the name tribromine chloride. thiocyanate, dinitrogen pentoxide
d. CaSO4 has the name calcium(II) sulfate. c. iron(III) sulfide, iron(III) nitride, iron(III) sulfate,
8.131 How many ions are present in one formula unit of iron(III) hypochlorite
each of the following compounds? d. dichlorine heptoxide, sulfur trioxide, sulfur hexa-
a. silver phosphate fluoride, ammonium sulfide
b. zinc oxide 8.137 The chemical formula of a hydroxide of nickel is
c. dinitrogen monoxide Ni1OH23. What are the chemical formulas of the fol-
d. ammonium nitrate lowing nickel compounds in which nickel has the
8.132 How many ions are present in one formula unit of same ionic charge as in Ni1OH23?
each of the following compounds? a. nickel sulfate
a. copper(II) nitride b. nickel oxide
b. potassium oxide c. nickel oxalate
c. carbon dioxide d. nickel nitrate
d. ammonium sulfide 8.138 The chemical formula of a phosphate of vanadium is
8.133 Element X forms the ionic compound CaX. Element VPO4. What are the chemical formulas of the follow-
Q forms the molecular compound NQ3.What would ing vanadium compounds in which vanadium has
be the name for the simplest compound formed the same ionic charge as in VPO4?
when elements X and Q interact if both X and Y are a. vanadium sulfate
period 4 elements? b. vanadium hydroxide
8.134 Element X forms the ionic compound K2X. Element c. vanadium oxide
Q forms the molecular compound SQ2. What would d. vanadium nitrate
be the name for the simplest compound formed 8.139 The chemical formula of the ionic compound potas-
when elements X and Q interact if both X and Q are sium superoxide is KO2. The chemical formula of the
period 3 elements? ionic compound nitronium perchlorate is NO2ClO4.
8.135 Indicate which compounds in each of the following What is the chemical formula for the ionic compound
groups possess molecules or formula units that are nitronium superoxide?
pentatomic. 8.140 The chemical formula of the ionic compound cal-
a. sodium cyanide, sodium thiocyanate, sodium hy- cium perrhenate is Ca1ReO4 22. The chemical formula
pochlorite, sodium nitrate of the ionic compound nitrosonium hydrogen sul-
b. aluminum sulfide, magnesium nitride, beryllium fate is NOHSO4. What is the chemical formula for the
phosphide, potassium hydroxide ionic compound nitrosonium perrhenate?

MC 8.1 The rules for naming binary ionic compounds would MC 8.8 The correct name for the polyatomic-ion-containing
be used in naming which of the following compounds? compound CaCO3 is
a. NaCl a. calcium carbon trioxide.
b. N2O5 b. calcium monocarbon trioxide.
c. Al2S3 c. calcium carbonate.
d. more than one correct response d. calcium monocarbonate.
MC 8.2 The correct name for the ionic compound AlBr3 is MC 8.9 Which of the following pairings of compound for-
a. aluminum bromide. mula and compound name is correct?
b. aluminum bromate. a. lithium sulfate and Li2SO4
c. aluminum tribromide. b. gold(I) cyanide and AuOH
d. aluminum tribromate. c. ammonium nitrate and NH3NO2
MC 8.3 In which of the following ionic compounds are e. no correct response
three or fewer ions present per formula unit? MC 8.10 Which of the following ionic compounds contains
a. aluminum nitride four atoms per formula unit?
b. beryllium sulfide a. lithium nitride
c. potassium oxide b. potassium sulfide
d. more than one correct response c. sodium cyanide
MC 8.4 Which of the following ionic compounds is named e. no correct response
without using a Roman numeral? MC 8.11 Which of the following is a binary molecular com-
a. AuCl3 pound that contains five atoms per molecule?
b. CuS a. silicon tetrachloride
c. MgCl2 b. dinitrogen pentoxide
d. more than one correct response c. dichlorine monoxide
MC 8.5 A Roman numeral is required as part of the name e. no correct response
for which of the following ionic compounds? MC 8.12 Which of the following binary molecular com-
a. CaCl2 pounds has a name in which no numerical prefixes are
b. CuCl2 present?
c. ZnCl2 a. CO
d. more than one correct response b. H2S
e. no correct response c. SO2
MC 8.6 Which of the following pairings of compound for- d. more than one correct response
mula and compound name is correct? e. no correct response
a. Cu2O and copper(II) oxide MC 8.13 Which of the following molecular compounds is
b. SnO2 and tin(II) oxide paired with an incorrect name?
c. PbO and lead(II) oxide a. H2S - hydrogen sulfide
d. more than one correct response b. N2O5 - dinitrogen pentoxide
e. no correct response c. NO2 - mononitrogen dioxide
MC 8.7 Which of the following generalizations about poly- d. more than one correct response
atomic ions is incorrect? e. no correct response
a. Most common polyatomic ions have a positive MC 8.14 For which of the following pairs of compounds do
charge. both members of the pair contain the same number of atoms
b. The names of negatively charged polyatomic ions per molecule?
always end in –ate. a. hydrogen peroxide and hydrazine
c. An -ate polyatomic ion always has one more oxygen b. methane and ethane
atom than the corresponding –ite polyatomic ion. c. nitrous oxide and ammonia
MC 8.15 Which of the following compounds contains just MC 8.19 An oxyacid containing two fewer oxygen atoms
two atoms per formula unit? than the -ic acid would be the
a. aluminum nitride a. per … ic acid.
b. carbon monoxide b. hydro … ic acid.
c. lead(II) iodide c. hypo … ous acid.
d. more than one correct response d. … ous acid
MC 8.16 Which of the following acids is named using the MC 8.20 Which of the following compounds contains both
prefix hydro-? ionic and covalent bonds?
a. HNO3 a. sodium nitride
b. H2SO4 b. sodium nitrite
c. H3PO4 c. sodium nitrate
MC 8.17 Which of the following acids is paired with an
incorrect name?
a. HCN - cyanic acid
b. HClO - hypochlorous acid
c. HNO3 - nitric acid
e. no correct response MC 8.1 d MC 8.8 c MC 8.15 d
MC 8.18 Which of the following is a nonoxy acid? MC 8.2 a MC 8.9 a MC 8.16 e
a. hydrocyanic acid MC 8.3 d MC 8.10 a MC 8.17 a
b. hypobromous acid MC 8.4 c MC 8.11 a MC 8.18 a
c. perchloric acid MC 8.5 b MC 8.12 b MC 8.19 c
d. more than one correct response MC 8.6 c MC 8.13 c MC 8.20 d
e. no correct response MC 8.7 c MC 8.14 e
C H A P T E R
9
Chemical Calculations: The Mole
Concept and Chemical Formulas
9.1 The Law of Definite Proportions

9.2 Calculation of Formula Masses
9.3 Significant Figures and Formula Mass
9.4 Mass Percent Composition of a Compound
9.5 The Mole: The Chemist’s Counting Unit
9.6 The Mass of a Mole
9.7 Significant Figures and Avogadro’s Number
9.8 Relationship between Atomic Mass Units and Gram Units
9.9 The Mole and Chemical Formulas
9.10 The Mole and Chemical Calculations
9.11 Purity of Samples
9.12 Empirical and Molecular Formulas
9.13 Determination of Empirical Formulas
9.14 Determination of Molecular Formulas
9.1 THE LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTIONS

Student Learning Focus: Be able to state the law of definite proportions and be able to illustrate
this law using compound decomposition mass data.
This chapter is the first of two chapters dealing with chemical arithmetic, that is, with
the quantitative relationships between elements and compounds. The emphasis in
this chapter will be on quantitative relationships that involve chemical formulas. In
Chapter 10, the emphasis will be on quantitative relationships that involve chemical
equations.
327
328 Chapter 9 • Chemical Calculations: The Mole Concept and Chemical Formulas
In Section 4.7 we saw that compounds are pure substances with the following
characteristics:
1. They are chemical combinations of two or more elements.

2. They can be broken down into constituent elements by chemical, but not physical,
means.
3. They have a definite, constant elemental composition.
In this section we consider further the fact that compounds have a definite composition.
The composition of a compound can be determined by decomposing a weighed
amount of the compound into its elements and then determining the masses of the
individual elements. Alternatively, determining the mass of a compound formed by
the combination of known masses of elements will also allow the calculation of its
composition.
Studies of composition data for many compounds have led to the conclusion that
the percentage of each element present in a given compound does not vary. This conclu-
sion has been formalized into a statement known as the law of definite proportions:
The law of definite pro-
portions is also called
In a pure compound, the elements are always present in the same definite proportion by
the law of constant mass.
composition. The French chemist Joseph-Louis Proust (1754–1826; see “The Human Side of
Chemistry 9”) is responsible for the work that established this law as one of the funda-
mentals of chemistry.
Let us consider how composition data obtained from decomposing a compound
are used to illustrate the law of definite proportions. Samples of the compound of known
masses are decomposed. The masses of the constituent elements present in each sample
are then obtained. This experimental information (elemental masses and the original
sample mass) is then used to calculate the percent composition of the samples. Within
the limits of experimental error, the calculated percentages for any given element pres-
ent turn out to be the same, validating the law of definite proportions. Example 9.1 gives
actual decomposition data for a compound and shows how they are used to verify the
law of definite proportions.

Joseph-Louis Proust copious experiments on the composition of var- His research work in Madrid was
(1754–1826) ious compounds. Other research involved stud- stopped abruptly in 1808 when his labora-
ies on starch, camphor, preparation of mercury tory was destroyed by French troops occupying
Joseph-Louis Proust (pro- from cinnabar ore, and isolation of grape sugar Spain. Reduced to poverty, and plagued with ill
nounced Proost), born in (glucose) from grapes. health, he still refused an offer of 100,000 francs
Angers, France, began Almost all of Proust’s work, including from Napoleon to come back to France and su-
his chemistry studies at home in his father’s that related to the law of definite proportions, pervise the manufacture of glucose from grapes
apothecary shop. Later he studied in Paris. It was carried out in Spain. At the invitation of (a most abundant crop in both Spain and France).
is Proust’s research on the constancy of compo- the Spanish government, in 1791, he became Later, in 1817, after Louis XVIII had
sition for various compounds that brought the director of the Royal Laboratory at Madrid. come to power, Proust returned to France, and
law of definite proportions into focus. This laboratory, financed by the government, in 1820, he took over the apothecary shop of
Proust was a dedicated analyst, with was elegantly equipped. Almost all the ves- his brother Joachim, who was in still poorer
little interest in theory. His most important sels, even those in common use, were made of health. Proust remained in France until his
work, during the period 1797–1807, involved platinum. death in 1826. ▪
Chapter 9 • Chemical Calculations: The Mole Concept and Chemical Formulas 329
EXAMPLE 9.1 Using Decomposition Data to Illustrate the Law of Definite

Proportions
Two samples of ammonia 1NH3 2 of differing mass and from different sources are indi-
vidually decomposed to yield ammonia’s constituent elements (nitrogen and hydrogen).
The results of the decomposition experiments are as follows.
Sample Mass before Mass of Nitrogen Mass of Hydrogen

Decomposition (g) Produced (g) Produced (g)
Sample 1 1.840 1.513 0.327
Sample 2 2.000 1.644 0.356
Show that these data are consistent with the law of definite proportions.
SOLUTION
Calculating the percent nitrogen in each sample will be sufficient to show whether the
data are consistent with the law. Both nitrogen percentages should come out the same if
the law is obeyed.
mass of nitrogen obtained
percent nitrogen = * 100
total sample mass
Sample 1
1.513 g
%N = * 100 = 82.22826% 1calculator answer2
1.840 g
= 82.23% 1correct answer2
Sample 2
1.644 g
%N = * 100 = 82.2% 1calculator answer2
2.000g
Note that the percentages are close to being equal but are not identical. This is due to
measuring uncertainties and rounding in the original experimental data. The two percent-
ages are the same to three significant figures. The difference lies in the fourth significant
digit. Recall from Section 2.4 that the last of the significant digits in a number (the fourth
one here) has uncertainty in it. The two percentages are considered to be the same within
experimental error.
An alternative way of treating the given data to illustrate the law of definite propor-
tions involves calculating the mass ratio between nitrogen and hydrogen. This ratio should
be the same for each sample; otherwise the two samples are not the same compound.
Sample 1
mass of N 1.513 g
= = 4.6269113 1calculator answer2
mass of H 0.327g
= 4.63 1correct answer2

Sample 2
mass of N 1.644 g
= = 4.6179775 1calculator answer2
mass of H 0.356 g
Again, slight differences in the ratios are caused by measuring errors and rounding in the
original data.
Chemical Insight: AMMONIA

Ammonia 1NH3 2, the substance whose decomposition data was given in the preced-
ing example, is a colorless gas at room temperature with a pungent odor that can be
detected in air at about 50 parts per million (ppm). At levels of 100–200 ppm, ammonia
sharply irritates the eyes and the air passages in the lungs.
Ammonia is one of the most important bulk industrial chemicals in both the
United States and worldwide because of its role in the production of chemical fertil-
izers and hence of food. Approximately 80% of annual United States ammonia produc-
tion is used as chemical fertilizer—either directly or indirectly.
Under increased pressure, ammonia is easily liquefied. In liquid form it can be
directly used as a fertilizer. In addition, ammonia can be converted to solid deriva-
tives, which include ammonium nitrate 1NH4NO3 2, ammonium sulfate 31NH4 22SO4 4,
and urea 31NH2 22CO4. Urea, which is often made at the site of the ammonia synthesis
plant, has a greater nitrogen content by mass than any other solid-state fertilizer.
The constancy of composition for compounds can also be examined by considering

the mass ratios in which elements combine to form compounds. Let us consider the reac-
tion between the elements calcium and sulfur to produce the compound calcium sulfide.
Suppose an attempt is made to combine various masses of sulfur with a fixed mass of
calcium. A set of possible experimental data for this attempt is given in the first four rows
of Table 9.1. Note that, regardless of the mass of S present, only a certain amount, 44.4 g,
reacts with the 55.6 g of Ca. The excess S is left over in an unreacted form. The data there-
fore illustrate that Ca and S will react in only one fixed mass ratio 155.6>44.4 = 1.252 to
form CaS. This fact is consistent with the law of definite proportions. Note also that if the
amount of Ca used is doubled (row 5 of Table 9.1), the amount of S with which it reacts
also doubles (compare rows 1 and 5 of the table). Nevertheless, the ratio in which the
substances react (111.2/88.8) still remains 1.25.
Figure 9.1 relates the law of definite proportions to Dalton’s atomic theory
(Sec. 5.1). This figure shows pictorially the formation of the compound tin(II) sulfide, SnS,
from atoms of tin and sulfur. Note that a formula unit of SnS must always contain one
atom of tin and one atom of sulfur.
TABLE 9.1 Data Illustrating the Law of Definite Proportions
Mass of Mass of S Mass of CaS Mass of Excess Ratio in Which

Ca Used (g) Used (g) Formed (g) Unreacted Sulfur (g) Substances React
55.6 44.4 100.0 none 1.25
55.6 50.0 100.0 5.6 1.25
55.6 100.0 100.0 55.6 1.25
55.6 200.0 100.0 155.6 1.25
111.2 88.8 200.0 none 1.25
FIGURE 9.1
Illustration of the law
+ of definite proportions
at the level of atoms.
Four atoms Four atoms Four units of
of tin of sulfur tin(II) sulfide
+ +
Four atoms Six atoms Four units of Two atoms of

of tin of sulfur tin(II) sulfide sulfur left over
+ +
Eight atoms Four atoms Four units of Four atoms of

of tin of sulfur tin(II) sulfide tin left over
9.2 CALCULATION OF FORMULA MASSES

Student Learning Focus: Be able to calculate the formula mass of a substance given its chemical
formula and a listing of atomic masses for the elements.
Formula masses play a role in almost all chemical calculations and will be used extensively
in later sections of this chapter and in succeeding chapters. A formula mass is the sum
of the atomic masses of all atoms present in one formula unit of a substance, expressed in
atomic mass units. Formula masses, like the atomic masses from which they are calculated,
are relative masses based on the 126C relative mass scale (Sec. 5.8). They can be calculated
for compounds (both molecular and ionic) and for elements that exist in molecular form.
The term molecular mass is used interchangeably with formula mass by many chem-
ists in referring to substances that contain discrete molecules. It is incorrect, however, to
use the term molecular mass when talking about ionic substances, since molecules are
not their basic structural unit (Sec. 7.8).
Some chemistry books use the terms formula weight and molecular weight rather
than formula mass and molecular mass. This practice is not followed in this book
because mass is technically more correct (Sec. 3.3).
Once the formula of a substance has been established, its formula mass is calculated
by adding together the atomic masses of all the atoms in the formula. If more than one
atom of any element is present, that element’s atomic mass must be added as many times
as there are atoms of the element present.
Example 9.2 contains sample formula mass calculations. Significant figures (Sec. 2.5)
are a consideration because atomic masses are obtained from experimentally determined
numbers (Sec. 5.8).
EXAMPLE 9.2 Using Chemical Formulas and Atomic Masses to Calculate

Formula Masses
Calculate the formula masses for the following compounds.
a. Fe2O3 (ferric oxide, a red pigment)
b. ClNO3 (chlorine nitrate, a substance involved in the Antarctic ozone hole phenomenon)
c. CHF2Cl (chlorodifluoromethane, a Freon replacement)
d. C9H8O4 (aspirin, a mild pain reliever)
SOLUTION
Formula masses are obtained simply by adding the atomic masses of the constituent ele-
ments, counting each atomic mass as many times as the symbol for the element occurs
in the formula.
a. A formula unit of Fe2O3 contains five atoms: two atoms of Fe and three atoms of O.
The formula mass, the collective mass of these five atoms, is calculated as follows:
55.85 amu
2 atoms Fe * = 111.70 amu
1 atom Fe
16.00 amu
3 atoms O * = 48.00 amu
1 atom H
formula mass = 159.70 amu 1calculator and correct answer2
The atomic mass values used in the conversion factors in this calculation were
obtained from the periodic table found inside the front cover of the textbook. The
atomic mass values found in this periodic table are values rounded to the hun-
dredths place. Using atomic mass values rounded to hundredths will be standard
procedure when calculating atomic masses in all calculations in the text. Additional
comments concerning this operational rule are found in the next section of the text,
which covers the topic of significant figures and atomic masses.
Often, conversion factors are not explicitly shown in a formula mass calcula-
tion as just shown; the calculation is simplified as follows:
Fe: 2 * 55.85 amu = 111.70 amu
O: 3 * 16.00 amu = 48.00 amu
b. A molecule of ClNO3 contains five atoms: one atom of Cl, one atom of N, and three
atoms of O. Using the simplified calculation method, we calculate the atomic mass
of ClNO3 as
Cl: 1 * 35.45 amu = 35.45 amu
N: 1 * 14.01 amu = 14.01 amu
O: 3 * 16.00 amu = 48.00 amu
c. A molecule of CHF2Cl contains five atoms: one atom of C, one atom of H, two
atoms of F, and one atom of Cl. Using the simplified calculation method, we calcu-
late the atomic mass of CHF2Cl as
C: 1 * 12.01 amu = 12.01 amu
H: 1 * 1.01 amu = 1.01 amu
F: 2 * 19.00 amu = 38.00 amu
Cl: 1 * 35.45 amu = 35.45 amu
d. There are 21 atoms in a molecule of this compound. Its formula mass is
C: 9 * 12.01 amu = 108.09 amu
H: 8 * 1.01 amu = 8.08 amu
O: 4 * 16.00 amu = 64.00 amu
An important point concerning significant figures in formula mass calculations is

formally encountered in the carbon part of this calculation. Here, we have the mul-
tiplication 19 * 12.012. Nine is a counted (exact) number and 12.01 has four sig-
nificant figures. The answer shown, 108.09, contains five significant figures rather
than four allowed by the multiplication rule. Why? A multiplication involving a small
whole number, 9 in this case, can be viewed as an addition, a situation previously
considered in Section 2.6. We are repeatedly adding 12.01 to itself. As an addition,
an uncertainty in the hundredth place is allowed in the answer (108.17). Section 9.3
discusses further the topic of significant figures in atomic mass calculations.
Chemical Insight: FERRIC OXIDE

The compound Fe2O3 (ferric oxide), whose formula mass was calculated in the preced-
ing example, is an end product of the most common and most economically destructive
form of corrosion normally encountered—the rusting of iron. Approximately 25% of
annual steel production in the United States is used to replace steel already in use that
has rusted.
This reddish-brown (rust colored) compound also gives red bricks and red clay
sewer pipes their color. It is also the pigment of burnt sienna in artists’ paints. Rouge,
one of the most ancient of cosmetics, gets its color from ferric oxide.
Barns were traditionally painted red because farmers used red ferric oxide paint
as a way to preserve wood. People still paint their barns red without knowing why.
Formula masses, relative masses on the 126C relative mass scale, can be used for mass
comparisons. For example, using the formula masses calculated in Example 9.2, we can
make the statement that one molecule of C9H8O4 is 1.849 times as heavy as one molecule
of ClNO3 1180.17 amu>97.46 amu = 1.8492.
9.3 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES AND FORMULA MASS

Student Learning Focus: Be familiar with the operational rules that determine significant figures in
a formula mass calculation.
The operational rules we will follow throughout the remainder of the text relative to cal-
culating formula masses are as follows:
1. Atomic masses rounded to the hundredths place will be used as the input numbers
for formula mass determinations. This rule allows us to use, without rounding, the
atomic masses given in the periodic table inside the front cover. A benefit of this
approach is that the same atomic mass value is always used for a given element and
these atomic mass values, for the common elements, become very familiar entities.
2. Atomic masses, rounded to hundredths, almost always contain enough significant
figures that they do not become the limiting factor in terms of significant figures for
a calculation. If such should be the case, atomic masses with additional significant
figures are available for use; they are found in the table inside the front cover located
opposite the periodic table. The potential for significant-figure problems is greatest for
the first four elements in the periodic table. These elements have atomic mass values
of less than 10; hence their atomic masses rounded to hundredths contain only three
significant figures. The atomic masses for these elements, rounded to thousandths to
give four significant figures, are 1.008 amu (H), 4.003 amu (He), 6.941 amu (Li), and
9.012 amu (Be). In practice, these expanded values will very seldom be needed.
The atomic mass of lead (207.2 amu) is an “anomaly” in that, even though it
contains four significant figures, its uncertainty lies in the tenths place. Lead is the
only element whose atomic mass does not have an uncertainty of 0.01 or smaller.
The larger uncertainty in lead’s atomic mass value relates to a greater than normal
variation in percentage abundances for lead’s naturally occurring isotopes.
3. Formula mass calculations will always be considered pure addition problems rather
than combination multiplication–addition problems for significant-figure purposes
[see Example 9.2, part (d)]. Thus, the addition rule will always govern significant-
figure determinations in formula mass calculations.
Example 9.3 illustrates the use of these operational rules in formula mass calculations.
EXAMPLE 9.3 Treating Formula Mass Calculations as Addition Problems
Calculate the formula masses for the following substances, using addition rather than
multiplication significant-figure rules.
a. C7H6O2 (benzoic acid, a food preservative)
b. PtCl21NH3 22 (cisplatin, a chemotherapy agent)
SOLUTION
a. Atomic masses, rounded to hundredths, are the starting point for the calculation.
From the periodic table (inside front cover), we obtain
C: 12.01 amu H: 1.01 amu O: 16.00 amu
We calculate the formula mass, a sum of atomic masses, as
C: 7 * 12.01 amu = 84.07 amu
H: 6 * 1.01 amu = 6.06 amu
O: 2 * 16.00 amu = 32.00 amu
Since all of the input atomic masses have an uncertainty of hundredths, the formula
mass uncertainty will also be hundredths (addition rule for significant figures).
b. From the periodic table, we obtain the needed atomic masses rounded to hundredths.
Pt: 195.08 amu Cl: 35.45 amu N: 14.01 amu H: 1.01 amu
Summing the atomic masses, using each an appropriate number of times, we get
Pt: 1 * 195.08 amu = 195.08 amu
Cl: 2 * 35.45 amu = 70.90 amu
N: 2 * 14.01 amu = 28.02 amu
H: 6 * 1.01 amu = 6.06 amu
Based on the addition rule for significant figures, the uncertainty in the answer is
hundredths since all of the input atomic masses had uncertainties of hundredths.
Answer Double Check: Do the calculated atomic masses have the correct number of signifi-
cant figures? Yes. Both answers are given to the hundredths place. Since all input atomic masses
were known to hundredths and the calculation is treated as an addition problem (operational
rule 3), the calculated atomic masses should also be values known to the hundredths place.
9.4 MASS PERCENT COMPOSITION OF A COMPOUND

Student Learning Focus: Given a compound’s chemical formula, be able to calculate its percent
composition by mass.
A useful piece of information about a compound is its percent composition by mass.

Percent by mass composition of a compound is the percent by mass of each element
present in the compound. For instance, the percent composition by mass of water is 88.81%
oxygen and 11.19% hydrogen.
Percent compositions are frequently used to compare compound compositions. The
compounds gold(III) iodide 1AuI3 2, gold(III) nitrate [Au1NO3 23], and gold(I) cyanide
(AuCN) contain, respectively, 34.10%, 51.43%, and 88.33% gold by mass. If you were
given the choice of receiving a gift of 1 lb of one of these three gold compounds, which
one would you choose?
The percent by mass of an element in a compound is the number of grams of
the element present in 100 grams of the compound. The generalized equation for the per-
cent by mass of an element in a compound is
mass of element
percent by mass of element = * 100
mass of compound sample
The percent composition of a compound can be calculated from experimental decom-

position data as was done in Example 9.1. Such a calculation can be carried out even if the
formula or the identity of the compound is unknown. A compound’s chemical formula can
also be used to obtain percentage composition information, as is illustrated in Example 9.4.
EXAMPLE 9.4 Using a Compound’s Chemical Formula to Calculate Its

Percent by Mass Composition
Calculate the percent by mass composition (using atomic masses rounded to hundredths)
of the pain reliever acetaminophen. Its chemical formula is C8H9O2N.
SOLUTION
First, we calculate the formula mass of C8H9O2N, using atomic masses rounded to the
hundredths decimal place.
C: 8 * 12.01 amu = 96.08 amu
H: 9 * 1.01 amu = 9.09 amu
O: 2 * 16.00 amu = 32.00 amu
N: 1 * 14.01 amu = 14.01 amu
The mass percent of each element in the compound is found by dividing the mass
contribution of each element, in amu, by the total mass (formula mass), in amu, and
multiplying by 100.
mass of element in one formula unit
mass % element = * 100
formula mass
Finding percentages, we have
96.08 amu
mass % C = * 100 = 63.55338% 1calculator answer2
151.18 amu
9.09 amu
mass % H = * 100 = 6.0127% 1calculator answer2
151.18 amu
32.00 amu
mass % O = * 100 = 21.166821% 1calculator answer2
151.18 amu
14.01 amu
mass % N = * 100 = 9.2670988% 1calculator answer2
151.18 amu
Answer Double Check: Does the sum of the calculated percentages add to 100%? Yes.
The sum of the percentages is 63.55% + 6.01% + 21.17% + 9.267% = 100.00%. On
occasion, because of rounding errors, totals such as 99.99% or 100.01% may be obtained.
Such was not the case here.
Chemical Insight: ACETAMINOPHEN

Acetaminophen has replaced aspirin as the most widely used nonprescription pain
reliever. Its use now accounts for more than half of the over-the-counter pain reliever
market. It is marketed generically and under trade names such as Tylenol, Datril,
Tempra, and Anacin-3. Acetaminophen’s availability in a liquid form makes it an ideal
medication for small children and other patients who have difficulty taking solid tablets.
Acetaminophen, often called the “aspirin substitute,” has no irritating effect on
the intestinal tract, as does aspirin, and yet has comparable pain-relieving and fever-
reducing effects. However, it is not effective against inflammation, as is aspirin, and
thus has limited use in treating the aches and pains associated with inflammation. Also,
acetaminophen does not have any blood-thinning properties, as does aspirin, and
therefore is not useful as an aid in reducing the risk of stroke and heart attack.
Percent by mass compositions can also be calculated from mass data obtained from
compound synthesis or compound decomposition experiments. Example 9.5 shows how
synthesis data are treated to yield percent by mass composition.
EXAMPLE 9.5 Using Synthesis Data to Calculate Percent by Mass

Composition
The production of a 13.50 g sample of the hormone adrenaline requires 7.96 g of C, 0.96 g
of H, 3.54 g of O, and 1.04 g of N. What is the percent by mass composition of this compound?
SOLUTION
The total mass of the compound sample is given as 13.50 g. We divide the mass of each
element present by this total mass (13.50 g) and multiply by 100 to give the percentage.
mass of element
mass % element = * 100
total sample mass
Finding the percentages, we have
7.96 g
mass % C: * 100 = 58.962963% 1calculator answer2
13.50 g
0.96 g
mass % H: * 100 = 7.1111111% 1calculator answer2
13.50 g
3.54 g
mass % O: * 100 = 26.222222% 1calculator answer2
13.50 g
1.04 g
mass % N: * 100 = 7.7037037% 1calculator answer2
13.50 g
Answer Double Check: Do the calculated percentages add up to 100%? Yes. Adding the
percentages gives 59.0% + 7.1% + 26.2% + 7.70% = 100.0%.
Chemical Insight: ADRENALINE

Adrenaline, also known as epinephrine, has the chemical formula C9H13O3N. It is a
hormone released from the adrenal glands into the bloodstream (in response to pain,
excitement, anger, or fear) that increases the level of glucose in the blood. The extra
glucose, a key source of energy for body processes, in turn increases the rate and force
of heart contractions, muscular strength, and blood pressure. These changes cause the
body to function at a “higher” level. For this reason, adrenaline is often called the “fight
or flight” hormone.
Adrenaline-caused increased blood pressure from increased heart action is ac-
companied by constriction of peripheral blood vessels. Injectable local anesthetics
usually contain adrenaline because it constricts blood vessels in the vicinity of the
injection. This prevents the blood from rapidly distributing the anesthetic and prolongs
the anesthetic effect in the target tissue. Adrenaline is also used to reduce hemorrhage.
9.5 THE MOLE: THE CHEMIST’S COUNTING UNIT

Student Learning Focus: Be familiar with the use of the mole as a counting unit and be able to calculate
the number of particles (atoms or molecules) in a specified number of moles of a chemical substance.
Two common methods exist for specifying the quantity of material in a sample of a sub-
stance: (1) in terms of units of mass and (2) in terms of units of amount. We measure
mass by using a balance (Sec. 3.3). Common mass units are gram, kilogram, and pound.
For substances that consist of discrete units, we can specify the amount of substance
present by indicating the number of units present—12, or 27, or 113, and so on.
We all use both units of mass and units of amount on a daily basis. We work well
with this dual system. Sometimes it does not matter which type of unit is used; at other
times one system is preferred over the other. When buying potatoes at the grocery store
we can decide on quantity in either mass units (10 lb bag, 20 lb bag, etc.) or amount
units (9 potatoes, 15 potatoes, etc.). When buying eggs, amount units are used almost
exclusively—12 eggs (1 dozen), 24 eggs (2 dozen), and so on. On the other hand,
peanuts and grapes are almost always purchased in weighed quantities. It is impractical
to count the number of grapes in a bunch. Very few people go to the store with the idea
of buying 117 grapes.
In chemistry, as in everyday life, both the mass and amount methods of specifying
quantity find use. Again, the specific situation dictates the method used. In laboratory
work, practicality dictates working with quantities of known mass (12.3 g, 0.1365 g, etc.).
(Counting out a given number of atoms for a laboratory experiment is impossible, since
we cannot see individual atoms.)
In performing chemical calculations, after the laboratory work has been done, it
is often useful (even necessary) to think of quantities of substances present in terms of
atoms or formula units. A problem exists when this is done—very very large numbers are
always encountered. Any macroscopic sample of a chemical substance contains many tril-
lions of atoms or formula units.
To cope with this large number problem, chemists have found it convenient to use a
special counting unit. Employment of such a unit should not surprise you, as specialized
counting units are used in many areas. The two most common counting units are dozen
and pair. Other more specialized counting units exist. For example, at an office supply
store, paper is sold by the ream (500 sheets), and pencils by the gross (144 pencils). (See
Fig. 9.2.)
A more technical defini- The chemist’s counting unit is called a mole. What is unusual about the mole is its
tion for a mole will be magnitude. A mole is a counting unit based on the number 6.022 * 1023. This extremely
given in Section 9.7.
large number is necessitated by the extremely small size of atoms, molecules, and ions.
The use of a traditional counting unit, such as a dozen, would be, at best, only a slight
improvement over counting atoms singly.
6.022 * 1023 atoms = 5.018 * 1022 dozen atoms = 1 mole atoms
Note how the use of the mole counting unit decreases very significantly the mag-
nitude of numbers encountered. The number 1 represents 6.022 * 1023 objects, while
the number 2 represents double that number of objects. (Why the number 6.022 * 1023
was chosen as the counting unit rather than some other number will be discussed in
Section 9.6.)
The number 6.022 * 1023 also has a special name. Avogadro’s number is the name
given to the numerical value 6.022 * 1023, the number of objects in a mole. This designa-
tion honors the Italian physicist Lorenzo Romano Amedeo Carlo Avogadro (1776–1856; see
“The Human Side of Chemistry 10”), whose pioneering work on gases later proved to be
valuable in determining the number of particles present in a given volume of a substance.
FIGURE 9.2 Some

counting units used to
denote quantities in
terms of amount.
2 gloves—1 pair 12 rolls—1 dozen 144 pencils—1 gross

(a) (b) (c)
•xxx xxxxx xxxxx

•xxx xxxxx xxxxx
•xxx xxxxx xxxxx xxxxxxx
xxx xx •xxx xxxxx xxxxx
500 sheets of paper—1 ream 6.022 × 1023 atoms—1 mole

(d) (e)

Lorenzo Romano per unit volume and that these particles need first publication of his law, a monument honor-
Amedeo Carlo not be individual atoms but might be combina- ing Avogadro was unveiled by the king in one
Avogadro tions of atoms. The thrust of this paper, known of the greatest posthumous tributes to a scien-
(1776–1856) now as Avogadro’s law, received little atten- tist in history.
tion from his contemporaries. Turin, where Avogadro’s name is attached to a num-
Amedeo Avogadro, born Avogadro was a professor, was outside the ber he never determined. During the early
in Turin, Italy, followed in the footsteps of his mainstream of scientific activity in 1811. 1900s, chemical theory developed to the point
father, obtaining a law degree at age 16 and for It was not until after his death that that estimates could be made of the number of
some years engaging in the practice of law. At his genius was recognized. In 1858, two molecules in a given volume of gas. That equal
age 24, he began to study, privately, mathemat- years after his death, Stanislao Cannizzaro volumes of all gases really contain the same
ics and physics. Abandoning the law profes- (1826–1910), a fellow countryman, pointed number of molecules (Avogadro’s law) was a
sion at age 30, he spent most of his later life out the full significance of Avogadro’s law at provable reality. Jean-Baptiste Perrin (1870–
as a professor of mathematical physics at the an international gathering of scientists. The 1942), in 1909, was the first to use the phrase
University of Turin. “time was right,” and acceptance was rapid. “Avogadro’s number” to denote the calculated
Avogadro was the first scientist to One chemist, after reading Cannizzaro’s paper, number of molecules in a specific volume of
distinguish between atoms and molecules. wrote “The scales seemed to fall from my eyes. gas. The honor is appropriate since Avogadro’s
His most important paper, published in 1811, Doubts disappeared and a feeling of quiet cer- law was the springboard for Perrin’s work, as
suggested that all gases (at a given tempera- tainty took their place.” In 1911, in Turin, in well as that of many other scientists working in
ture) contained the same number of particles commemoration of the 100th anniversary of the the same research area. ▪
In solving mathematical problems dealing with the number of atoms, molecules, or

ions present in a given amount of material, Avogadro’s number becomes part of the con-
version factor used to relate number of particles present to moles present.
Moles of Avogadro's Particles of

substance number substance
From the definition One mole of a chemi-

cal substance contains
1 mole = 6.022 * 10 objects 23
Avogadro’s number
of particles. The word
two conversion factors can be derived. particles, as used in the
1 mole 6.022 * 1023 objects preceding sentence, can
and have a number of mean-
6.022 * 1023 objects 1 mole
ings, including
Example 9.6 illustrates the use of these particle-to-mole conversion factors. 1. the number of mol-
ecules of a molecular
compound
EXAMPLE 9.6 Calculating the Number of Objects in a Molar Quantity 2. the number of for-
mula units of an ionic
How many objects are there in each of the following quantities? compound
3. the number of atoms
a. 1.20 moles of carbon monoxide (CO) molecules of an element
b. 2.53 moles of silver (Ag) atoms
c. 0.025 mole of magnesium sulfate 1MgSO4 2 formula units
d. 2.25 moles of watermelons
SOLUTION
We will use dimensional analysis (Sec. 3.7) in solving each part of this problem. All of the
parts are similar in that we are given a certain number of moles of substance and want to find
the number of particles contained in the given number of moles. All parts can be classified
as moles-to-particles problems, and each solution will involve the use of Avogadro’s number.
Moles of Avogadro's Particles of

a. The given quantity is 1.20 moles of CO molecules, and the desired quantity is the
number of CO molecules.
1.20 moles CO = ? CO molecules
The setup, by dimensional analysis, involves only one conversion factor.
6.022 * 1023 CO molecules
1.20 moles CO *
1 mole CO
= 7.2264 * 1023 CO molecules 1calculator answer2
= 7.23 * 1023 CO molecules 1correct answer2
b. The given quantity is 2.53 moles of silver atoms, and the desired quantity is the ac-
tual number of silver atoms present.
2.53 moles Ag = ? Ag atoms
The setup, using the same conversion factor as in part (a), is
6.022 * 1023 Ag atoms
2.53 moles Ag *
1 mole Ag
= 1.523566 * 1024 Ag atoms 1calculator answer2
= 1.52 * 1024 Ag atoms 1correct answer2
c. The fact that we are dealing with formula units here (an ionic compound), rather
than atoms or molecules, does not change the way the problem is solved.
0.025 mole MgSO4 = ? formula units MgSO4
The conversion factor setup is
6.022 * 1023 MgSO4 formula units
0.025 mole MgSO4 *
1 mole MgSO4
= 1.5055 * 1022 MgSO4 formula units 1calculator answer2
= 1.5 * 1022 MgSO4 formula units 1correct answer2
d. Use of the mole as a counting unit is usually found only in a chemical context.
Technically, however, any type of object can be counted in units of moles. One
mole denotes 6.022 * 1023 objects; it does not matter what the objects are—even
watermelons. Just as we can talk about dozens of watermelons, we can talk about
moles of watermelons, although the latter involves a very large watermelon patch.
6.022 * 1023 watermelons
2.25 moles watermelons *
1 mole watermelons
= 1.35495 * 1024 watermelons 1calculator answer2
= 1.35 * 1024 watermelons 1correct answer2
Answer Double Check: Are the answers reasonable in terms of their magnitude? The first
answer involves the power 1023, a power consistent with a 1.20 molar amount; the answer
should be close in magnitude to Avogadro’s number 11023 2, the power associated with 1
mole. The second and fourth answers involve the power 1024; they are consistent with molar
amounts twice that of Avogadro’s number (1 mole). The third answer involves the power 1022;
such an answer requires a molar amount of less than one, which is the case (0.025 mole).
FIGURE 9.3 Word

6.022 × 1023 dollars would pictures of how big
be enough to guarantee every
person on earth an income of
Avogadro’s number is.
$1 million per day for a
thousand years.
6.022 × 1023 chemistry textbooks the If 6.022 × 1023 snowflakes fell evenly throughout
approximate thickness of this one the United States, the blanket of snow would cover up
(2.5 cm) piled on top of each other would every building in the country, including the
reach to the moon and back 13 billion times. tallest skyscrapers.
A modern computer that can

If you could travel at the speed make 100 million counts
of light, it would take you more
6.022 × 1023 per second would need almost
than 100 billion years to travel 200 million years to count up
6.022 × 1023 miles. to 6.022 × 1023.
6.022 × 1023 people would

It would take 6 trillion galaxies be enough to populate
the size of the Milky Way to 86 trillion earths at the current
yield 6.022 × 1023 stars. population level of this Earth.
If every one of the 7 billion people living

on Earth attended a pizza party in which the
caterer provided 6.022 × 1023 pizzas, and each
person present downed a pizza every 3 minutes,
it would take 500 million years to consume the
pizza—millions of years of nonstop pizza eating.
It is somewhat unfortunate, because of its similarity to the word molecule, that the
name mole was selected as the name for the chemist’s counting unit. Students often think
that mole is an abbreviated form of the word molecule. That is not the case. The word
mole comes from the Latin moles, which means “heap or pile.” A mole is a macroscopic
amount, a heap or pile of objects, that can easily be seen. A molecule is a particle too
small to be seen with the naked eye.
In Example 9.6 we calculated the number of objects present in samples ranging in
size from 0.025 mole to 2.53 moles. Our answers were numbers carrying the exponents
1022, 1023, or 1024. Numbers with these exponents are inconceivably large. The magnitude
of Avogadro’s number itself is so large that it is almost incomprehensible. There is nothing
in our experience to relate to it. (When chemists count, they count in really big jumps.)
Many attempts have been made to create word pictures of the vast size of Avogadro’s
number. Such pictures, however, really only hint at its magnitude, since other large
numbers must be used in the word pictures. Several such word pictures are given in
Figure 9.3.
9.6 THE MASS OF A MOLE

Student Learning Focus: Be able to calculate the mass, in grams, of a given number of moles of a
chemical substance or vice versa.
How much does a mole weigh; that is, what is its mass? Consider a similar (but more fa-
miliar) question first: “How much does a dozen weigh?” Your response is now immediate.
“A dozen what?” you reply. The mass of a dozen identical objects obviously depends on
the identity of the object. For example, the mass of a dozen elephants will be “somewhat
greater” than the mass of a dozen marshmallows. The mole, like the dozen, is a counting
unit. Similarly, the mass of a mole of objects will depend on the identity of the object.
Thus, the mass of a mole, molar mass, is not a set number; it varies, being different
The atomic mass of an for each different chemical substance. This is in direct contrast to the molar number,
element and the molar Avogadro’s number, which is the same for all chemical substances.
mass of an element in
atomic form have the
The molar mass of an element is a mass in grams numerically equal to the
same numerical value. atomic mass of the element when the element is present in atomic form. Thus, if we
However, the units for the know the atomic mass of an element, we also know the mass of one mole of atoms
value differ. The unit for of the element. The two quantities are numerically the same, differing only in units.
atomic mass is amu. The For the elements carbon, oxygen, and sodium, we can write the following numerical
unit for molar mass of
an element is grams. The
relationships.
mathematical relationship
between amu units and mass of 1 carbon atom = 12.01 amu 1atomic mass2
grams units is formally
mass of 1 mole of carbon atoms = 12.01 g 1molar mass2
considered in Section 9.8.
mass of 1 oxygen atom = 16.00 amu 1atomic mass2
mass of 1 mole of oxygen atoms = 16.00 g 1molar mass2
mass of 1 sodium atom = 22.99 amu 1atomic mass2
mass of 1 mole of sodium atoms = 22.99 g 1molar mass2
It is not a coincidence that the mass in grams of a mole of atoms of an e lement

and the element’s atomic mass are numerically equal. The value selected for
Avogadro’s number is the one that validates this relationship; only for this
unique value is the relationship valid. Experimentally it was determined that
when 6.022 * 1023 atoms of an element are present, molar masses (in grams)
and atomic masses (in amu) are numerically equal. Again, only when the chemist’s
counting unit has the value 6.022 * 1023 does this relationship hold. Avogadro’s
number is thus the “connecting link” between the chemist’s m icroscopic
mass scale (amu) and macroscopic mass scale (gram), a topic to be considered
further in Section 9.8. The use of the mass unit grams in specifying the molar
mass of an element is a must. The use of other mass units would require a differ-
ent counting unit than 6.022 * 1023 for a numerical match between atomic mass
and molar mass.
The molecular form of an element will have a different molar mass than its atomic
form. Consider the element chlorine, which is found in nature in the form of diatomic
molecules 1Cl2 2. The mass of one mole of chlorine atoms (Cl) is different from the
mass of one mole of chlorine molecules 1Cl2 2. Since there are two atoms in each
molecule of chlorine, the molar mass of molecular chlorine is twice the molar mass of
atomic chlorine. The following relationships hold for chlorine, whose atomic mass is
35.45 amu.
6.022 * 1023 Cl atoms = 1 mole Cl atoms = 35.45 g Cl

6.022 * 1023 Cl2 molecules = 1 mole Cl2 molecules = 70.90 g Cl2
Note that one mole of molecular chlorine contains twice as many atoms as one mole of
atomic chlorine; however, the number of discrete particles present is the same (Avogadro’s
number) in both cases. For atomic chlorine, atoms are considered to be the object
counted; for molecular chlorine, molecules are considered to be the discrete particle
counted. There is the same number of atoms in the former case as there is of molecules
in the latter case. This atomic–molecular chlorine situation is analogous to the difference
between a dozen shoes and a dozen pairs of shoes. Both the mass and the actual number
of shoes for the dozen pairs of shoes are double those for the dozen shoes.
The existence of some elements in molecular form becomes a source of error in
chemical calculations if care is not taken to distinguish properly between atomic and mo-
lecular forms of the element. The phrase “one mole of chlorine” is an ambiguous term.
Does it mean one mole of chlorine atoms (Cl), or does it mean one mole of chlorine
molecules 1Cl2 2 ? To avoid ambiguity, it is important to always state explicitly the chemi-
cal form of an element being discussed. Using the chemical formula Cl2 or referring to the
substance as molecular chlorine avoids ambiguity.
The molar mass of a compound is a mass in grams that is numerically equal to
the formula mass of the compound. Thus, for compounds a numerical equivalence exists
between molar mass and formula mass if the molar mass is specified in grams. When we
add atomic masses to get the formula mass (in amu) of a compound, we are simultane-
ously finding the mass of one mole of compound (in grams). The molar mass–formula
mass relationships for the compounds water 1H2O2, ammonia 1NH3 2, and barium chlo-
ride 1BaCl2 2 are
mass of 1 H2O molecule = 18.02 amu 1formula mass2

mass of 1 mole of H2O molecules = 18.02 g 1molar mass2
mass of 1 NH3 molecule = 17.04 amu 1formula mass2
mass of 1 mole of NH3 molecules = 17.04 g 1molar mass2
mass of 1 BaCl2 formula unit = 208.23 amu 1formula mass2
mass of 1 mole of BaCl2 formula units = 208.23 g 1molar mass2
Figure 9.4 pictures molar quantities of a number of common substances. Note again
how the mass of a mole varies in numerical value. On the other hand, all of the pictured
amounts of substances contain the same number of units—6.022 * 1023 atoms, mol-
ecules, or formula units.
A generalized definition for the molar mass of a substance, which is independent of
whether the substance is an element or a compound, can be given. A molar mass is the
mass, in grams, of one mole of atoms, molecules, or formula units of a substance.
It should now be very evident to you why the chemist’s counting unit, the mole,
has the value it does—6.022 * 1023. Avogadro’s number represents the experimentally
determined number of atoms, molecules, or formula units contained in a sample of a pure
substance with a mass in grams numerically equal to the atomic mass or formula mass of
the pure substance.
58.44 g table salt FIGURE 9.4 One

mole each of seven
different substances:
the elements copper
18.02 g (Cu), mercury (Hg),
water and iodine (I2) and the
compounds water (H2O),
table salt (NaCI), table
180.17 g aspirin sugar (C12H22O11), and
200.59 g
aspirin (C9H8O4).
mercury
63.55 g
copper
342.34 g table sugar

253.80 g iodine
The numerical match between molar mass and atomic or formula mass makes the
calculation of the mass of any given number of moles of a substance a very simple pro-
cedure. In solving problems of this type, the numerical value of the molar mass becomes
part of the conversion factor used to convert from moles to grams.
Moles of Molar Grams of

substance mass substance
For example, for the compound CO2, which has a formula mass of 44.01 amu, we
can write the equality
44.01 g CO2 = 1 mole CO2
From this statement two conversion factors can be written.
44.01 g CO2 1 mole CO2

and
1 mole CO2 44.01 g CO2
Example 9.7 illustrates the use of gram-mole conversion factors like these.
EXAMPLE 9.7 Calculating the Mass, in Grams, of a Molar Quantity

Calculate the mass, in grams, of each of the following quantities of matter.
a. 1.50 moles of CH4 molecules b. 2.50 moles of NaCl formula units
c. 1.68 moles of N2 molecules d. 1.68 moles of N atoms
SOLUTION
We will use dimensional analysis to solve each of these problems. The relationship be-
tween molar mass and atomic or formula mass will serve as a conversion factor in the
setup of each problem.
a. The given quantity is 1.50 moles of CH4 molecules, and the desired quantity is
grams of CH4. Thus,
1.50 moles CH4 = ? g CH4
The formula mass of CH4 is calculated to be 16.05 amu.
C: 1 * 12.01 amu = 12.01 amu
4 H: 4 * 1.01 amu = 4.04 amu
formula mass = 16.05 amu
Using the formula mass, we can write the equality
16.05 g CH4 = 1 mole CH4
The dimensional analysis setup for the problem with the gram-to-mole equation
used as a conversion factor is
16.05 g CH4
1.50 moles CH4 * = 24.075 g CH4 1calculator answer2
1 mole CH4
= 24.1 g CH4 1correct answer2
b. The given quantity is 2.50 moles of NaCl formula units and the desired quantity is
grams of NaCl.
2.50 moles NaCl = ? g NaCl
The calculated formula mass of NaCl is 58.44 amu. Thus,

58.44 g NaCl = 1 mole NaCl
With this relationship as a conversion factor, the setup for the problem becomes
58.44 g NaCl
2.50 moles NaCl * = 146.1 g NaCl 1calculator answer2
1 mole NaCl
= 146 g NaCl 1correct answer2
c. The given quantity is 1.68 moles of N2 molecules. The desired quantity is grams of
N2 molecules. Thus,
1.68 moles N2 = ? g N2
We are dealing here with diatomic nitrogen molecules 1N2 2 and not nitrogen atoms.
Thus, 28.02 amu, twice the atomic mass of nitrogen, is the formula mass used in the
mole-to-gram statement.
28.02 g N2 = 1 mole N2
With this relationship as a conversion factor, the setup becomes
28.02 g N2
1.68 moles N2 * = 47.0736 g N2 1calculator answer2
1 mole N2
= 47.1 g N2 1correct answer2
d. The given quantity is 1.68 moles of N atoms, and the desired quantity is grams of N
atoms. Thus,
1.68 moles N = ? g N
This problem differs from the previous one in that atoms, rather than molecules,
of nitrogen are being counted. The atomic mass of nitrogen is 14.01 amu, and the
mole-to-gram equality statement is
14.01 g N = 1 mole N
With this relationship as a conversion factor, the setup becomes
14.01 g N
1.68 moles N * = 23.5368 g N 1calculator answer2
1 mole N
= 23.5 g N 1correct answer2
Notice that the mass of 1.68 moles of N2 [part (c)] is twice the mass of 1.68 moles of
N [part (d)]. This is as expected; there are twice as many atoms of N in 1.68 moles
of N2 as in 1.68 moles of N.
Answer Double Check: Are the answers reasonable in terms of their magnitude? Yes. All
four of the given molar amounts are roughly equal to 2 moles. The mass of 2 moles of a
substance, in grams, should be double the molar mass of the substance. In all four parts
of this problem this approximate two-to-one mass relationship holds.
Summary of Mass Terminology

In a chemical context, molar mass is the fourth “mass term” that we have encountered.
The previous three chemical contexts for mass were atomic mass (Sec. 5.8), isotopic mass
(Sec. 5.7), and formula mass (Sec. 9.2). Contrasting the different meanings for these four
terms is a useful summary for our discussion of molar mass.
1. Atomic mass: The average mass of naturally occurring isotopes of an element. The
unit for such masses is amu.
2. Isotopic mass: The mass of a particular isotope of an element. The unit for such
masses is also amu. Isotopic masses are used to calculate an atomic mass.
3. Formula mass: The sum of the atomic masses of the atoms present in a formula unit of
a chemical substance. The amu unit also is used in conjunction with this type of mass.
4. Molar mass: The mass, in grams, of one mole of atoms, molecules, or formula units
of a chemical substance. Molar mass and formula mass have the same numerical
value. Units, are however, different for the two quantities. The unit for molar mass is
grams and that for formula mass is amu. More specifically, the unit for molar mass is
actually grams/mole since by definition molar mass involves one mole of a chemical
substance. Example 9.8 expands, in a problem-solving context, on the concept that
the units for molar mass are actually grams/mole.
EXAMPLE 9.8 Calculating Molar Mass from Mass and Mole Data
Calculate the molar mass of nitric oxide, a gaseous substance with no odor, given that
0.2310 mole of nitric oxide weighs 6.932 grams.
SOLUTION
The chemical formula of nitric oxide was not given in the problem statement. It is not needed
to do the molar mass calculation. The given data is sufficient to calculate the molar mass.
The units for molar mass are grams per mole. Both of these quantities are known.
Thus, the given gram amount is divided by the given mole amount to give grams
per mole.
grams 6.932 g
molar mass a b =
mole 0.2310 mole
g
= 30.008658 1calculator answer2
mole
g
mole
Calculating the molar mass of a compound in this manner is similar to the manner
in which density is calculated (Sec. 3.8). Density is calculated by dividing mass by vol-
ume. Molar mass is calculated by dividing mass by moles.
The chemical formula for nitric oxide is known to be NO. This chemical formula
can be used as a double check on the preceding calculation. The formula mass of NO
(Sec. 9.2) is
formula mass = 1atomic mass N2 + 1atomic mass O2
= 14.01 amu + 16.00 amu
= 30.01 amu 1calculator and correct answer2
The molar mass of NO will be, therefore (Sec 9.2), 30.01 g/mole, which is the same
value that was calculated using mass/mole data rather than the chemical formula.
Chemical Insight: NITRIC OXIDE

Nitric oxide, NO, is a colorless, odorless, nonflammable gas that is generated by nu-
merous natural and human-caused processes including (1) lightning discharges, (2)
automobile engines, and (3) a burning cigarette. In all three of these processes the N2
and O2 components of air become slightly reactive toward each other at the high tem-
peratures associated with the processes, producing the NO. The environmental effects
of NO generated in these manners is well documented. The NO serves as a precursor
for the formation of both acid rain and smog.
Surprisingly, in 1987, it was found that NO is also an important biochemical that
is naturally present in the human body. The human body generates it own NO which
has several functions including (1) regulating blood pressure by dilating blood vessels,
(2) helping kill foreign invading molecules as part of the body’s immune system re-
sponse, and (3) serving as a chemical messenger in the brain for processes that involve
long-term memory.
9.7 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES AND AVOGADRO’S NUMBER

Student Learning Focus: Understand how significant figures concerns relate to the value for
Avogadro’s number.
Now that the mass of a molar amount of a substance has been considered (Sec. 9.6), let
us revisit the concept of Avogadro’s number.
In Section 9.5 we defined the mole simply as
1 mole = 6.022 * 1023 objects
Although this statement conveys correct information (the value of Avogadro’s num-
ber to four significant figures is 6.022 * 1023), it is not the officially accepted definition
for Avogadro’s number. The official definition, which is mass-based, is that the mole is the
amount of a substance that contains as many particles (atoms, molecules, or formula units)
as there are 126C atoms in 12.000000 grams of 126C. The value of Avogadro’s number is an
experimentally determined quantity (the number of atoms in 12.000000 g of 126C atoms)
rather than an exactly defined quantity. Its value is not even mentioned in the definition. One mole of a substance
represents a fixed num-
The most up-to-date experimental value for Avogadro’s number is 6.0221415 * 1023, which
ber of chemical entities
is consistent with our previous definition. In calculations we will never need a value with as and has a fixed mass. It
many significant figures as the experimentally determined one. is more than just a count-
In problem solving, conversion factors that involve Avogadro’s number should never ing unit (Sec. 9.5) that
be the “limiting factor” in significant-figure considerations. To ensure that this is the case, specifies the number
of objects. The official
our approach will be to carry more digits than required by the data in Avogadro’s number
definition of the mole
conversion factors. Our operational rule will be to use the value 6.022 * 1023 for Avogadro’s specifies the number of
number in problem-solving situations. This will suffice in most situations. However, remem- objects in a fixed mass of
ber that more significant figures are available for use if the data ever require such. a substance.
9.8 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ATOMIC MASS UNITS AND GRAM UNITS

Student Learning Focus: Be familiar with uses for the conversation factor that relates the atomic
mass unit (amu) to the grams unit.
The atomic mass unit (amu) and the grams unit (g) are related to one another through
Avogadro’s number.
6.022 * 1023 amu = 1.000 g
That this is the case can be deduced from the following equalities:
atomic mass of N = mass of 1 N atom = 14.01 amu
molar mass of N = mass of 6.022 * 1023 N atoms = 14.01 g
Because the second equality involves 6.022 * 1023 times as many atoms as the first equal-
ity and the masses come out numerically equal, the gram unit must be 6.022 * 1023 times
larger than the amu unit.
Using a dimensional analysis setup, the relationship
6.022 * 1023 amu = 1.000 g
can be derived from the preceding data on nitrogen in the following manner:
6.022 * 1023 atoms N 1 mole N 14.01 amu
* *
1 mole N 14.01 g N 1 atom N
= 6.022 * 1023 amu>g 1calculator and correct answer2
The first conversion factor is based on the number of atoms in 1 mole of N, the second
on the molar mass of N, and the third on the atomic mass of N.
EXAMPLE 9.9 Using the Relationship between Grams and Atomic Mass
Units as a Conversion Factor
What is the mass, in grams, of a molecule whose mass on the amu scale is 104.0 amu?
SOLUTION
This is a one-step problem based on the conversion factor
6.022 * 1023 amu = 1.000 g
The dimensional analysis setup is
1.000 g
104.0 amu * = 1.7270009 * 10-22 g 1calculator answer2
6.022 * 1023amu
= 1.727 * 10-22 g 1correct answer2
9.9 THE MOLE AND CHEMICAL FORMULAS

Student Learning Focus: Be able to interpret the subscripts in a chemical formula for a substance
in terms of the number of moles of the various elements present in a given number of moles of
the substance.
A chemical formula has two meanings or interpretations: (1) a microscopic-level interpre-

tation and (2) a macroscopic-level interpretation.
The first of these two interpretations was discussed in Section 5.4. At the micro-
scopic level a chemical formula indicates the number of atoms of each element present in
one molecule or formula unit of a substance. The subscripts in the formula are interpreted
to mean the numbers of atoms of the various elements present in one unit of the sub-
stance. The formula C2H6, interpreted at the microscopic level, conveys the information
that two atoms of C and six atoms of H are present in one molecule of C2H6.
Now that the mole concept has been introduced, a macroscopic interpretation of
formulas is possible. At the macroscopic level a chemical formula indicates the number of
moles of atoms of each element present in one mole of a substance. The subscripts in the
formula are interpreted to mean the numbers of moles of atoms of the various elements
present in one mole of the substance. The designation “macroscopic” is given to this In general, the term mac-
molar interpretation, since moles are laboratory-sized quantities of atoms. The formula roscopic refers to objects
or amounts of substances
C2H6, interpreted at the macroscopic level, conveys the information that two moles of C that are visible to the
atoms and six moles of H atoms are present in one mole of C2H6. human eye without the
It is now evident, then, that the subscripts in a formula always carry a dual meaning: aid of instrumentation.
“atom” at the microscopic level and “moles of atoms” at the macroscopic level.
The validity of the molar interpretation for subscripts in a formula derives from the
following line of reasoning. In x molecules of C2H6, where x is any number, there are 2x
atoms of C and 6x atoms of H. Regardless of the value of x, there must always be two
times as many C atoms as molecules and six times as many H atoms as molecules; that is,
number of C2H6 molecules = x

number of C atoms = 2x
number of H atoms = 6x
Now let x equal 6.022 * 1023, the value of Avogadro’s number. With this x value, the fol-
lowing statements are true.
number of C2H6 molecules = 6.022 * 1023

number of C atoms = 2 * 6.022 * 1023 = 1.2044 * 1024 1calculator answer2
= 1.204 * 1024 1correct answer2
number of H atoms = 6 * 6.022 * 1023 = 3.6132 * 1024 1calculator answer2
Since 6.022 * 1023 is equal to 1 mole, 1.204 * 1024 to 2 moles, and 3.613 * 1024 to 6
moles, these statements may be changed to read
number of C2H6 molecules = 1 mole

number of C atoms = 2 moles
number of H atoms = 6 moles
Thus, the mole ratio is the same as the subscript ratio: 2:6.
In calculations where the moles of a particular element within a compound are
asked for, the subscript of that particular element in the chemical formula of the com-
pound becomes part of the conversion factor used to convert from moles of compound
to moles of element within the compound.
Moles of Formula Moles of element

compound subscript within compound
For example, again using C2H6 as our chemical formula, we can write the following con-
version factors.
2 moles C atoms 1 mole C2H6 molecules

For C: or
1 mole C2H6 molecules 2 moles C atoms
6 moles H atoms 1 mole C2H6 molecules
For H: or
1 mole C2H6 molecules 6 moles H atoms
Example 9.10 illustrates the use of conversion factors of this type in a problem-solving context.
EXAMPLE 9.10 Calculating Molar Quantities of Compound Components

Menthol 1C10H20O2 is a naturally occurring compound with a pleasant, minty odor. How
many moles of each type of atom present in this compound are contained in a 2.65-mole
sample of the compound?
SOLUTION
The formula C10H20O specifies that 1 mole of this substance will contain 10 moles of car-
bon atoms, 20 moles of hydrogen atoms, and 1 mole of oxygen atoms. This information
leads to the following conversion factors:
10 moles C atoms 20 moles H atoms 1 mole O atoms

1 mole C10H20O 1 mole C10H20O 1 mole C10H20O
Using the first of these conversion factors, the moles of C atoms present are calculated as
follows:
10 moles C atoms
2.65 moles C10H20O * = 26.5 moles C atoms
1 mole C10H20O
1calculator and correct answer2
Similarly, using the second conversion factor, the moles of H atoms present are calculated.
20 moles H atoms
2.65 moles C10H20O * = 53 moles H atoms 1calculator answer2
1 mole C10H20O
= 53.0 moles H atoms 1correct answer2
Finally, using the third conversion factor, we obtain the moles of O atoms present.
1 mole O atoms
2.65 moles C10H20O * = 2.65 moles O atoms
1 mole C10H20O
If the question “How many total moles of atoms are present?” were asked, we could
obtain the answer by adding the moles of C, H, and O atoms just calculated.
126.5 + 53.0 + 2.652 moles atoms = 82.15 moles atoms 1calculator answer2
= 82.2 moles atoms 1correct answer2
Alternatively, by noting that there are a total of 31 moles of atoms present in 1 mole of
C10H20O (the sum of the subscripts in the formula), we could calculate the total moles of
atoms present, using the following setup:
31 moles of atoms
2.65 moles C10H20O * = 82.15 moles of atoms 1calculator answer2
1 mole C10H20O
= 82.2 moles of atoms 1correct answer2
Answer Double Check: The relationships among the three answers should be the same
as the relationships among the subscripts in the given chemical formula. Is such the case?
Yes. The second answer should be double the first one (subscripts 20 and 10), which it
is (26.5 moles and 53.0 moles), and the third answer should be one-tenth the first answer
(subscripts 1 and 10), which it is (2.65 moles and 26.5 moles).
Chemical Insight: MENTHOL

In the pure state, menthol 1C10H20O2 is a white crystalline solid. It can be obtained
from peppermint oil or prepared synthetically. Topical application of menthol to the
skin causes a refreshing cooling sensation followed by a slight burning-and-prickling
sensation. Its mode of action is that of a differential anesthetic. It stimulates the recep-
tor cells in the skin that normally respond to cold to give a sensation of coolness that
is unrelated to body temperature.
Numerous products contain menthol including throat sprays and lozenges, cough
drops, cigarettes, after-shave preparations, dermatologic preparations, and chest-rub
preparations. Artificial mint flavoring agents used in toothpastes and mouthwashes
contain menthol as an ingredient.
Table 9.2 serves as a summary of the mole relationships we have considered up to this
point in the chapter. Note, through comparison of the third and fourth entries in Table 9.2
that the same-size molar quantity of a given type of atom and its monoatomic ion are consid-
ered to have the same mass. This is because the mass of electrons is so very small (Sec. 5.5).
9.10 THE MOLE AND CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS

Student Learning Focus: When given information (moles, particles, grams) about a chemical sub-
stance, be able to calculate additional information (moles, particles, grams) about the same sub-
stance or about a component of the substance.
In this section we combine the major points we have learned about moles in previous
sections to produce a general approach to problem solving that is applicable to a variety
of types of chemical calculations.
The three quantities most often calculated in chemical problems are
1. The number of particles of a substance, that is, the number of atoms, molecules, or
formula units.
2. The number of moles of a substance.
3. The number of grams (mass) of a substance.
TABLE 9.2 Mole Relationships
Formula Mass of 1 Mole of Number and Kind of

Name Formula Mass (amu) Formula Units (g) Particles in 1 Mole
Atomic nitrogen N 14.01 14.01 6.022 * 1023 N atoms
Molecular nitrogen N2 28.02 28.02 6.022 * 1023 N2 molecules
e
216.022 * 1023 2 N atoms
Zinc Zn 65.38 65.38 6.022 * 1023 Zn atoms
Zinc ions Zn2 + 65.38* 65.38 6.022 * 1023 Zn2 + ions
Calcium chloride CaCl2 110.98 110.98 6.022 * 1023 CaCl2 units
c 6.022 * 1023 Ca2 + ions
216.022 * 1023 2 Cl - ions
*Recall that the electron has negligible mass; thus ions and atoms have essentially the same mass.
These quantities are interrelated. The conversion factors dealing with these rela-
tionships, as previously noted, involve the concepts of (1) Avogadro’s number, (2) molar
mass, and (3) molar interpretation of chemical formula subscripts.
1. Avogadro’s number (Sec. 9.5) provides a relationship between the number of par-
ticles of a substance and the number of moles of the same substance.
Particles of Avogadro's Moles of

2. Molar mass (Sec. 9.6) provides a relationship between the number of grams of a
substance and the number of moles of the same substance.
Grams of Molar Moles of

substance mass substance
3. Molar interpretation of chemical formula subscripts (Sec. 9.9) provides a relation-

ship between the number of moles of a substance and the number of moles of its
component parts.
Moles of Formula Moles of element

compound subscript within compound
The preceding three concepts can be combined into a single diagram that is very
useful in problem solving. This diagram, Figure 9.5, can be viewed as a road map from
which conversion factor sequences (pathways) can be obtained. It gives all the needed
relationships for solving two general types of problems.
1. Calculations for which information (moles, grams, particles) is given about a par-
ticular substance and additional information (moles, grams, particles) is needed
concerning the same substance.
2. Calculations for which information (moles, grams, particles) is given about a par-
ticular substance and information (moles, grams, particles) is needed concerning a
component of that same substance.
For the first type of problem, only the left side of Figure 9.5 (the A boxes) is needed.
For problems of the second type, both sides of the diagram (both A and B boxes) are used.
The thinking pattern needed to use Figure 9.5 is very simple.
1. Determine which box in the diagram represents the given quantity in the problem.
2. Next, locate the box that represents the desired quantity.
3. Finally, follow the indicated pathway that takes you from the given quantity to the
desired quantity. This involves simply following the arrows. There will always be
only one pathway possible for the needed transition.
FIGURE 9.5 Useful Particles Avogadro's Moles Formula Moles Avogadro's Particles
relationships for solving of A of A of B of B
number subscript number
chemical formula–based
problems.
Molar Molar
mass mass
Grams Grams
of A of B
Examples 9.11 to 9.15 illustrate a few of the types of problems that can be solved
using the relationships shown in Figure 9.5. In the first three examples we will need only
the A side of the diagram; the following two examples make use of both the A and B
sides of the diagram.
EXAMPLE 9.11 Calculating the Number of Particles in a Given Mass

of Substance
Nicotine, the second most widely used central nervous system stimulant in our society
(caffeine is first), occurs naturally in tobacco leaves. Its chemical formula is C10H14N2.
How many nicotine molecules are present in a 0.0015 g sample of nicotine (a typical
amount in a cigarette)?
SOLUTION
We will solve this problem by using the three steps of dimensional analysis (Sec. 3.7) and Example 9.11 illustrates
Figure 9.5. the important concept
that Avogadro’s number is
Step 1 The given quantity is 0.0015 g of C10H14N2, and the desired quantity is molecules a means for relating mac-
of C10H14N2. roscopic scale (laboratory
scale) measurements to
0.0015 g C10H14N2 = ? molecules C10H14N2 microscopic scale (atomic
scale) measurements or
In terms of Figure 9.5, this is a grams-of-A to particles-of-A problem. We are vice versa.
given grams of substance A and desire to find particles (molecules) of that same
substance.
Step 2 Figure 9.5 gives us the pathway (sequence of conversion factors) needed to
work the problem. We want to start in the “grams of A” box and end up in the
“particles of A” box. The pathway is
Grams Molar Moles Avogadro's Particles

of A mass of A number of A
Using dimensional analysis, the setup for this sequence of conversion factors is
1 mole C10H14N2 6.022 * 1023 molecules C10H14N2
0.0015 g C10H14N2 * *
162.26 g C10H14N2 1 mole C10H14N2
grams A h moles A h particles A
The number 162.26 that was used in the first conversion factor is the formula
mass of C10H14N2. It is not given in the problem, but had to be calculated using
atomic masses and the operational rules given in Section 9.3.
Step 3 The solution to the problem, obtained by doing the arithmetic, is
0.0015 * 1 * 6.022 * 1023
molecules C10H14N2
162.26 * 1
= 5.5669912 * 1018 molecules C10H14N2 1calculator answer2
= 5.6 * 1018 molecules C10H14N2 1correct answer2
Answer Double Check: Does the answer have the correct magnitude? Yes. Since the
given mass (approximately 10-3 g) is less than the molar mass (approximately 102 g) by
a factor of 105, the number of molecules present should be less than Avogadro’s number
by a factor of 105. The power of ten in the answer, 1018, is consistent with this answer
11023 >105 = 1018 2.
Chemical Insight: NICOTINE

Nicotine is readily and completely absorbed from the stomach after oral administration
and from the lungs after inhalation. Its mild stimulant effect on the central nervous sys-
tem is transient. After an initial response, depression follows. Most cigarettes contain
between 0.5 mg and 2.0 mg of nicotine, of which approximately 20% (between 0.1 mg
and 0.4 mg) is actually inhaled and absorbed into the bloodstream.
Nicotine is quickly distributed throughout the body, rapidly penetrating the brain,
all body organs, and, in general, all body fluids. There is now strong evidence that
cigarette smoking affects a developing fetus.
Nicotine can influence the action of prescription drugs that a smoker is tak-
ing concurrently. The carcinogenic effects associated with cigarette smoking are not
caused by nicotine but by other compounds present in tobacco smoke.
EXAMPLE 9.12 Calculating the Mass of a Given Number of Particles of

a Substance
What would be the mass, in grams, of a nitrogen dioxide (NO2) sample in which one
hundred billion 11.000 * 1011 2 molecules are present?
SOLUTION
Step 1 The given quantity is 1.000 * 1011 NO2 molecules. The desired quantity is grams
of NO2.
1.000 * 1011 NO2 molecules = ? g NO2
In terms of Figure 9.5, this is a particles-of-A to grams-of-A problem.
Step 2 The pathway for this problem is the exact reverse of the one used in the previous
example. We are given particles and asked to find grams of the same substance.
Particles Avogadro's Moles Molar Grams

of A number of A mass of A
Using dimensional analysis, the setup is

1 mole NO2 46.01 g NO2
1.000 * 1011 NO2 molecules * *
6.022 * 10 NO2 molecules
23
1 mole NO2
particles A h moles A h grams A
The molar mass of NO2, 46.01 g, which was used in the second conversion factor,
was calculated from the atomic masses of nitrogen and oxygen. Avogadro’s num-
ber in the first conversion factor, specified to four significant figures, is consistent
with the given number 1.000 * 1011 having four significant figures.
Step 3 The final answer is obtained by doing the arithmetic.
1.000 * 1011 * 1 * 46.01
g NO2
6.022 * 1023 * 1
= 7.6403118 * 10-12 g NO2 1calculator answer2
= 7.640 * 10-12 g NO2 1correct answer2
Answer Double Check: Is the magnitude of the answer reasonable? Yes. The given
number of molecules differs from Avogadro’s number by a factor of approximately
10-12 11011/1023 = 10-12 2. The actual mass and the molar mass should differ by the same
factor. The calculated mass of 10-12 g is consistent with a molar mass of 46.0 g.
Chemical Insight: NITROGEN DIOXIDE

Nitrogen dioxide is a nonflammable, reactive, reddish-brown colored gas that forms in
the lower atmosphere when pollutants entering the atmosphere from automobile ex-
haust (primarily NO) react with atmospheric oxygen 1O22. The NO2 formed in this way
serves as a “precursor molecule” for the production of photochemical smog.
Certain wavelengths of ultraviolet radiation from the sun cause NO2 molecules
to break apart into NO and O (atomic oxygen). The very reactive atomic oxygen so
produced then reacts with “normal” oxygen 1O22 to produce ozone 1O32. Ozone is the
most abundant irritant present in photochemical smog.
EXAMPLE 9.13 Calculating the Mass of a Single Atom or a Single

Molecule
Calculate the mass, in grams, of each of the following chemical entities.
a. a single atom of Cu b. a single molecule of CO2
SOLUTION
a.
Step 1 The given quantity is 1 atom of Cu, and the desired quantity is grams of Cu.
1 atom Cu = ? g Cu
In terms of Figure 9.5, this is a particles-of-A to grams-of-A problem.
Step 2 The pathway for this problem is identical to that used in the previous example.
We are given particles (one particle in this case), and asked to find grams of the
same substance.

Using dimensional analysis, the setup is

1 mole Cu 63.55 g Cu
1 atom Cu * *
6.022 * 1023 atoms Cu 1 mole Cu
The second conversion factor contains the atomic mass of Cu, which was ob-
tained from the periodic table.
1 * 1 * 63.55
g Cu = 1.0552972 * 10-22 g Cu 1calculator answer2
6.022 * 1023 * 1
= 1.055 * 10-22 g Cu 1correct answer2
The mass of a single atom is, indeed, a very small mass in the unit of grams—
0.0000000000000000000001055 g. Commonly used analytical balances are capa-
ble of weighing to {0.0001 g. The mass of a single atom can be calculated but,
obviously, it cannot be determined using an analytical balance.
b.
Step 1 The given quantity is 1 molecule of CO2 and the desired quantity is grams of CO2.
1 molecule CO2 = ? g CO2
In terms of Figure 9.5, this problem, like part (a), is a particles-of-A to grams-
of-A problem.
Step 2 We are dealing with an identical setup to that in part (a), except that a molecule
rather than an atom is the particle of concern.

Using dimensional analysis, the conversion factor setup becomes

1 molecule CO2 * *
6.022 * 1023 molecules CO2 1 mole CO2
The second conversion factor involves the molar mass of CO2 which is calcu-
lated using the atomic masses of carbon and oxygen obtained from the periodic
table.
Step 3 Collecting the conversion factors and doing the arithmetic gives
1 * 1 * 44.01
g CO2 = 7.3082032 * 10-23 g CO2 1calculator answer2
6.022 * 1023 * 1
= 7.308 * 10-23 g CO2 1correct answer2
Note that a Cu atom [part (a)] weighs more than a CO2 molecule [part (b)].
The atoms present in a CO2 molecule are small atoms when compared to a
Cu atom.
Answer Double Check: Do the answers have a magnitude that is reasonable? Yes. One
amu is equivalent to approximately 10-24 g (the reciprocal of Avogadro’s number). Since
most atoms and molecules have masses of 100 amu or less, their masses in grams should
be in the 10-22 to 10-24 g range. The answers, 10-22 and 10-23 g, fall within this approxi-
mate range.
EXAMPLE 9.14 Calculating the Mass of an Element Present in a Given

Mass of Compound
Caffeine, the stimulant in coffee and tea, has the formula C8H10N4O2. How many grams of
nitrogen are present in a 50.0 g sample of caffeine?
SOLUTION
Step 1 There is an important difference between this problem and the preceding
three; here we are dealing with not one but two substances, caffeine and nitro-
gen. The given quantity is grams of caffeine (substance A), and we are asked to
find the grams of nitrogen (substance B). This is a grams-of-A to grams-of-B
problem.
50.0 g C8H10N4O2 = ? g N
Step 2 The appropriate set of conversions for a grams-of-A to grams-of-B problem, from
Figure 9.5, is
Grams Molar Moles Formula Moles Molar Grams

of A mass of A subscript of B mass of B
The mathematical setup involving conversion factors is

1 mole C8H10N4O2 4 moles N 14.01 g N
50.0 g C8H10N4O2 * * *
194.22 g C8H10N4O2 1 mole C8H10N4O2 1 mole N
grams A h moles A h moles B h grams B
The number 194.22 that is used in the first conversion factor is the formula mass
for caffeine. The conversion from moles-of-A to moles-of-B (the second conver-
sion factor) is derived using the information contained in the formula for caffeine.
One mole of caffeine contains 4 moles of N because the subscript for N in the
formula is 4. The number 14.01 in the final conversion factor is the atomic mass
of nitrogen.
Step 3 Collecting the numbers from the various conversion factors together and doing
the arithmetic gives us our answer.
50.0 * 1 * 4 * 14.01
g N = 14.426938 g N 1calculator answer2
194.22 * 1 * 1
= 14.4 g N 1correct answer2
Answer Double Check: Is the magnitude of the answer reasonable? Yes. The mass of
the entire sample is 50.0 g. The nitrogen content of the sample should be much less than
the total mass. Such is the case; the N content is 14.4 g.
Chemical Insight: CAFFEINE

Caffeine, which is naturally present in coffee beans and tea leaves, is the most com-
monly used and most frequently used central nervous system (CNS) stimulant in
human society. Studies indicate that 82% of the adult U.S. population drink coffee and
52% drink tea. Over one-half of the coffee drinkers consume three or more cups daily.
Besides its CNS stimulant effects, caffeine also increases basal metabolic rate,
increases heart rate, and increases urine production because of its diuretic properties.
The overall effect that most individuals experience from caffeine consumption is inter-
preted as a “lift.”
Used in small quantities, caffeine’s effects are temporary; hence, it must be
consumed on a regular basis throughout the day. Its half-life in the body is 3.0-7.5
hours. Caffeine tolerance develops in regular users of the substance. Over time, larger
amounts of caffeine are needed in order for an individual to achieve his or her “lift.”
EXAMPLE 9.15 Calculating the Number of Atoms of an Element Present

in a Given Mass of a Compound
The compound cholesterol has the chemical formula C27H46O. How many hydrogen
atoms would be present in a 2.000 g sample of cholesterol?
SOLUTION
Step 1 The given quantity is 2.000 g of C27H46O (cholesterol) and the desired quantity is
atoms of hydrogen.
2.000 g = ? atoms H
In the jargon of Figure 9.5, this is a grams-of-A to particles-of-B problem.
Step 2 From Figure 9.5, the appropriate pathway for solving this problem is
Grams Molar Moles Formula Moles Avogadro's Particles

of A mass of A subscript of B number of B
Using dimensional analysis, the conversion factor setup becomes

1 mole C27H46O 46 moles H 6.022 * 1023 atoms H
2.000 g C27H46O * * *
386.73 g C27H46O 1 mole C27H46O 1 mole H
grams A h moles A h moles B h particles B
The numbers in the second conversion factor (46 and 1) were obtained from the
chemical formula for cholesterol; they are, thus, exact numbers. One mole of
C27H46O contains 46 moles of hydrogen; the hydrogen subscript is 46.
2.000 * 1 * 46 * 6.022 * 1023
atoms H = 1.432586 * 1023 atoms H
386.73 * 1 * 1
1calculator answer2
= 1.433 * 1023 atoms H
1correct answer2
Chemical Insight: CHOLESTEROL

Cholesterol is absolutely necessary for the proper functioning of the human body.
Within the body, it serves as an important component of cell membranes (up to 25%
by mass), nerve tissue, and brain tissue (about 10% by dry mass).
Cholesterol also serves as the precursor molecule (starting material) for many
other compounds the body needs. These cholesterol derivatives include bile acids
(necessary for the digestion of fats and oils), male and female sex hormones, and
vitamin D.
The human body, mainly within the liver, produces about 1 gram of cholesterol
daily, an amount sufficient to meet the body’s biosynthetic needs. Therefore, dietary
cholesterol is not needed. Dietary intake of cholesterol reduces the amount of choles-
terol that the body makes, but the reduction is less than the amount ingested, resulting
in an increase in total body cholesterol levels. Medical science now considers such
higher-than-normal cholesterol levels a risk factor for cardiovascular disease.
9.11 PURITY OF SAMPLES

Student Learning Focus: Be able to make adjustments in problem-solving techniques to account
for the presence of impurities in samples of substances.
Most substances used in chemical laboratories and most substances encountered in ev-
eryday situations contain impurities; that is, they are not 100% pure. Sometimes the im-
purities are naturally present substances, and other times impurities have been added on
purpose to give a desired effect.
Drinking water contains naturally present minerals (impurities) that give drinking
water its taste; distilled water, which lacks such minerals, has a very flat taste. Table salt
contains potassium iodide as an additive (an impurity). This additive serves as an iodine
source for the human body; iodine is necessary for the proper functioning of the thyroid
gland.
The amount of impurities present in a sample of a substance is specified using per-
cent purity. Percent purity is the percent by mass of a specified substance in an impure
sample of the substance. For example, the purity of laboratory-grade sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) is 98.2% by mass.
Percent purity values can be used as conversion factors in several types of problem- A general discussion of
solving situations. The information that the purity of a sodium chloride (NaCl) sample is the use of percent as a
conversion factor has
99.23% by mass is a source for six conversion factors. Three of the conversion factors are been previously given. It
is found in Section 3.10.
99.23 g NaCl 0.77 g impurities 0.77 g impurities
100 g impure NaCl 100 g impure NaCl 99.23 g NaCl
The reciprocals of these conversion factors are the other three of the six relationships.
EXAMPLE 9.16 Calculating Masses of Substances in an Impure Sample

A 32.00 g sample of nitric acid 1HNO3 2 has a purity of 96.20% by mass. Calculate the
following for this sample of nitric acid.
a. the mass, in grams, of HNO3 present
b. the mass, in grams, of impurities present
SOLUTION
a. From the given percent purity, the following needed conversion factor is obtained.
96.20 g HNO3
100 g impure HNO3
The dimensional analysis setup, using this conversion factor, is
96.20 g HNO3
32.00 g impure HNO3 *
100 g impure HNO3
Cancelling units and doing the arithmetic gives
32.00 * 96.20
g HNO3 = 30.784 g HNO3 1calculator answer2
100
= 30.78 g HNO3 1correct answer2
b. Similarly for the amount of impurities present, we have the dimensional analysis
setup
3.80 g impurities
32.00 g impure HNO3 *
100 g impure HNO3
= 1.216 g impurities 1calculator answer2
= 1.22 g impurities 1correct answer2

Alternatively, the mass, in grams, of impurities present can be determined using subtraction.
total sample mass - HNO3 mass = impurity mass
32.00 g - 30.78 g = 1.22 g 1calculator and correct answer2
Answer Double Check: Are the magnitudes of the answers reasonable? Yes. With a
purity of 96.20%, the amount of nitric acid present should be almost the same as the total
mass, which it is (30.78 g and 32.00 g). Also the sum of the nitric acid mass and the im-
purity mass should give the total mass, which is the case 130.78 g + 1.22 g = 32.00 g2.
Chemical Insight: NITRIC ACID

Pure nitric acid, HNO3, is a colorless liquid that, when exposed to heat or light, starts to
decompose into the compounds NO2, O2, and H2O. The presence of the NO2, which
at low concentrations has a yellowish-brown color, causes most nitric acid samples to
have a yellow or brown tinge. The nitric acid encountered in a chemical laboratory is
always an aqueous solution of nitric acid rather than pure nitric acid.
The largest use for nitric acid is in fertilizer production. It is the source for nitrate
ions. Nitric acid is also important in the production of explosives, including nitro-
glycerin and trinitrotoluene (TNT). Nitric acid was once called “aqua fortis,” Latin for
“strong water,” because it dissolves several metals, including copper and silver, which
are not attacked by other acids.
Nitric acid stains proteins, including woolen fabrics and human skin, a bright
yellow color.
Percent purity, when appropriate, can be incorporated into grams-to-moles-to-

particles problems like those previously considered in Section 9.10. Example 9.17 illustrates
how this is done.
EXAMPLE 9.17 Calculating Atoms of a Substance in an Impure Sample
How many iron (Fe) atoms are present in a 25.00 g impure iron sample (iron ore) that has
a purity of 87.70% by mass iron?
SOLUTION
If the iron sample were 100% pure, this calculation would be a standard “grams-of-A” to
particles-of-A problem, in terms of Figure 9.5. The pathway would be
Grams Molar Moles Avogadro's Particles

of A mass of A number of A
To take into account the fact that the sample is impure, we add a new step at the start
of the pathway that involves grams-of-impure-A to grams-of-A. The enhanced pathway is
Grams of Percent Grams Molar Moles Avogadro's Particles

Impure A purity of A mass of A number of A
The dimensional analysis setup consistent with the new pathway is

87.70 g Fe 1 mole Fe 6.022 * 1023 atoms Fe
25.00 g impure Fe * * *
100 g impure Fe 55.85 g Fe 1 mole Fe
Collecting the numbers from the various conversion factors together and doing the arith-
metic gives us our answer.
25.00 * 87.70 * 1 * 6.022 * 1023

atoms Fe = 2.36405282 * 1023 atoms Fe
100 * 55.85 * 1
1calculator answer2
= 2.364 * 1023 atoms

1correct answer2
Answer Double Check: Is the magnitude of the answer reasonable? Yes. Rounding
numbers for ease of analysis, we note that if the sample were pure iron, the sample mass
of 25.00 g would be equal to a little less than one-half mole of iron (25.00 g/55.85 g).
One-half mole of iron would contain one-half mole of iron atoms (3.01 * 1023 atoms,
one-half of Avogadro’s number). The answer, 2.36 * 1023 atoms, is smaller than this one-
half number, as it should be.
Chemical Insight: STEEL

Iron is the most used of all metals. Both worldwide and in the United States, more
iron is consumed than all other metals combined. Iron consumption is not, however,
in the form of pure elemental iron. Rather, the end product form for almost all iron-
containing products is that of steel, an iron alloy. An alloy is a solid material with
metallic properties that is produced by melting together two or more elements, at least
one of which is a metal.
All steels are alloys containing iron and small amounts of carbon. Some steels
contain additional metals besides iron. Low-carbon steels (less than 0.25% carbon) are
very ductile and used in products such as wire and steel cans. Medium-carbon steels
(0.25–0.70% carbon) are less ductile and much stronger and are used in railroad rails
and girders. High-carbon steels (0.7–1.5% carbon) are very hard and used in surgical
instruments and tools.
The best known steel that contains additional metals is stainless steel. This
corrosion-resistant steel contains 14–18% chromium and 7–9% nickel.
9.12 EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULAS

Student Learning Focus: Understand the difference between an empirical formula and a molecular
formula.
Chemical formulas provide a great deal of useful information about the substances they
represent and, as seen in previous sections of this chapter, are key entities in many types
of calculations. How are chemical formulas themselves determined? They are determined
by calculation using experimentally obtained information.
Depending on the amount of experimental information available, two types of
chemical formulas may be obtained: an empirical formula or a molecular formula. The
empirical formula (or simplest formula) is a chemical formula that gives the smallest
whole-number ratio of atoms present in a formula unit of a compound. In empirical for-
mulas the subscripts in the formula cannot be reduced to a simpler set of numbers by
division with a small integer. The molecular formula (or true formula) is a chemical
formula that gives the actual number of atoms present in a formula unit of a compound.
For ionic compounds the empirical and molecular formulas are almost always the
same; that is, the actual ratio of ions present in a formula unit and the smallest ratio of
TABLE 9.3 A Comparison of Empirical and Molecular Formulas for

Selected Compounds
Empirical Molecular Whole-Number

Compound Formula Formula Multiplier
Dinitrogen NF2 N2F4 2
tetrafluoride
Hydrogen peroxide HO H2 O 2 2
Sodium chloride NaCl NaCl 1
Benzene CH C6 H6 6
ions present are the same. For molecular compounds the two types of formulas may be
the same, but frequently they are not. When they are not the same, the molecular formula
is a multiple of the empirical formula.
molecular formula = whole@number multiplier * empirical formula
Table 9.3 contrasts the differences between the two types of formulas for selected
compounds.
EXAMPLE 9.18 Obtaining Empirical Formulas from Molecular Formulas

Write the empirical formula for each of the following compounds given its molecular formula.
a. C2H4 (ethene, used to make polyethylene)
b. C8H18 (octane, a component of gasoline)
c. CH4O (methanol, an industrial solvent)
d. C6H12O6 (glucose, often called blood sugar)
SOLUTION
a. Each of the formula subscripts is divided by 2 to give the empirical formula CH2.
b. Each of the formula subscripts is divided by 2 to give the empirical formula C4H9.
c. There is no small number that will divide evenly into each of the formula subscripts
other than 1. Thus, the empirical formula is the same as the molecular formula: CH4O.
d. Each of the formula subscripts is divided by 6 to give the empirical formula CH2O.
Answer Double Check: Do the empirical formulas have the correct characteristics for
empirical formulas? Yes. Each of the empirical formulas has a set of subscripts (1:2, 4:9,
1:4:1, and 1:2:1) that cannot be reduced further by division by a small whole number. If
such division was possible, the formulas would not be correct empirical formulas.
9.13 DETERMINATION OF EMPIRICAL FORMULAS

Student Learning Focus: Be able to calculate an empirical formula using either direct or indirect
mass composition data.
The determination of a compound’s chemical formula from experimental data is usually

carried out in two calculational steps: (1) Elemental composition data are used to deter-
mine the compound’s empirical formula (simplest ratio of atoms present—Sec. 9.12), and
(2) this empirical formula and molar mass data are used to determine the compound’s
molecular formula (actual ratio of atoms present—Sec. 9.12).
In this section we consider the first of these two steps, and then in Section 9.14 we learn
the additional procedures needed to go from an empirical formula to a molecular formula.
Empirical Formulas from Direct Analysis Data

Elemental composition data, obtained by direct analysis, are sufficient for an empirical
formula determination. Such data may be in the form of percent composition or simply
the mass of each element present in a known mass of compound. Example 9.19 shows
the steps used in obtaining an empirical formula from percent composition data. Example
9.20 uses the mass of the elements present in a compound sample of known mass to
obtain an empirical formula.
EXAMPLE 9.19 Determining an Empirical Formula from Percent by Mass

Composition Data
Percent by mass composition data for the chlorofluorocarbon Freon-12 are 9.933% car-
bon, 58.63% chlorine, and 31.44% fluorine. Based on these data, what is the empirical
formula of Freon-12?
SOLUTION
The problem of calculating the empirical formula of a compound from percent composi-
tion data can be broken down into three steps.
1. Determine the number of grams of each element in a sample of the compound.
2. Convert the grams of each element to moles of element.
3. Express the mole ratio between the elements in terms of small whole numbers.
Step 1 Mass percentage values are independent of sample size; that is, they apply to
samples of all sizes. In working with mass percentages in empirical formula cal-
culations, it is convenient to assume a 100.0 g sample size. When this is done,
mass percentages translate directly into gram amounts. The mass of each element
in the 100.0 g sample is numerically equal to the percentage value.
C: 9.933% of 100.0 g = 9.933 g
Cl: 58.63% of 100.0 g = 58.63 g
F: 31.44% of 100.0 g = 31.44 g
Step 2 We next convert the grams (from step 1) to moles. We need moles information to
determine the subscripts in the formula of the compound. Formula subscripts give
the ratio of the number of moles of each element present in a compound (Sec. 9.9).
1 mole C
9.933 g C * = 0.82706078 mole C 1calculator answer2
12.01 g C
= 0.8271 mole C 1correct answer2
1 mole Cl
58.63 g Cl * = 1.6538787 moles Cl 1calculator answer2
35.45 g Cl
= 1.654 moles Cl 1correct answer2
1 mole F
31.44 g F * = 1.6547368 moles F 1calculator answer2
19.00 g F
= 1.655 moles F 1correct answer2
Thus, in 100.0 g of compound there are 0.8271 mole of C, 1.654 moles of Cl, and
1.655 moles of F.
Step 3 The subscripts in a formula are expressed as whole numbers, not as decimals.
To obtain whole numbers from the decimals of step 2, each of the numbers is
divided by the smallest of the numbers.
0.8271 mole
C: = 1 1calculator answer2
0.8271 mole
1.654 mole
Cl: = 1.9997581 1calculator answer2
0.8271 mole
1.655 mole
F: = 2.0009672 1calculator answer2
0.8271 mole
Thus the ratio of carbon to chlorine to fluorine in this compound is 1:2:2, and the
empirical formula is CCl2F2.
The calculated value for one of the three formula subscripts (2.001) has a
nonzero digit to the right of the decimal place. This is because of experimental er-
ror in the original mass percentages. This calculated value is, however, sufficiently
close to a whole number that we easily recognize what the whole number is.
Chemical Insight: CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are compounds that contain the elements chlorine, fluo-
rine, and carbon. The most widely used of the CFCs are marketed under the trade
name Freons. Freons possess ideal properties for use in refrigeration and air condition-
ing and were heavily used in these applications for many years. These gaseous sub-
stances are inert, nontoxic, and easily compressible.
Freon use in refrigeration and air conditioning has now been discontinued
because of unanticipated environmental problems associated with their use. Once
released into the atmosphere, CFCs persist for long periods of time without reaction.
Consequently, they slowly drift upward in the atmosphere, finally reaching the strato-
sphere, the location of the “ozone layer.”
At stratospheric altitudes, the CFCs are exposed to ultraviolet light from the sun,
which activates them. In an activated form, they upset the “ozone-oxygen balance”
present there, decreasing the amount of ozone present.
EXAMPLE 9.20 Determining an Empirical Formula Using Mass Data

Analysis of a sample of ibuprofen, the active ingredient in Advil, shows that the sample
contains 7.568 g of carbon, 0.881 g of hydrogen, and 1.551 g of oxygen. Use these data to
calculate the empirical formula of ibuprofen.
SOLUTION
Having data given in grams instead of as percent composition (Example 9.18) simplifies
the calculation of an empirical formula. The grams are changed to moles, and we are
ready to find the smallest whole-number ratio between elements.
Step 1 Each of the given gram amounts is converted to moles, using dimensional analysis.
1 mole C
12.01 g C
1 mole H
0.881 g H * = 0.87227722 mole H 1calculator answer2
1.01 g H
= 0.872 mole H 1correct answer2
1 mole O
1.551 g O * = 0.0969375 mole O 1calculator answer2
16.00 g O
= 0.09694 mole O 1correct answer2
Step 2 Dividing the mole quantities from step 1 by the smallest of the three numbers gives
0.6301 mole
C: = 6.4998968 1calculator answer2
0.09694 mole
0.872 mole
H: = 8.9952547 1calculator answer2
0.09694 mole
0.09694 mole
O: = 1 1calculator answer2
0.09694 mole
Frequently all whole numbers or near-whole numbers are obtained at this point
(as was the case in Example 9.19), and the calculation is finished. Sometimes,
however, as is the case in this example, we obtain one or more numbers that are
not even close to being whole numbers. The number we obtained for carbon,
6.50, is such a number. What do we do?
The number 6.50 is recognizable as being a simple fraction; it is 612. When
we obtain simple fractions, we clear them by multiplying all of the numbers in
our set of numbers by a common factor. We multiply all numbers by 2 if we
are dealing with halves, 3 if we are dealing with thirds, 4 if we are dealing with
fourths, and so on. Following this procedure, we obtain for the situation in this
example the following:
C: 612 * 2 = 13
H: 9 * 2 = 18
O: 1 * 2 = 2
We now have a whole-number ratio. The empirical formula of ibuprofen is
C13H18O2. The fractions that most commonly occur in empirical formula calcula-
3
tions are fourths, 0.25 114 2 and 0.75 14 2, which are multiplied by 4 to clear; thirds,
0.33 113 2 and 0.67 123 2, which are multiplied by 3 to clear; and half, 0.50 112 2,
which is multiplied by 2 to clear.
Answer Double Check: Are the subscripts obtained for the empirical formula appropri-
ate for an empirical formula? Yes. The set of three subscripts (13, 18, and 2) are not divis-
ible by any small whole number.
Chemical Insight: IBUPROFEN AND NAPROXEN

Consumers are faced with shelves filled with choices when looking for an over-the-
counter mild pain reliever to treat aches, pains, and fever. Besides the long-available
aspirin (over 100 years) and acetaminophen (since 1953), consumers can now also
choose ibuprofen and naproxen.
Ibuprofen 1C13Hl7O2 2 marketed under the brand names Advil, Motrin-IB, and
Nuprin, was cleared by the FDA in 1984 for nonprescription sales. Ibuprofen is more
effective than either aspirin or acetaminophen in reducing dental and menstrual pain.
However, it is more expensive. Both aspirin and ibuprofen can cause a small amount
of intestinal bleeding in some people, although ibuprofen seems to cause fewer
problems.
Naproxen 1C14H14O3 2 marketed under the brand names Aleve and Anaprox, was
cleared for nonprescription sales by the FDA in 1994. The effects of naproxen last lon-
ger in the body (8–12 hours per dose) than the effects of ibuprofen (4–6 hours) or of
aspirin and acetaminophen (4 hours). Naproxen is more likely to cause slight intestinal
bleeding and stomach upset than is ibuprofen.
Figure 9.6 summarizes the procedures used in Examples 9.19 and 9.20 for calculat-
ing empirical formulas. If mass percents are the starting point for the calculation (Example
9.19), you start in box 1. If mass data is the starting point (Example 9.20), the procedure
is shortened by one step as you start in box 2.
Empirical Formulas from Indirect Analysis Data

Examples 9.19 and 9.20 suggest that compounds are always broken down completely
into their elements when they are analyzed. This is not always the case. Sometimes a
compound whose empirical formula is to be determined is changed into other com-
pounds, with each element in the original compound becoming part of a separate prod-
uct compound whose chemical formula is known. Such indirect analysis data is sufficient
to determine an empirical formula.
A common indirect analysis procedure is combustion analysis. This procedure is
used extensively for compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (or just car-
bon and hydrogen). Combustion analysis is a method used to measure the amounts of
carbon and hydrogen present in a combustible compound that contains these two elements
(and perhaps other elements) when that compound is burned in pure O2. The basic idea
in combustion analysis is as follows. A sample of the compound is burned completely in
pure oxygen. The products of the reaction are CO2 and H2O. All carbon atoms originally
present end up in CO2 molecules, and all hydrogen atoms originally present end up in
H2O molecules (see Fig. 9.7). From the mass of CO2 and H2O produced, it is possible to
calculate the empirical formula of the original compound. Example 9.21 shows how this
is done for a carbon–hydrogen compound, and Example 9.22 deals with the same situa-
tion for a carbon–hydrogen–oxygen compound.
FIGURE 9.6 Outline of
the procedure used to
calculate the empirical
formula of a compound (1) (2) (3) (4)
from (a) percentage Assume Use atomic Calculate
Mass % of Grams of Moles of Empirical
composition data (start
each element 100 g sample each element masses each element mole ratios formula
in box 1) and (b) mass
data (start in box 2).
Furnace FIGURE 9.7

Combustion
analysis method
for determining
O2 Sample the percentages of
carbon and hydrogen
in a compound. A
H2O adsorber CO2 adsorber
weighed sample of the
compound is burned
in a stream of oxygen,
producing gaseous CO2
EXAMPLE 9.21 Determining an Empirical Formula Using Combustion and H2O. These gases
then pass through
Analysis Data a series of tubes.
Ethylene, a compound that contains only carbon and hydrogen, is commercially used as a One tube contains a
substance that adsorbs
fruit-ripening agent. A sample of this compound is burned in a combustion analysis apparatus H2O; the substance in
and 3.14 g of CO2 and 1.29 g of H2O are produced. What is the empirical formula of ethylene? the other tube adsorbs
CO2. By comparing the
SOLUTION masses of these tubes
Every carbon atom in the CO2 and every hydrogen atom in the H2O come from ethylene. before and after the
We will need to calculate the number of moles of carbon present in the CO2 and then the reaction, the analyst
can determine the
number of moles of hydrogen present in the H2O. Both these calculations are grams-of-A
masses of hydrogen
to moles-of-B problems in terms of the jargon of Figure 9.5. and carbon present in
The dimensional analysis setup from which we obtain the moles of carbon is the compound that was
burned.
1 mole CO2 1 mole C
3.14 g CO2 * *
44.01 g CO2 1 mole CO2
= 0.07134742 mole C 1calculator answer2
The last conversion factor used in this calculation comes from the formula CO2. One
molecule of CO2 contains one atom of carbon. Thus, one mole of CO2 will contain one
mole of carbon.
The dimensional analysis setup from which we obtain the moles of hydrogen is
1 mole H2O 2 moles H
1.29 g H2O * *
18.02 g H2O 1 mole H2O
= 0.14317425 mole H 1calculator answer2
= 0.143 mole H 1correct answer2
The last conversion factor in this setup is obtained from the information in the formula
H2O. There are 2 moles of H in 1 mole of H2O.
With the moles of C and of H both known, we can now calculate the whole-number
mole ratio by dividing each mole amount by the smallest of these amounts.
0.0713 mole
0.0713 mole
0.143 mole
0.0713 mole
Carbon and hydrogen are present in the compound in a one-to-two molar ratio. The
empirical formula of the compound is CH2.
Chemical Insight: ETHYLENE

Ethylene 1C2H4 2 is a colorless, flammable gas with a slightly sweet odor. It occurs natu-
rally in small amounts in plants, where it functions as a plant hormone. A few parts
per million ethylene stimulates the fruit ripening process.
The commercial fruit industry uses ethylene’s fruit ripening properties to advan-
tage. Bananas, tomatoes, and some citrus fruits are picked green to prevent spoiling
and bruising during transport to markets. At their destinations, the fruits are exposed to
small amounts of ethylene, which stimulates the ripening process.
Despite having no large natural source, ethylene is also an important industrial
chemical. As such, it is produced from petroleum feedstocks. Industrially produced
ethylene serves as the starting material for many plastics and fibers, including the well-
known material called polyethylene.
When the compound to be analyzed using combustion analysis contains oxygen in

addition to carbon and hydrogen, the calculation of the amount (or percent) of oxygen
in the compound proceeds in a different manner than that shown in Example 9.21. Only
part of the oxygen involved in the production of CO2 and H2O comes from the com-
pound itself, and part comes from the O2 used to support combustion of the compound.
In this situation, the amount of hydrogen and carbon present is calculated as before. Then
the sum of the hydrogen and carbon masses is subtracted from the original compound
mass to obtain the mass of oxygen present in the original sample of the compound.
EXAMPLE 9.22 Determining an Empirical Formula Using Combustion

Analysis Data
The compound acetone is a carbon-hydrogen-oxygen compound that is an excellent
solvent for a variety of substances. Combustion analysis of a 10.00 g sample of acetone
yields 22.75 of CO2 and 9.314 g of H2O. What is the empirical formula of acetone?
SOLUTION
First, we will calculate the grams of C in the original sample from the grams of CO2 and
the grams of H in the original sample from the grams of H2O. The grams of O present in
the original sample can then be calculated by difference: the difference between the origi-
nal sample mass and the masses of C and H. We cannot calculate the grams of oxygen
present in the original sample from the CO2 and H2O masses because the oxygen atoms
in these compounds came from two sources: (1) acetone and (2) the oxygen in air.
With masses of the individual elements known, we then obtain moles of the indi-
vidual elements. Dividing these molar amounts by the smallest number of moles of an
element present leads to the subscripts for the empirical formula. The following flowchart
outlines the overall calculational process.
Grams Grams Moles

Compound CO2 C C
Combustion
containing
C, H, and O analysis
Grams Grams Moles Empirical
H2O H H formula
By difference
Grams Moles
O O
Converting the grams of CO2 and grams of H2O to grams of C and grams of H, re-
spectively, involves grams-of-A to grams-of-B calculations.
1 mole CO2 1 mole C 12.01 g C
22.75 g CO2 * * *
44.01 g CO2 1 mole CO2 1 mole C
= 6.2083049 g C 1calculator answer)
= 6.208 g C (correct answer)
1 mole H2O 2 mole H 1.01 g H
9.314 g H2O * * *
18.02 g H2O 1 mole H2O 1 mole H
= 1.0440777 g H 1calculator answer2
= 1.04 g H 1correct answer2
The next-to-last conversion factor in the CO2 calculation comes from the formula
CO2. One CO2 molecule contains one C atom. Likewise, the formula H2O is the key to
obtaining information about hydrogen; one H2O molecule contains two H atoms.
The difference between the mass of the sample and the masses of C and H in the
sample is the mass of O in the sample.
grams O = grams of sample - grams C - grams H
= 10.00 g - 6.208 g - 1.04 g
= 2.752 g 1calculator answer2
= 2.75 g 1correct answer2
The next step is to go from grams of element to moles of element. These are simple
one-step grams-of-A to moles-of-A calculations.
1 mole C
12.01 g C
1 mole H
1.04 g H * = 1.02970297 moles H 1calculator answer2
1.01 g H
= 1.03 moles H 1correct answer2
1 mole O
2.75 g O * = 0.171875 mole O 1calculator answer2
16.00 g O
= 0.172 mole O 1correct answer2
Dividing each of these molar values by the smallest among them, 0.172 mole O,
gives us the small whole numbers that lead to the empirical formula of the compound.
0.5169 mole
C: = 3.0052325 1calculator answer2
0.172 mole
1.03 moles
0.172 mole
0.172 mole
O: = 1 1calculator answer2
0.172 mole
The empirical formula of acetone is C3H6O.
Answer Double Check: Are the calculated mass amounts needed to generate the
empirical formula reasonable? Yes. The mass of C (6.208 g) must be less than the
mass of CO2 122.75 g2. It is. The mass of H (1.04 g) must be less than the mass of
H2O 19.314 g2. It is. The mass of O (2.75 g) must be less than the total sample mass
(10.00 g). It is.
Chemical Insight: ACETONE

Acetone, a colorless, volatile liquid with a pleasant mildly “sweet” odor, is an excellent
solvent because it is miscible with both water and nonpolar solvents. Acetone is the
main ingredient in gasoline treatments that are designed to solubilize water in the gas
tank and allow it to pass through the engine in miscible form. Acetone can also be
used to remove water from glassware in the laboratory. And it is the major component
of some nail polish removers.
Small amounts of acetone are produced in the human body in reactions
related to obtaining energy from dietary fats. Normally, acetone so produced is
degraded to CO2 and H2O. Diabetic individuals produce larger amounts of acetone,
not all of which can be degraded. The presence of acetone in the urine is a sign
of diabetes. In severe diabetes, the odor of acetone can be detected on the indi-
vidual’s breath.
9.14 DETERMINATION OF MOLECULAR FORMULAS

Student Learning Focus: Given molecular formula mass data, be able to convert an empirical
chemical formula to a molecular chemical formula.
To determine the molecular formula of a compound we need additional information

besides its empirical formula. That additional information is the compound’s molecular
formula mass. A number of experimental methods exist for obtaining molecular formula
mass information. One such method, applicable to compounds in the gaseous state, will
be considered in Section 12.13.
A compound’s molecular formula will always be a whole-number multiple of its
empirical formula (Sec. 9.12).
molecular formula = 1empirical formula2x where x = whole number
The value of x is calculated by dividing the compound’s molar mass by the compound’s
empirical formula mass.
molecular formula mass 1experimentally determined quantity2

x =
empirical formula mass 1calculated from atomic masses2
If the value of x was found to be 5.00 and the compound’s empirical formula was CH2,
then the compound’s molecular formula would be
1CH2 25 = C5H10
Example 9.23 illustrates further the mechanics involved in obtaining a molecular formula
from an empirical formula and molecular formula mass data.
EXAMPLE 9.23 Calculating a Molecular Formula from an Empirical

Formula and Molecular Formula Mass Data
Determine the molecular formula of each of the following compounds from the given
empirical formula and molecular formula mass information.
a. empirical formula = CH; molecular formula mass = 78.12 amu
b. empirical formula = NH2; molecular formula mass = 32.06 amu
c. empirical formula = CO; molecular formula mass = 28.01 amu
d. empirical formula = C4H9; molecular formula mass = 114.26 amu
SOLUTION
In each case we will determine the whole-number multiplier (x) that relates empirical and
molecular formulas to each other.
molecular formula mass 1MFM2
x =
empirical formula mass 1EFM2
a. First, we calculate the empirical formula mass of CH from atomic masses. The atomic
mass of C is 12.01 amu and that of H is 1.01 amu.
EFM of CH = 12.01 amu + 1.01 amu = 13.02 amu
The whole-number multiplier is
MFM 78.12 amu
x = = = 6.000
EFM 13.02 amu
Therefore, the molecular formula is
1CH26 = C6H6
b. The empirical formula mass of NH2 is 16.03 amu. Nitrogen has an atomic mass of 14.01 amu,
and each hydrogen has an atomic mass of 1.01 amu. The whole-number multiplier, x, is
MFM 32.06 amu
x = = = 2.000
EFM 16.03 amu
The molecular formula is 1NH2 22 = N2H4
c. The empirical formula mass is 28.01 amu. The whole-number multiplier, x, is
MFM 28.01 amu
x = = = 1.000
EFM 28.01 amu
An x value of 1.000 means that the empirical formula and the molecular formula are
one and the same. Both are CO.
d. The empirical formula mass is 57.13 amu, the value of x is 2.000, and the molecular
formula is 1C4H9 22 = C8H18.
Answer Double Check: Are the molecular formula–empirical formula relationships ap-
propriate? Yes. Dividing the molecular formula mass by the empirical formula mass must
always yield a number that is close to a whole number. Such is the case here for all four
compounds. Also, the subscripts in the molecular formula, when divided by a small
whole number, must produce the subscripts in the empirical formula. Such is the case
here for all four compounds.
Example 9.24 illustrates a complete molecular formula determination, one in which

we begin at the beginning—with percent composition data. There are two different ap-
proaches to such a calculation, and both approaches are illustrated in Example 9.24.
The two approaches differ in the selection of the basis (amount of compound) for the
calculation. The two approaches are the following:
1. Select 100.0 g of compound as the basis for the calculation, determine the empiri-
cal formula, and then use the empirical formula and the molecular formula mass to
determine the molecular formula.
2. Select 1.000 mole of compound as the basis for the calculation, and directly deter-
mine the molecular formula.
In the first approach, the molecular formula mass data are used at the end of the
problem. In the second approach, the molecular formula mass data are used at the begin-
ning of the calculation. Either way, the answer is the same.
EXAMPLE 9.24 Calculating a Molecular Formula from Mass Percent

Composition and Molecular Formula Mass Data
Butane, a compound containing only carbon and hydrogen, is the fuel used in many
camp stoves. Butane has a percent composition by mass of 82.63% C and 17.37% H and a
molecular formula mass of 58.14 amu. Determine the molecular formula of butane using
a. 100.0 g of butane as the basis for the calculation.
b. 1.000 mole of butane as the basis for the calculation.
SOLUTION
a. Taking 100.0 g of compound as our basis, we will have the following amounts of
carbon and hydrogen present.
C: 82.63% of 100.0 g = 82.63 g
H: 17.37% of 100.0 g = 17.37 g

We next convert these gram amounts of C and H to moles of the same.
1 mole C
82.63 g C * = 6.8800999 moles C 1calculator answer2
12.01 g C
= 6.880 moles C 1correct answer2
1 mole H
17.37 g H * = 17.232142 moles H 1calculator answer2
1.008 g H
Note that the atomic mass of hydrogen is specified to thousandths (1.008)
rather than the usual hundredths (1.01). The given amount for hydrogen (17.37 g)
requires an atomic mass with at least four significant figures.
Dividing each of these molar values by the smallest one (6.880) gives the fol-
lowing results.
6.880 mole
6.880 mole
17.23 mole
6.880 mole
Our result for hydrogen is not a whole number or a near-whole number that can be
rounded to a whole number. For hydrogen, we should recognize that the number
we are dealing with is 212. Multiplication of both molar ratios by 2 will clear the frac-
tion. This gives us our needed whole-number ratio.
C: 1 * 2 = 2
H: 212 * 2 = 5
The empirical formula of butane is C2H5.
To make the transition from empirical formula to molecular formula, we first
determine the formula mass for the empirical formula.
C: 2 * 12.01 amu = 24.02 amu
H: 5 * 1.01 amu = 5.05 amu
29.07 amu
The molecular formula mass of butane, given in the problem statement, is 58.14
amu. We next determine how many times larger the molecular formula mass is than
the empirical formula mass. This is done by dividing the molecular formula mass by
the empirical formula mass.
58.14 amu
= 2.000
29.07 amu
We have just determined the multiplication factor that converts the empirical formula
into a molecular formula. Each of the subscripts in the empirical formula is multiplied by 2.
1C2H5 22 = C4H10
The molecular formula of butane is C4H10.
b. We will go through this same calculation again, this time using 1.000 mole of butane as
our basis. The mass of 1.000 mole of butane is 58.14 g. We know this because it was
given in the problem statement; the molecular formula mass of butane is 58.14 amu.
We first determine the number of grams of each element present in our basis
amount of 58.14 g of butane.
C: 82.63% of 58.14 g = 48.041082 g 1calculator answer2
H: 17.37% of 58.14 g = 10.098918 g 1calculator answer2
We next change grams of element to moles of element. Formula subscripts are
always determined from molar information.
1 mole C
48.04 g C * = 4 moles C 1calculator answer2
12.01 g C
= 4.000 moles C 1correct answer2
1 mole H
10.10 g H * = 10 moles H 1calculator answer2
1.01 g H
At this stage in the calculation, because the basis for the calculation is one mole
of compound, we will always obtain whole-number molar amounts or near-whole-
number molar amounts that can be rounded to whole numbers. (If we do not, we have
a mistake somewhere in our calculation.) These whole-number molar amounts are the
subscripts in the molecular formula. Thus, the molecular formula of butane is C4H10.
What caused this formula, C4H10, to be a molecular formula rather than an empirical
formula? Again, it is the fact that the basis for the calculation was one mole of compound.
This second method for calculating a molecular formula is usually shorter than
the first method.
Chemical Insight: NATURAL GAS

Raw natural gas, natural gas as it is obtained from a well, is a mixture of the
hydrogen-carbon compounds methane 1CH4 2, ethane 1C2H6 2, propane 1C3H8 2, and
butane 1C4H10 2. Methane dominates in the mixture (50–90%), with lesser amounts of
ethane (5–20%), propane (3–18%), and butane (1–7%).
Processing of the raw natural gas involves removal of the propane and butane
as well as other substances (impurities) present. The processed mixture (methane and
ethane) is the commercial natural gas used to heat homes. The removed hydrogen-
carbon compounds (propane and butane) are marketed as liquid petroleum (LP) gas.
Both propane and butane are camping stove fuels. Both are gases at normal tem-
peratures. Butane condenses to a liquid at 0°C and so cannot be used when camping
in cold conditions. Thus, butane fuel is used in the southern United States and propane
(which condenses to a liquid at -42°C) in colder northern climates. Cigarette lighters
use butane as a fuel; it is present as a liquid in a small pressurized compartment.
Figure 9.8 summarizes the methods used in this section and the preceding one to
obtain empirical and molecular formulas. It contrasts the example calculations we carried
out in these sections.
FIGURE 9.8 A Example 9.21
summary of how Example 9.19 Example 9.20 Example 9.22 Example 9.24
empirical formulas and Element Percent
molecular formulas are Percent masses in a Combustion composition data
calculated from various composition known analysis
data Molecular formula
types of data. compound mass data mass data
Sample size 1 mole sample
No molecular formula mass data other than size
1 mole
Example 9.24a Example 9.24b
Grams of Grams of Grams of

each element each element each element
Moles of Moles of Moles of

each element each element each element
Smallest Smallest Actual

whole-number whole-number whole-number
mole ratio ratio ratio
Empirical Empirical Molecular Molecular

formula formula formula formula
mass
1. Law of Definite Proportions Study of 7. The Mole and Chemical Formulas The
composition data for many compounds numerical subscripts in a chemical formula
led to the law of definite proportions: In give the number of moles of atoms of the
a pure compound, the elements are always various elements present in one mole of the
present in the same definite proportion by substance.
mass. 8. The Mole and Chemical Calculations The
2. Formula Mass The formula mass of a sub- three quantities most often calculated in chemi-
stance is the sum of the atomic masses cal problems are the number of particles pres-
of the atoms present in one formula unit ent (atoms or molecules), the number of moles
of the substance. An operational rule, in present, and the number of grams present.
this text, for calculation of formula mass- These quantities are interrelated. The neces-
es is that all atomic masses are rounded sary conversion factors relate to the concepts
to the hundredths place before they are of (1) Avogadro’s number, (2) molar mass, and
used as input numbers in a formula mass (3) molar interpretation of chemical formula
calculation. subscripts.
3. Mass Percent Composition The mass per- 9. Percent Purity Most substances are not
cent composition of a compound specifies the 100% pure. In accurate work, account must
percent by mass of each element present in the be taken of the impurities present. Percent
compound. The formula mass and chemical for- purity is the mass percentage of a speci-
mula of a compound can be used to calculate fied substance in an impure sample of the
mass percent composition. substance.
4. The Mole The mole is the chemist’s counting 10. Empirical and Molecular Formulas An
unit. One mole of any substance—element empirical formula gives the smallest whole-
o r c o m p o u n d — c o n s i s t s o f 6.022 * 1023 number ratio of atoms present in a formula
formula units of the substance. unit of a compound. A molecular formula
5. Avogadro’s Number Avogadro’s number gives the actual ratio of atoms present in a
is the name given to the numerical value formula unit of a compound. The empirical
6.022 * 1023. formula of a compound can be determined
6. Molar Mass The molar mass of a substance is from percent composition data or combus-
the mass in grams of the substance that is nu- tion analysis data. The molecular formula can
merically equal to the substance’s formula mass. be determined from the empirical formula if
Molar mass is not a set number; it is different for the molecular formula mass of the substance
each chemical substance. is known.
Key Terms Listing

Avogadro’s number Sec. 9.5 molar mass Sec. 9.6 molecular formula Sec. 9.12
combustion analysis Sec. 9.13 molar mass of a compound percent by mass composition
empirical formula Sec. 9.12 Sec. 9.6 of a compound Sec. 9.4
formula mass Sec. 9.2 molar mass of an element percent by mass of an element
law of definite proportions Sec. 9.6 in a compound Sec. 9.4
Sec. 9.1 mole Secs. 9.5 and 9.7 percent purity Sec. 9.11
Practice Problems by Topic

quence as the chapters textual material. These drill problems occur in matched pairs with the two members of a pair addressing
LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTIONS (SEC. 9.1)

9.1 The air pollutant carbon monoxide, CO, is produced
when gasoline is burned. A 3.00 g sample of CO is found Grams Grams Grams of
Experiment of R of T Compound
to contain 42.9% C and 57.1% O by mass. What would
be the percent composition of an 8.00 g sample of CO? 1 1.926 1.074 3.000
9.2 The compound carbon dioxide, CO2, a substance that 2 3.440 1.560 5.000
contributes to the global warming process, is pro-
3 4.494 2.506 7.000
duced when coal is burned. A 2.00 g sample of CO2 is
found to contain 27.3% C and 72.7% O by mass. What Which two of the three experiments produced the
would be the percent composition of a 13.00 g sample same compound?
of CO2? 9.7 The elemental composition of the gaseous compound
9.3 Two different samples of a pure compound (contain- SO2 is 50.1% S and 49.1% O by mass. What is the
ing elements A and D) were analyzed with the follow- maximum amount of SO2 that could be formed from
ing results. 50.1 g of S and 75.0 g of O?
9.8 The elemental composition of the gaseous compound
Sample I: 17.35 g of compound yielded 10.03 g of NO is 46.7% N and 53.3% O by mass. What is the
A and 7.32 g of D. maximum amount of NO that could be formed from
Sample II: 22.78 g of compound yielded 13.17 g of 65.3 g of N and 53.3 g of O?
A and 9.61 g of D.
Show that these data are consistent with the law of
definite proportions. FORMULA MASSES (SECS. 9.2 AND 9.3)
9.4 Two different samples of a pure compound (contain-
9.9 Calculate the formula mass of each of the follow-
ing elements E and D) were analyzed with the follow-
ing compounds using the operational rules given in
ing results.
Section 9.3.
Sample I: 11.21 g of compound yielded 5.965 g of E a. HClO b. HClO3 c. H2SO4 d. H2SO3
and 5.245 g of D. 9.10 Calculate the formula mass of each of the follow-
Sample II: 13.65 g of compound yielded 7.263 g of E ing compounds using the operational rules given in
and 6.387 g of D. Section 9.3.
a. HClO2 b. HClO4 c. HNO3 d. HNO2
Show that these data are consistent with the law of 9.11 Calculate the formula mass of each of the follow-
definite proportions. ing compounds using the operational rules given in
9.5 It has been found experimentally that the elements Section 9.3. Note that different compounds can have
X and Q react to produce two different compounds, formula masses that are numerically almost the same.
depending on conditions. Some sample experimental a. CO2 b. N2O c. NH4CN d. C3H8
data are as follows. 9.12 Calculate the formula mass of each of the follow-
Grams Grams Grams of Section 9.3. Note that different compounds can have
Experiment of X of Q Compound formula masses that are numerically almost the same.
1 3.37 8.90 12.27 a. CaCO3 b. MgSiO3 c. Mg3N2 d. KHCO3
9.13 Calculate the formula mass of each of the follow-
2 0.561 1.711 2.272
3 26.9 71.0 97.9 Section 9.3. Note that formula masses can have rel-
atively large numerical values when atoms of high
Which two of the three experiments produced the atomic number (larger atomic mass) are present.
same compound? a. PtBr4 b. AuI3
9.6 It has been found experimentally that the elements c. Os31CO212 d. U4O9
R and T react to produce two different compounds, 9.14 Calculate the formula mass of each of the follow-
depending upon conditions. Some sample experimen- ing compounds using the operational rules given
tal data are as follows. in Section 9.3. Note that formula masses can have
relatively large numerical values when atoms of high 9.20 The compound 1-propanethiol, which is the eye irritant
atomic number (larger atomic mass) are present. that is released when fresh onions are chopped up, has
a. PtI4 b. UBr4 a formula mass of 76.17 amu and the formula C3Hy S.
c. Au21SeO4 23 d. Bi1WO4 23 What number does y stand for in this formula?
9.15 Calculate the formula mass of each of the follow- 9.21 The mass percent nitrogen in a molecule in which two
ing compounds using the operational rules given in nitrogen atoms are present is 63.6%. What is the for-
Section 9.3. mula mass, in amu, of the compound?
a. Mg31Si2O5 221OH22 (talc, a mineral from which tal- 9.22 The mass percent oxygen in a molecule in which two
cum powder comes) oxygen atoms are present is 69.6%. What is the for-
b. Ca3Be1OH221Si3O10 2 (a form of the mineral mula mass, in amu, of the compound?
aminoffite) 9.23 What is the chemical formula of the compound in
9.16 Calculate the formula mass of each of the following com- Problem 9.21 given that all other atoms present are
pounds using the operational rules given in Section 9.3 oxygen atoms?
a. Al2Si2O51OH22 (kaolinite, a form of clay) 9.24 What is the chemical formula of the compound in
b. KLi2Al1Si2O5 221OH22 (a form of the mineral mica) Problem 9.22 given that all other atoms present are
9.17 Calculate the molecular mass of each of the following nitrogen atoms?
molecules.
a. ethylene glycol (present in antifreeze)
MASS PERCENT COMPOSITION (SEC. 9.4)
H H
C O 9.25 Calculate the mass percent composition (percent by
H H mass of each element) in the following compounds.
O C (Use atomic masses rounded to hundredths in doing
H H the calculations.)
a. HClO b. HClO2 c. HClO3 d. HClO4
b. lactic acid (present in sour milk)
9.26 Calculate the mass percent composition (percent by
O mass of each element) in the following compounds.
(Use atomic masses rounded to hundredths in doing
H H the calculations.)
C H
C a. NO2 b. N2O c. NO d. N2O3
O 9.27 Calculate the percent by mass of the element listed
H C
first in the chemical formulas of following compounds.
O H a. H2SO4 b. BeSO4
H
c. Al21SO4 23 d. 1NH4 22SO4
9.18 Calculate the molecular mass of each of the following 9.28 Calculate the percent by mass of the element listed
molecules. first in the chemical formulas of following compounds.
a. acetic acid (present in vinegar) a. H3PO4 b. AlPO4
c. Be31PO4 22 d. 1NH4 23PO4
O
9.29 Calculate the mass percent composition for the com-
pound chlorophyll, which has the chemical formula
C C55H72MgN4O5.
H H
H C O 9.30 Calculate the mass percent composition for the pre-
scription pain-killer Darvon, which has the chemical
H formula C22H30ClNO2.
9.31 Do the mass percentages 15.78% C and 84.22% S
b. isopropyl alcohol (present in rubbing alcohol)
match the chemical formula CS2?
H 9.32 Do the mass percentages 30.45% N and 69.55% O
O H match the chemical formula N2O3?
9.33 Calculate the mass percent compositions of acetylene
H C 1C2H2 2 and benzene 1C6H6 2. Explain your results.
H
C 9.34 Calculate the mass percent compositions of pro-
C
pene 1C3H6 2 and cyclobutane 1C4H8 2. Explain your
H H H H results.
9.19 The compound 2-butene-1-thiol, which is responsible 9.35 The hydrogen content of a hydrogen–nitrogen com-
in part for the characteristic odor of skunks, has a pound is 12.6% by mass. How many grams of N are
formula mass of 88.18 amu and the formula CyH8S. present in a sample of the compound that contains
What number does y stand for in this formula? 52.34 g of H?
9.36 The sodium content of a sodium–nitrogen com- 9.47. What is the molar mass for each of the elements in
pound is 35.36% by mass. How many grams of N Problem 9.45?
are present in a sample of the compound that con- 9.48 What is the molar mass for each of the elements in
tains 57.08 g of Na? Problem 9.46?
9.49 What is the mass, in grams, of 1.000 mole of each of
THE MOLE: THE CHEMIST’S COUNTING the following compounds?
UNIT (SEC. 9.5) a. CO2 b. SO2 c. NO2 d. N2H4
9.50 What is the mass, in grams, of 1.000 mole of each of
9.37 How many particles (atoms, molecules, formula the following compounds?
units, or ions) are present in 1.00 mole of each of the a. NH3 b. PH3 c. PCl3 d. PF3
following? 9.51 What is the molar mass for each of the compounds in
a. silver (Ag) atoms Problem 9.49?
b. water 1H2O2 molecules 9.52 What is the molar mass for each of the compounds in
c. sodium nitrate 1NaNO3 2 formula units Problem 9.50?
d. sulfate 1SO42- 2 ions 9.53 What is the mass, in grams, of 2.314 moles of each of
9.38 How many particles (atoms, molecules, formula the following compounds?
units, or ions) are present in 1.00 mole of each of the a. Al1OH23 b. Mg3N2
following? c. Cu1NO3 22 d. La2O3
a. copper (Cu) atoms 9.54 What is the mass, in grams, of 1.782 moles of each of
b. ammonia 1NH3 2 molecules the following compounds?
c. potassium carbonate 1K2CO3 2 formula units a. NH4Cl b. HClO4
d. phosphate 1PO43- 2 ions c. Ca1ClO2 22 d. HfO2
9.39 How many silicon atoms are present in each of the 9.55 In each of the following pairs of molar-sized quantities,
following molar quantities of silicon? select the quantity that has the greater mass, in grams.
a. 3.20 moles b. 0.36 mole a. 2.00 moles of Cu and 2.00 moles of O
c. 1.21 moles d. 16.7 moles b. 1.00 mole of Br and 5.00 moles of Be
9.40 How many sulfur atoms are present in each of the fol- c. 2.00 moles of CO and 1.50 moles of N2O
lowing molar quantities of sulfur? d. 4.87 moles of B2H6 and 0.35 mole of U
a. 3.02 moles b. 0.45 mole 9.56 In each of the following pairs of molar-sized quanti-
c. 1.31 moles d. 18.2 moles ties, select the quantity that has the greater mass, in
9.41 How many carbon dioxide molecules are present grams.
in each of the following molar quantities of carbon a. 3.00 moles of Na and 3.00 moles of Al
dioxide? b. 1.00 mole of I and 9.00 moles of Li
a. 3.20 moles b. 0.36 mole c. 2.00 moles of CO2 and 1.00 mole of SO3
c. 1.21 moles d. 16.7 moles d. 9.00 moles of Be and 1.00 mole of HCl
9.42 How many sulfur dioxide molecules are present 9.57 Calculate the molar mass of compounds for which
in each of the following molar quantities of sulfur each of the following experimentally determined
dioxide? mole–mass relationships apply.
a. 3.02 moles b. 0.45 mole a. 0.6232 mole = 11.23 g
c. 1.31 moles d. 18.2 moles b. 0.5111 mole = 20.14 g
9.43 Calculate the number of molecules present in each of c. 2.357 moles = 352.6 g
the following samples of molecular compounds. d. 1.253 moles = 100.0 g
a. 1.50 moles CO2 b. 0.500 mole NH3 9.58 Calculate the molar mass of compounds for which
c. 2.33 moles PF3 d. 1.115 moles N2H4 each of the following experimentally determined
9.44 Calculate the number of molecules present in each of mole–mass relationships apply.
the following samples of molecular compounds. a. 0.6232 mole = 15.07 g
a. 4.69 moles CO b. 0.433 mole SO3 b. 0.5111 mole = 40.73 g
c. 1.44 moles P2H4 d. 2.307 moles H2O2 c. 2.357 moles = 123.7 g
d. 1.253 moles = 300.0 g
9.59 A 0.0521 mole sample of compound A has a mass of
MOLAR MASS (SEC. 9.6)
3.62 g. A 1.23 mole sample of compound B has a mass
9.45 What is the mass, in grams, of 1.000 mole of each of of 83.64 g. Does compound A or compound B have
the following elements? the greater molar mass?
a. Ca b. Si c. Co d. Ag 9.60 A 0.0721 mole sample of compound A has a mass of
9.46 What is the mass, in grams, of 1.000 mole of each of 4.62 g. A 1.75 mole sample of compound B has a mass
the following elements? of 114.03 g. Does compound A or compound B have
a. Mg b. Cl c. Fe d. Au the greater molar mass?
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ATOMIC MASS UNITS THE MOLE AND CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS
AND GRAM UNITS (SEC. 9.8) (SEC. 9.10)
9.61 What is the mass, in grams, of atoms whose 9.73 Calculate the number of atoms present in a 23.0 g
masses on the amu scale have each of the follow- sample of each of the following group IIA elements.
ing values? a. Be b. Mg c. Ca d. Sr
a. 19.00 amu b. 52.00 amu 9.74 Calculate the number of atoms present in a 17.0 g
c. 118.71 amu d. 196.97 amu sample of each of the following group IA elements.
9.62 What is the mass, in grams, of atoms whose masses a. Li b. Na c. K d. Rb
on the amu scale have each of the following 9.75 Calculate the number of molecules present in a 25.0 g
values? sample of each of the following nitrogen oxides.
a. 9.012 amu b. 40.08 amu a. NO b. N2O c. N2O3 d. N2O5
c. 107.87 amu d. 207.2 amu 9.76 Calculate the number of molecules present in a 50.0 g
9.63 Identify the element that contains atoms with an aver- sample of each of the following sulfur oxides.
age mass of 5.143 * 10-23 g. a. SO2 b. SO3 c. S2O d. S8O
9.64 Identify the element that contains atoms with an aver- 9.77 What is the mass, in grams, of each of the following
age mass of 2.326 * 10-23 g. quantities of chemical substance?
9.65 How many Al atoms of average mass 26.98 amu are a. 3.333 * 1023 atoms of P
present in 26.98 g of Al? b. 3.333 * 1023 molecules of PH3
9.66 How many P atoms of average mass 30.97 amu are c. 2431 atoms of P
present in 30.97 g of P? d. 2431 molecules of PH3
9.78 What is the mass, in grams, of each of the following
quantities of chemical substance?
THE MOLE AND CHEMICAL FORMULAS a. 4.444 * 1023 atoms of Si
(SEC. 9.9) b. 4.444 * 1023 molecules of SiH4
c. 1764 atoms of Si
9.67 Write the six mole-to-mole conversion factors that can d. 1764 molecules of SiH4
be derived from the formula Na3PO4. 9.79 What is the mass, in grams (to four significant figures),
9.68 Write the six mole-to-mole conversion factors that can of a single atom (for elements) or single molecule (for
be derived from the formula K2SO4. compounds) of the following substances?
9.69 Based on the chemical formula S4N4Cl2, write the con- a. Na b. Mg c. C4H10 d. C6H6
version factor that would be needed to do each of the 9.80 What is the mass, in grams (to four significant figures),
following one-step conversions. of a single atom (for elements) or single molecule (for
a. moles of S4N4Cl2 to moles of N atoms compounds) of the following substances?
b. moles of S4N4Cl2 to moles of Cl atoms a. Cu b. B c. C2H6 d. C10H20
c. moles of S4N4Cl2 to total moles of atoms 9.81 Determine the number of grams of Cl present in each of
d. moles of S atoms to moles of Cl atoms the following amounts of chlorine-containing compounds.
9.70 Based on the chemical formula SO2Cl2, write the con- a. 100.0 g of NaCl b. 980.0 g of CCl4
version factor that would be needed to do each of the c. 10.0 g of HCl d. 50.0 g of BaCl2
following one-step conversions. 9.82 Determine the number of grams of N present in each
a. moles of SO2Cl2 to moles of O atoms of the following amounts of nitrogen-containing
b. moles of SO2Cl2 to moles of Cl atoms compounds.
c. moles of SO2Cl2 to total moles of atoms a. 100.0 g of NaNO3 b. 980.0 g of N2H4
d. moles of S atoms to moles of Cl atoms c. 10.0 g of Na3N d. 50.0 g of KCN
9.71 In which of the following pairs of compound amounts 9.83 Determine the number of phosphorus atoms present
do both members of the pair contain the same num- in 25.0 g of each of the following substances.
ber of moles of sulfur atoms? a. PF3 b. Be3P2
a. 1.0 mole Na2SO4 and 0.50 mole Na2S2O3 c. POCl3 d. Na5P3O10
b. 2.00 moles S3Cl2 and 1.50 moles S2O 9.84 Determine the number of sulfur atoms present in 35.0 g
c. 3.00 moles H2S2O5 and 6.00 moles H2SO4 of each of the following substances.
d. 1.00 mole Na3Ag1S2O3 22 and 2.00 moles S2F10 a. CS2 b. S4N4
9.72 In which of the following pairs of compound amounts c. SF6 d. Al21SO4 23
do both members of the pair contain the same num- 9.85 Determine the number of grams of O present in each of
ber of moles of nitrogen atoms? the following samples of oxygen-containing compounds.
a. 0.50 mole N2O5 and 1.0 mole of N2O4 a. 4.7 * 1024 molecules of XeO3
b. 2.00 moles HNO3 and 2.00 moles HNO2 b. 55.00 g of SO2Cl2
c. 3.00 moles NH3 and 1.00 mole HN3 c. 0.30 mole of C6H12O6
d. 1.50 moles 1NH4 22SO4 and 1.00 mole 1NH4 23PO4 d. 475 g of Na2CO3
9.86. Determine the number of grams of S present in 9.90 All entries in the following table pertain to samples of the
each of the following samples of sulfur-containing compound ammonia 1NH3 2. Each row of the table in-
compounds. volves a different sample of the compound. Fill in the blanks
a. 4.5 * 1025 molecules of H2S in each row of the table. The first row is already completed.
b. 65.00 g of H2SO3
c. 0.75 mole of S3N3O3Cl3 Grams of Moles of Molecules in Atoms in
d. 675.0 g of SF4 sample sample sample sample
9.87 All entries in the following table pertain to samples
of the element aluminum (Al). Each row of the table 10.00 0.5869 3.534 * 1023 1.414 * 1024
involves a different sample of the element. Fill in a. 15.22
the blanks in each row of the table. The first row is
b. 1.120
already completed.
c. 8.000 * 1023
Grams of Moles of Atoms in d. 1.000 * 1025

Sample Sample Sample
9.91 What would be the mass, in grams, of an NH3 sample
10.00 0.3706 2.232 * 1023 in which each of the following were present?
a. 14.84 a. 2.70 * 1023 atoms of nitrogen
b. 2.70 * 1023 atoms of hydrogen
b. 0.6379
c. 2.70 * 1023 total atoms
c. 6.026 * 1023 d. 2.70 * 1023 molecules
d. 1.384 9.92 What would be the mass, in grams, of an N2H4 sample
in which each of the following were present?
9.88 All entries in the following table pertain to samples a. 6.77 * 1023 atoms of nitrogen
of the element fluorine (F). Each row of the table b. 6.77 * 1023 atoms of hydrogen
involves a different sample of the element. Fill in c. 6.77 * 1023 total atoms
the blanks in each row of the table. The first row is d. 6.77 * 1023 molecules
already completed. 9.93 Progesterone, a female hormone, has the formula
C21H30O2. In a 25.00 g sample of this compound,
a. how many moles of atoms are present?
Grams of Moles of Atoms in b. how many atoms of C are present?
Sample Sample Sample c. how many grams of O are present?
10.00 0.5263 3.169 * 1023 d. how many progesterone molecules are present?
9.94 Testosterone, a male hormone, has the formula
a. 0.7500 C19H28O2. In a 30.00 g sample of this compound,
b. 22.00 a. how many moles of atoms are present?
b. how many atoms of H are present?
c. 1.000 * 1024
c. how many grams of C are present?
d. 3.220 d. how many testosterone molecules are present?
9.89 All entries in the following table pertain to samples of

PURITY OF SAMPLES (SEC. 9.11)
the compound carbon dioxide 1CO2 2 . Each row of
the table involves a different sample of the compound. 9.95 Calculate the following for a 325 g sample of 95.4%
Fill in the blanks in each row of the table. The first pure Fe2S3.
row is already completed. a. mass, in grams, of Fe2S3 present
b. mass, in grams, of impurities present
9.96 Calculate the following for a 25.4 g sample of 88.7%
Grams of Moles of Molecules in Atoms in
pure Cu2S.
Sample Sample Sample Sample
a. mass, in grams, of Cu2S present
10.00 0.2272 1.368 * 1023 4.105 * 1023 b. mass, in grams, of impurities present
a. 16.22
9.97 What is the percent purity by mass of a CaCO3 sample
in which 0.23 g of impurities are present per 32.21 g
b. 0.5555 of CaCO3?
c. 4.000 * 1023 9.98 What is the percent purity by mass of an Mg1OH22
sample in which 2.45 g of impurities are present per
d. 2.500 * 1025 63.41 g of Mg1OH22 ?
9.99. The mass percent purity of a Cu2S sample is 85.0%. 9.111 Determine both the molecular formula and the
What is the mass, in grams, of the sample if 3.00 g of empirical formula for each of the following molecules.
impurities are present? a. citric acid
9.100 The mass percent purity of a CuS sample is 95.0%.
What is the mass, in grams, of the sample if 0.520 g H
O
of impurities are present? H
9.101 How many copper atoms are present in a 35.00 g O O O
sample of impure copper that has a purity of C
92.35% copper by mass? Assume that there are C O C
H C H
no copper-containing impurities present in the
sample. O C C O
9.102 How many silver atoms are present in a 50.00 g sam- H H
H H
ple of impure silver that has a purity of 89.98% silver
by mass? Assume that there are no silver-containing b. glucose
impurities present in the sample.
9.103 What mass, in grams, of chromium is present in a H H H
25.00 g sample of chromium ore that is 64.0% Cr2O3? C
Assume that impurities present do not contain any O
chromium. H O
C H
9.104 What mass, in grams, of nickel is present in a
C O
25.00 g sample of nickel ore that is 77.25% NiS? H H C
O
Assume that impurities present do not contain H C H
any nickel. C
O H
H O
H
DETERMINATION OF EMPIRICAL FORMULAS
(SECS. 9.13 AND 9.14) 9.112 Determine both the molecular formula and the em-
pirical formula for each of the following molecules.
9.105 Indicate whether or not each of the following molec- a. ribose
ular formula/empirical formula pairings is a correct
H H
pairing.
O O
a. N2O4 >NO2 b. PF3 >PF H
H
c. C2H6 >CH3 d. H2O2 >H2O C C O
9.106 Indicate whether or not each of the following molec- H
ular formula/empirical formula pairings is a correct O C C C
pairing. H H
H O H
a. SO3/SO b. H2O2 >HO H
c. C2H4 >CH d. NH3/NH3
9.107 In each of the following groupings of four com- b. vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
pounds select the two compounds that have the O
same empirical formula.
a. N2O, NO, NO2, N2O4 O
C H
b. C2H2, C2H4, C3H6, C4H10 C
9.108 In each of the following groupings of four com-
pounds select the two compounds that have the O
same empirical formula. C H
a. N2O2, N2O3, N2O5, NO O C O
H H
b. C6H6, C3H4, C2H2, C3H6 C H
9.109 Indicate whether or not each of the following chemi- C
cal formulas is a possible molecular formula for a H
H O H
compound whose empirical formula is CH2.
a. C2H2 b. C2H4 c. C3H6 d. C3H8 9.113 Given the following mass percent compositions,
9.110 Indicate whether or not each of the following determine the empirical formula.
chemical formulas is a possible molecular a. 58.91% Na and 41.09% S
formula for a compound whose empirical formula b. 24.74% K, 34.76% Mn, and 40.50% O
is CH3. c. 2.06% H, 32.69% S, and 65.25% O
a. C2H6 b. C2H4 c. C3H6 d. C3H8 d. 19.84% C, 2.50% H, 66.08% O, and 11.57% N
9.114. Given the following mass percent compositions, 9.124 Determine the empirical formula of the carbon–
determine the empirical formula. hydrogen compound that, upon combustion in a
a. 47.26% Cu and 52.74% Cl combustion analysis apparatus, generates each of the
b. 40.27% K, 26.78% Cr, and 32.96% O following sets of CO2 9H2O data.
c. 40.04% Ca, 12.00% C, and 47.96% O a. 0.269 g of CO2 and 0.221 g of H2O
d. 28.03% Na, 29.28% C, 3.69% H, and 39.01% O b. 0.294 g of CO2 and 0.120 g of H2O
9.115 Convert each of the following fractional molar ratios c. 0.600 g of CO2 and 0.184 g of H2O
to a whole-number molar ratio. d. 0.471 g of CO2 and 0.0963 g of H2O
a. 1.00 to 1.67 b. 1.00 to 1.50 9.125 Determine the empirical formula of the carbon–
c. 2.00 to 2.33 d. 1.33 to 2.33 to 2.00 hydrogen compound that, upon combustion of a
9.116 Convert each of the following fractional molar ratios 0.7420 mg sample in a combustion analysis appara-
to a whole-number molar ratio. tus, generates 2.328 mg of CO2.
a. 1.00 to 1.25 b. 1.00 to 2.33 9.126 Determine the empirical formula of the carbon–
c. 3.00 to 4.50 d. 1.50 to 1.00 to 1.67 hydrogen compound that, upon combustion of a
9.117 Determine the empirical formula for substances with 0.4244 mg sample in a combustion analysis appara-
each of the following mass percent compositions. tus, generates 1.164 mg of CO2.
a. 43.64% P and 56.36% O 9.127 A 3.750 g sample of the compound responsible for
b. 72.24% Mg and 27.76% N the odor of cloves (containing only C, H, and O) is
c. 29.08% Na, 40.56% S, and 30.36% O burned in a combustion analysis apparatus. The mass
d. 21.85% Mg, 27.83% P, and 50.32% O of CO2 produced is 10.05 g, and the mass of H2O
9.118 Determine the empirical formula for sub- produced is 2.47 g. What is the empirical formula of
stances with each of the following mass percent the compound?
compositions. 9.128 A 0.8640 g sample of the compound responsible for
a. 54.88% Cr and 45.12% S the pungent odor of rancid butter (containing only
b. 38.76% Cl and 61.24% O C, H, and O) is burned in a combustion analysis
c. 59.99% C, 4.485% H, and 35.52% O apparatus. The mass of CO2 produced is 1.727 g, and
d. 26.58% K, 35.35% Cr, and 38.06% O the mass of H2O produced is 0.7068 g. What is the
9.119 Ethyl mercaptan is an odorous substance added to empirical formula of the compound?
natural gas to make leaks easily detectable. Analysis
of a sample of ethyl mercaptan indicates that 5.798 g DETERMINATION OF MOLECULAR FORMULAS
of C, 1.46 g of H, and 7.740 g of S are present. (SEC. 9.14)
What is the empirical formula of this compound?
9.120 Hydroquinone is a compound used in developing 9.129 Determine the molecular formulas of compounds
photographic film. Analysis of a sample of hydroqui- with the following empirical formulas and molar
none indicates that 16.36 g of C, 1.38 g of H, and masses.
7.265 g of O are present. What is the empirical for- a. CH2, 42.08 g/mole b. NaS2O3, 270.26 g/mole
mula of this compound? c. C3H6O2, 74.09 g/mole d. CHN, 135.15 g/mole
9.121 A 2.00 g sample of beryllium metal is burned in an 9.130 Determine the molecular formulas of compounds
oxygen atmosphere to produce 5.55 g of a beryllium– with the following empirical formulas and molar
oxygen compound. Determine the compound’s masses.
empirical formula. a. C2HCl, 181.44 g/mole b. NO2, 92.02 g/mole
9.122 A 2.00 g sample of lithium metal is burned in an c. CB2H3, 73.3 g/mole d. SNCl2, 350.94 g/mole
oxygen atmosphere to produce 4.31 g of a lithium– 9.131 What is the molar mass for a compound with the
oxygen compound. Determine the compound’s em- empirical formula CH2 if its molecular formula and
pirical formula. empirical formula are related by the following whole
number multipliers?
a. 2 b. 3 c. 5 d. 8
EMPIRICAL FORMULA DETERMINATION USING 9.132 What is the molar mass for a compound with the
COMBUSTION ANALYSIS (SEC. 9.13) empirical formula CH if its molecular formula and
9.123 Determine the empirical formula of the carbon– empirical formula are related by the following whole
hydrogen compound that, upon combustion in a number multipliers?
combustion analysis apparatus, generates each of the a. 2 b. 4 c. 6 d. 8
following sets of CO2 9H2O data. 9.133 Indicate whether or not each of the following is a
a. 0.338 g of CO2 and 0.277 g of H2O possible molar mass for a compound whose empiri-
b. 0.303 g of CO2 and 0.0621 g of H2O cal formula is CH.
c. 0.225 g of CO2 and 0.115 g of H2O a. 24.31 g/mole b. 26.04 g/mole
d. 0.314 g of CO2 and 0.192 g of H2O c. 39.06 g/mole d. 45.09 g/mole
9.134. Indicate whether or not each of the following is a 9.139 A compound has an empirical formula of C2H3O.
possible molar mass for a compound whose empiri- Calculate the molecular formula of the compound for
cal formula is CH2. each of the following cases:
a. 26.03 g/mole b. 28.06 g/mole a. The compound’s molar mass is twice the com-
c. 32.01 g/mole d. 42.09 g/mole pound’s empirical formula mass.
9.135 Complete the following table, which involves relation- b. Molecules of the compound contain 18 atoms.
ships among empirical formulas, molecular formulas, c. The sum of the carbon and oxygen atoms in a
and molar masses, by filling in the blank(s) in each row molecule of the compound is 18.
of the table. Each row of the table involves a different d. The mass of 0.010 mole of the compound is
compound. The first row is already completed. 0.86 g.
9.140 A compound has an empirical formula of C3H5O.
Empirical Molar Mass Molecular Calculate the molecular formula of the compound for
Formula (g/mole) Formula each of the following cases:
a. The compound’s molar mass and empirical for-
C3H7 86.20 C6H14
mula mass differ by a factor of 2.
a. CH2 56.12 b. Molecules of the compound contain 18 atoms.
b. 28.06 C2H4 c. Molecules of the compound contain more than
20 atoms but fewer than 30 atoms.
c. C3H6 d. The mass of 0.010 mole of the compound is
d. CH C2H2 0.57 g.
9.141 Methyl benzoate, a compound used in the manufac-
9.136 Complete the following table, which involves ture of perfumes, has a molar mass of 136 g/mole,
relationships among empirical formulas, molecular and its percent composition by mass is 70.57% C,
formulas, and molar masses, by filling in the blank(s) in 5.93% H, and 23.49% O. Determine the molecular
each row of the table. Each row of the table involves a formula of methyl benzoate using
different compound. The first row is already completed. a. 100.0 g of methyl benzoate as the basis for the
calculation.
Empirical Molar Mass Molecular b. 1.00 mole of methyl benzoate as the basis for the
Formula (g/mole) Formula calculation.
9.142 Adipic acid, a compound used as a raw material for
C3H7 86.20 C6H14
the manufacture of nylon, has a molar mass of 146
a. 30.08 C2H6 g/mole, and its percent composition by mass is
b. CH 65.10 49.30% C, 6.91% H, and 43.79% O. Determine the
molecular formula of adipic acid, using
c. C3H8 a. 100.0 g of adipic acid as the basis for the
d. C2H5 C4H10 calculation.
b. 1.00 mole of adipic acid as the basis for the
9.137 A compound has the generalized empirical formula calculation.
XY3. Calculate the molecular formula of the com- 9.143 Lactic acid, the substance that builds up in muscles
pound for each of the following cases: and causes them to hurt when they are worked
a. Molecules of the compound contain three hard, has a molar mass of 90.0 g/mole and a
X atoms. percent composition by mass of 40.0% C, 6.71% H,
b. Molecules of the compound contain three and 53.3% O. Determine the molecular formula of
Y atoms. lactic acid, using
c. Molecules of the compound contain a total of a. 100.0 g of lactic acid as the basis for the
eight atoms. calculation.
d. Molecules of the compound are tetratomic. b. 1.00 mole of lactic acid as the basis for the
9.138 A compound has the generalized empirical formula calculation.
X2Y3. Calculate the molecular formula of the com- 9.144 Citric acid, a flavoring agent in many carbonated
pound for each of the following cases: beverages, has a molar mass of 192 g/mole and a
a. Molecules of the compound contain four percent composition by mass of 37.50% C, 4.21% H,
X atoms. and 58.29% O. Determine the molecular formula of
b. Molecules of the compound contain six citric acid, using
Y atoms. a. 100.0 g of citric acid as the basis for the
c. Molecules of the compound contain a total calculation.
of 15 atoms. b. 1.00 mole of citric acid as the basis for the
d. Molecules of the compound are pentatomic. calculation.
numbered problems.
9.145. Select the quantity that has the greater mass in each 9.155 For the compound 1CH3 23SiCl, calculate, to two sig-
of the following pairs of quantities. Make your selec- nificant figures, the
tion using the periodic table but without performing a. mass percent of H present.
an actual calculation. b. atom percent of H present.
a. 1.00 mole of silver or 1.00 mole of gold c. mole percent of H present.
b. 1.00 mole of sulfur or 6.022 * 1023 atoms of 9.156 For the compound 1CH3 22SiCl2, calculate, to two
carbon significant figures, the
c. 1.00 mole of Cl atoms or 1.00 mole of Cl2 a. mass percent of H present.
molecules b. atom percent of H present.
d. 8.00 g of He or 6.022 * 1023 atoms of Ne c. mole percent of H present.
9.146 Select the quantity that has the greater mass in each 9.157 What are the empirical formulas for the compounds
of the following pairs of quantities. Make your selec- that contain each of the following?
tion using the periodic table but without performing a. 9.0 * 1023 atoms of Na, 3.0 * 1023 atoms of Al,
an actual calculation. and 1.8 * 1024 atoms of F
a. 1.00 mole of tin or 1.00 mole of lead b. 3.2 g of S and 1.20 * 1023 atoms of O
b. 1.00 mole of phosphorus or 6.022 * 1023 atoms c. 0.36 mole of Ba, 0.36 mole of C, and 17.2 g of O
of boron d. 1.81 * 1023 atoms of H, 10.65 g of Cl, and 0.30
c. 1.00 mole of O atoms or 1.00 mole of O2 mole of O atoms
molecules 9.158 What are the empirical formulas for the compounds
d. 7.5 g of Be or 6.022 * 1023 atoms of Li that contain each of the following?
9.147 Select the quantity that has the greater number of a. 3.0 * 1030 atoms of Fe, 3.0 * 1030 atoms of Cr,
atoms in each of the following pairs of quantities. and 1.2 * 1031 atoms of O
Make your selection using the periodic table but b. 0.0023 g of N and 2.0 * 1020 atoms of O
without performing an actual calculation. c. 0.40 mole of Li, 6.4 g of S, and 0.80 mole of O
a. 1.00 mole of P or 1.00 mole of P4 d. 0.15 mole of S, 1.8 * 1023 atoms of O, and 5.7 g of F
b. 21.0 g of Na or 1.00 mole of Na 9.159 Calculate the number of carbon atoms in 5.25 g of a
c. 63.5 g of Cu or 8.0 g of B compound that contains 92.26% C and 7.74% H by
d. 1.00 g of K or 6.022 * 1023 atoms of Be mass.
9.148 Select the quantity that has the greater number of 9.160 Calculate the number of nitrogen atoms in 5.25 g of a
atoms in each of the following pairs of quantities. compound that contains 87.39% N and 12.61% H by mass.
Make your selection using the periodic table but 9.161 A sample of a compound containing only C and H is
without performing an actual calculation. burned in oxygen, and 13.75 g of CO2 and 11.25 g of
a. 1.00 mole of S or 1.00 mole of S8 H2O are obtained. What was the mass of the sample,
b. 28.0 g of Al or 1.00 mole of Al in grams, that was burned?
c. 28.1 g of Si or 30.0 g of Mg 9.162 A sample of a compound containing only C and H is
d. 2.00 g of Na or 6.022 * 1023 atoms of He burned in oxygen, and 14.66 g of CO2 and 9.00 g of
9.149 How many grams of potassium and sulfur are theo- H2O are obtained. What was the mass of the sample,
retically needed to make 4.000 g of K2S? in grams, that was burned?
9.150 How many grams of beryllium and nitrogen are 9.163 A sample of a compound containing only C, H, and
theoretically needed to make 3.00 g of Be3N2? S was burned in oxygen, and 6.60 g of CO2, 5.41 g of
9.151 How many grams of B would contain the same num- H2O, and 9.61 g of SO2 were obtained.
ber of atoms as there are in 3.50 moles of Xe? a. What is the empirical formula of the compound?
9.152 How many grams of Si would contain the same num- b. What was the mass, in grams, of the sample that
ber of atoms as there are in 2.10 moles of Ar? was burned?
9.153 How many grams of O are combined with 9.164 A sample of a compound containing only C, H, and
7.23 * 1024 atoms of Al in the compound aluminum N was burned in oxygen, and 6.60 g of CO2, 6.76 g
oxide 1Al2O3 2? of H2O, and 4.50 g of NO were obtained.
9.154 How many grams of O are combined with a. What is the empirical formula of the compound?
6.67 * 1025 atoms of K in the compound potassium b. What was the mass, in grams, of the sample that
oxide 1K2O2? was burned?
9.165. A sample containing NaF, Na2SO4, and NaNO3 gives 9.169 By analysis, a compound with the formula KClOx
the following elemental analysis by mass: 18.1% F is found to contain 28.9% chlorine by mass. What
and 6.60% N. Calculate the mass percent of each is the value of the integer x in the compound’s
compound in the mixture. formula?
9.166 A sample containing NaF, Na2SO4, and NaNO3 gives 9.170 By analysis, a compound with the formula H3AsOx
the following elemental analysis by mass: 11.3% F is found to contain 52.78% arsenic by mass. What
and 5.65% S. Calculate the mass percent of each is the value of the integer x in the compound’s
compound in the mixture. formula?
9.167 A gaseous mixture is 5.000% by mass CO2, 10.00% 9.171 A 7.503 g sample of metal is reacted with excess oxy-
by mass N2O, and the remainder is H2O. What is the gen to yield 10.498 g of the oxide MO. Calculate the
mass percent of each element present in the mixture? molar mass of the element M.
9.168 A gaseous mixture is 5.000% by mass CO, 10.00% by 9.172 An 11.17 g sample of metal is reacted with excess
mass NO2, and the remainder is H2O. What is the oxygen to yield 15.97 g of the oxide M2O3. Calculate
mass percent of each element present in the mixture? the molar mass of the element M.

MC 9.1 Which of the following are the values of the MC 9.5 One mole of a chemical compound is the mass of
formula masses, respectively, of the compounds NO and the compound, in grams, that
N2O? a. will combine with 12.00 g of C.
a. 15.00 amu and 22.00 amu b. will combine with 100.00 g of O.
b. 30.01 amu and 60.02 amu c. is numerically equal to its molecular mass.
c. 22.01 amu and 44.02 amu d. more than one correct response
e. no correct response MC 9.6 How many Ag atoms are present in a 3.75 mole
MC 9.2 A compound with the chemical formula SOn has a sample of Ag atoms?
formula mass of 80.06 amu. What is the value for n in the a. 1.63 * 1023 atoms
formula SOn? b. 2.26 * 1024 atoms
a. one c. 4.75 * 1025 atoms
b. two d. 1.12 * 1026 atoms
c. three e. no correct response
d. four MC 9.7 Which of the following is a correct statement?
e. no correct response a. A nitrogen atom has a mass of 2.57 * 10-23 g.
MC 9.3 The mass percentage of O present in the b. An aluminum atom has a mass of 4.48 * 10-23 g.
compound CO2 is c. A copper atom has a mass of 9.97 * 10-23 g.
a. 27.29%. d. more than one correct response
b. 36.36%. e. no correct response
c. 57.12%. MC 9.8 What is the mass, in grams, of 2.340 moles of N2 molecules?
d. 72.71%. a. 28.02 g
e. no correct response b. 32.78 g
MC 9.4 Which of the following statements concerning c. 56.04 g
Avogadro’s number is correct? d. 65.57 g
a. It has the numerical value 6.022 * 1026 e. no correct response
b. It is the mass, in grams, of 1 mole of any MC 9.9 For which of the following compounds does a 1.9 g
substance sample represent 4.3 * 10-2 moles of compound?
c. It denotes the number of molecules in 1 mole of a. CO2
any molecular substance b. C3H8
d. more than one correct response c. H2O2
MC 9.10 Which of the following samples contains 6 moles MC 9.15 How many moles of Na atom are present in 100.0 g
of atoms? of Na2S?
a. 2 moles of CS2 a. 0.7804 mole Na
b. 3 moles of HF b. 1.281 moles Na
c. 6 moles of O2 c. 1.561 moles Na
d. more than one correct response d. 2.563 moles Na
MC 9.11 One mole of Cl2O molecules contains MC 9.16 What is the empirical formula for a compound
a. 16.00 g of O. whose molecular formula is C2H2O4?
b. 35.45 g of Cl. a. CHO b. C2H2O2 c. C4H4O8
c. 70.90 g of Cl. d. C4H2O4 e. no correct response
d. more than one correct response MC 9.17 Which of the following is a possible molar mass
e. no correct response for a compound whose empirical formula is CH2?
MC 9.12 Which of the following is the correct dimensional a. 28.06 g/mole
analysis setup for the problem “How many atoms are pres- b. 32.01 g/mole
ent in 10.00 g of S?” c. 42.09 g/mole
6.022 * 1023 atoms S
a. 10.00 g S * a b e. no correct response
1.000 g S
MC 9.18 Analysis of a sample of a compound shows
b. that 5.00 moles of C, 6.50 moles of H, and 2.00 moles
1 mole S 1 atom S of O are present. What is the empirical formula of the
10.00 g S * a b * a b
32.06 g S 6.022 * 1023 moles S compound?
c. a. C2H3O b. C3H3O c. C5H7O2
d. C10H13O4 e. no correct response
1 mole S 6.022 * 1023 atoms S MC 9.19 What is the empirical formula of a compound that
10.00 g S * a b * a b
32.06 g S 1 mole S contains 63.65% N and 36.35% O?
d. more than one correct response a. NO b. NO2 c. N2O3 d. N2O5
MC 9.13 The given dimensional analysis set for the prob- MC 9.20 If a 1.00 g sample of a carbon-containing com-
lem “What is the mass, in grams, of 3.002 * 106 atoms of F?” pound is burned in air, 0.75 g of CO2 (the only carbon-
is correct, except numbers in the middle conversion factor containing product) is produced. What is the mass percent
have been replaced by the letters A and B. What are the nu- carbon in the compound?
merical values of A and B, respectively? a. 20.5% by mass
A moles F 19.00 g F b. 41.0% by mass
3.002 * 106 atoms F * a b * a b c. 57.7% by mass
B atoms F 1 mole F
a. 1 and 6.022 * 1023 d. 75.0% by mass
b. 6.022 * 1023 and 1 e. no correct response
c. 19.00 and 6.022 * 1023
d. more than one correct response ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE CHOICE PRACTICE TEST
MC 9.14 How many molecules of H2O are present in 28.01 g MC 9.1 e MC 9.8 d MC 9.15 d
of H2O? MC 9.2 c MC 9.9 d MC 9.16 e
a. 1.193 * 1021 molecules MC 9.3 d MC 9.10 d MC 9.17 d
b. 3.874 * 1023 molecules MC 9.4 c MC 9.11 d MC 9.18 d
c. 9.361 * 1023 molecules MC 9.5 c MC 9.12 c MC 9.19 e
d. 3.040 * 1026 molecules MC 9.6 b MC 9.13 a MC 9.20 a
e. no correct response MC 9.7 b MC 9.14 c
C H A P T E R
10
Chemical Calculations Involving
Chemical Equations
10.1 The Law of Conservation of Mass

10.2 Writing Chemical Equations
10.3 Chemical Equation Coefficients
10.4 Balancing Procedures for Chemical Equations
10.5 Special Symbols Used in Chemical Equations
10.6 Classes of Chemical Reactions
10.7 Chemical Equations and the Mole Concept
10.8 Balanced Chemical Equations and the Law of Conservation of Mass
10.9 Calculations Based on Chemical Equations—Stoichiometry
10.10 The Limiting Reactant Concept
10.11 Yields: Theoretical, Actual, and Percent
10.12 Simultaneous and Sequential Chemical Reactions
10.1 THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS

Student Learning Focus: State the law of conservation of mass and describe how this law relates
to a chemical reaction.
In an earlier consideration of chemical change (Sec. 4.4), it was noted that chemical
changes are referred to as chemical reactions. As we learned there, a chemical reaction is
a process in which at least one new substance is produced as a result of chemical change.
It is usually easy to see that a chemical reaction has occurred. Color change, emission
of heat and/or light, gas evolution, and solid formation are an indication that a chemical
reaction has taken place.
The starting materials for a chemical reaction are known as reactants. Reactants
are the starting substances that undergo change in a chemical reaction. As a chemical
387
388 Chapter 10 • Chemical Calculations Involving Chemical Equations
FIGURE 10.1
Rearrangement of O
atoms that occurs when O O H H
methane (CH4) reacts
H
with oxygen (O2). The
products are carbon C + O C O +
H H
dioxide (CO2) and H
water (H2O). O O O
H H
reaction proceeds, reactants are consumed (used up) and new materials with new
chemical properties are produced. Products are the substances produced as a result of a
chemical reaction.
From a molecular viewpoint, a chemical reaction (chemical change) involves the
union, separation, or rearrangement of atoms to produce new substances. Figure 10.1
shows the rearrangement of atoms that occurs when methane 1CH4 2 reacts with oxygen
1O2 2 to produce carbon dioxide 1CO2 2 and water 1H2O2 . Hydrogen atoms originally as-
sociated with carbon atoms 1CH4 2 became associated with oxygen atoms 1H2O2 as the
result of the chemical reaction. This chemical reaction is an example of a combustion
reaction (Sec. 10.5); energy is also a product of the chemical reaction.
Studies of countless chemical reactions over a period of more than 200 years have
shown that there is no detectable change in the quantity of matter present during an
ordinary chemical reaction. This generalization concerning chemical reactions has been
formalized into a statement known as the law of conservation of mass: mass is neither
created nor destroyed in any ordinary chemical reaction. To demonstrate the validity
of this law, the masses of all reactants (substances that react together) and all products
(substances formed) in a chemical reaction are carefully determined. It is found that the

Antoine-Laurent there became interested in chemistry. This change Early in life he invested money in a pri-
Lavoisier in focus took place during his early twenties. vate tax-collecting firm and married the daugh-
(1743–1794) Lavoisier’s studies on combustion are ter of one of the company executives. Firms
considered his major work. He was the first to of this type were licensed by the state to col-
Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier realize that combustion involves the reaction lect taxes and keep a portion of the proceeds.
(pronounced Lav-wazy-ay), of oxygen from air with the substance that is Lavoisier used his earnings from this endeavor
the son of a wealthy Parisian lawyer, is often burned. He gave the name oxygen to the gas then (about 100,000 francs a year) to support his sci-
called the “father of modern chemistry.” It is he known as “dephlogisticated air.” In later years, entific work. This connection with tax collect-
who first appreciated the importance of carrying he became interested in physiological chemistry. ing proved fatal.
out very accurate (quantitative) measurements Lavoisier’s Elementary Treatise on During the French Revolution all
of chemical change. His work was performed on Chemistry, published in 1789, was the first text- associated with this type of activity, known as
balances he had specially designed that were book based on quantitative experiments. He was “tax-farming,” were denounced, arrested,
more accurate than any then known. From his also one of the first to use systematic nomencla- and guillotined. Lavoisier’s death, at age 51,
balance work came the discovery of the law of ture for elements and a few compounds. came just two months before the end of the
conservation of mass. He was also the first to In 1790 he was appointed secretary and Revolution. On the day of his death, one of
make quantitative measurements on the heat treasurer of a commission established to stan- Lavoisier’s scientific colleagues gave this trib-
produced during chemical reactions. dardize weights and measures used throughout ute: “It took but a moment to cut off that head;
Originally trained as a lawyer, Lavoisier en- France. The outgrowth of this commission’s perhaps a hundred years will be required to
tered the field of science through geology and from work was the metric system. produce another like it.” ▪
Chapter 10 • Chemical Calculations Involving Chemical Equations 389
sum of the masses of the products is always the same as the sum of the masses of the
reactants. The French chemist Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier (1743–1794; see “The Human
Side of Chemistry 11”) is given credit for being the first to state this important relationship
between the reactants and products of a chemical reaction.
Consider, as an illustrative example of this law, the reaction of known masses of the
elements beryllium (Be) and oxygen (O) to form the compound beryllium oxide (BeO).
Experimentally, it is found that 36.03 g of Be will react with exactly 63.97 g of O. After the
reaction, no Be or O remains in elemental form; the only substance present is the product
BeO, combined Be and O. When this product is weighed, its mass is found to be 100.00 g,
which is the sum of the masses of the reactants 136.03 g + 63.97 g = 100.00 g2. It is
also found that when the 100.00 g of product BeO is heated to a high temperature in the
absence of air, the BeO decomposes into Be and O, producing 36.03 g of Be and 63.97 g
of O. Once again, no detectable mass change is observed; the mass of the reactants is
equal to the mass of the products.
The law of conservation of mass is consistent with the statements of atomic theory
(Sec. 5.1). Since all reacting chemical substances are made up of atoms (statement 1),
each with its unique identity (statement 2), and these atoms can be neither created nor
destroyed in a chemical reaction but merely rearranged (statement 4), it follows that the
total mass after the reaction must equal the total mass before the reaction. We have the
same number of atoms of each kind after the reaction as we started out with. An alterna-
tive way of stating the law of conservation of mass is The total mass of reactants and the
total mass of products in a chemical reaction are always equal.
The law of conservation of mass applies to all ordinary chemical reactions, and
there is no known case of a measurable change in total mass during an ordinary chemi-
cal reaction.* This law will be a guiding principle for the discussion that follows about
chemical equations and their use.
10.2 WRITING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

Student Learning Focus: Be familiar with the conventions used in writing chemical equations and
the conditions that must be met in order for a chemical equation to be valid.
A chemical equation is a representation for a chemical reaction that uses chemical sym-
bols and chemical formulas instead of words to describe the changes that occur in a chem-
ical reaction. The following example shows the contrast between a word description of a
chemical reaction and a chemical equation for the same reaction.
Word description: Magnesium oxide reacts with carbon to produce carbon
monoxide and magnesium.
Chemical equation: MgO + C h CO + Mg
In the same way that chemical symbols are considered the letters of chemical lan-
guage and chemical formulas the words of the language, chemical equations can be con-
sidered the sentences of chemical language.
*The law of conservation of mass has limitations. Certain types of reactions that involve radioactive processes
have been found to deviate from this law. In these processes, there is a conversion of a small amount of matter
into energy rather than into another form of matter. A more general law incorporates this apparent discrep-
ancy—the law of conservation of mass and energy. This law takes into account the fact that matter and energy
are interconvertible. Note that the statement of the law of conservation of mass, as given at the start of this
discussion, contains the phrase “ordinary chemical reaction.” Radioactive processes are not considered to be
ordinary chemical reactions.
In a chemical equation, The conventions used in writing chemical equations are

the reactants (starting
materials in a chemi- 1. The correct formulas of the reactants are always written on the left side of the equation.
cal reaction) are always
written on the left side MgO + C h CO + Mg
of the equation, and the 2. The correct formulas of the products are always written on the right side of the equation.
products (substances pro-
duced in a chemical reac- MgO + C h CO + Mg
tion) are always written
on the right side of the 3. The reactants and products are separated by an arrow pointing toward the products.
equation.
MgO + C h CO + Mg
4. Plus signs are used to separate different reactants or different products from each other.
MgO + C h CO + Mg
In reading chemical equations, plus signs on the reactant side of the equation are taken
to mean “reacts with”; the arrow, “to produce”; and plus signs on the product side, “and.”
A catchy, informal way of defining a chemical equation is to say that it gives the
before-and-after picture of a chemical reaction. Before the reaction starts, only reactants
are present—the left side of the equation. After the reaction is completed, products are
present—the right side of the equation.
For a chemical equation to be valid, it must satisfy two conditions.
1. It must be consistent with experimental facts. Only the reactants and products actually
involved in a reaction are shown in an equation. An accurate chemical formula must
be used for each of these substances. For compounds, molecular rather than empirical
formulas (Sec. 9.11) are always used. Elements in the solid and liquid states are repre-
sented in equations by the chemical symbol for the element. Elements that are gases
at room temperature are represented by the molecular form in which they actually
occur in nature. Monoatomic, diatomic, and tetratomic elemental gases are known.
The diatomic elemental Monoatomic: He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn
gases are the elements
Diatomic: H2, O2, N2, F2, Cl2, Br2 (vapor)*, I2 (vapor)*
whose names end in -gen
(hydrogen, oxygen, and Tetratomic: P4(vapor)*, As4 (vapor)*
nitrogen) or -ine (fluo-
rine, chlorine, bromine, 2. It must be consistent with the law of conservation of mass (Sec. 10.1). There must be
and iodine). the same number of product atoms of each kind as there are reactant atoms of each
kind, because atoms are neither created nor destroyed in an ordinary chemical reac-
tion. Equations that satisfy the conditions of this law are said to be balanced. Using
the four conventions previously listed for writing equations does not guarantee a
balanced equation. Sections 10.3 and 10.4 consider the steps that must be taken to
ensure that an equation is balanced.
10.3 CHEMICAL EQUATION COEFFICIENTS

Student Learning Focus: Understand the mathematical significance of coefficients in a balanced
chemical equation. Be able to recognize whether a chemical equation is or is not balanced.
A balanced chemical equation is a chemical equation that has the same number of
atoms of each element involved in a reaction on each side of the equation. It is therefore
an equation consistent with the law of conservation of mass (Sec. 10.1).
*The four elements listed as vapors are not gases at room temperature but vaporize at slightly higher tempera-
tures. The resultant vapors contain molecules with the formulas indicated. Even if these elements do not vapor-
ize, they are still represented in chemical equations with these formulas.
An unbalanced equation is brought into balance by adding coefficients to the equa-

tion; such coefficients adjust the number of reactant and/or product molecules (or for-
mula units) present. An equation coefficient is a number placed to the left of a chemical
formula in a chemical equation that changes the amount but not the identity of a sub-
stance. In the notation 2 H2O, the 2 on the left is a coefficient; 2 H2O means two mol-
ecules of H2O, and 3 H2O means three molecules of H2O. Equation coefficients tell how
many formula units of a given substance are present.
The following is a balanced chemical equation with the equation coefficients shown
in color.
3 Cu + 8 HNO3 h 3 Cu1NO3 22 + 2 NO + 4 H2O
The message of this balanced equation is “three Cu atoms react with eight HNO3 molecules
to produce three Cu1NO3 22 formula units, two NO molecules, and four H2O molecules.”
A coefficient of 1 in a balanced equation is not explicitly written; it is considered to be
understood. Both PCl3 and H3PO3 have understood coefficients of 1 in the following
balanced equation.
PCl3 + 3 H2O h H3PO3 + 3 HCl
The distinction between an equation coefficient placed in front of a chemical formula and
a subscript in a chemical formula is a very important difference. An equation coefficient
placed in front of a chemical formula applies to the whole formula. In contrast, subscripts,
also present in formulas, affect only parts of a chemical formula.
ƒiiiiii
Coefficient 1affects both the H and O2
2 H2O
ƒiiii Subscript 1affects only H2
The above notation denotes two molecules of H2O; it also denotes a total of four H atoms
and two O atoms.
Changing a chemical formula subscript affects the identity of the substance.
Changing the subscript 2 in the formula SO2 to a 3 to give SO3 produces an identity
change. The substances SO2 (sulfur dioxide) and SO3 (sulfur trioxide) are different com-
pounds with distinctly different properties. In contrast, placing a coefficient in front of
a chemical formula does not change identity but rather changes amount. The notation
2 SO2 means two molecules of SO2 and the notation 3 SO2 means three molecules of SO2.
Example 10.1 illustrates further the mathematical significance of equation coefficients.
EXAMPLE 10.1 Using Both Equation Coefficients and Chemical Formulas

to Determine Number of Atoms Present
How many oxygen atoms are part of each of the following chemical expressions?
a. 3 SO2 b. 4 SO3 c. 7 H2S2O3 d. 6 Al21SO4 23
SOLUTION
In each case the numerical coefficient that precedes the chemical formula gives the num-
ber of molecules or formula units of compound present. Equation coefficients affect all
parts of the chemical formulas with which they are associated.
a. The expression 3 SO2 denotes three SO2 molecules. The total number of oxygen
atoms present is
2 O atoms calculator and
3 SO2 molecules * = 6 O atoms a b
1 SO2 molecule correct answer
b. Similarly, we have, for four SO3 molecules

4 SO3 molecules * = 12 O atoms a b
1 SO3 molecule correct answer
c. Similarly, we have

7 H2S2O3 molecules * = 21 O atoms a b
1 H2S2O3 molecule correct answer
12 O atoms
d. 6 Al21SO4 23 formula units *
1 Al21SO4 23 formula unit
= 72 O atoms 1calculator and correct answer2
Here the number of oxygen atoms present is affected by three numbers: the coefficient
preceding the chemical formula, the subscript 4 immediately following the chemical
symbol of O, and the subscript 3 outside the parenthesis in the chemical formula.
10.4 BALANCING PROCEDURES FOR CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

Student Learning Focus: Be able to balance a chemical equation given the chemical formulas of all
the reactants and all of the products.
We now proceed to the procedures needed for determining the equation coefficients
needed to bring a given chemical equation into balance. They are introduced in the
context of actually balancing two chemical equations (Examples 10.2 and 10.3). Both of
these examples should be studied carefully, because each includes detailed commentary
concerning the “ins and outs” of balancing chemical equations.
EXAMPLE 10.2 Balancing a Chemical Equation
Balance the following chemical equation:
Fe3O4 + H2 h Fe + H2O
SOLUTION
Step 1 Examine the chemical equation, and pick one element to balance first. It is often
convenient to identify the most complex substance first, that is, the substance
with the greatest number of atoms per formula unit. For this most complex sub-
stance, whether a reactant or product, “key in” on the element within it that is
In balancing a chemical present in the greatest amount (greatest number of atoms). Using this guideline,
equation, chemical for- we select Fe3O4 and the element oxygen.
mula subscripts are never We note that there are four oxygen atoms on the left side of the equation
changed. You must leave
the chemical formulas
(in Fe3O4) and only one oxygen atom on the right side (in H2O). For the oxygen
just as they are given. atoms to balance, we will need four on each side. To obtain four atoms of oxygen
The only thing you can on each side of the equation, we place the coefficient 1 in front of Fe3O4 and the
do is place coefficients coefficient 4 in front of H2O.
in front of the chemical
formulas. 1 Fe3O4 + H2 h Fe + 4 H2O
The coefficient 1 (in front of Fe3O4) has been explicitly shown in the preceding
equation to remind us that the Fe3O4 coefficient has been determined. We now
have four oxygen atoms on each side of the equation.
1 Fe3O4: 1 * 4 = 4
4 H2O: 4 * 1 = 4
Step 2 Now pick a second element to balance. We will balance the element Fe next. (In this
particular equation it does not matter whether we balance Fe or H second.) The
number of Fe atoms on the left side of the equation is three; the coefficient 1 in
front of Fe3O4 sets the Fe atom number at three. We will need three Fe atoms on
the product side. This is accomplished by placing the coefficient 3 in front of Fe.
1 Fe3O4 + H2 h 3 Fe + 4 H2O
Now there are three Fe atoms on each side of the equation.
Step 3 Now pick a third element to balance. The only element left to balance is H. There
are two H atoms on the left and eight H atoms on the right (4 H2O involves 8 H
atoms). Placing the coefficient 4 in front of H2 on the left side gives eight H atoms
on that side.
1 Fe3O4 + 4 H2 h 3 Fe + 4 H2O
Step 4 As a final check on the correctness of the balancing procedure, count atoms on
each side of the chemical equation. The following table can be constructed from
our balanced equation.
Fe3O4 + 4 H2 h 3 Fe + 4 H2O
Atom Left Side Right Side

Fe 1 * 3 = 3 3 * 1 = 3
O 1 * 4 = 4 4 * 1 = 4
H 4 * 2 = 8 4 * 2 = 8
Note that in the preceding final form of the balanced equation, the subscript 1
in front of Fe3O4 has been dropped. We carried this subscript 1 in the individual
steps of the balancing procedure to remind us of which elements had been bal-
anced and which had not been balanced. Once the balancing procedure has
been completed, a 1 coefficient need not be shown since a 1 is implied just by
the presence of a chemical formula in an equation. This convention parallels that
used in writing chemical formulas themselves: The subscript 1 is implied rather
than explicitly written, so the formula for water is written as H2O, not as H2O1.
Answer Double Check: Is the chemical equation balanced? Yes. There are the same
number of atoms of each type on each side of the chemical equation; there are three Fe
atoms on each side, four O atoms on each side, and eight H atoms on each side.
EXAMPLE 10.3 Balancing a Chemical Equation
Balance the following chemical equation

C4H10 + O2 h CO2 + H2O
SOLUTION
Step 1 Examine the chemical equation, and pick one element to balance first. The for-
mula containing the most atoms is C4H10. We will balance the element H first. We
have 10 H atoms on the left and 2 H atoms on the right. The two sides are brought
into balance by placing the coefficient 5 in front of H2O on the right side. We now
have 10 H atoms on each side.
1 C4H10: 1 * 10 = 10
5 H2O: 5 * 2 = 10
Our chemical equation now has the following appearance:
1 C4H10 + O2 h CO2 + 5 H2O
In setting the H balance at 10 atoms, we are setting the coefficient in front of
C4H10 at 1. The 1 has been explicitly shown in the above equation to remind us
that the C4H10 coefficient has been determined. (In the final balanced equation
the 1 should not be shown.)
Step 2 Now pick a second element to balance. We will balance C next. You always bal-
ance the elements that appear in only one reactant and one product before trying
to balance any elements appearing in several formulas on one side of the equa-
tion. Oxygen, our other choice for an element to balance at this stage, appears in
two places on the product side of the equation. The number of carbon atoms is
already set at four on the left side of the equation.
1 C4H10: 1 * 4 = 4
We obtain a balance of four carbon atoms on each side of the equation by placing
the coefficient 4 in front of CO2.
1 C4H10 + O2 h 4 CO2 + 5 H2O
Step 3 Now pick a third element to balance. Only one element is left to balance—oxygen.
The number of oxygen atoms on the right side of the equation is already
set at 13: eight O atoms from the CO2 and five O atoms from the H2O.
4 CO2: 4 * 2 = 8
5 H2O: 5 * 1 = 5
To obtain 13 O atoms on the left side of the equation, we need a fractional coef-
ficient, 612 .
612 O2: 612 * 2 = 13
The coefficient 6 gives 12 atoms and the coefficient 7 gives 14 atoms. The only
way we can get 13 atoms is by using 612 .
All the coefficients in the equation have now been determined.
1 C4H10 + 612 O2 h 4 CO2 + 5 H2O
Chemical equations containing fractional coefficients are not considered
to be written in their most conventional form. Although such equations are
mathematically correct, they have some problems chemically. The above equa-
tion indicates the need for 612 O2 molecules among the reactants, but half an O2
molecule does not exist as such. Step 4 shows how to take care of this “problem.”
Step 4 After all coefficients have been determined, clear any fractional coefficients that
are present. We can clear the fractional coefficient present in this equation, 612 , by
multiplying each of the coefficients in the equation by the factor 2.
2 C4H10 + 13 O2 h 8 CO2 + 10 H2O
Now we have the equation in its conventional form. Note that all the coefficients
had to be multiplied by 2, not just the fractional one. It will always be the case
that whatever is done to a fractional coefficient to make it a whole number must
also be carried out on all of the other coefficients.
If a coefficient involving 13 had been present in the equation, we would
have multiplied by 3 instead of by 2.
Step 5 As a final check on the correctness of the balancing procedure, count atoms on
each side of the chemical equation. The following table can be constructed from
our balanced equation.
2 C4H10 + 13 O2 h 8 CO2 + 10 H2O
Atom Left Side Right Side

C 2 * 4 = 8 8 * 1 = 8
H 2 * 10 = 20 10 * 2 = 20
O 13 * 2 = 26 18 * 22 + 110 * 12 = 26
Answer Double Check: Is the chemical equation balanced? Yes. There are the same
number of atoms of each type on each side of the chemical equation; there are 8 C atoms
on each side, 20 H atoms on each side, and 26 O atoms on each side.
Some additional comments and guidelines concerning chemical equations and the
process of balancing them are in order.
It is important to remember that the ultimate source of the information conveyed by
a chemical equation is experimental data. Before you can write a chemical equation for
a reaction, the identity and formulas of the reactants and products must be determined
by experiment. Once you know these things, then you can write the balanced equation.
There are four additional guidelines concerning chemical equations and the balanc-
ing process:
1. The coefficients in a balanced equation are always the smallest set of whole numbers
that will balance the equation. This is significant because more than one set of coef-
ficients will balance an equation. Consider the following three equations.
2 H 2 + O2 h 2 H 2 O
4 H 2 + 2 O2 h 4 H 2 O
8 H 2 + 4 O2 h 8 H 2 O
All three of these equations are mathematically correct; there are equal numbers of The only way to learn to
H and O atoms on each side of the equation. The first equation, however, is con- balance chemical equa-
tions is through practice.
sidered the conventional form because the coefficients used there are the smallest
The problems at the end
set of whole numbers that will balance the equation. The coefficients in the second of this chapter contain
equation are double those in the first, and the third equation has coefficients 4 times numerous chemical equa-
those of the first equation. tions for your practice.
2. It is useful to consider polyatomic ions as single entities in balancing a chemi-
cal equation, provided they maintain their identities in the chemical reaction.
Polyatomic ions have maintained their identity in a chemical reaction if they appear
on both sides of the equation. For example, in an equation where sulfate units are
present 1SO42 - 2, both as reactants and products, balance them as a unit rather than
trying to balance S and O separately. The reasoning would be “We have two sulfates
on this side, so we need two sulfates on that side,” and so on.
A chemical equation where this guideline applies is

K2SO4 + BaCl2 h 2 KCl + BaSO4
On each side of the equation we have 2 K, 1 SO4, 1 Ba, and 2 Cl.
Some chemical equations 3. Subscripts in the chemical formula of a reactant or product should never be altered
are much more difficult (changed) during the balancing process. A student might try to balance the atoms
to balance than those
you encounter in this
of C in CO2 at two by using the notation C2O4 instead of 2 CO2. This is incorrect.
chapter’s examples and The notation C2O4 denotes a molecule containing six atoms, whereas the nota-
end-of-chapter problems. tion 2 CO2 denotes two molecules, each containing three atoms. The experimental
The procedures discussed fact is that a molecule of CO2 contains three rather than six atoms. A coefficient
here simply are not ad- deals with the number of formula units of a substance, and a subscript deals with
equate for those more
difficult chemical equa-
the composition of the substance. Subscripts illustrate the law of definite proportions
tions. In Chapter 15 a (Sec. 9.1); coefficients relate to the law of conservation of mass (Sec. 10.1).
more systematic method 4. Knowing the procedures for balancing chemical equations does not enable you to
for balancing chemical predict what the products of a chemical reaction will be. You are not expected, at
equations, specifically this point, to be able to write down the products for a chemical reaction, given what
designed for those more
difficult situations, will be
the reactants are. After learning how to balance equations, students sometimes get
presented. the mistaken idea that they ought to be able to write down equations from scratch.
This is not so. At this stage you should be able to balance simple equations given all
of the reactants and all of the products.
5. A given set of reactants can react to produce different products depending on reaction
conditions such as temperature, pressure, and the molar ratio in which the reactants are
present. For example, the compound ammonia 1NH3 2 reacts with oxygen 1O2 2 in two
different ways, depending on reaction conditions.
4 NH3 + 3 O2 S 2 N2 + 6 H2O
4 NH3 + 5 O2 S 4 NO + 6 H2O
Another example of two reactants reacting in different molar ratios is the reaction
between the fuel methane 1CH4 2 and O2. The product is either carbon dioxide or
carbon monoxide depending on the amount of O2 available for the reaction.
CH4 + 2 O2 S CO2 + H2O
2 CH4 + 3 O2 S 2 CO + 4 H2O
A final insightful aspect of our consideration of balanced chemical equations is a
look at the concept of a balanced chemical equation at the molecular level. For the
balanced chemical equation
CH4 + 2 O2 h CO2 + 2 H2O
such a molecular view is given in Figure 10.2. Note visually the rearrangement of
atoms that occurs as reactants are changed to products. Also important is the atom
balance between the two “boxes.” There are the same number of atoms of each kind
in the reactant and product boxes.
FIGURE 10.2 CH4 + 2 O2 CO2 + 2 H2O

Molecular view of a
balanced chemical Reactants Products
equation.
Example 10.4 considers the opposite situation to that depicted in Figure 10.2.
In this example a balanced chemical equation is derived using a “molecular view”
of the reactants and products.
EXAMPLE 10.4 Deriving a Balanced Chemical Equation from Molecular

Models of Reactants and Products
Using the following visual information about a chemical reaction, write a balanced chemi-
cal equation for the reaction given that the chemical species involved in the reaction are
CO, O2, and CO2.
Reactants Products
SOLUTION
Present in the reactant “box” are 3 O2 molecules and 6 CO molecules. Within the product
“box” are 6 CO2 molecules. Atom balance is present—6 C atoms and 12 O atoms in each
box. All of the reactant molecules react since none of them appear in the product box.
The balanced chemical equation can, thus, be written as
6 CO + 3 O2 h 6 CO2
The equation coefficients in this chemical equation are all divisible by 3. Carrying out this
operation produces the chemical equation
2 CO + O2 h 2 CO2
The preferred form for a balanced chemical equation is the one that uses the smallest set
of whole number equation coefficients that balance the equation.
10.5 SPECIAL SYMBOLS USED IN CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

Student Learning Focus: Be familiar with how physical state symbols are used in chemical equations.
In addition to the essential plus sign and arrow notation used in chemical equations, a
number of optional symbols convey more information about a chemical reaction than just
the chemical species involved. In particular, it is often useful to know the physical state of
the substances involved in a chemical reaction. The optional symbols listed in Table 10.1
are used to specify the physical state of reactants and products.
The chemical equations we balanced in Section 10.4 (Examples 10.2 and 10.3) are
written as follows when the optional symbols are included.
Fe3O4(s) + 4 H2(g) h 3 Fe(s) + 4 H2O(l)
2 C4H10(g) + 13 O2(g) h 8 CO2(g) + 10 H2O(g)
Two more examples of the use of optional symbols are
NaCl1aq2 + AgNO31aq2 h AgCl1s2 + NaNO31aq2
NaOH1aq2 + HCl1aq2 h NaCl1aq2 + H2O1l2
TABLE 10.1 Symbols Used in Equations
Symbol Meaning
Essential
S “to produce”
+ “reacts with” or “and”
Optional
(s) solid
(l) liquid
(g) gas
(aq) aqueous solution (a substance dissolved in water)
The optional symbols in these latter two chemical equations indicate that both reactions
take place in an aqueous solution. In the first reaction, one of the products, AgCl, is in-
soluble, being present in the mixture as a solid. In the second reaction, the product NaCl
is soluble and thus remains in the solution.
Also, note that in the last equation the reactant HCl is functioning as an acid and
must be designated as such (Sec. 8.6). The notation HCl(g) indicates hydrogen chloride
in its gaseous state; the notation HCl(aq), hydrogen chloride dissolved in water, denotes
hydrochloric acid.
10.6 CLASSES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Student Learning Focus: Be able to describe the general characteristics of five common classes
of chemical reactions: synthesis, decomposition, single-replacement, double-replacement, and
combustion.
An almost inconceivable number of chemical reactions are possible. The problems as-
sociated with organizing our knowledge about them are diminished considerably by
grouping the reactions into classes based on common characteristics. In this section we
examine five classes of chemical reactions. These classes are
1. Synthesis reactions
2. Decomposition reactions
3. Single-replacement reactions
4. Double-replacement reactions
5. Combustion reactions
Although there are other categories of reactions besides these five, most of the reactions
discussed in this text fall into one of these five categories.
Synthesis Reactions
The first of the five categories of reactions is the synthesis reaction. A synthesis reaction
is a chemical reaction in which a single product is produced from two (or more) reactants.
X + Y h XY
Synthesis reactions always involve simpler substances being combined into a more com-
plex substance. The reactants X and Y may be elements or compounds or an element and
a compound. The product of the reaction, XY, is always a compound.
Some representative synthesis reactions with elements as the reactants are

H2 + Cl2 h 2 HCl
S + O2 h SO2
Ni + S h NiS
Some examples of synthesis reactions in which compounds are involved as reac-
tants are
SO3 + H2O h H2SO4
K2O + H2O h 2 KOH
2 NO + O2 h 2 NO2
2 NO2 + H2O2 h 2 HNO3
The atmospheric production of sulfuric acid 1H2SO4 2 , the “active ingredient” in acid
rain, involves a sequence of three synthesis reactions.
Decomposition Reactions
A decomposition reaction is a chemical reaction in which a single reactant is converted
into two or more simpler substances. It is thus the exact opposite of a synthesis reaction.
The general equation for a decomposition reaction is
XY h X + Y
Heat or light is often the stimulus used to effect a decomposition reaction.
At sufficiently high temperatures all compounds can be broken down (decomposed)
into their constituent elements. Such reactions include
2 CuO h 2 Cu + O2
2 H 2 O h 2 H 2 + O2
Examples of decomposition reactions that result in at least one compound as a When hydrogen peroxide
product are is poured on a wound, it
decomposes into water
NH4NO3 h N2O + 2 H2O and oxygen:
2 KClO3 h 2 KCl + 3 O2 2 H 2O 2 h 2 H 2O + O 2
The bubbles that form are
A most common type of decomposition reaction is that which involves metal car-
oxygen gas.
bonates. Metal carbonates, when heated to a high temperature (the temperature needed
varies with the metal), break down, releasing carbon dioxide gas and producing the metal
oxide. Typical carbonate decomposition equations include the following.
Na2CO3 h Na2O + CO2 The decomposi-
tion reaction
MgCO3 h MgO + CO2
CaCO3 h CaO + CO2
Al21CO3 23 h Al2O3 + 3 CO2 occurs when limestone
1CaCO3 2 is heated in ce-
ment factories to produce
calcium oxide, one of the
Single-Replacement Reactions components of cement.
A single-replacement reaction is a chemical reaction in which one element within a
compound is replaced by another element. In this type of reaction there are always two
reactants, an element and a compound, and two products, also an element and a com-
pound. The general equation for a single-replacement reaction is
X + YZ h Y + XZ
FIGURE 10.3
Schematic diagrams Synthesis X + Y X Y
for synthesis,
decomposition, single-
replacement, and
double-replacement Decomposition X Y X + Y
types of chemical
reactions.
Single-
X + Y Z Y + X Z
replacement
Double-
A X + B Y A Y + B X
replacement
Both metals and nonmetals can be replaced in this manner. Such reactions usually involve
aqueous solutions. Examples include
Zn + H2SO4 h H2 + ZnSO4
Ni + 2 HCl h H2 + NiCl2
Fe + CuSO4 h Cu + FeSO4
Mg + Ni1NO3 22 h Ni + Mg1NO3 22
Double-Replacement Reactions
A double-replacement reaction is a chemical reaction in which two compounds ex-
change parts with each other and form two new compounds. The general equation for
such a reaction is
AX + BY h AY + BX
Double-replacement reactions generally involve ionic compounds in an aqueous solu-
tion. Most often the positive ion from one compound exchanges with the positive ion of
the other. The process may be thought of as “partner swapping,” since each negative ion
ends up paired with a new partner (positive ion). Such reactions include
AgNO3 + NaCl h AgCl + NaNO3
NaF + HCl h NaCl + HF
AgNO3 + HCl h AgCl + HNO3
Figure 10.3 summarizes in pictorial form the four classes of chemical reactions we
have so far considered. Example 10.5 is an exercise in classifying reactions into these four
general types.
EXAMPLE 10.5 Classification of Chemical Reactions into the Categories

Synthesis, Decomposition, Single-Replacement, and
Double-Replacement
Classify each of the following chemical reactions as synthesis, decomposition, single-
replacement, or double-replacement.
a. CuCO3 h CuO + CO2
b. Fe + Cu(NO3)2 h Cu + Fe(NO3)2
c. 3 Mg + N2 h Mg3N2
d. NH4Cl + AgNO3 h NH4NO3 + AgCl
SOLUTION
a. Since two substances are produced from a single substance, this reaction is a
decomposition reaction.
b. Having an element and a compound as reactants and an element and a compound
as products is a characteristic of a single-replacement reaction.
c. Two substances combine to form a single substance; hence, this reaction is classi-
fied as a synthesis reaction.
d. This reaction is a double-replacement reaction. Ammonium ion and silver ion are
changing places, that is, swapping partners.
Combustion Reactions
Combustion reactions are a most common type of reaction. A combustion reaction Hydrocarbon combustion
is a chemical reaction in which a substance reacts with oxygen (usually from air) that reactions are the basis of
an industrial society, mak-
proceeds with evolution of heat and usually also a flame. Hydrocarbons, binary coming possible the burning
pounds of carbon and hydrogen (of which many exist), are the most common type of of gasoline in cars, of
compound that undergoes combustion. In hydrocarbon combustion, the carbon of the natural gas in homes,
hydrocarbon combines with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide (CO2). The hydrogen and of coal in factories.
of the hydrocarbon also interacts with oxygen of air to give water (H2O) as a product. Gasoline, natural gas,
and coal all contain
The relative amounts of CO2 and H2O produced depends on the composition of the hydrocarbons.
hydrocarbon. Unlike most other
chemical reactions, hy-
2 C2H2 + 5 O2 h 4 CO2 + 2 H2O drocarbon combustion re-
C3H8 + 5 O2 h 3 CO2 + 4 H2O actions are carried out for
the energy they produce
C4H8 + 6 O2 h 4 CO2 + 4 H2O rather than for the mate-
rial products.
Note that the equation that was balanced in Example 10.3 was a hydrocarbon combustion
reaction.
Combustion of compounds containing oxygen as well as carbon and hydrogen (for
example, CH4O or C3H8O) also produce CO2 and H2O as products.
2 CH4O + 3 O2 h 2 CO2 + 4 H2O
2 C3H8O + 9 O2 h 6 CO2 + 8 H2O
Examples of combustion reactions in which products other than CO2 and H2O are
produced include
CS2 + 3 O2 h CO2 + 2 SO2
2 H2S + 3 O2 h 2 SO2 + 2 H2O
4 NH3 + 5 O2 h 4 NO + 6 H2O
Example 10.6 is an equation-balancing exercise involving a combustion reaction.
EXAMPLE 10.6 Writing and Balancing an Equation for a Combustion

Reaction
Diethyl ether, C4H10O, a very flammable compound, was one of the first general anesthet-
ics. Its use for this purpose was first demonstrated by the Boston dentist William Morton,
in 1846. Write the balanced chemical equation for the combustion reaction that occurs
when diethyl ether burns, that is, reacts with the oxygen (O2) in air.
SOLUTION
The C atoms in the diethyl ether will end up in product CO2 and the H atoms of the
diethyl ether in product H2O. There are two sources for the oxygen present in the product
CO2 and H2O. Most of it comes from the O2 of air; however, the reactant C4H10O is also
an oxygen source. The unbalanced equation for this reaction is
C4H10O + O2 h CO2 + H2O
The equation is balanced using the procedures of Section 10.4.
Step 1 Balancing of H atoms: There are 10 H atoms on the left and only 2 H atoms on the
right. Placing the coefficient 5 in front of H2O balances the H atoms at 10 on each side.
1 C4H10O + O2 h CO2 + 5 H2O
Step 2 Balancing of C atoms: An effect of balancing the H atoms at 10 (step 1) is the
setting of the C atoms on the left side of the equation at 4; the coefficient in front
of C4H10O is 1. Placing the coefficient 4 in front of CO2 causes the carbon atoms
to balance at 4 on each side of the equation.
1 C4H10O + O2 h 4 CO2 + 5 H2O
Step 3 Balancing of O atoms: The oxygen content of the right side of the equation is
set at 13 atoms: 8 oxygen atoms from 4 CO2 and 5 oxygen atoms from 5 H2O. To
obtain 13 oxygen atoms on the left side of the equation, the coefficient 6 is placed in
front of O2; 6 O2 gives 12 oxygen atoms, and there is an additional O in 1 C2H6O.
Note that the element oxygen is present in all four formulas in the equation.
1 C4H10O + 6 O2 h 4 CO2 + 5 H2O
Step 4 Final check: The equation is balanced. There are 4 carbon atoms, 10 hydrogen
atoms, and 13 oxygen atoms on each side of the equation.
C4H10O + 6 O2 h 4 CO2 + 5 H2O
Answer Double Check: Are the products listed for the combustion reaction, CO2 and
H2O, reasonable products? Yes. The compound undergoing combustion, C4H10O, con-
tains C and H. The C will combine with oxygen to give an oxide of carbon, CO2, and the
H will combine with oxygen to give an oxide of hydrogen, H2O.
Chemical Insight: ETHERS

For most people, the word ether evokes thoughts of hospital operating rooms and an-
esthesia. This response stems primarily from the former large-scale use of diethyl ether
(C4H10O) as a surgical anesthetic. By the 1930s, however, non-ether anesthetics had
replaced diethyl ether because of two drawbacks to its use: (1) it causes nausea and
irritation of the respiratory passage, and (2) it is a highly flammable substance, forming
explosive mixtures with air, which can be set off by a spark.
In recent years, the use of ethers as surgical anesthetics in operating rooms has
again become a common practice. The ethers now in use are not, however, the simple
ethers of earlier times which were carbon-hydrogen-oxygen compounds. Instead, they
are halogenated ethers, ethers in which some of the hydrogen atoms have been replaced
with halogen atoms (fluorine and chlorine). Incorporating halogen atoms into ethers
takes care of flammability problems; halogenated ethers are nonflammable anesthetics.
Halogenation also reduces irritation-nausea problems. The heavily used current surgical
anesthetics sevoflurane (C4H3F7O) and desflurane (C3H2F6O) are fluorinated ethers.
Many, but not all, chemical reactions fall into one of the five categories we have dis-
cussed in this section. Even though this classification system is not all-inclusive, it is still
very useful because of the many reactions it does help correlate.
In later chapters, two additional categories of chemical reactions are considered.
Acid–base reactions are the topic of Chapter 14, and oxidation–reduction reactions are
considered in Chapter 15.
10.7 CHEMICAL EQUATIONS AND THE MOLE CONCEPT

Student Learning Focus: Be able to interpret the coefficients in a balanced chemical equation in
terms of molar amounts of substances involved in a chemical reaction.
The coefficients in a balanced chemical equation, like the subscripts in a chemical for-
mula (Sec. 9.9), have two levels of interpretation—a microscopic level of meaning and a
macroscopic level of meaning.
The first of these two interpretations, the microscopic level, has been used in the
previous sections of this chapter. At the microscopic level of interpretation the coefficients
in a balanced chemical equation give directly the numerical relationships among formula
units consumed (used up) and/or produced in the chemical reaction. Interpreted at the
microscopic level, the chemical equation
4 NH3 + 5 O2 h 4 NO + 6 H2O
conveys the information that four molecules of NH3 react with five molecules of O2 to
produce four molecules of NO and six molecules of H2O.
At the macroscopic level of interpretation, the coefficients in a balanced chemical
equation give the fixed molar ratios between substances consumed and/or produced in
the chemical reaction. Interpreted at the macroscopic level, the chemical equation
4 NH3 + 5 O2 h 4 NO + 6 H2O
conveys the information that four moles of NH3 react with five moles of O2 to produce
four moles of NO and six moles of H2O.
The validity of the molar (macroscopic) interpretation of coefficients in an equa- To a chemist, a chemical
tion can be derived very straightforwardly from the microscopic level of interpretation. A equation is a recipe. Just
as the (very simple) rec-
balanced chemical equation remains valid (mathematically correct) when all of its coeffi- ipe 3 cups flour + 1 cup
cients are multiplied by the same number. (If molecules react in a three-to-one ratio, they milk = 2 cakes says that
will also react in a six-to-two or nine-to-three ratio.) Multiplying the previous equation by if 3 cups of flour are
y, where y is any number, we have mixed with 1 cup of milk,
2 cakes can be made.
4y NH3 + 5y O2 h 4y NO + 6y H2O The chemical equation
3 H2 + N2 h 2 NH3
The situation for y = 6.022 * 1023 is of particular interest because 6.022 * 1023 = 1 mole. tells a chemist that when
Using y = 1 mole, we have by substitution 3 moles of H2 are reacted
with 1 mole of nitro-
4 moles NH3 + 5 moles O2 h 4 moles NO + 6 moles H2O gen, 2 moles of NH3 are
formed.
Thus, as with the subscripts in chemical formulas (Sec. 9.9), the coefficients in chemical
equations carry a dual meaning. “Number of formula units” is the microscopic-level inter-
pretation for equation coefficients and “moles of formula units” is the macroscopic-level
interpretation.
In Section 10.4 it was noted that fractional equation coefficients are often obtained
in the equation-balancing process. We can now further note that such fractional co-
efficients do have valid meaning for the macroscopic-level interpretation of a chemical
equation (312 moles, and so on), whereas they are totally unacceptable for the microscopic
level of interpretation (312 molecules, and so on).
The coefficients in a balanced chemical equation may be used to generate conver-

sion factors used in problem solving. Numerous conversion factors are obtainable from a
single balanced equation. Consider the balanced chemical equation
P4O10 + 6 H2O h 4 H3PO4
Three mole-to-mole relationships can be obtained from this chemical equation.
One mole of P4O10 produces four moles of H3PO4.
Six moles of H2O produce four moles of H3PO4.
One mole of P4O10 reacts with six moles H2O.
From these three macroscopic-level relationships, six conversion factors can be written.
From the first relationship,
1 mole P4O10 4 moles H3PO4
and
4 moles H3PO4 1 mole P4O10
From the second relationship,
6 moles H2O 4 moles H3PO4
and
4 moles H3PO4 6 moles H2O
From the third relationship,
1 mole P4O10 6 moles H2O
and
6 moles H2O 1 mole P4O10
Any chemical equation can be the source of numerous conversion factors. The more reac-
tants and products there are in the equation, the greater the number of conversion factors.
Conversion factors obtained from chemical equations are used in several different
types of calculations. Example 10.7 illustrates some very simple applications of their use.
In Section 10.10 we explore their use in more complicated problem-solving situations.
EXAMPLE 10.7 Calculating Molar Quantities Using a Balanced Chemical

Equation
Two air pollutants present in automobile exhaust are carbon monoxide (CO) and
nitrogen monoxide (NO). Within an automobile’s catalytic converter, these two pollutants
react with each other to produce carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrogen (N2). The chemical
equation for the reaction is
2 CO + 2 NO h 2 CO2 + N2
a. How many moles of N2 are produced when 3.50 moles of CO reacts?
b. How many moles of NO are needed to react with 2.31 moles of CO?
SOLUTION
Both parts of this problem are one-step mole-to-mole calculations. In each case the
needed conversion factor is derived from the coefficients of the chemical equation.
a.
Moles of Equation Moles of
substance A coefficients substance B
Step 1 The given quantity is 3.50 moles of CO, and the desired quantity is moles of N2.
3.50 moles CO = ? moles N2
Step 2 The conversion factor needed to convert from moles of CO to moles of N2 is

derived from the coefficients of CO and N2 in the balanced equation. This chemi-
cal equation tells us that two moles of CO produce one mole of N2. From this
relationship two conversion factors are obtainable:
2 moles CO 1 mole N2
and
1 mole N2 2 moles CO
We will use the second of these conversion factors in solving the problem. The
setup is
1 mole N2
3.50 moles CO *
2 moles CO
We used the second of the two conversion factors because it had moles of CO in
the denominator, a requirement for the unit moles of CO to cancel.
Step 3 Collecting numerical terms, after cancellation of units, gives
3.50 * 1
moles N2 = 1.75 moles N2 (calculator and correct answer)
2
Note that the coefficients in the chemical equation enter directly into the numeri-
cal calculation. Having a correctly balanced equation is therefore of vital impor-
tance. Using an unbalanced or misbalanced chemical equation as a source of a
conversion factor will lead to a wrong numerical answer.
b.
Step 1 Both the given species, CO, and the desired species, NO, are reactants.
2.31 moles CO = ? moles NO
Step 2 Molar relationships obtained from a chemical equation are not required to always
involve one reactant and one product, as was the case in part (a). Molar relation-
ships involving only reactants or only products are often needed and used. In this
problem we will need the molar relationship between the two reactants, CO and
NO, which is two to two. From this ratio, the conversion factor
2 moles NO
2 moles CO
can be constructed, which is used in the setup of the problem as follows:
2 moles NO
2.31 moles CO *
2 moles CO
Step 3 Collecting numerical terms, after cancellation of units, gives
2.31 * 2
moles NO = 2.31 moles NO (calculator and correct answer)
2
In terms of significant figures, the numbers in conversion factors obtained from
equation coefficients are considered exact numbers. Thus, since 2.31 contains
three significant figures, the answer to this problem should also contain three
Answer Double Check: Are the magnitudes of the numerical results reasonable? Yes.
In part (a), using rounded numbers, 4 moles of CO should produce half as many moles
of N2 (2 moles). The calculated answer 1.75 moles N2 is close to this rounded answer.
In part (b), using rounded numbers, 2 moles of CO should react with 2 moles of NO (the
equation coefficients are the same). The calculated answer of 2.31 is close to this rounded
answer.
Chemical Insight: CARBON MONOXIDE

Catalytic converters significantly decrease, but do not totally eliminate, the emission of
air pollutants like CO and NO into the atmosphere by automobile exhaust. What is the
fate of the CO that does enter the atmosphere? It is not converted to CO2 as one might
expect; this reaction does not readily occur at atmospheric temperatures.
Because CO is not appreciably soluble in water, very little of it is removed in
rainfall. The major removal mechanism for CO involves soil microorganisms. A number
of types of soil fungi have the ability to metabolize CO.
The capacity for CO uptake by the soils of the United States far exceeds the
amount of CO present in the air. Nevertheless, CO is still found at significant concen-
trations in the urban air. Why is this so? Soil and CO are not distributed uniformly. The
largest CO-producing areas are large cities with their large numbers of automobiles,
areas where much concrete and asphalt have replaced soil.
10.8 BALANCED CHEMICAL EQUATIONS AND THE LAW

OF CONSERVATION OF MASS
Student Learning Focus: Be able to show how a balanced chemical equation can be used to verify
the law of conservation of mass.
We began this chapter with a discussion of the law of conservation of mass (Sec. 10.1),
which became the basis for the concepts involved in balancing chemical equations
(Sec. 10.4). Now that the relationship between chemical equation coefficients and moles
has been addressed (Sec. 10.7), it is time to revisit the law of conservation of mass.
A balanced chemical equation can be used to verify the law of conservation of
mass. Let us consider this verification process using the balanced equation
4 NH3 + 5 O2 h 4 NO + 6 H2O
According to the coefficients in this balanced equation, the molar ratio among the reac-
tants and products is 4:5 to 4:6, that is,
4 moles NH3 + 5 moles O2 h 4 moles NO + 6 moles H2O
Substituting molar masses (Sec. 9.6) into this equation, which are, respectively, 17.04 g/mole
for NH3, 32.00 g/mole for O2, 30.01 g/mole for NO, and 18.02 g/mole for H2O, we obtain
4 (17.04 g) + 5 (32.00 g) = 4 (30.01 g) + 6 (18.02 g)
Simplifying, we get
68.16 g + 160.00 g = 120.04 g + 108.12 g
228.16 g = 228.16 g
Thus, based on the molar interpretation of equation coefficients, the sum of the reactant
masses is equal to the sum of the product masses, as it should be according to the law of
conservation of mass.
Example 10.8 further illustrates the relationship between the coefficients in a bal-
anced equation and the law of conservation of mass.
EXAMPLE 10.8 Verifying the Law of Conservation of Mass Using a

Balanced Chemical Equation
Verify the law of conservation of mass using the balanced chemical equation
3 FeO + 2 Al h 3 Fe + Al2O3
SOLUTION
The given balanced chemical equation, interpreted in terms of moles, is
3 moles FeO + 2 moles Al h 3 moles Fe + 1 mole Al2O3
The molar masses of the substances involved in this reaction are
FeO: 1 mole = 71.85 g
Al: 1 mole = 26.98 g
Fe: 1 mole = 55.85 g
Al2O3: 1 mole = 101.96 g
Substituting these molar masses into the given equation in place of moles gives
3 (71.85 g) + 2 (26.98 g) = 3 (55.85 g) + 1 (101.96 g)
Simplifying, we obtain
215.55 g + 53.96 g = 167.55 g + 101.96 g
269.51 g = 269.51 g
The sum of the reactant masses is equal to the sum of the product masses, a verification
of the law of conservation of mass.
10.9 CALCULATIONS BASED ON CHEMICAL

EQUATIONS—STOICHIOMETRY
Student Learning Focus: Be able to use a balanced chemical equation and other needed infor-
mation to calculate the quantities of reactants consumed or products produced in a chemical
reaction.
A major area of concern for chemists is the quantities of materials consumed and pro-
duced in chemical reactions. This area of study is called chemical stoichiometry. Chemical
stoichiometry is the study of the quantitative relationships among reactants and prod-
ucts in a chemical reaction. The word stoichiometry, pronounced stoy-kee-OM-eh-tree,
is derived from the Greek stoicheion (element) and metron (measure). The stoichiometry
of a chemical reaction always involves the molar relationships between reactants and
products (Sec. 10.7) and thus is given by the coefficients in the balanced equation for the
chemical reaction.
In a typical stoichiometric calculation, information is given about one reactant or
product of a reaction (number of grams, moles, or particles), and similar information is
requested concerning another reactant or product of the same reaction. The substances
involved in such a calculation may both be reactants, may both be products, or may be
one of each.
The conversion-factor relationships needed to solve problems of the above gen-
eral type are given in Figure 10.4. This diagram should seem very familiar to you, for it
FIGURE 10.4 Particles Avogadro's Moles Equation Moles Avogadro's Particles

Conversion-factor of A of A of B of B
number coefficients number
relationships needed
for solving chemical
equation–based Molar Molar
problems. mass mass
Grams Grams
of A of B
is almost identical to Figure 9.5, with which you have worked repeatedly. There is only
one difference between the two. In the Chapter 9 diagram, the subscripts in a chemical
formula were listed as the basis for relating moles of given and desired substances to each
other. In this new diagram, these same two quantities are related using the coefficients of
a balanced chemical equation.
The most common type of stoichiometric calculation is a mass-to-mass (gram-to-
gram) problem. In such problems the mass of one substance involved in a chemical reac-
tion (either reactant or product) is given, and information is requested about the mass of
another of the substances involved in the reaction (either a reactant or product). Situations
requiring the solution of problems of this type are frequently encountered in laboratory
settings. For example, a chemist has available so many grams of a certain chemical and
wants to know how many grams of another substance can be produced from it, or how
many grams of a third substance are needed to react with it. Examples 10.9 and 10.10 are
both problem-solving situations of the gram-to-gram type.
EXAMPLE 10.9 Calculating the Needed Mass of a Reactant

in a Chemical Reaction
A mixture of hydrazine (N2H4) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is used as a fuel for rocket
engines. These two substances react as shown by the chemical equation
N2H4(l) + 2 H2O2(l) h N2(g) + 4 H2O(g)
How many grams of H2O2 are needed to completely react with 50.0 g of N2H4?
SOLUTION
Step 1 Here we are given information about one reactant (50.0 g of N2H4) and asked to
calculate information about the other reactant (H2O2).
50.0 g N2H4 = ? g H2O2
Step 2 This problem is of the grams-of-A to grams-of-B type. The pathway to be used in
solving this type of problem, in terms of Figure 10.4 is
Grams Molar Moles Equation Moles Molar Grams

of A mass of A coefficients of B mass of B
Step 3 The dimensional analysis setup for this pathway is

1 mole N2H4 2 moles H2O2 34.02 g H2O2
50.0 g N2H4 * * *
32.06 g N2H4 1 mole N2H4 1 mole H2O2
The number 32.06 in the first conversion factor is the molar mass of N2H4; the
2 and 1 in the second conversion factor are the coefficients of H2O2 and N2H4,
respectively, in the balanced chemical equation; and the number 34.02 in the last
conversion factor is the molar mass of H2O2.
Step 4 The solution, obtained from combining all of the numerical factors, is
50.0 * 1 * 2 * 34.02
g H2O2 = 106.11353 g H2O2 (calculator answer)
32.06 * 1 * 1
= 106 g H2O2 (correct answer)
Answer Double Check: Is the magnitude of the answer reasonable? Yes. Considering the
numbers in the conversion factors, in rounded form, the math is 2 times 34/32, which is
roughly 2. Multiplying 50 by 2 gives 100, which is consistent with the calculated answer of 106.
Chemical Insight: HYDRAZINE

Pure hydrazine is a colorless liquid with an ammonia-like odor that decomposes, often
violently, upon heating. In a laboratory, hydrazine is normally used in an aqueous
solution, where it can be handled safely.
Structurally, hydrazine (N2H4) bears the same relationship to ammonia (NH3) that
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) does to water (H2O).
Hydrazine, as well as substituted hydrazines, where one or more hydrogen atoms
are replaced by other groups, are useful rocket fuels. The methyl (–CH3) and dimethyl
derivatives of hydrazine, in combination with dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4), were used
in the lunar excursion module for both landing and reblast-off. The reaction between
these two substances is hypergolic, that is, self-igniting. Astronauts control the reaction
by opening and closing separate tanks containing the reacting substances.
EXAMPLE 10.10 Calculating the Mass of a Product in a Chemical Reaction
When baking soda (NaHCO3) is heated, it decomposes, producing carbon dioxide gas
(CO2). This carbon dioxide is responsible for the rising of bread, doughnuts, and cookies.
The equation for baking soda decomposition reaction is
2 NaHCO3(s) h Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
How many grams of CO2 are produced when 1.00 g of NaHCO3 decomposes?
SOLUTION
Step 1 Here we are given information about the reactant (1.00 g of NaHCO3) and asked
to calculate information about one of the products (CO2).
1.00 g NaHCO3 = ? g CO2
Step 2 This problem, like Example 10.9, is a grams-of-A to grams-of-B problem. The
pathway used in solving it will be the same, which, in terms of Figure 10.4, is
Grams Molar Moles Equation Moles Molar Grams

of A mass of A coefficients of B mass of B
Step 3 The dimensional analysis setup is

1 mole NaHCO3 1 mole CO2 44.01 g CO2
1.00 g NaHCO3 * * *
84.01 g NaHCO3 2 moles NaHCO3 1 mole CO2
The chemical equation is the bridge that enables us to go from NaHCO3 to CO2.
The numbers in the second conversion factor, the bridge factor, are coefficients
from this equation.
Step 4 The solution, obtained from combining all of the numerical factors in the
setup, is
1.00 * 1 * 1 * 44.01
g CO2 = 0.2619331 g CO2 (calculator answer)
84.01 * 2 * 1
= 0.262 g CO2 (correct answer)
Answer Double Check: Is the magnitude of the answer reasonable? Yes. Considering
the numbers in the conversion factors, in rounded form, the math is one-half (44/88)
divided by 2, which is roughly one-fourth. One-fourth times 1 is one-fourth, which is
consistent with the calculated answer of 0.262.
Chemical Insight: BAKING SODA

Besides producing carbon dioxide, the decomposition of baking soda (NaHCO3) also
produces the solid state product Na2CO3 (see the preceding chemical equation). This
creates a problem when baking soda is used in a dough or batter, as Na2CO3 has a
mild soapy taste. Addition of an acidic ingredient to dough or batter counteracts this
problem. Often used acidic ingredients include buttermilk, sour milk, molasses, vin-
egar and citrus fruit juices.
Most recipes call for the use of baking powder instead of baking soda. Baking
powder formulations always contain one or more dry acidic compounds in addi-
tion to baking soda and starch—added to help stabilize the mixture and prevent the
components (dry acid and baking soda) from reacting prematurely. The dry acid and
baking soda react with each other at room temperature as soon as liquid is added
to a batter.
Grams-of-A to grams-of-B problems (Examples 10.9 and 10.10) are not the only
type of problem for which the coefficients in a balanced equation can be used to relate
quantities of two substances. As further examples of the use of equation coefficients
in problem solving, consider Example 10.11 (a grams-of-A to moles-of-B problem) and
Example 10.12 (a particles-of-A to grams-of-B problem).
EXAMPLE 10.11 Calculating Moles of Product Produced in a Chemical

Reaction
Automotive air bags inflate when sodium azide, NaN3, rapidly decomposes to its constitu-
ent elements. The equation for the chemical reaction is
2 NaN3(s) h 2 Na(s) + 3 N2(g)
How many moles of N2 are produced when 1.000 g of NaN3 decomposes?
SOLUTION
Step 1 The given quantity is 1.000 g of NaN3, and the desired quantity is moles of N2.
1.000 g NaN3 = ? moles N2
Step 2 This is a grams-of-A to moles-of-B problem. The pathway used to solve such a
problem is, according to Figure 10.4,
Grams Molar Moles Equation Moles

of A mass of A coefficients of B

1 mole NaN3 3 moles N2
1.000 g NaN3 * *
65.02 g NaN3 2 moles NaN3
grams A h moles A h moles B
The number 65.02 in the first conversion factor is the molar mass of NaN3.
Step 4 The solution, obtained from combining all of the numbers in the manner indi-
cated in the setup, is
1.000 * 1 * 3
moles N2 = 0.023069824 mole N2 (calculator answer)
65.02 * 2
= 0.02307 mole N2 (correct answer)
Answer Double Check: Is the numerical answer correct in terms of the number of sig-
nificant figures present? Yes. The given data, 1.000 g, as well as the molar mass needed
contain four significant figures. The other numbers in the calculation, coefficients from
the chemical equation, are exact. The answer should contain four significant figures,
which it does (0.02307).
Chemical Insight: AUTOMOBILE AIR BAGS

Automobile airbags are a standard safety feature on new cars. They rapidly inflate on
collision, before car occupants can be thrown forward from the collision impact. The
chemistry involved in the inflation process involves a decomposition reaction that pro-
duces a large volume of gas (which inflates the bag).
Nitrogen gas (N2) is the airbag inflatant. Air bags are activated when an impact
causes a steel ball to compress a spring and electrically ignite a detonator cap, which
in turn causes sodium azide (NaN3) to decompose, forming nitrogen gas and metallic
sodium (100 g of NaN3 produces 56 L of N2 gas at 25°C.) The sodium metal produced,
an undesirable decomposition product because of its reactivity, instantaneously reacts
with iron(lll) oxide, which is included in the reaction container, to produce sodium
oxide (Na2O) and iron (Fe).
6 Na(s) + Fe2O3(s) S 3 Na2O(s) + 2 Fe(s)
EXAMPLE 10.12 Calculating the Amount of a Substance Produced in a

Chemical Reaction
The reaction of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) with elemental copper (Cu) produces three
products—sulfur dioxide (SO2), water (H2O), and copper(II) sulfate (CuSO4). How many
grams of water will be produced at the same time that five billion (5.00 * 109) sulfur
dioxide molecules are produced?
SOLUTION
Although a calculation of this type will not have a lot of practical significance, it will test your
understanding of the problem-solving relationships under discussion in this section of the text.
The specifics of the chemical reaction of concern to us in this problem were given
in word rather than equation form in the problem statement. These words must be trans-
lated into an equation before we can proceed with the problem solving. The equation is
H2SO4(aq) + Cu(s) h SO2(g) + H2O(l) + CuSO4(aq)
Having a chemical equation is not enough. It must be a balanced chemical equa-
tion. Using the balancing procedures of Section 10.4, the preceding equation in balanced
form becomes
2 H2SO4 + Cu h SO2 + 2 H2O + CuSO4
Now we are ready to proceed with the solving of our problem.
Step 1 We are given a certain number of particles (molecules) and asked to find the
number of grams of a related substance.
5.00 * 109 molecules SO2 = ? g H2O
Step 2 This is a particles-of-A to grams-of-B problem. Even though SO2 and H2O are
both products, we can still work this problem in a manner similar to previous
problems. The coefficients in a balanced equation relate reactants to products,
reactants to reactants, and products to products. The pathway for this problem
(see Fig. 10.4) is
Particles Avogadro's Moles Equation Moles Molar Grams

of A number of A coefficients of B mass of B

1 mole SO2 2 moles H2O 18.02 g H2O
5.00 * 109 molecules SO2 * * *
6.022 * 1023 molecules SO2 1 mole SO2 1 mole H2O
particles A h moles A h moles B h grams B
Step 4 The solution, obtained by combining all of the numerical factors in the setup, is
5.00 * 109 * 1 * 2 * 18.02
g H2O = 2.9923613 * 10 - 13 g H2O
6.022 * 1023 * 1 * 1
(calculator answer)
= 2.99 * 10 - 13 g H2O
(correct answer)
major factors contributing to answer magnitude are the two powers of 10. The division
109 >1023 gives 10 - 14. The calculated answer 2.99 * 10 - 13 g, is consistent with this mag-
nitude estimate.
Chemical Insight: SULFURIC ACID

Which chemical substance is industrially produced in the greatest amount in the United
States? It is sulfuric acid (H2SO4), a runaway winner. Sulfuric acid has an almost two-to-
one production lead over any other chemical substance.
Despite its large production amounts, people seldom have any direct contact
with sulfuric acid because it is seldom part of finished consumer products. The closest
encounter most people have with this acid (other than in a chemical laboratory) is as
the acid present in a sealed automobile battery.
Approximately 70% of industrial sulfuric acid production is used in the manufac-

ture of chemical fertilizers that contain phosphorus. The raw material for phosphate
fertilizer is highly insoluble phosphate rock. Treatment of phosphate rock with sulfuric
acid produces phosphoric acid (H3PO4), which is then used to produce soluble-
phosphate-containing fertilizer.
10.10 THE LIMITING REACTANT CONCEPT

Student Learning Focus: In calculations, be able to recognize when a limiting reactant determina-
tion is needed and then be able to do the calculations that involve limiting reactant considerations.
When a chemical reaction is carried out in a laboratory or industrial setting, the reactants
are not usually present in the exact molar ratios specified in the balanced chemical equa-
tion for the reaction. Most often, on purpose, excess quantities of one or more of the
reactants are present.
Numerous reasons exist for having some reactants present in excess. Sometimes
such a procedure will cause a reaction to occur more rapidly. For example, large amounts
of oxygen make combustible materials burn faster. Sometimes an excess of one reactant
will ensure that another reactant, perhaps a very expensive one, is completely consumed.
When reactants are not present in the exact molar ratios specified by the balanced
chemical equation for the reaction, the reaction proceeds only until one of the reactants
is depleted, that is, completely used up. At this point, the reaction stops. This reaction-
stopping reactant, which has been entirely consumed, is called the limiting reactant.
A limiting reactant is the reactant in a chemical reaction that is entirely consumed
when the reaction goes to completion (stops). The limiting reactant limits the amount of
product(s) formed. Other reactants present are often called excess reactants; they are not
entirely consumed. For excess reactants, the excess remains unreacted because there is
not enough of the limiting reactant present to react with the excess.
The concept of a limiting reactant plays a major role in chemical calculations of certain In combustion reactions,
types. It must be thoroughly understood. Let us consider some simple but analogous non- oxygen is not usually a
limiting reactant, because
chemical examples of a limiting reactant before we go on to limiting reactant calculations. it is so plentiful in the air.
Suppose we have a vending machine that contains forty 50-cent candy bars and But if a jar is put over a
we have 30 quarters. In this case we can purchase only 15 candy bars. The quarters are burning candle, oxygen
the limiting reactant. The candy bars are present in excess. Suppose we have 10 slices of becomes a limiting reac-
cheese and 18 slices of bread and we want to make as many cheese sandwiches as pos- tant. As soon as all the
oxygen in the jar is used
sible using 1 slice of cheese and 2 slices of bread per sandwich. The 18 slices of bread up, the candle sputters
limit us to 9 sandwiches; 1 slice of cheese is left over. The bread is the limiting reactant out.
in this case even though initially there was more bread (18 slices) than cheese (10 slices)
present. The bread is still limiting because it is used up first.
An additional limiting reactant analogy that comes closer to the realm of molecules
and atoms involves nuts and bolts. Assume we have 10 identical nuts and 10 identical
bolts. From this collection we can make 10 one-nut, one-bolt entities by screwing a nut
on each bolt. This situation is depicted in Figure 10.5a.
Next, let us make “two-nut, one-bolt” entities from our same collection of nuts and
bolts. This time we can make only five combinations, and we will have five bolts left
over, as is shown in Figure 10.5b. We run out of nuts before all the bolts are used up. In
chemical jargon, we say that the nuts are the limiting reactant.
Finally, let us consider making one-nut, two-bolt combinations. As is shown in
Figure 10.5c, this time we do not have enough bolts; we can make five combinations, and
we will have five nuts left over. The bolts are the limiting reactant.
FIGURE 10.5 Starting

with 10 nuts and 10
bolts, we can make
(a) 10 one-nut, one-
bolt combinations, (b)
5 two-nut, one-bolt
combinations with 5
bolts left over (the
nuts are the limiting
reactant) and (c) 5 10 nuts + 10 bolts 10 one-nut, one-bolt combinations
one-nut, two-bolt (a)
combinations with
5 nuts left over (the
bolts are the limiting
reactant).
10 nuts + 10 bolts 5 two-nut, one-bolt combinations

and 5 extra bolts
(b)
10 nuts + 10 bolts 5 one-nut, two-bolt combinations

and 5 extra nuts
(c)
Now let us consider, as is presented in Example 10.13, an extension of our nut–bolt

discussion to a situation that cannot easily be reasoned out in one’s head. Instead, a cal-
culation must be performed.
EXAMPLE 10.13 Determining a Limiting Reactant in a

Nonchemical Context
What will be the limiting reactant in the production of two-nut, three-bolt combinations
from a collection of 284 nuts and 414 bolts?
SOLUTION
There are three possible answers to this problem.
1. We will run out of bolts first; bolts are the limiting reactant.
2. We will run out of nuts first; nuts are the limiting reactant.
3. The ratio of nuts to bolts is such that we run out of both at the same time; both are
limiting reactants.
We determine which of these answers is the correct one by calculating how many
nut–bolt combinations can be made from each of the “ingredients,” assuming an excess
of the other.
1 combination
284 nuts * = 142 combinatons (calculator and correct answer)
2 nuts
1 combination
414 bolts * = 138 combinatons (calculator and correct answer)
3 bolts
Because fewer combinations can be made from the bolts, the bolts are the limiting reactant.
Now let us proceed to chemical calculations that involve a limiting reactant.

Whenever the quantities of two or more reactants in a chemical reaction are given, it is
necessary to determine which of the given quantities is the limiting reactant.
Determining the limiting reactant, that is, the reactant in shortest supply, can be
accomplished by the following procedure.
1. Determine the number of moles of each of the reactants present.
2. Calculate the number of moles of product each of the molar amounts of reactant
would produce if it were the only reactant amount given. If more than one product
is formed in the reaction, you need to do this mole calculation for only one of the
products.
3. The reactant that produces the lower number of moles of product is the limiting
reactant.
EXAMPLE 10.14 Determining the Limiting Reactant from Given

Reactant Amounts
Silver and silver-plated objects tarnish in the presence of hydrogen sulfide (H2S), a gas
that originates from the decay of food, because of the reaction
4 Ag(s) + 2 H2S(g) + O2(g) h 2 Ag2S(g) + 2 H2O(l)
The black product Ag2S is the tarnish. If 25.00 g of Ag, 5.00 g of H2S, and 4.00 g of O2 are
present in a reaction mixture, which is the limiting reactant for tarnish formation?
SOLUTION
To determine the limiting reactant, we determine how many moles of product each of the
reactants can form. In this particular problem there are two products: Ag2S and H2O. It is
sufficient to calculate how many moles of either Ag2S or H2O are formed. The decision as
to which product to use is arbitrary; we will choose H2O.
The calculation type will be grams-of-A to moles-of-B. We start with a given number
of grams of reactant, and we want to calculate moles of product. The pathway for the
calculation, in terms of Figure 10.4, is

Note that we will have to go through this type of calculation three times because we have
three reactants: once for Ag, once for H2S, and once for O2.
For Ag,
1 mole Ag 2 moles H2O
25.00 g Ag * * = 0.11588022 mole H2O
107.87 g Ag 4 moles Ag
(calculator answer)
= 0.1159 mole H2O
(correct answer)
For H2S,
1 mole H2S 2 moles H2O
5.00 g H2S * * = 0.14667058 mole H2O
34.09 g H2S 2 moles H2S
(calculator answer)
= 0.147 mole H2O
(correct answer)
For O2,
1 mole O2 2 moles H2O
4.00 g O2 * * = 0.25 mole H2O
32.00 g O2 1 mole O2
(calculator answer)
= 0.250 mole H2O
(correct answer)
The limiting reactant is the reactant that will produce the fewest number of moles
of H2O. Looking at the numbers just calculated, we see that Ag will be the limiting reac-
tant. Once the limiting reactant has been determined, the amount of that reactant present
becomes the starting point for any further calculations about the chemical reaction under
consideration. Example 10.15 illustrates this point.
Answer Double Check: Limiting reactant calculations are always grams-of-A to moles-of-B
calculations (where A is a reactant and B is a product). The same product must be used for
each of the parallel calculations. Such is the case here; moles of H2O was the end result of
each calculation. Was the limiting reactant properly identified? Yes. The reactant that pro-
duces the least number of moles of product, Ag in this case, is the limiting reactant.
Chemical Insight: SILVER

Silver is not attacked by oxygen in the air at ordinary temperatures (as are many
metals), but it does tarnish (corrode) quickly in the presence of sulfur-containing air
pollutants, such as H2S, and sulfur-containing foods, such as eggs and mustard. The
tarnish is a thin layer of black silver sulfide (Ag2S). Many people remove silver tarnish
with a scouring powder or abrasive cream and a lot of physical effort. Such an ap-
proach permanently removes the silver in the tarnish. In time, the silver on a silver-
plated object can be worn away, exposing the underlying base metal.
The silver present in jewelry and silverware is most often alloyed with other met-
als, frequently copper, to increase its hardness and wear resistance. Sterling silver is an
alloy containing 92.5% silver and 7.5% copper. This silver is said to be 925 fine (925
parts Ag per 1000 parts alloy). Many United States coins minted before 1965 were 900
fine silver. The United States mint now issues a noncirculating 999-fine Silver Eagle
dollar coin, which is sold at a small premium over its silver value (not its face value).
EXAMPLE 10.15 Calculating the Mass of Product from Masses

of Reactants
Aluminum metal, in the form of a powder, reacts vigorously with iron(III) oxide when the
two substances are heated. The equation for the reaction is
2 Al(s) + Fe2O3(s) h Al2O3(s) + 2 Fe(l)
How many grams of molten Fe can be formed from a reaction mixture containing 30.0 g
of Al and 90.0 g of Fe2O3?
SOLUTION
First, we must determine the limiting reactant since specific amounts of both reactants
are given in the problem. This determination involves two grams-of-A to moles-of-B
calculations—one for the reactant Al and one for the reactant Fe2O3. The product we “key
in” on is Fe because our final goal is the mass of Fe produced.

For Al,
1 mole Al 2 moles Fe
30.0 g Al * * = 1.1119347 moles Fe (calculator answer)
26.98 g Al 2 moles Al
= 1.11 moles Fe (correct answer)
For Fe2O3,
1 mole Fe2O3 2 moles Fe
90.0 g Fe2O3 * * = 1.1271133 moles Fe
159.70 g Fe2O3 1 mole Fe2O3
(calculator answer)
= 1.13 moles Fe
(correct answer)
Thus, Al is the limiting reactant since fewer moles of Fe can be produced from it (1.11
moles) than from the Fe2O3 (1.13 moles).
We can now calculate the grams of Fe formed in the reaction, using the 1.11 moles
of Fe (formed from our limiting reactant) as our starting factor. The calculation will be a
simple one-step moles-of-A to grams-of-A conversion.
Moles Molar Grams

of Fe mass of Fe
55.85 g Fe
1.11 moles Fe * = 61.9935 g Fe (calculator answer)
1 mole Fe
= 62.0 g Fe (correct answer)
Answer Double Check: Was the correct moles-of-Fe value selected for the final calcu-
lation step? Yes. The smaller of the two moles-of-Fe values, the limiting reactant, is the
correct choice.
Chemical Insight: ALUMINUM

The transportation sector is the largest United States market for aluminum, account-
ing for 29% of total consumption in 2010. The second largest market for aluminum is
containers and packaging with a 22% share of total consumption. End products in this
market include beverage cans, food containers, and household and institutional foil.
At 10% of total consumption, building and construction is the third-largest market for
aluminum. Here, aluminum is found in many everyday objects, including doors, win-
dows, siding, awnings, and heating and ventilating components.
In 2012, the average U.S. passenger car contained 343 pounds of aluminum.
This is an increase from 241 pounds in 1999, 199 pounds in 1991, and 85 pounds in
1975. Aluminum has one-third the density of steel, which means a component can be
1.5 times thicker than a steel version while remaining 50% lighter. It is also corrosion
resistant, unlike steel. Up to 8% fuel savings can be realized for every 10% reduction in
weight from substituting aluminum for heavier metals.
Most “automotive aluminum” is not pure aluminum but rather aluminum alloys.
Magnesium is one of the most effective and widely used alloying elements for alumi-
num and is present in “aluminum wheels” and interior body panels.
10.11 YIELDS: THEORETICAL, ACTUAL, AND PERCENT

Student Learning Focus: Be able to calculate percent yield of a product for a chemical reaction
using actual yield and theoretical yield information.
When stoichiometric relationships (Secs. 10.9 and 10.10) are used to calculate the amount
of a product that will be produced in a chemical reaction from given amounts of re-
actants, the answer obtained represents a theoretical yield. A theoretical yield is the
maximum amount of a product that can be obtained from given amounts of reactants in
a chemical reaction if no losses or inefficiencies of any kind occur. Examples 10.10 and
10.15 are theoretical yield calculations, although this fact was not noted at the time they
were presented.
In most chemical reactions the amount of a given product experimentally isolated
from the reaction mixture is less than that predicted by calculation. Why is this so? Two
major factors contribute to this situation.
1. Some product is almost always lost in the process of its isolation and purification
and in such mechanical operations as transferring materials from one container to
another.
2. Often a particular set of reactants undergoes two or more reactions simultaneously,
forming undesired products (in small amounts) as well as the desired products.
Reactants consumed in these side reactions obviously will not end up in the form of
the desired products.
The net effect of these factors is that the actual quantity of product experimentally
isolated—that is, the actual yield—is always less, sometimes far less, than the theoretically
calculated amount. An actual yield is the amount of a product actually obtained from a
chemical reaction. Actual yield is always an experimentally determined number; it cannot
be calculated.
Product loss is specified in terms of percent yield. The percent yield is the ratio of
the actual (experimental) yield of a product in a chemical reaction to its theoretical (cal-
culated) yield multiplied by 100 (to give percent). The mathematical equation for percent
yield is
actual yield
percent yield = * 100
theoretical yield
If the theoretical yield of a product for a reaction is calculated to be 17.9 g and the
amount of product actually obtained (the actual yield) is 15.8 g, the percent yield
is 88.3%.
15.8 g
percent yield = * 100 = 88.268156% (calculator answer)
17.9 g
Note that percent yield cannot exceed 100%; you cannot obtain a yield greater than that
which is theoretically possible.
EXAMPLE 10.16 Calculating the Theoretical Yield and Percent Yield for a
Chemical Reaction
Solutions of sodium hypochlorite, NaClO, are sold as laundry bleach. This bleaching
agent can be produced by the reaction
2 NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) S NaCl(aq) + NaClO(aq) + H2O(l)
a. What is the theoretical yield of NaClO that can be obtained from a reaction mixture
containing 75.0 g NaOH and 50.0 g Cl2?
b. The actual yield is 43.2 g of NaClO. What is the percent yield of NaClO from this
reaction mixture?
SOLUTION
a. The limiting reactant must be determined before the theoretical yield can be cal-
culated. Recalling the procedures of Examples 10.14 and 10.15 for determining the
limiting reactant, we calculate the number of moles of NaClO that can be produced
from each individual reactant amount using a grams-of-A to moles-of-B type of
calculation.

For NaOH,
1 mole NaOH 1 mole NaClO
75.0 g NaOH * * = 0.9375 mole NaClO
40.00 g NaOH 2 moles NaOH
(calculator answer)
= 0.938 mole NaClO
(correct answer)
For Cl2,
1 mole Cl2 1 mole NaClO
50.0 g Cl2 * *
70.90 g Cl2 1 mole Cl2
= 0.70521861 mole NaClO

(calculator answer)
= 0.705 mole NaClO
(correct answer)
The calculations show that Cl2 is the limiting reactant.
The maximum number of grams of NaClO obtainable from the limiting reactant, that
is, the theoretical yield, can now be calculated. It is done using a one-step moles-of-A to
grams-of-A setup.
Moles of Molar Grams of
NaClO mass NaClO
74.44 g NaClO
0.705 mole NaClO * = 52.4802 g NaClO
1 mole NaClO
(calculator answer)
= 52.5 g NaClO
(correct answer)
b. The percent yield is obtained by dividing the actual yield by the theoretical yield
and multiplying by 100.
actual yield 43.2 g
percent yield = * 100 = * 100 = 82.285714%
theoretical yield 52.5 g
(calculator answer)
= 82.3%
(correct answer)
Answer Double Check: Is the magnitude of the percent yield value reasonable? Yes.
With an actual yield of 40 g (rounded) and a theoretical yield of 50 g (rounded), a yield
of 82.3% is realistic because 40/50 times 100 is equal to 80%.
Chemical Insight: HOUSEHOLD BLEACH

Household bleach, commonly called chlorox, that is sold for use in washing clothes is
a 3–6% solution of sodium hypochlorite (NaClO). The strength of the bleach gradually
decreases with storage time as the hypochlorite ion (ClO - ), the active ingredient in the
bleach, breaks down into chloride ion (Cl - ) and chlorate ion (ClO3- ). A small amount
of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is usually present in the bleach formulation to decrease
the rate at which hypochlorite ion undergoes change.
Chlorox is particularly effective in removing stains present on cotton fibers.
However, the cumulative effect of repeated bleaching of cotton fibers causes fabric
deterioration. Not only does the hypochlorite present cause deterioration but also any
residual NaOH that is not rinsed from the fabrics. The easy ripping of old cotton sheets
and T-shirts is a sign of fabric deterioration from repeated bleaching.
A diluted solution of household bleach (1 part bleach to 4 parts water) is often
used as a disinfectant when cleaning surfaces, as it is effective against many bacteria
and some viruses. Surfaces so disinfected need to be thoroughly washed afterward to
remove any residual bleach.
When synthesizing a compound with a complex structure in a laboratory or indus-

trial setting, a multistep procedure (a series of reactions) is often required.
A h B h C h D h E h F
This “line” equation denotes a five-step process needed to produce a product F
from a reactant A. The intermediate compounds (B, C, D, and E) are each produced in
one step and consumed in the next step.
For such multistep situations, there is a percent yield factor associated with each
step in the process. The percent yield for the overall synthesis involves the product of the
percent yields for the individual steps, as is shown in the following calculation based on a
100.0 g sample of substance A (the starting material for the synthesis) and a yield of 85%
for each step in the synthesis process. Using dimensional analysis, the overall percent
yield is found to be 44%, not 85%.
85 g B 85 g C 85 g D 85 g E 85 g F
100 g A * * * * * = 44.370531 g F
100 g A 100 g B 100 g C 85 g D 100 g E
(calculator answer)
= 44 g F (correct answer)
44 g F
Overall percent yield = * 100 = 44% (calculator and correct answer)
100 g A
Consideration of overall percent yields in a multistep synthesis is an important factor in

determining the economic feasibility (commercial potential) for producing a complex prod-
uct. Section 10.12 considers further the topic of sequential (multistep) chemical reactions.
10.12 SIMULTANEOUS AND SEQUENTIAL CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Student Learning Focus: Be able to adapt dimensional analysis problem-solving techniques to
situations that involves simultaneous chemical reactions and sequential chemical reactions.
The concepts presented so far in this chapter can easily be adapted to problem-solving
situations that involve two or more chemical reactions. In some cases the two or more
chemical reactions occur simultaneously, and in other cases they occur sequentially (one
right after the other). Example 10.17 deals with a pair of simultaneous reactions, and
Example 10.18 deals with three sequential reactions.
EXAMPLE 10.17 A Calculation Based on Simultaneous Chemical

Reactions
A mixture contains 47.3% by mass magnesium carbonate (MgCO3) and 52.7% by mass
calcium carbonate (CaCO3). The mixture is heated until both carbonates completely de-
compose as shown by the following equations.
MgCO3 h MgO + CO2
CaCO3 h CaO + CO2
How many grams of CO2 are produced from decomposition of 78.3 g of the mixture?
SOLUTION
In solving this problem we will need to carry out two parallel calculations. In the one
calculation we will determine the grams of CO2 produced from the MgCO3 component
of the mixture and in the other, the grams of CO2 produced from the CaCO3 component.
Then we will add together the answers from the two parallel calculations to get our final
answer, the total grams of CO2 produced. The sequence of conversion factors for each
setup is derived from the following pathway.
Grams of Percent Grams of Molar Moles of Equation Moles Molar Grams

mixture composition carbonate mass carbonate coefficients of CO2 mass of CO2
The number of grams of CO2 produced from the MgCO3 is given by the following setup:
47.3 g MgCO3 1 mole MgCO3 1 mole CO2 44.01 g CO2
78.3 g mixture * * * *
100.0 g mixture 84.32 g MgCO3 1 mole MgCO3 1mole CO2
= 19.330526 g CO2 (calculator answer)
The number of grams of CO2 produced from the CaCO3 is given by the following setup.
52.7 g CaCO3 1 mole CaCO3 1 mole CO2 44.01 g CO2
78.3 g mixture * * * *
100.0 g mixture 100.09 g CaCO3 1 mole CaCO3 1 mole CO2
= 18.144 g CO2 (calculator answer)
The first conversion factor in each setup is derived from the given percentage of that com-
pound in the mixture. The use of percentages as conversion factors was covered in Section 3.9.
The total number of grams of CO2 produced is the sum of the grams of CO2 in the
individual reactions.
(19.3 + 18.1) g CO2 = 37.4 g CO2 (calculator and correct answer)
Answer Double Check: Were the given percentages for the components of the mixture
used properly in setting up the calculations? Yes. The percentages, as conversion factors,
were applied to the same number (78.3 g), the total amount of mixture present.
Chemical Insight: LIME

Limestone is an impure form of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). When limestone is strongly
heated to temperatures of about 900⬚C, the CaCO3 decomposes, producing carbon
dioxide (CO2) and calcium oxide (CaO). Industrially, calcium oxide is called lime.
Lime is an extremely important industrial chemical. Its dominant outlet is steel-
making. In steelmaking, lime is added to a molten charge of iron that contains impuri-
ties (mainly silicon dioxide and silicates). The lime reacts with the impurities to form
slag, a glassy waste material that floats to the top of the molten iron and is removed.
A very small amount of lime, less than 1% of total production, is consumed
in building construction. Mortar used in bricklaying is made from lime, sand, and
water. Initially, the mortar sets up because of the formation of solid calcium hydroxide
3Ca(OH)24. With time, the Ca(OH)2 is converted to CaCO3 by reaction with CO2 in air.
Often, particularly in industrial processes, more than one chemical reaction is

needed to change starting materials into desired products; a series of sequential chemi-
cal reactions is required. The product amount from each of the chemical reactions in the
sequence becomes the starting material for the next chemical reaction in the sequence.
EXAMPLE 10.18 A Calculation Based on Sequential Chemical Reactions

In steelmaking, a series of three chemical reactions is needed to convert Fe2O3 (the
iron-containing component of iron ore) to molten iron.
reaction (1): 3 Fe2O3 + CO h 2 Fe3O4 + CO2
reaction (2): Fe3O4 + CO h 3 FeO + CO2
reaction (3): FeO + CO h Fe + CO2
Assuming that the reactant CO is present in excess, how many grams of Fe can be pro-
duced from 125 g of Fe2O3?
SOLUTION
The key substances in this set of reactions, from a calculational point of view, are the
iron-containing species: Fe2O3, Fe3O4, FeO, and Fe. Note that the iron-containing species
produced in the first and second reactions (Fe3O4 and FeO, respectively) are the reactants
for the second and third reactions, respectively.
reaction (1) reaction (2) reaction (3)
Fe2O3 Fe3O4 FeO Fe
We can solve this problem using a single multiple-step setup. The sequence of conver-
sion factors needed is that for a gram-to-gram problem with two additional intermediate
mole-to-mole steps added.
Grams Molar Moles Eq. (1) Moles Eq. (2)

of Fe2O3 mass of Fe2O3 coeff. of Fe3O4 coeff.
Moles Eq. (3) Moles Molar Grams

of FeO coeff. of Fe mass of Fe

1 mole Fe2O3 2 mole Fe3O4 3 moles FeO
125 g Fe2O3 * * *
159.70 g Fe2O3 3 mole Fe2O3 1 mole Fe3O4
1 mole Fe 55.85 g Fe
* *
1 mole FeO 1 mole Fe
= 87.429555 g Fe (calculator answer)
= 87.4 g Fe (correct answer)
An alternative approach to solving this problem would involve setting up a separate cal-
culation for each equation. As a first step, the number of moles of Fe3O4 produced in the
first reaction would be calculated. In the second step, one would determine the moles
of FeO obtained if all the Fe3O4 produced in the first reaction entered into the second
reaction. In the final step, one would determine the grams of Fe derivable from the FeO
produced in the second reaction. The answer obtained from this three-setup method is
the same as that obtained from the one-setup method.
Combining Sequential Chemical Reaction Equations into a Single

Overall Chemical Reaction Equation
A common characteristic of all sets of sequential chemical reaction equations is that a
product from one reaction becomes the reactant for the next reaction. This characteris-
tic facilitates the combination of a set of sequential chemical reaction equations into a
single overall chemical reaction equation. In this combining process intermediate chemi-
cal substances in the sequence, those that are produced first as a product and then used
secondly as a reactant, are eliminated from the chemical equations.
The combining procedure used to produce the single overall chemical equation
involves the following steps.
1. Write the chemical equations for the sequential steps of the reaction.
2. Identify and then equalize chemical equation coefficients for intermediate
substances so that these substance can be canceled from the equations.
3. Carry out the “cancellations” by adding the step-equations together to obtain the
single overall equation.
Example 10.19 illustrates this just described “cancellation-addition” procedure.
EXAMPLE 10.19 Combining Sequential Chemical Equations to Produce

a Single Overall Chemical Equation
Sulfur trioxide, SO3 , can be produced from sulfur, S, in the following two-step process.
S + O2 h SO2
2 SO2 + O2 h 2 SO3
Combine these sequential chemical equations into a single overall chemical equation for
the process.
SOLUTION
Step 1 Write the sequential chemical equations that are to be combined.
S + O2 h SO2
2 SO2 + O2 h 2 SO3
Step 2 Identify the substance that “links” the chemical equations together. In our case, it
is SO2, the product in the first equation and a reactant in the second equation. For
this SO2 “link” to cancel out, which needs to occur during the combining process,
the coefficient for SO2 must be the same in both equations.
The equalizing of SO2 coefficients is obtained by doubling all of the coef-
ficients in the first equation while leaving all of the coefficients in the second
equation as is.
2 S + 2 O2 h 2 SO2 (coefficients have been doubled)
2 SO2 + O2 h 2 SO3
Step 3 Having the coefficients for SO2 the same means that the amount of SO2 formed in
the first reaction is the same as that which reacts in the second reaction. With the
amounts the same, the SO2 can be canceled from the equation as the two equa-
tions are added together
2 S + 2 O2 h 2 SO2
2 SO2 + O2 h 2 SO3
2 S + 3 O2 h 2 SO3
In adding the two equations, the reactants from both equations appear on the left
side of the equation and the products from both equations appear on the right
side of the equation. The first equation has 2 O2 on the reactant side and the
second has O2 on the reactant side which gives a total of 3 O2.
The single equation
2 S + 3 O2 h 2 SO3
is equivalent to the two chemical equations we started with and can be used in lieu of the
two-step formulation in many types of calculations. This single equation, however, does
not convey the important fact that SO2 is produced as an “intermediate” in this two-step
reaction process.
1. Reactants and Products The starting materials a compound is replaced by another element. A
in a chemical reaction are called reactants and double-replacement reaction is one in which two
the substances produced as a result of a chemi- compounds exchange parts with each other and
cal reaction are called products. form two different compounds. A combustion re-
2. Law of Conservation of Mass Mass is neither action involves the reaction of a substance with
created nor destroyed in any ordinary chemical oxygen (usually from air) that proceeds with evo-
reaction. In a chemical reaction the sum of the lution of heat and usually also a flame.
masses of the products is always equal to the 6. The Mole and Chemical Equations The co-
sum of the masses of the reactants. efficients in a balanced chemical equation give
3. Chemical Equation A chemical equation is a the molar ratios between substances consumed
representation for a chemical reaction that uses or produced in the chemical reaction described
chemical symbols and chemical formulas for the by the chemical equation.
reactants and products involved in the chemi- 7. Chemical Stoichiometry Chemical stoichiom-
cal reaction. The formulas of the reactants are etry is the study of the quantitative relationships
always written on the left side of the chemical among reactants and products in a chemical re-
equation and the formulas of the products are action. The stoichiometry of a chemical reaction
always found on the right side of the equation. always involves the molar relationships (coeffi-
4. Balanced Chemical Equation A balanced cients) among reactants and products.
chemical equation has the same number of 8. Limiting Reactant A limiting reactant is com-
atoms of each element involved in the reaction pletely consumed in a reaction. When it is used
on each side of the equation. An unbalanced up, the reaction stops, thus limiting the quanti-
equation is brought into balance through the use ties of products formed. Other reactants present
of coefficients. A coefficient is a number that is are often called excess reactants; they are not en-
placed to the left of the formula of a substance tirely consumed.
and that changes the amount, but not the iden- 9. Theoretical Yield, Actual Yield, and Percent
tity, of the substance. Yield The theoretical yield is the maximum
5. Classes of Chemical Reactions Chemical reac- amount of a product that can be obtained from
tions are grouped into classes based on common given amounts of reactants in a chemical reaction
characteristics. A synthesis reaction is a reaction in if no losses or inefficiencies of any kind occur. In
which a single product is produced from two (or most chemical reactions the amount of a given
more) reactants. A decomposition reaction is one product isolated from the reaction mixture, the
in which a single reactant is converted into two actual yield, is less than that which is theoreti-
or more simpler products. A single-replacement cally possible. The percent yield compares the
reaction is a reaction in which one element within actual and theoretical yields.
Key Terms Listing

actual yield Sec. 10.11 double-replacement reaction Sec. 10.6 products Sec. 10.1
balanced chemical equation Sec. 10.3 equation coefficient Sec. 10.3 reactants Sec. 10.1
chemical equation Sec. 10.2 law of conservation of mass single-replacement reaction
chemical stoichiometry Sec. 10.9 Sec. 10.1 Sec. 10.6
combustion reaction Sec. 10.6 limiting reactant Sec. 10.10 synthesis reaction Sec. 10.6
decomposition reaction Sec. 10.6 percent yield Sec. 10.11 theoretical yield Sec. 10.11

THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS (SEC. 10.1)
10.1 Determine whether each of the following statements 10.8 Diagram I represents the reactant mixture for a
is consistent with or inconsistent with the law of chemical reaction. Select from diagrams II through
conservation of mass. IV the product mixture that is consistent with both
a. 127.10 g of Cu reacts with 34.00 g of O2 to pro- diagram I and the concepts associated with the law
duce 159.10 g of CuO. of conservation of mass.
b. 76.15 g CS2 reacts with 96.00 g O2 to produce
44.01 g of CO2 and 128.14 g of SO2.
10.2 Determine whether each of the following statements
is consistent with or inconsistent with the law of con-
servation of mass.
a. 80.07 g of SO3 reacts with 18.02 g of H2O to pro-
duce 98.09 g of H2SO4.
I II III IV
b. 81.55 g of CuO reacts with 4.04 g of H2 to produce
63.55 g of Cu and 18.02 g of H2O.
10.3 Determine the value of x in the following otherwise
correct description of a chemical reaction. CHEMICAL EQUATION NOTATION
(16.05 g CH4) + (64.00 g O2) h (x g CO2) + (SECS. 10.2 AND 10.5)
(36.04 g H2O) 10.9 How many reactants and how many products are
10.4 Determine the value of x in the following otherwise present in each of the following chemical equations?
correct description of a chemical reaction. a. FeO + CO S Fe + CO2
b. CaCO3 + H2SO4 S CaSO4 + CO2 + H2O
(137.32 g PCl3) + (x g H2) h (34.00 g PH3) + c. BaS S Ba + S
(109.38 g HCl) d. S + O2 S SO2
10.5 A 4.2 g sample of sodium hydrogen carbonate is 10.10 How many reactants and how many products are
added to a solution of acetic acid weighing 10.0 g. The present in each of the following chemical equations?
two substances react, releasing carbon dioxide gas to a. NH4Cl + AgNO3 S NH4NO3 + AgCl
the atmosphere. After the reaction, the contents of the b. Ca + S S CaS
reaction vessel weigh 12.0 g. What is the mass of car- c. MgCO3 + H2SO3 S MgSO3 + CO2 + H2O
bon dioxide given off during the reaction? d. MgF2 S Mg + F2
10.6 A 1.00 g sample of solid calcium carbonate is added to 10.11 In which of the following pairs of symbols and/or
a reaction flask containing 10.00 g of hydrochloric acid formulas for gaseous elements are both members
solution. The calcium carbonate slowly dissolves in the of the pair written appropriately for use in chemical
acid solution as evidenced by the generation of carbon equations?
dioxide gas. After 5 minutes of reaction, 0.21 g of car- a. O2 and H2
bon dioxide gas has been given off. At that time, what b. Xe and Cl2
is the mass, in grams, of the reaction flask contents? c. Kr and Rn
10.7 Diagram I represents the reactant mixture for a chemical d. N2 and Br
reaction. Select from diagrams II through IV the product 10.12 In which of the following pairs of symbols and/or
mixture that is consistent with both diagram I and the formulas for gaseous elements are both members
concepts associated with the law of conservation of mass. of the pair written appropriately for use in chemical
equations?
a. Xe2 and Br2 b. Kr and N
c. H2 and F2 d. I2 and Rn
10.13 What do the symbols in parentheses stand for in the
following chemical equations?
a. Li3N(s) + 3 H2O(l) h 3 LiOH(aq) + NH3(g)
b. CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) h CaSO4(s) +
I II III IV CO2(g) + H2O(l)
10.14 What do the symbols in parentheses stand for in the 10.23 Balance the following chemical equations.
following chemical equations? a. C5H12 + O2 h CO2 + H2O
a. 2 Na2O2(s) + 2 H2O(l) h 4 NaOH(aq) + b. C5H10 + O2 h CO2 + H2O
O2(g) c. C5H8 + O2 h CO2 + H2O
b. Na2CO3(s) + 2 HCl(aq) h 2 NaCl(aq) + d. C5H10O + O2 h CO2 + H2O
CO2(g) + H2O(l ) 10.24 Balance the following chemical equations.
a. C6H14 + O2 h CO2 + H2O
b. C6H12 + O2 h CO2 + H2O
BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS (SEC. 10.4) c. C6H10 + O2 h CO2 + H2O
10.15 Indicate whether each of the following chemical d. C6H10O2 + O2 h CO2 + H2O
equations is balanced or unbalanced. 10.25 Balance the following chemical equations.
a. FeO + CO h Fe + CO2 a. Ca1OH22 + HNO3 S Ca1NO322 + H2O
b. CH4 + O2 h CO2 + H2O b. BaCl2 + 1NH4 22SO4 S BaSO4 + NH4Cl
c. NH3 + HNO3 h NH4NO3 c. Fe1OH23 + H2SO4 S Fe21SO4 23 + H2O
d. KCl + O2 h KClO3 d. Na3PO4 + AgNO3 S NaNO3 + Ag3PO4
10.16 Indicate whether each of the following chemical 10.26 Balance the following chemical equations.
equations is balanced or unbalanced. a. Al + Sn1NO3 22 S Al1NO3 23 + Sn
a. Fe2O3 + CO h Fe + CO2 b. Na2CO3 + Mg1NO3 22 S MgCO3 + NaNO3
b. NaBr + AgNO3 h AgBr + NaNO3 c. Al1NO3 23 + H2SO4 S Al21SO4 23 + HNO3
c. SO3 + H2SO4 h H2S2O7 d. Ba1C2H3O2 22 + 1NH4 23PO4 S Ba31PO4 22 +
d. PCl3 + H2 h PH3 + HCl NH4C2H3O2
10.17 For each of the following balanced chemical equa- 10.27 Each of the following mathematically balanced
tions, indicate how many atoms of each element chemical equations is in a nonconventional form.
are present on the reactant and product sides of the Through coefficient adjustment, change each of
equation. these equations to conventional form without unbal-
a. Xe + 2 F2 S XeF4 ancing them.
b. 2 Sb + 3 Cl2 S 2 SbCl3 a. 3 AgNO3 + 3 KCl S 3 KNO3 + 3 AgCl
c. K2SO4 + BaCl2 S BaSO4 + 2 KCl b. 2 CS2 + 6 O2 S 2 CO2 + 4 SO2
d. 4 NO2 + 2 H2O + O2 S 4 HNO3 c. H2 + 12 O2 S H2O
10.18 For each of the following balanced chemical equations, d. Ag2CO3 S 2 Ag + CO2 + 12 O2
indicate how many atoms of each element are present 10.28 Each of the following mathematically balanced
on the reactant and product sides of the equation. chemical equations is in a nonconventional form.
a. Cs2O + H2O S 2 CsOH Through coefficient adjustment, change each of
b. 2 Fe + 3 Br2 S 2 FeBr3 these equations to conventional form without unbal-
c. 2 NH4Cl + Mg1OH22 S 2 NH3 + 2 H2O + MgCl2 ancing them.
d. Br2 + 2 H2O + SO2 S 2 HBr + H2SO4 a. 2 Cu1NO3 22 + 2 Fe S 2 Cu + 2 Fe1NO3 22
10.19 Balance each of the following chemical equations. b. 2 N2H4 + 4 H2O2 S 2 N2 + 8 H2O
a. Fe + O2 S Fe2O3 c. Li3N S 3 Li + 12 N2
b. Al + HCl S AlCl3 + H2 d. 2 HNO3 S 2 NO2 + H2O + 12 O2
c. SiH4 + F2 S SiF4 + HF 10.29 When asked to balance the chemical equation
d. NaOH + H2S S Na2S + H2O Co + Cl2 S CoCl3
10.20 Balance each of the following chemical equations.
a. Be + N2 S Be3N2 a student supplied the balanced equation
b. K + H2O S KOH + H2 Co + Cl2 S CoCl2
c. PH3 + Cl2 S PCl3 + HCl
d. Cl2O7 + H2O S 2 HClO4 as the correct answer. Why is this not the correct
10.21 Balance the following chemical equations. answer, even though it is a balanced chemical
a. PbO + NH3 S Pb + N2 + H2O equation?
b. NaHCO3 + H2SO4 S Na2SO4 + H2O + CO2 10.30 When asked to balance the chemical equation
c. TiO2 + C + Cl2 S TiCl4 + CO2
H2 + O2 S H2O
d. NBr3 + NaOH S N2 + NaBr + HBrO
10.22 Balance the following chemical equations. a student supplied the balanced equation
a. NH3 + O2 + CH4 S HCN + H2O
H2 + O2 S H2O2
b. KClO3 + HCl S KCl + Cl2 + H2O
c. SO2Cl2 + HI S H2S + H2O + HCl + I2 as the correct answer. Why is this not the correct an-
d. NO + CH4 S HCN + H2O + H2 swer, even though it is a balanced chemical equation?
10.31 The following diagrams represent the reaction of A2 10.34 Diagram I represents a reactant mixture for a chemical
(light spheres) with B2 (dark spheres) to give spe- reaction. Select from diagrams II through IV the product
cific products. Write a balanced chemical equation, mixture that is consistent with both diagram I and the
in terms of A’s and B’s for each reaction based on the concepts associated with a balanced chemical equation.
information in the diagram. Allow for the possibility
that not all of the reactant molecules react.
a.
Reactants Products
I II III IV
CLASSES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS (SEC. 10.6)

b.
Reactants Products 10.35 Classify each of the following chemical reactions
as synthesis, decomposition, single-replacement, or
double-replacement.
a. SO3 + H2O S H2SO4
b. 2 H2 + O2 S 2 H2O
c. Na2CO3 + Ca1OH22 S CaCO3 + 2 NaOH
d. Cu1NO3 22 + Fe S Cu + Fe1NO3 22
10.36 Classify each of the following chemical reactions
10.32 The following diagrams represent the reaction of A2
as synthesis, decomposition, single-replacement, or
(light spheres) with B2 (dark spheres) to give spe-
double-replacement.
cific products. Write a balanced chemical equation,
a. 3 CuSO4 + 2 Al S Al21SO4 23 + 3 Cu
in terms of A’s and B’s for each reaction based on the
b. K2CO3 S K2O + CO2
information in the diagram. Allow for the possibility
c. 2 AgNO3 + K2SO4 S Ag2SO4 + 2 KNO3
that not all of the reactant molecules react.
d. 2 SO2 + O2 S 2 SO3
a. 10.37 Identify the products of, and then write a balanced
Reactants Products chemical equation for, each of the following chemical
reactions.
a. Zn + Cu1NO3 22 S ? + ? (single-replacement
reaction)
b. Ca + O2 S ? (synthesis reaction)
c. K2SO4 + Ba1NO3 22 S ? + ? (double-replacement
reaction)
d. Ag2O S ? + ? (decomposition reaction)
b. Reactants Products 10.38 Identify the products of, and then write a balanced
chemical equation for, each of the following chemi-
cal reactions.
a. AlCl3 S ? + ? (decomposition reaction)
b. Cu1NO3 22 + Na2CO3 S ? + ? (double-replacement
reaction)
c. Al + Ni1NO3 22 S ? + ? (single-replacement
reaction)
10.33 Diagram I represents a reactant mixture for a chemical d. Be + N2 S ? (synthesis reaction)
reaction. Select from diagrams II through IV the product 10.39 Write a balanced chemical equation for the thermal
mixture that is consistent with both diagram I and the decomposition of each of the following metal car-
concepts associated with a balanced chemical equation. bonates to its metal oxide and carbon dioxide.
a. Rb2CO3 b. SrCO3
c. Al21CO3 23 d. Cu2CO3
10.40 Write a balanced chemical equation for the thermal
decomposition of each of the following metal car-
bonates to its metal oxide and carbon dioxide.
a. Ag2CO3 b. BaCO3
I II III IV c. Ga21CO3 23 d. ZnCO3
10.41 Write a balanced chemical equation for the combus- write the conversion factor that would be needed to
tion of each of the following compounds in air. affect the conversion from
a. C4H10 b. C7H12 a. moles of ClO2 to moles H2O.
c. CH4O d. C3H8O2 b. moles of HClO3 to moles HCl.
10.42 Write a balanced chemical equation for the combus- c. moles of H2O to moles HCl.
tion of each of the following compounds in air. d. moles of HClO3 to moles ClO2.
a. C5H12 b. C6H10 10.52 For the chemical reaction
c. C3H8O d. C2H6O2 2 MnI2 + 13 F2 h 2 MnF3 + 4 IF5
10.43 What is the molecular ratio between the CO2 and
write the conversion factor that would be needed to
H2O produced when each of the following com-
affect the conversion from
pounds undergoes combustion?
a. moles of MnI2 to moles of F2.
a. C5H10 b. C8H10
b. moles of IF5 to moles of MnF3.
c. C2H6O d. C6H14O2
c. moles of MnF3 to moles of MnI2.
10.44 What is the molecular ratio between the CO2 and
d. moles of F2 to moles of IF5.
H2O produced when each of the following com-
10.53 Using each of the following chemical equations, cal-
pounds undergoes combustion?
culate the number of moles of the first-listed reactant
a. C6H6 b. C6H12
that are needed to produce 3.00 moles of N2.
c. C4H10O d. C4H10O2
a. 2 NaN3 S 2 Na + 3 N2
10.45 Write a balanced chemical equation for the combus-
b. 3 CO + 2 NaCN S Na2CO3 + 4 C + N2
tion in air of each of the following compounds.
c. 2 NH2Cl + N2H4 S 2 NH4Cl + N2
a. C2H7N, where NO2 is one of the products
d. 4 C3H5O9N3 S 12 CO2 + 6 N2 + O2 + 10 H2O
b. CH4S, where SO2 is one of the products
10.54 Using each of the following chemical equations, cal-
10.46 Write a balanced chemical equation for the combus-
culate the number of moles of the first-listed reactant
tion in air of each of the following compounds.
that are needed to produce 4.00 moles of N2.
a. C2H6S, where SO2 is one of the products
a. 4 NH3 + 3 O2 S 2 N2 + 6 H2O
b. CH5N, where NO2 is one of the products
b. 1NH4 22Cr2O7 S Cr2O3 + N2 + 4 H2O
10.47 Indicate to which of the following types of chemi-
c. N2H4 + 2 H2O2 S N2 + 4 H2O
cal reactions each of the statements listed applies:
d. 2 Li3N S 6 Li + N2
synthesis, decomposition, single-replacement, double-
10.55 How many moles of the first-listed reactant in each
replacement, or combustion.
of the following chemical equations will completely
a. An element may be a reactant.
react with 1.42 moles of the second-listed reactant?
b. An element may be a product.
a. H2O2 + H2S h 2 H2O + S
c. A compound may be a reactant.
b. CS2 + 3 O2 h 2 SO2 + CO2
d. A compound may be a product.
c. Mg + 2 HCl h MgCl2 + H2
10.48 Indicate to which of the following types of chemi-
d. 6 HCl + 2 Al h 3 H2 + 2 AlCl3
cal reactions each of the statements listed applies:
10.56 How many moles of the first-listed reactant in each
synthesis, decomposition, single-replacement, double-
of the following chemical equations will completely
replacement, or combustion.
react with 2.03 moles of the second-listed reactant?
a. Two reactants are required.
a. SiO2 + 3 C h 2 CO + SiC
b. Only one reactant is present.
b. 5 O2 + C3H8 h 3 CO2 + 4 H2O
c. Two products are required.
c. CH4 + 4 Cl2 h 4 HCl + CCl4
d. Only one product is present.
d. 3 NO2 + H2O h 2 HNO3 + NO
10.57 Using each of the following equations, calculate the
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS AND THE MOLE total number of moles of products that can be obtained
CONCEPT (SEC. 10.7) from the decomposition of 1.75 moles of the reactant.
a. 2 NH4NO3 S 2 N2 + O2 + 4 H2O
10.49 Write the six mole-to-mole conversion factors that
b. 2 NaClO3 S 2 NaCl + 3 O2
can be derived from the balanced equation
c. 2 KNO3 S 2 KNO2 + O2
2 NH3 S 3 H2 + N2 d. 4 I4O9 S 6 I2O5 + 2 I2 + 3 O2
10.58 Using each of the following equations, calculate the
10.50 Write the six mole-to-mole conversion factors that
total number of moles of products that can be obtained
can be derived from the balanced equation
from the decomposition of 2.25 moles of the reactant.
2 H2O2 S 2 H2O + O2 a. 2 Ag2CO3 S 4 Ag + 2 CO2 + O2
b. 2 KClO3 S 2 KCl + 3 O2
10.51 For the chemical reaction c. 4 HNO3 S 4 NO2 + 2 H2O + O2
6 ClO2 + 3 H2O h 5 HClO3 + HCl d. 2 H2O2 S 2 H2O + O2
10.59 For the decomposition reaction CALCULATIONS BASED ON CHEMICAL

2 Ag2CO3 h 4 Ag + 2 CO2 + O2
EQUATIONS (SEC. 10.9)
10.65 For each of the following decomposition reactions,
how many moles of Ag2CO3 undergo decomposition
how many moles of O2 are produced when 2.68
in order to produce
moles of reactant completely decomposes?
a. 6.0 moles of Ag?
a. 2 KClO3 S 2 KCl + 3 O2
b. 8.0 moles of CO2?
b. 2 CuO S 2 Cu + O2
c. 2.4 moles of O2?
c. 2 NaNO3 S 2 NaNO2 + O2
d. 15.0 total moles of products?
d. 4 HNO3 S 4 NO2 + 2 H2O + O2
10.60 For the decomposition reaction
10.66 For each of the following decomposition reactions,
3 HNO2 h 2 NO + HNO3 + H2O how many moles of O2 are produced when 3.28
moles of reactant completely decomposes?
how many moles of HNO2 undergo decomposition
a. 2 KClO4 S 2 KCl + 4 O2
in order to produce
b. 2 HgO S 2 Hg + O2
a. 6.0 moles of NO?
c. 2 H2O S 2 H2 + O2
b. 7.0 moles of HNO3?
d. 2 Ag2CO3 S 4 Ag + 2 CO2 + O2
c. 3.5 moles of H2O?
10.67 For each of the following chemical reactions—
d. 17.0 total moles of products?
depicted using unbalanced chemical equations—
determine how many moles of the first reactant
will be required to completely react with 1.25 moles
BALANCED CHEMICAL EQUATIONS AND of the second reactant.
THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS a. CO + H2 S CH4 + H2O
(SEC. 10.8) b. CaO + HCl S CaCl2 + H2O
c. NH3 + O2 S N2 + H2O
10.61 Consider the general chemical reaction d. HCl + Ba1OH22 S BaCl2 + H2O
4A + 3B h 2C 10.68 For each of the following chemical reactions—depicted
using unbalanced chemical equations—determine how
a. If 4.00 g of A reacts with 1.67 g of B, what is the many moles of the first reactant will be required to com-
mass, in grams, of C that is produced? pletely react with 1.75 moles of the second reactant.
b. If the reaction of 3.76 g of A with B produces a. SO2 + NaOH S Na2SO3 + H2O
7.02 g of C, what is the mass, in grams, of B that b. H3PO4 + KOH S K3PO4 + H2O
reacted? c. SnO + H2 S Sn + H2O
10.62 Consider the general chemical reaction d. NaOH + CO2 S Na2CO3 + H2O
2A + 3B h C 10.69 For each of the chemical reactions listed in Problem
10.67, how many moles of the other product are pro-
a. If 5.20 g of A reacts with 6.23 g of B, what is the duced when 5.25 moles of H2O are produced?
mass, in grams, of C that is produced? 10.70 For each of the chemical reactions listed in Problem
b. If the reaction of 4.50 g of B with A produces 10.68, how many moles of the other product are pro-
7.23 g of C, what is the mass, in grams, of A that duced when 4.75 moles of H2O are produced?
reacted? 10.71 How much nitric acid 1HNO3 2 , in grams, is needed
10.63 Verify the law of conservation of mass, using the to produce 1.00 mole of water in each of the follow-
molar masses of reactants and products for each sub- ing chemical reactions?
stance in the following balanced equations. a. Cu + 4 HNO3 S Cu1NO3 22 + 2 NO2 + 2 H2O
a. C7H16 + 11 O2 h 7 CO2 + 8 H2O b. Al2O3 + 6 HNO3 S 2 Al1NO3 23 + 3 H2O
b. 2 HCl + CaCO3 h CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O c. Au + HNO3 + 4 HCl S HAuCl4 + NO + 2 H2O
c. Na2SO4 + 2 C h Na2S + 2 CO2 d. 4 Zn + 10 HNO3 S 4 Zn1NO3 22 + NH4NO3 +
d. 4 Na2CO3 + Fe3Br8 h 8 NaBr + 4 CO2 3H2O
+ Fe3O4 10.72 How much nitric acid 1HNO3 2 , in grams, is needed
10.64 Verify the law of conservation of mass, using to produce 2.00 moles of water in each of the follow-
the molar masses of reactants and products for ing chemical reactions?
each substance in the following balanced a. Fe2O3 + 6 HNO3 S 2 Fe1NO3 23 + 3 H2O
equations. b. 4 HNO3 S 4 NO2 + O2 + 2 H2O
a. 3 O2 + CS2 h CO2 + 2 SO2 c. 3 Cu + 8 HNO3 S 3 Cu1NO3 22 + 2 NO +
b. 2 Fel2 + 3 Cl2 h 2 FeCl3 + 2 I2 4H2O
c. 2 C8H18 + 25 O2 h 16 CO2 + 18 H2O d. 8 Al + 30 HNO3 S 8 Al1NO3 23 + 3 NH4NO3 +
d. 2 NH3 + 3 O2 + 2 CH4 h 2 HCN + 6 H2O 9H2O
10.73 How many grams of the second-listed reactant in a. 10.00 g of W

each of the following reactions are needed to react b. 1 billion 11.00 * 109 2 molecules of H2O
completely with 1.772 g of the first-listed reactant? c. 2.53 moles of H2O
a. CaO + 2 HNO3 h Ca1NO3 22 + H2O d. 250,000 atoms of W
b. PCl5 + 4 H2O h H3PO4 + 5 HCl 10.79 Hydrofluoric acid, HF, cannot be stored in glass bot-
c. CuCl2 + 2 NaOH h Cu1OH22 + 2 NaCl tles because it attacks silicate compounds present in
d. Na2S + 2 AgC2H3O2 h 2 NaC2H3O2 + Ag2S the glass. For example, sodium silicate, Na2SiO3, re-
10.74 How many grams of the second-listed reactant in acts with HF in the following way:
each of the following reactions are needed to react Na2SiO3 + 8 HF S H2SiF6 + 2 NaF + 3 H2O
completely with 12.56 g of the first-listed reactant?
a. How many moles of Na2SiO3 must react to pro-
a. CrCl3 + 3 NaOH h Cr1OH23 + 3 NaCl
duce 25.00 g of NaF?
b. 16 H2S + 8 SO2 h 3 S8 + 16 H2O
b. How many grams of HF must react to produce
c. 2 Cr2O3 + 3 Si h 4 Cr + 3 SiO2
27.00 g of H2O?
d. 3 CCl4 + 2 SbF3 h 3 CCl2F2 + 2 SbCl3
c. How many molecules of H2SiF6 are produced
10.75 Silicon carbide, SiC, used as an abrasive on sandpaper,
from the reaction of 2.000 g of Na2SiO3?
is prepared using the following chemical reaction
d. How many grams of HF are needed to react with
SiO21s2 + 3 C1s2 S SiC1s2 + 2 CO1g2 50.00 g of Na2SiO3?
a. How many grams of SiO2 are needed to react 10.80 Potassium thiosulfate, K2S2O3, is used to remove any
with 1.50 moles of C? excess chlorine from fibers and fabrics that have
b. How many grams of CO are produced when 1.37 been bleached with that gas.
moles of SiO2 react? K2S2O3 + 4 Cl2 + 5 H2O S 2 KHSO4 + 8 HCl
c. How many grams of SiC are produced at the a. How many moles of K2S2O3 must react to pro-
same time that 3.33 moles of CO are produced? duce 2.500 g of HCl?
d. How many grams of C must react in order to b. How many grams of Cl2 must react to produce
produce 0.575 mole of SiC? 20.00 g of KHSO4?
10.76 In the atmosphere, the air pollutant nitrogen diox- c. How many molecules of HCl are produced at the
ide 1NO2 2 reacts with water to produce nitric acid same time that 2.000 g of KHSO4 are produced?
1HNO3 2 . The reaction for the formation of nitric acid is d. How many grams of H2O are consumed as 12.50
3 NO21g2 + H2O1l2 S 2 HNO31aq2 + NO1g2 g of Cl2 reacts?
10.81 How many grams of aluminum (Al) are needed to
a. How many grams of NO2 are needed to react react completely with 23.7 grams of oxygen 1O2 2 in
with 2.30 moles of H2O? the synthesis of aluminum oxide 1Al2O3 2 ?
b. How many grams of NO are produced when 10.82 How many grams of potassium (K) are needed to
2.04 moles of H2O react? react completely with 17.8 g of nitrogen 1N2 2 in the
c. How many grams of HNO3 are produced at the synthesis of potassium nitride 1K3N2 ?
same time that 0.500 mole of NO is produced?
d. How many grams of NO2 must react in order to
produce 1.23 moles of HNO3?
10.77 One way to remove gaseous carbon dioxide 1CO2 2 LIMITING REACTANT CALCULATIONS (SEC. 10.10)
from the air in a spacecraft is to let canisters of solid 10.83 What will be the limiting reactant in the production
lithium hydroxide (LiOH) absorb it according to the of three-nut, four-bolt combinations from a collection
reaction of 216 nuts and 284 bolts?
2 LiOH1s2 + CO21g2 S Li2CO31s2 + H2O1l2 10.84 What will be the limiting reactant in the production
of five-nut, four-bolt combinations from a collection
Based on this equation, how many grams of LiOH of 785 nuts and 660 bolts?
must be used to achieve the following? 10.85 Beryllium nitride can be prepared by the reaction
a. absorb 4.50 moles of CO2 of the metallic beryllium with ammonia at elevated
b. absorb 3.00 * 1024 molecules of CO2 temperatures as shown by the chemical equation
c. produce 10.0 g of H2O
d. produce 10.0 g of Li2CO3 3 Be + 2 NH3 h Be3N2 + 3 H2
10.78 Tungsten (W) metal, used to make incandescent For each of the following combinations of reactants,
light-bulb filaments, is produced by the reaction decide which reactant is the limiting reactant.
a. 2.00 moles of Be and 0.500 mole of NH3
WO31s2 + 3 H21g2 S W1s2 + 3 H2O1l2
b. 3.00 moles of Be and 3.00 moles of NH3
Based on this equation, how many grams of WO3 are c. 3.00 g of Be and 0.100 mole of NH3
needed to produce each of the following? d. 20.00 g of Be and 60.00 g of NH3
10.86 Under appropriate conditions water can be produced 10.92 For each of the reaction mixtures specified in
from the reaction of the elements hydrogen and Problem 10.90, calculate, in grams, the amount of
oxygen as shown by the chemical equation the non-limiting reactant that is left over (did not
react).
2 H2 + O2 h 2 H2O
10.93 The following diagrams represent the reaction of
For each of the following combinations of reactants, A2 (light spheres) with B2 (dark spheres) to give
decide which reactant is the limiting reactant. specific products. Identify the limiting reactant in
a. 1.750 moles of H2 and 1.00 mole of O2 each of the reactions based on the information in
b. 2.50 moles of H2 and 2.00 moles of O2 the diagram.
c. 6.00 g of H2 and 1.25 moles of O2
a.
d. 1.00 g of H2 and 7.00 g of O2 Reactants Products
determine which of the two reactants is present in
excess, given that the starting amounts of the two
reactants are 10.00 grams for the first reactant and
15.00 grams for the second reactant.
a. NO + O2 S NO2
b. H2 + N2 S NH3 b.
c. KOH + CuSO4 S Cu1OH22 + K2SO4 Reactants Products
d. Zn + HNO3 S Zn1NO3 22 + H2
determine which of the two reactants is present in
excess, given that the starting amounts of the two
reactants are 10.00 grams for the first reactant and
15.00 grams for the second reactant.
a. Mg + N2 S Mg3N2 10.94 The following diagrams represent the reaction of
A2 (light spheres) with B2 (dark spheres) to give
b. Na + O2 S Na2O2
specific products. Identify the limiting reactant in
c. Fe + H2SO4 S Fe31SO4 22 + H2
each of the reactions based on the information in
d. H2S + NiSO4 S NiS + H2SO4
the diagram.
10.89 At high temperatures and pressures nitrogen will
react with hydrogen to produce ammonia as shown a.
Reactants Products
by the chemical equation
N2 + 3 H2 h 2 NH3
How many grams of ammonia can be produced from
the following amounts of reactants?
a. 3.0 g of N2 and 5.0 g of H2
b. 30.0 g of N2 and 10.0 g of H2
c. 50.0 g of N2 and 8.00 g of H2
b. Reactants Products
d. 56 g of N2 and 12 g of H2
10.90 Aluminum oxide can be prepared by the direct re-
action of the elements as shown by the chemical
equation
4 Al + 3 O2 h 2 Al2O3
How many grams of aluminum oxide can be pro-
duced from the following amounts of reactants?
a. 11.0 g of Al and 9.40 g of O2 10.95 If 70.0 g of Fe3O4 and 12.0 g of O2 are present in
b. 10.0 g of Al and 10.0 g of O2 a reaction mixture, determine how many grams of
c. 50.0 g of Al and 100.0 g of O2 each reactant will be left unreacted upon completion
d. 6.20 g of Al and 5.51 g of O2 of the following reaction.
10.91 For each of the reaction mixtures specified in
4 Fe3O4 + O2 S 6 Fe2O3
Problem 10.89, calculate, in grams, the amount of
the non-limiting reactant that is left over (did not 10.96 If 70.0 g of TiCl4 and 16.0 g of Ti are present in
react). a reaction mixture, determine how many grams of
each reactant will be left unreacted upon comple- Select from diagrams II through IV the product mix-
tion of the following reaction. ture that is consistent with the experimental observa-
tion that the percent yield for the reaction is 67%.
3 TiCl4 + Ti S 4 TiCl3
10.97 Determine the number of grams of each of the prod-
ucts that can be made from 8.00 g of SCl2 and 4.00 g
of NaF by the following reaction.
3 SCl2 + 4 NaF S SF4 + S2Cl2 + 4 NaCl
10.98 Determine the number of grams of each of the prod- I II III IV
ucts that can be made from 100.0 g of Na2CO3 and 10.103 If 74.30 g of HCl were produced from 2.13 g of H2
300.0 g of Fe3Br8 by the following reaction. and an excess of Cl2 according to the reaction
4 Na2CO3 + Fe3Br8 S 8 NaBr + 4 CO2 + Fe3O4 H2 + Cl2 S 2 HCl
what was the percent yield of HCl?
10.104 If 115.7 g of Ca3N2 were produced from 28.2 g of
THEORETICAL YIELD AND PERCENT YIELD N2 and an excess of Ca according to the reaction
(SEC. 10.11)
3 Ca + N2 S Ca3N2
10.99 In an experiment designed to produce magnesium
what was the percent yield of Ca3N2?
oxide by the chemical reaction
10.105 Under appropriate reaction conditions, Al and S
2 Mg + O2 h 2 MgO produce Al2S3 according to the equation
125.6 g of MgO is isolated out of a possible 172.2 g 2 Al + 3 S S Al2S3

MgO.
In a certain experiment with 55.0 g of Al and an
a. What is the theoretical yield of MgO?
excess of S, a percent yield of 85.6% was obtained.
b. What is the actual yield of MgO?
What was the actual yield of Al2S3, in grams, for this
c. What is the percent yield of MgO?
experiment?
10.100 In an experiment designed to produce calcium
10.106 Under appropriate reaction conditions, Ag and S
oxide by the chemical reaction
produce Ag2S according to the equation
2 Ca + O2 h 2 CaO 2 Ag + S S Ag2S
115.6 g of CaO is isolated out of a possible 162.2 g In a certain experiment with 75.0 g of Ag and an
CaO. excess of S, a percent yield of 72.9% was obtained.
a. What is the theoretical yield of CaO? What was the actual yield of Ag2S, in grams, for this
b. What is the actual yield of CaO? experiment?
c. What is the percent yield of CaO? 10.107 If the percent yield for the reaction
10.101 Diagram I represents the reactant mixture for the
chemical reaction 2 CO + O2 S 2 CO2
2AB + B2 h 2 AB2 was 57.8%, what mass of product, in grams, could

be produced from a reactant mixture containing
Select from diagrams II through IV the product 35.0 g of each reactant?
mixture that is consistent with the experimental 10.108 If the percent yield for the reaction
observation that the percent yield for the reaction
2 C + O2 S 2 CO
is 67%.
was 34.3%, what mass of product, in grams, could
be produced from a reactant mixture containing
2.25 g of each reactant?
10.109 Three sequential reactions, A h B, B h C,
and C h D, have yields of 92%, 87%, and 43%,
respectively. What is the overall percent yield for
I II III IV the conversion of A to D?
10.110 Three sequential reactions, E h F, F h G,
10.102 Diagram I represents the reactant mixture for the and G h H, have yields of 95%, 93%, and 89%,
chemical reaction respectively. What is the overall percent yield for
A2 + 2 B2 h 2 AB2 the conversion of E to H?
10.111 The overall percent yield for a two-reaction Assuming that all of the oxygen generated in the
sequence 1A S B S C2 is 75.0%. Given that the first step is consumed in the second step,
percent yield for the second reaction is 90.0%, what a. how many moles of sodium chlorate 1NaClO3 2
is the percent yield for the first reaction? are needed in the first step to produce 6.00 moles
10.112 The overall percent yield for a two reaction se- of sulfur dioxide 1SO2 2 in the second step?
quence 1D S E S F2 is 60.0%. Given that the per- b. how many grams of sodium chlorate 1NaClO3 2
cent yield for the first reaction is 85.0%, what is the are needed in the first step to produce 20.0
percent yield for the second reaction? grams of sulfur dioxide 1SO2 2 in the second
step?
10.118 Consider the following two-step reaction sequence.
SIMULTANEOUS CHEMICAL REACTIONS
2 NaCl + 2 H2O S 2 NaOH + H2 + Cl2
(SEC. 10.12)
Ni + Cl2 S NiCl2
10.113 A mixture of composition 60.0% ZnS and 40.0%
CuS is heated in air until the sulfides are completely Assuming that all of the chlorine generated in the
converted to oxides as shown by the following first step is consumed in the second step,
equations. a. how many moles of sodium chloride (NaCl) are
needed in the first step to produce 8.00 moles
2 ZnS + 3 O2 S 2 ZnO + 2 SO2 of nickel(II) chloride 1NiCl2 2 in the second
2 CuS + 3 O2 S 2 CuO + 2 SO2 step?
b. how many grams of sodium chloride (NaCl) are
How many grams of SO2 are produced from the
needed in the first step to produce 50.0 grams
reaction of 82.5 g of the sulfide mixture?
of nickel(II) chloride 1NiCl2 2 in the second
10.114 A mixture of composition 50.0% H2S and 50.0%
step?
CH4 is reacted with oxygen, producing SO2, CO2,
10.119 Acid rain contains both nitric acid and sulfuric acid.
and H2O. The equations for the reactions are
The nitric acid is formed from atmospheric N2 in a
2 H2S + 3 O2 S 2 SO2 + 2 H2O three-step process.
CH4 + 2 O2 S CO2 + 2 H2O N2 + O2 S 2 NO
How many grams of H2O are produced from the 2 NO + O2 S 2 NO2
reaction of 65.0 g of mixture? 4 NO2 + 2 H2O + O2 S 4 HNO3
10.115 A mixture of composition 70.0% methane 1CH4 2
and 30.0% ethane 1C2H6 2 , by mass, is burned in a. How many moles of HNO3 result from the reac-
oxygen to produce CO2 and H2O. The reactions tion of 2.00 moles of N2 in the first step?
that occur are b. How many grams of HNO3 result from the reac-
tion of 2.00 grams of N2 in the first step?
CH4 + 2 O2 S CO2 + 2 H2O 10.120 Acid rain contains both nitric acid and sulfuric acid.
2 C2H6 + 7 O2 S 4 CO2 + 6 H2O The sulfuric acid is formed from S (primarily in
coal) in a three-step process.
How many grams of O2 are needed to react com-
pletely with 75.0 g of mixture? S + O2 S SO2
10.116 A mixture of composition 64.0% Zn and 36.0% Sn,
2 SO2 + O2 S 2 SO3
by mass, is dissolved in hydrochloric acid (HCl) to
produce the metal chlorides and H2. The reactions SO3 + H2O S H2SO4
that occur are a. How many moles of H2SO4 result from the re-
Zn + 2 HCl S ZnCl2 + H2 action of 5.00 moles of S in the first step?
b. How many grams of H2SO4 result from the re-
Sn + 2 HCl S SnCl2 + H2 action of 5.00 grams of S in the first step?
How many grams of HCl are needed to react com- 10.121 The following process has been used for obtaining
pletely with 50.0 g of mixture? iodine from oil-field brines:
NaI + AgNO3 S AgI + NaNO3
2 AgI + Fe S FeI2 + 2 Ag
SEQUENTIAL CHEMICAL REACTIONS (SEC. 10.12)
2 FeI2 + 3 Cl2 S 2 FeCl3 + 2 I2
10.117 Consider the following two-step reaction sequence.
How much AgNO3, in grams, is required in the
2 NaClO3 S 2 NaCl + 3 O2 first step for every 5.00 g of I2 produced in the
S + O2 S SO2 third step?
10.122 Sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3 , can be prepared 10.124 The substance T can be formed from the sub-
from sodium sulfate, Na2SO4, using the following stances K and L using the following three-step
three-step process. process:
Na2SO4 + 4 C S Na2S + 4 CO 3K + 2LSM + 4N
Na2S + CaCO3 S CaS + Na2CO3 4M + 6PS2Q + 2R
Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2 S 2 NaHCO3
S + 5RS2T + U
How much carbon, C, in grams, is required in the
How many moles of T can be formed from 3.0
first step for every 10.00 g of NaHCO3 produced in
moles of L and an excess of all other reactants?
the third step?
10.125 Combine, through the process of addition, the three
10.123 The substance J can be formed from the substances
sequential chemical equations given in Problem
A and B using the following three-step process:
10.119 into a single chemical equation that repre-
2A + 3BSC + 4D sents the overall chemical process.
3C + ES2F + G 10.126 Combine, through the process of addition, the three
6H + 3GS3I + 2J sequential chemical equations given in Problem
10.120 into a single chemical equation that repre-
How many moles of J can be formed from 4.0
sents the overall chemical process.
moles of A and an excess of all other reactants?
numbered problems.
10.127 Without using atomic masses or formula masses, 10.131 Hydrogen sulfide burns in oxygen to form sulfur
determine whether or not each of the following dioxide and water.
chemical equations, as written, is consistent with
the law of conservation of mass. 2 H2S + 3 O2 S 2 SO2 + 2 H2O
a. HCl + NaOH S NaCl + H2O
b. HNO3 + Ca1OH22 S Ca1NO3 22 + H2O How many grams of hydrogen sulfide must react in
c. Na2SiO3 + 6 HF S H2SiF6 + 2 NaF + 3 H2O order to produce a total of 100.0 g of products?
d. 2 KHCO3 S K2O + H2O + 2 CO2 10.132 Carbon disulfide burns in oxygen to form carbon
10.128 Without using atomic masses or formula masses, dioxide and sulfur dioxide.
determine whether or not each of the following
chemical equations, as written, is consistent with CS2 + 3 O2 S CO2 + 2 SO2
the law of conservation of mass.
a. Fe2O3 + 2 CO S Fe + CO2 How many grams of carbon disulfide must react in
b. 2 CH3OH + 3 O2 S 2 CO2 + 3 H2O order to produce a total of 50.0 g of products?
c. C7H6O3 + C4H6O3 S C9H8O4 + HC2H3O2 10.133 Pure, dry NO gas can be made by the following
d. Cu + Cu1NH3 24Cl2 + 4 NH3 S 2 Cu1NH3 24Cl reaction.
10.129 Ammonium dichromate decomposes according to
3 KNO2 + KNO3 + Cr2O3 S 4 NO + 2 K2CrO4
the following reaction:
1NH4 22 Cr2O7 S N2 + 4 H2O + Cr2O3 How many grams of NO can be produced from
a reaction mixture containing 2.00 moles each of
How many grams of each of the products can KNO2, KNO3, and Cr2O3?
be formed from the decomposition of 75.0 g of 10.134 Sodium cyanide, NaCN, can be made by the follow-
1NH4 22Cr2O7 ? ing reaction.
10.130 Nitrous acid decomposes according to the follow-
ing reaction: Na2CO3 + 4 C + N2 S 2 NaCN + 3 CO
3 HNO2 S 2 NO + HNO3 + H2O
How many grams of CO can be produced from
How many grams of each of the products can be a reaction mixture containing 3.00 moles each of
formed from the decomposition of 63.5 g of HNO2? Na2CO3, C, and N2?
10.135 An impure sample of CuSO4 weighing 7.53 g was produce 15.0 g of HCN. The equation for the reac-
dissolved in water. The dissolved CuSO4, but not tion is
the impurities, then reacted with excess zinc.
2 NH3 + 3 O2 + 2 CH4 S 2 HCN + 6 H2O
CuSO4 + Zn S ZnSO4 + Cu
What is the percent yield of HCN?
What was the mass percent CuSO4 in the sample if 10.139 A 13.20 g sample of a mixture of CaCO3 and
1.33 g of Cu were produced? NaHCO3 was heated, and the compounds decom-
10.136 An impure sample of Hg1NO3 22 weighing 64.5 g was posed as follows.
dissolved in water. The dissolved Hg1NO3 22, but not
CaCO3 S CaO + CO2
the impurities, then reacted with excess Mg metal.
2 NaHCO3 S Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
Hg1NO3 22 + Mg S Mg1NO3 22 + Hg The decomposition of the sample yields 4.35 g
What was the mass percent Hg1NO3 22 in the sam- of CO2 and 0.873 g of H2O. What percentage, by
ple if 23.6 g of Hg were produced? mass, of the original sample was CaCO3?
10.137 The reaction between 113.4 g of I2O5 and 132.2 g 10.140 A 4.00 g sample of a mixture of H2S and CS2 was
of BrF3 was found to produce 97.0 g of IF5. The burned in oxygen. The equations for the reactions are
equation for the reaction is 2 H2S + 3 O2 S 2 H2O + 2 SO2
6 I2O5 + 20 BrF3 S 12 IF5 + 15 O2 + 10 Br2 CS2 + 3 O2 S CO2 + 2 SO2
What is the percent yield of IF5? If 7.32 g of SO2 and 0.577 g of CO2 were produced
10.138 The reaction between 20.0 g of NH3 and 20.0 g along with some H2O, what percentage, by mass,
of CH4 with an excess of oxygen was found to of the original sample was H2S?

MC 10.1 Which of the following are balanced chemical b. The sum of the subscripts on each side of the
equations? equation must be equal.
a. Cu + S h Cu2S c. The sum of the coefficients on each side of the
b. N2 + H2 h 2 NH3 equation must be equal.
c. 2 SO2 + O2 h 2 SO3 d. more than one correct response
e. no correct response MC 10.5 What is the chemical formula of the substance that
MC 10.2 When the equation N2 + H2 h NH3 is cor- reacts with O2 in the reaction described by the following
rectly balanced, which of the following statements about balanced chemical equation?
equation coefficients is correct?
2 1reactant2 + 11 O2 h 8 CO2 + 6 H2O
a. The coefficient for N2 is 2.
b. The coefficient for H2 is 2. a. C2H4 b. C2H6 c. C4H8 d. C4H6
c. The coefficient for NH3 is 2. e. no correct response
d. more than one correct response MC 10.6 In the following balanced chemical equation, all
e. no correct response of the coefficients are ones.
MC 10.3 When the chemical equation TiCl4 + Ti S TiCl3 is
SO3 + H2O S H2SO4
correctly balanced, the coefficients are
a. 2, 3, 1 b. 3, 1, 4 This means that
c. 4, 2, 3 d. more than one correct response a. one mole of SO3 will react with one mole of H2O.
e. no correct response b. one molecule of SO3 will react with one molecule
MC 10.4 Which of the following statements is correct for all of H2O.
balanced chemical equations? c. one gram of SO3 will react with one gram of H2O.
a. The number of products must equal the number d. more than one correct response
of reactants. e. no correct response
MC 10.7 Which of the following is a double-replacement MC 10.13 In the following chemical reaction, how many
chemical reaction? grams of H2O are produced if 64.00 g of O2 react?
a. CuO + H2 h Cu + H2O
b. NaCl + AgNO3 h NaNO3 + AgCl 2 H2 + O2 h 2 H2O
c. Mg + 2 HCl h MgCl2 + H2
d. more than one correct response a. 18.02 g H2O b. 36.04 g H2O
e. no correct response c. 64.00 g H2O d. 72.08 g H2O
MC 10.8 Which of the following is a synthesis chemical e. no correct response
reaction? MC 10.14 For the chemical reaction
a. Al1OH23 + 3 HCl h AlCl3 + 3 H2O
b. C3H8 + 5 O2 h 3 CO2 + 4 H2O 2 NH4NO3 h 2 N2 + O2 + 4 H2O
c. 2 NaHCO3 h Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
d. more than one correct response which of the following statements concerning a product is
e. no correct response correct if 2.00 moles of reactant reacts?
MC 10.9 Which of the following elemental gases is a. 3.01 * 1023 molecules of N2 are produced.
not represented as a diatomic molecule in a chemical b. 6.02 * 1023 molecules of O2 are produced.
equation? c. 1.20 * 1024 molecules of H2O are produced.
a. hydrogen d. more than one correct response
b. fluorine e. no correct response
c. nitrogen MC 10.15 If a mixture containing 2.0 moles of A, 2.0 moles
d. more than one correct response of B, and 2.0 moles of C is allowed to react according to the
e. no correct response following balanced equation?
MC 10.10 How many mole-to-mole conversion factors can
be derived from the information in the following balanced 2A + 2B + C h 2D + 4E
chemical equation?
a. C is the limiting reactant.
CS2 + 3 O2 h CO2 + 2 SO2 b. Both B and C are limiting reactants.
c. Both A and B are limiting reactants.
a. 4 b. 6 c. 8 d. 12 d. more than one correct response
MC 10.11 How many moles of Fe are needed to react MC 10.16 How many grams of CO2 will be produced from
exactly with 4.00 moles of HCl according to the following 33.0 g of CO and 28.0 g of O2, according to the following
chemical reaction? chemical reaction?
Fe + 2 HCl h FeCl2 + H2 2 CO + O2 h 2 CO2
a. 2.00 moles Fe b. 4.00 moles Fe a. 28.0 g CO2 b. 33.0 g CO2

c. 6.00 moles Fe d. 8.00 moles Fe c. 51.9 g CO2 d. 77.0 g CO2
MC 10.12 Which of the following is the correct setup for MC 10.17 Which of the following statements concerning
the problem “How many grams of H2O can be produced yields is correct?
from 3.2 moles of O2 and an excess of H2S?” according to the a. Percent yield is the ratio of actual yield to the
reaction theoretical yield times 100.
b. Theoretical yield is the difference between the
2 H2S + 3 O2 h 2 H2O + 2 SO2 calculated yield and the actual yield.
c. Actual yield is a quantity that cannot be
calculated.
32.00 g O2 18.02 g H2O
a. 3.2 moles O2 * * d. more than one correct response
1 mole O2 32.00 g O2 e. no correct response
MC 10.18 If a reaction mixture contains equal moles of Ca
2 moles H2O 18.02 g H2O
b. 3.2 moles O2 * * and S, the mass of CaS produced, with a percent yield of
3 moles O2 1 mole H2O 80.0%, would be equal to
a. the sum of the masses of Ca and S.
32.00 g O2 2 moles H2O
c. 3.2 moles O2 * * b. 80.0% of the sum of the masses of Ca and S.
1 mole O2 3 moles O2 c. 20.0% of the sum of the masses of Ca and S.
MC 10.19 The element potassium forms an oxide with the ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE CHOICE PRACTICE TEST
formula K2O. What is the coefficient for potassium in the
balanced equation for the reaction of potassium with oxygen MC 10.1 c MC 10.8 e MC 10.15 c
to form this oxide? MC 10.2 c MC 10.9 e MC 10.16 c
a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4 MC 10.3 b MC 10.10 d MC 10.17 d
e. no correct response MC 10.4 e MC 10.11 a MC 10.18 b
MC 10.20 How many moles of NaClO3 are needed to pro- MC 10.5 d MC 10.12 b MC 10.19 d
duce 6.00 moles of SO2 in the following two-step reaction? MC 10.6 d MC 10.13 d MC 10.20 c
MC 10.7 b MC 10.14 b
2 NaClO3 h 2 NaCl + 3 O2
S + O2 h SO2
a. 2.00 moles NaClO3 b. 3.00 moles NaClO3
c. 4.00 moles NaClO3 d. 18.00 moles NaClO3
C H A P T E R
11
States of Matter
11.1 Factors that Determine Physical State

11.2 Property Differences among Physical States
11.3 The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Matter
11.4 The Solid State
11.5 The Liquid State
11.6 The Gaseous State
11.7 A Comparison of Solids, Liquids, and Gases
11.8 Endothermic and Exothermic Changes of State
11.9 Heat Energy and Specific Heat
11.10 Temperature Changes as a Substance Is Heated
11.11 Energy and Changes of State
11.12 Heat Energy Calculations
11.13 Evaporation of Liquids
11.14 Vapor Pressure of Liquids
11.15 Boiling and Boiling Points
11.16 Intermolecular Forces in Liquids
11.17 Hydrogen Bonding and the Properties of Water
11.1 FACTORS THAT DETERMINE PHYSICAL STATE

Student Learning Focus: Be familiar with important factors that determine the physical state of a
substance.
The physical state of a substance is determined by (1) what it is, that is, its chemical iden-
tity; (2) its temperature; and (3) the pressure to which it is subjected.
At room temperature and pressure, some substances are solids (gold, sodium chlo-
ride, etc.), others are liquids (water, mercury, etc.), and still others are gases (oxygen,
carbon dioxide, etc.). Thus chemical identity must be a determining factor for physical
439
440 Chapter 11 • States of Matter
state, since all three states are observed at room temperature and pressure. On the other
hand, when the physical state of a single substance is considered, temperature and pres-
sure are determining variables. Liquid water can be changed to a solid by lowering the
temperature or to a gas by raising the temperature.
We tend to characterize a substance almost exclusively in terms of its most common
physical state, that is, the state in which it is found at room temperature and pressure.
Oxygen is almost always thought of as a gas, its most common state; gold is almost al-
ways thought of as a solid, its most common state. A major reason for such single-state
characterization is the narrow range of temperatures encountered on this planet. Most
substances are never encountered in more than one physical state under natural con-
ditions. We must be careful not to fall into the error of assuming that the commonly
Water is the only observed state of a substance is the only state in which it can exist. Under laboratory
substance that is conditions, states other than the “natural” one can be obtained for almost all substances.
commonly encountered
Figure 11.1 shows the temperature ranges for the solid, liquid, and gaseous states of a
in all three physical states
at temperatures normally few elements and compounds. As can be seen in this figure, the size and location of the
found on Earth. physical-state temperature ranges vary widely among chemical substances. Extremely
high temperatures are required to obtain some substances in the gaseous state; other sub-
stances are gases at temperatures below room temperature. The size of a given physical-
state range also varies dramatically. For example, the elements H2 and O2 are liquids over
a very narrow temperature range, whereas the elements Ga and Au remain liquids over
ranges of hundreds of degrees.
FIGURE 11.1 Solid, Elements

liquid, and gaseous
state temperature
H2
ranges for selected O2
elements and Br2
compounds. Ga
Au
−273 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500

Temperature (°C)
Melting point Boiling point Liquid range
Solid Liquid Gas (°C) (°C) (°C)
H2 −259 −252 7
O2 −218 −183 35
Br2 −7 59 66
Ga 30 2403 2373
Au 1063 2966 1903
Compounds
CO
C2H5OH
H2O
NaCl
MgO
−273 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500

Temperature (°C)
Melting point Boiling point Liquid range
(°C) (°C) (°C)
CO −199 −192 7
C2H5OH −115 78 193
H2O 0 100 100
NaCl 801 1413 612
MgO 2800 3600 800
Chapter 11 • States of Matter 441
FIGURE 11.2 Physical

H He states of the elements
at room temperature
Li Be B C N O F Ne and pressure.
K Ca Se Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Solids Liquids Gases
A large majority of the naturally occurring elements (75 out of 88) are solids at room
temperature and pressure. Of the remaining 13 naturally occurring elements, 11 are gases
and 2 (bromine and mercury) are liquids. The abbreviated periodic table in Figure 11.2
identifies the nonsolid elements. There are two naturally occurring elements, cesium of
group IA and gallium of group IIIA, that have melting points between 25⬚C and 30⬚C.
Temperatures in this range are reached on hot summer days. Thus, at such times, there
could be four elements rather than two that are liquids.
Explanations for the experimentally observed physical-state variations among sub-
stances can be derived from the concepts of atomic structure and bonding we have con-
sidered in previous chapters. Such explanations are found in later sections of this chapter.
11.2 PROPERTY DIFFERENCES AMONG PHYSICAL STATES

Student Learning Focus: Be able to describe property differences among a substance’s physical
states in terms of volume and shape, density, compressibility, and thermal expansion.
The differences among solids, liquids, and gases are so great that only a few gross
distinguishing features need to be mentioned to differentiate them clearly. Certain
obvious differences among the three states of matter are apparent to even the most
casual observer—differences related to (1) volume and shape, (2) density, (3) com-
pressibility, and (4) thermal expansion. These distinguishing properties are com-
pared in Table 11.1 for the three states of matter. The properties of volume and
TABLE 11.1 Distinguishing Properties of Solids, Liquids, and Gases
Property Solid State Liquid State Gaseous State

Volume and shape definite volume and definite volume and indefinite indefinite volume and indefinite
definite shape shape; takes the shape of shape; takes the volume and shape
container to the extent it is filled of container that it fills
Density high high, but usually lower than low
corresponding solid
Compressibility small small, but usually greater than large
corresponding solid
Thermal expansion very small: about small: about 0.1% per ⬚C moderate: about 0.3% per ⬚C
0.01% per ⬚C
density have been discussed in detail previously (Secs. 3.4 and 3.8, respectively).
Compressibility is a measure of the volume change resulting from a pressure change.
Thermal expansion is a measure of the volume change resulting from a temperature
change.
The contents of Table 11.1 should be studied in detail; the data given will serve as
the starting point for further discussions about the states of matter.
11.3 THE KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF MATTER

Student Learning Focus: Be familiar with the five concepts that constitute the kinetic theory of
matter.
The word kinetic The kinetic molecular theory of matter is a set of five statements used to explain the
comes from the Greek physical behavior of the three states of matter (solids, liquids, and gases). The central idea
kinesis, which means
“movement.” The kinetic
of this theory is that the particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) present in a substance, inde-
molecular theory deals pendent of the physical state of the substance, are always in motion.
with the movement of The five statements of the kinetic molecular theory of matter are as follows:
particles.
Statement 1 Matter is ultimately composed of tiny particles (atoms, molecules, or ions)
that have definite and characteristic sizes that do not change.
Statement 2 The particles are in constant random motion and therefore possess kinetic
energy.
Kinetic energy is energy that matter possesses because of particle motion. An object
that is in motion has the ability to transfer its kinetic energy to another object upon colli-
sion with that object (see Fig. 11.3).
Statement 3 The particles interact with each other through attractions and repulsions
and therefore possess potential energy.
FIGURE 11.3 The

kinetic energy of water
falling through the
penstocks of a large
dam is used to turn
huge turbines and
generate electricity.
(George Stringham—
US Army Corp of
Engineers)
Potential energy is stored energy that matter possesses as a result of its position, Water behind a dam
condition, and/or composition. The potential energy of greatest importance when con- represents potential
energy because of posi-
sidering the three states of matter is that which originates from electrostatic forces among tion. Uncontrolled water
charged particles. An electrostatic force is an attractive force or repulsive force that oc- release can cause massive
curs among charged particles. Particles of opposite charge (one positive and one nega- destruction (a flood) as
tive) attract one another, and particles of like charge (both positive or both negative) the potential energy is
repel one another. converted to other forms
of energy. A compressed
Statement 4 The kinetic energy (velocity) of the particles increases as the temperature spring can spontaneously
is increased. expand and do work as
the result of potential
The average kinetic energy (velocity) of all particles in a system depends on tem- energy associated with
perature; the higher the temperature, the higher the average kinetic energy of the system. condition. Potential
energy associated with
Statement 5 The particles in a system transfer energy to each other through elastic composition is released
collisions. when gasoline is burned.
Electrostatic interactions
In an elastic collision, the total kinetic energy remains constant; no kinetic energy is are also potential energy
lost. The difference between an elastic and an inelastic collision is illustrated by compar- associated with composi-
tion of a substance.
ing the collision of two hard steel spheres with the collision of two masses of putty. The
collision of spheres approximates an elastic collision (the spheres bounce off one another
and continue moving); the putty collision has none of these characteristics (the masses
glob together with no resulting movement).
The relative influence of kinetic energy and potential energy in a chemical sys- Two consequences of
tem is the major consideration in using kinetic molecular theory to explain the general the elasticity of particle
collisions are that (1) the
properties of the solid, liquid, and gaseous states of matter. The important question energy of any given
is whether the kinetic energy or the potential energy dominates the energetics of the particle is continually
chemical system under study. changing and (2) particle
Kinetic energy may be considered a disruptive force within the chemical system, energies in a system are
tending to make the particles of the system increasingly independent of each other. As not all the same; a range
of particle energies is
the result of energy of motion, the particles will tend to move away from each other. always encountered.
Potential energy may be considered a cohesive force tending to cause order and stability
among the particles of the system.
The role that temperature plays in determining the state of a system is related to
kinetic energy magnitude. Kinetic energy increases as temperature increases (statement
4 of the kinetic molecular theory). Thus, the higher the temperature, the greater the
magnitude of disruptive influences within a chemical system. The magnitude of potential
energy is essentially independent of temperature change. Neither charge nor separation
distance, the two factors on which the magnitude of potential energy depends, is affected
significantly by temperature change.
Sections 11.4 through 11.6 deal with kinetic molecular theory explanations for the
general properties of the solid, liquid, and gaseous states, respectively.
11.4 THE SOLID STATE

Student Learning Focus: Be able to use kinetic molecular theory to explain the physical character-
istics of the solid state.
A solid is the physical state characterized by a dominance of potential energy (cohesive

forces) over kinetic energy (disruptive forces). The particles in a solid are drawn close to-
gether in a regular pattern by the strong cohesive forces present. Each particle occupies
a fixed position about which it vibrates. An explanation of the characteristic properties of
solids is obtained from this model.
1. Definite volume and definite shape. The strong cohesive forces hold the particles in
essentially fixed positions, resulting in definite volume and definite shape.
2. High density. The constituent particles of solids are located as close together as pos-
sible. Therefore, large numbers of particles are contained in a unit volume, resulting
in a high density.
3. Small compressibility. Since there is very little space between particles, increased
pressure cannot push them any closer together and therefore has little effect on the
solid’s volume.
4. Very small thermal expansion. An increase in temperature increases the kinetic en-
Some solids, such as
foam rubber, are com-
ergy (disruptive forces), thereby causing more vibrational motion of the particles.
pressible because they Each particle occupies a slightly larger volume. The result is a slight expansion of
are full of gas (air). the solid. The strong cohesive forces prevent this effect from becoming very large.
11.5 THE LIQUID STATE

istics of the liquid state.
The liquid state consists of particles randomly packed relatively close to each other. The mol-
ecules are in constant random motion, freely sliding over one another but without sufficient
energy to separate from each other. A liquid is the physical state characterized by potential
energy (cohesive forces) and kinetic energy (disruptive forces) of about the same magnitude.
The fact that the particles freely slide over each other indicates the influence of disruptive
forces, but the fact that the particles do not separate indicates a fairly strong influence from
cohesive forces. The characteristic properties of liquids are explained by this model.
1. Definite volume and indefinite shape. Attractive forces are strong enough to restrict
particles to movement within a definite volume. They are not strong enough, however,
to prevent the particles from moving over each other in a random manner, limited only
by the container walls. Thus liquids have no definite shape, with the exception that
they maintain a horizontal upper surface in containers that are not completely filled.
2. High density. The particles in a liquid are not widely separated; they essentially
touch each other. Therefore, there will be a large number of particles per unit vol-
The measurement of
temperature using a ther-
ume and a resultant high density.
mometer is based on the 3. Small compressibility. Since the particles in a liquid essentially touch each other,
thermal expansion of liq- there is very little empty space. Therefore, a pressure increase cannot squeeze the
uid mercury in a narrow particles much closer together.
tube. As the temperature 4. Small thermal expansion. Most of the particle movement in a liquid involves particles
increases, the increased
mercury volume raises
sliding over each other. The increased particle velocity that accompanies a temperature
the height of the mercury increase results in a small increase in such motion. The net effect is an increase in the
column in the tube. effective volume a particle occupies, which causes a slight volume increase in the liquid.
11.6 THE GASEOUS STATE

istics of the gaseous state.
A gas is the physical state characterized by a complete dominance of kinetic energy (dis-
ruptive forces) over potential energy (cohesive forces). As a result, the particles of a gas are
essentially independent of one another and move in a totally random manner. Under or-
dinary pressure, the particles are relatively far apart except, of course, when they collide
FIGURE 11.4 The

compression of a gas
involves decreasing
the amount of empty
space in the container.
Particles present do not
change in size.
Gas at low pressure Gas at higher pressure
with each other. In between collisions with each other or with the container walls, gas
particles travel in straight lines. The particle velocities and resultant collision frequencies
are extremely high; at room temperature and pressure, the collisions experienced by one
molecule are of the order of 1010 collisions per second.
The kinetic theory explanation of gaseous state properties follows the same pattern
we saw earlier for solids and liquids.
1. Indefinite volume and indefinite shape. The attractive (cohesive) forces between
particles have been overcome by kinetic energy, and the particles are free to travel
in all directions. Therefore, the particles completely fill the container the gas is in,
and they assume its shape.
2. Low density. The particles of a gas are widely separated. There are relatively few of
them in a given volume, which means little mass per unit volume.
3. Large compressibility. Particles in a gas are widely separated; a gas is mostly
empty space. When pressure is applied, the particles are easily pushed closer
together, decreasing the amount of empty space and the volume of the gas
(see Fig. 11.4).
4. Moderate thermal expansion. An increase in temperature means an increase in par-
ticle velocity. The increased kinetic energy of the particles enables them to push back
whatever barrier is confining them into a given volume. Hence, the volume increases.
It must be understood that the size of the particles is not changed during expansion
or compression of gases, solids, or liquids. The particles merely move farther apart or
closer together; the space between them is what changes.
11.7 A COMPARISON OF SOLIDS, LIQUIDS, AND GASES

Student Learning Focus: Understand the differences and similarities, at the molecular level, among
the three states of matter.
Two obvious conclusions about the similarities and differences between the various states
of matter may be drawn from a comparison of the descriptive materials in Sections 11.4
through 11.6.
1. One of the states of matter, the gaseous state, is markedly different from the other
two states.
2. Two of the states of matter, the solid and the liquid states, have many similar
characteristics.
These two conclusions are illustrated diagrammatically in Figure 11.5.
Gas Liquid Solid

Molecules far apart and disordered Molecules close together and disordered Molecules close together and ordered
Negligible interactions among molecules Moderately strong interactions among molecules Strong interactions among molecules
FIGURE 11.5 Similarities and differences, at the molecular level, among the three states of matter.
The difference in The average distance between particles is only slightly different in the solid and liq-
distance between uid states but markedly different in the gaseous state. Roughly speaking, at ordinary tem-
molecules in gases
and liquids explains
peratures and pressures, particles in a liquid are about 10% and particles in a gas about
why it is easier to walk 1000% farther apart than those in the solid state. The distance ratio between particles in
through air than through the three states (solid to liquid to gas) is thus 1 to 1.1 to 10.
water.
11.8 ENDOTHERMIC AND EXOTHERMIC CHANGES OF STATE

Student Learning Focus: Distinguish between endothermic and exothermic changes of states in
terms of direction of heat flow.
Although the processes A change of state is a process in which a substance is transformed from one physical
of sublimation and state to another physical state. Changes of state were previously considered in Section 4.4.
deposition are not
common in everyday life,
The terminology associated with various changes of state—evaporation, condensation,
they are still encountered. sublimation, and so on—was introduced at that time (Fig. 4.4).
Dry ice sublimes, as do Changes of state are usually accomplished through heating or cooling a substance.
mothballs placed in a (Pressure change is also a factor in some systems.) Changes of state may be classified
clothing-storage area. It according to whether heat (thermal energy) is absorbed or released. An endothermic
is because of sublima-
tion that ice cubes left in
change of state is a change of state that requires the input (absorption) of heat energy.
a freezer get smaller as The endothermic changes of state are melting, sublimation, and evaporation. An exo-
time passes. Ice or snow thermic change of state is a change of state that requires heat energy to be given up (re-
forming in clouds (from leased). Exothermic changes of state are the reverse of endothermic changes of state and
water vapor) during the include deposition, condensation, and freezing. Figure 11.6 summarizes the classification
winter season is an
example of deposition.
of changes of state as exothermic or endothermic.
FIGURE 11.6
Exothermic (a) and
endothermic (b) Gas Gas
changes of state.
n
Co
Eva
atio
tion
nde
por
lim
i
pos
nsa
a
Sub
tion
De
tion
Solid Liquid Solid Liquid

Freezing Melting
Exothermic changes of state Endothermic changes of state

(a) (b)
11.9 HEAT ENERGY AND SPECIFIC HEAT

Student Learning Focus: Be familiar with commonly used heat energy units and understand how
the concepts of specific heat and heat capacity are used in heat energy calculations.
Energy can exist in any of several forms. Common forms include radiant (light) energy, In addition to the various
chemical energy, heat (thermal) energy, electrical energy, and mechanical energy. These forms of energy, there
are two types of energy:
forms of energy are interconvertible. The heating of a home is a process that illustrates potential and kinetic
energy interconversion. As the result of burning natural gas or some other fuel, chemical (Sec. 11.3). The basis for
energy is converted into heat energy. In large conventional power plants that are used to determining energy types
produce electricity, the heat energy obtained from burning coal is used to change water depends on whether the
into steam, which can then turn a turbine (mechanical energy) to produce electricity energy is available but
not being used (poten-
(electrical energy). tial) or is actually in use
The form of energy most often encountered when considering physical and chemi- (kinetic).
cal changes is heat energy. For this reason, we will consider further particulars about this
form of energy.
Heat Energy Units

The two most commonly used units for expressing the amount of heat energy released or
absorbed in a process are the joule and the calorie. Today, most heat energy calculations
are carried out using the joule unit because this unit is more compatible with other metric
system units than is the calorie.
A joule ( J) is the base unit for energy in the metric system. The joule unit, abbrevi-
ated as J, is suitable for measuring all types of energy, not just heat energy. The name
joule (pronounced jool, rhymes with pool) comes from the name of the English physicist
James Prescott Joule (1818–1889), an early researcher in the area of energy studies.
It is convenient to think of the joule in terms of the amount of heat energy
required to raise the temperature of one gram of water from 14.5⬚C to 15.5⬚C (1⬚C), which
is 4.184 J. In this context, the joule unit and the calorie unit are easily related. The calorie
was originally defined as the amount of heat energy necessary to raise the temperature of
one gram of water from 14.5⬚C to 15.5⬚C. Thus,
4.184 joules = 1 calorie
Both the joule and the calorie involve relatively small amounts of energy, so the The Btu unit that is used
kilojoule (kJ) and the kilocalorie (kcal) are often used instead. It follows from the to rate air conditioners
relationship between joules and calories that and heaters is an English
system unit for heat. Btu
4.184 kJ = 1 kcal stands for British thermal
unit and is the amount
In discussions involving nutrition, the energy content of foods, or dietary tables, the of heat energy it takes to
unit Calories (spelled with a capital C) is used. The dietetic Calorie is actually 1 kilocalorie raise the temperature of
(1000 cal). The statement that an oatmeal raisin cookie contains 60 Calories means that one pound of water one
degree Fahrenheit. One
60 kcal (60,000 cal) of energy is released when the cookie is metabolized (undergoes Btu is the equivalent of
chemical change) within the body. 3.42 kJ.
EXAMPLE 11.1 Interrelationships among Heat Energy Units
Ethyl alcohol readily undergoes combustion, producing 29.7 kJ of heat energy per gram
of ethyl alcohol that reacts with O2. Express this amount of heat energy in the following
units:
a. joules b. kilocalories c. calories
SOLUTION
a. The relationship between joules and kilojoules is
103 J = 1 kJ
Therefore, using dimensional analysis, we have
103 J
29.7 kJ * = 29,700 J 1calculator and correct answer2
1 kJ
b. The relationship between kilocalories and kilojoules is
1 kcal = 4.184 kJ
The one-step dimensional analysis setup for this problem is
1 kcal
29.7 kJ * = 7.0984703 kcal 1calculator answer2
4.184 kJ
= 7.10 kcal 1correct answer2
c. There will be two conversion factors in this part, derived from the relationships
1 kcal = 4.184 kJ and 103 cal = 1 kcal, respectively. The pathway will be
kJ S kcal S cal
3
1 kcal 10 cal
29.7 kJ * * = 7.0984703 * 103 cal 1calculator answer2
4.184 kJ 1 kcal
= 7.10 * 103 cal 1correct answer2
There can be only three significant figures in the correct answer.
Answer Double Check: Are the relationships among answers reasonable? Yes. An
answer in joules should be approximately four times larger than the same answer
expressed in calories. Such is the relationship between the part (a) and part (c) answers
(29,700 and 7100). The part (c) answer is 1000 times larger than the part (b) answer;
such should be the case for a comparison of calorie and kilocalorie values for the same
quantity.
Chemical Insight: ETHYL ALCOHOL

Ethyl alcohol, which has the chemical formula C2H6O, can be produced by yeast fer-
mentation of sugars found in grains such as corn, rice, and barley. The alcohol present
in alcoholic beverages is fermentation-produced ethyl alcohol. The names grain alco-
hol, drinking alcohol, and simply alcohol arise from such use of ethyl alcohol.
The alcohol content of strong alcoholic beverages is often stated in terms of proof.
Proof is twice the percentage of alcohol. This system dates back to the seventeenth cen-
tury and is based on the fact that a 50% by volume alcohol–water mixture (100 proof)
will burn. Its flammability was proof that a liquor had not been watered down.
Denatured alcohol is ethyl alcohol that has been rendered unfit to drink by
the addition of small amounts of toxic substances (denaturing agents). Almost all
of the ethyl alcohol used for industrial purposes as a solvent is denatured alcohol.
Denaturation prevents industrial ethyl alcohol from being used in alcohol beverages, a
process which would circumvent the taxation system in place for alcoholic beverages.
Absolute alcohol is ethyl alcohol from which all traces of water have been
removed, a necessity when ethyl alcohol is used in chemical research. Fermentation-
produced ethyl alcohol is a 95%–5% by volume alcohol–water mixture.
Specific Heat
For every pure substance in a given state (solid, liquid, or gas), we can measure a physi-
cal property called the specific heat of that substance. Specific heat is the amount of heat
energy needed to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance in a specific physical
state by one degree Celsius. The units most commonly used for specific heat, in scientific
work, are joules per gram per degree Celsius [ J>1g # ⬚C2]. Specific heats for a number of
substances in various states are given in Table 11.2. Note the three different entries for
water in this table—one for each of the physical states. As these entries point out, the
magnitude of the specific heat for a substance changes when the physical state of the
substance changes. (Water is one of the few substances that we routinely encounter in all
three physical states, hence the three specific-heat values in the table for this substance.)
The lower the specific heat of a substance, the more its temperature will change
when it absorbs a given amount of heat. Metals generally have low specific heats. This A walk on the beach
means they heat up quickly and also cool quickly. on a sunny day will
demonstrate differences
Liquid water has one of the highest specific heats known (see Table 11.2). This high in specific heat. The sand,
specific heat makes water a very effective coolant. The moderate climates of geographical which has a relatively
areas where large amounts of water are present—for example, the Hawaiian Islands—are low specific heat, heats
related to water’s ability to absorb large amounts of heat without undergoing drastic tem- up rapidly in the sun.
perature changes. Desert areas, areas that lack water, are the areas where the extremes The water, with its higher
specific heat, stays cool.
of high temperature are encountered on Earth. The temperature of a living organism
remains relatively constant because of the large amounts of water present in it.
The amount of heat energy needed to cause a fixed amount of a substance to
undergo a specific temperature change (within a range that causes no change of state)
can easily be calculated if the substance’s specific heat is known. The specific heat [in
J>1g # ⬚C2] is multiplied by the mass (in grams) and by the temperature change (in de-
grees Celsius) to eliminate the units of g and ⬚C and obtain the unit joules.
heat energy change = specific heat * mass * temperature change
J
= # * g * ⬚C
g ⬚C
= J
TABLE 11.2 Specific Heats of Selected Pure Substances
Substance Physical State Specific Heat [J/(g ∙ ºC)]

Aluminum solid 0.908
Copper solid 0.382
Ethyl alcohol liquid 2.42
Gold solid 0.13
Iron solid 0.444
Nitrogen gas 1.0
Oxygen gas 0.92
Silver solid 0.24
Sodium chloride solid 0.88
Water (ice) solid 2.09
Water liquid 4.18
Water (steam) gas 2.03
Zinc solid 0.388
The temperature change, denoted as ⌬T, is defined as Tf - Ti, where Tf is the final
temperature of the system and Ti is the initial temperature of the system.
⌬T = Tf - Ti
This definition for ⌬T allows for both positive and negative ⌬T values, depending on
whether the final temperature is higher or lower than the initial temperature.
Depending on the sign of ⌬T (positive or negative), the heat energy change for the
system will be positive or negative. A positive heat energy change value is indicative of
heat energy absorption, a characteristic of an endothermic change (Sec. 11.8). A negative
heat energy change value is indicative of heat energy release, a characteristic of an exo-
thermic change (Sec. 11.8).
EXAMPLE 11.2 Calculating the Amount of Heat Energy Absorbed by a

Substance Undergoing a Specific Temperature Increase
The element beryllium is a relatively unreactive steel gray metal with a specific heat of
1.8 J>(g # ⬚C). How many joules of heat energy must 24.0 g of beryllium metal absorb for
its temperature to increase from 25⬚C to 55⬚C?
SOLUTION
in solving the problem. All the quantities on the right-hand side of the equation are known.
Both specific heat and mass are directly given in the problem statement. The temperature
change can be calculated using the two temperatures given in the problem statement.
Substituting the known quantities into the equation gives
1.8 J
g # ⬚C
heat energy change = * 24.0 g * 155 - 252⬚C
= 1296 J 1calculator answer2

= 1300 J 1correct answer2
Since the heat energy change value has a positive sign, an endothermic change has occurred.
Answer Double Check: Is the positive sign for the heat energy change reasonable? Yes.
Raising the temperature of a metal requires the addition of heat energy (energy absorption).
A positive heat energy value indicates heat absorption, that is, an endothermic process.
Chemical Insights: BERYLLIUM

Beryllium, element 4, is a light metal, with a density one-third that of aluminum. Its
major use is in the manufacture of beryllium-copper alloys. Addition of 2% beryllium
to copper produces an alloy with a strength six times that of pure copper. Such alloys
find use as moving parts in aircraft engines, as components of precision instruments,
and in nonsparking tools needed in industries that deal with flammable materials.
In general, beryllium compounds possess varying degrees of toxicity, and
tough safety standards must be followed in fabricating beryllium-containing products.
Inhalation of the dust of beryllium compounds can result in chronic lung problems.
The world’s largest deposit of beryllium-containing ores is found in the United
States near Delta, Utah. The ore, called bertrandite, has the chemical formula
Be41OH22Si2O7 and is obtained by open-pit mining.
EXAMPLE 11.3 Calculating the Temperature Change Caused by Addition

of a Specific Amount of Heat Energy
One cup of dry-roasted, salted, shelled pistachio nuts has a caloric value of 78.7 Cal
(78,700 cal). What would be the temperature change in a quart of water (944 g) at 10⬚C if
the same amount of energy were added to it?
SOLUTION
The equation
is rearranged to isolate temperature change on the left side of the equation.
heat absorbed 1J2

mass 1g2 * specific heat [J>1g # ⬚C2]
temperature change 1⬚C2 =
In this equation the heat absorbed will be the heat energy (caloric value) supplied by
the pistachio nuts. Since this is given in calories, we will need to change it to joule units.
4.184 J
78,700 cal * = 329,280.8 J 1calculator answer2
1 cal
= 329,000 J 1correct answer2
Substituting the values 329,000 J (heat absorbed), 944 g (mass of water), and
4.18 J>1g # ⬚C2 (specific heat of water; see Table 11.2) in the previously derived equation
for change in temperature 1⬚C2 gives
329,000 J
944 g * 4.184 J>1g # ⬚C2
temperature change 1⬚C2 =
= 83.297549⬚C 1calculator answer2

= 83.3⬚C 1correct answer2
The temperature of the water will increase from 10⬚C to 93⬚C, an increase of 83⬚C.
Answer Double Check: Is the magnitude of the temperature change reasonable? Yes.
Doing a rough calculation, using rounded numbers, gives 300,000/1000, which is equal to
300, and 300 divided by 4 is 75. The calculated temperature change of 83⬚C is consistent
with this rough estimate of 75⬚C for the answer.
A quantity closely related to specific heat is that of heat capacity. Heat capacity is the
amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of a given quantity of a substance in
a specific physical state by 1⬚C. The relationship between heat capacity and specific heat is
heat capacity = grams * specific heat
Common units for heat capacity are J/⬚C. Heat capacity refers to a property of a
whole object (its entire mass), while specific heat refers to the heat capacity per unit mass
(1 g). If either heat capacity or specific heat is known, the other quantity can always be
calculated from the known quantity.
EXAMPLE 11.4 Using Heat Capacity Data to Calculate Specific Heat
An 80.0 g sample of the metal gold has a heat capacity of 10.5 J>⬚C. What is the specific
heat, in J/1g # ⬚C2, of gold?
SOLUTION
The relationship between heat capacity and specific heat is
heat capacity = mass * specific heat
Rearranging this equation to isolate specific heat on one side gives
heat capacity
specific heat =
mass
10.5 J>⬚C
=
80.0 g
= 0.13125 J>1g # ⬚C2 1calculator answer2
= 0.131 J>1g # ⬚C2 1correct answer2
Answer Double Check: Is the numerical value for the specific heat reasonable, based
on the numbers used to calculate it? Yes. Using rounded input numbers, a rough estimate
for the numerical value is 10/100, which gives 0.1. The calculated answer of 0.131 is of
the same order as 0.1.
Chemical Insight: GOLD

Gold is the most ductile of all metals, allowing it to be drawn out into tiny wires or
threads without breaking. As a result, a single ounce of gold can be drawn into a wire five
miles long. The fine wire that connects circuits in semiconductors is 99.999% pure gold.
Gold’s malleability is also unparalleled. It can be shaped or extended into ex-
traordinarily thin sheets. One ounce of gold can be hammered into a 100-square-foot
sheet. Gold leaf, very thin sheets of gold, is used in decorating buildings, edging
books, and making decorative lettering. Gold leaf can be so thin that 300,000 thick-
nesses make a pile only 1 inch deep.
Bulk gold has a familiar yellow color. However, when particles of gold are small
enough, their color is actually ruby red. This effect has been used to color glass red,
but if such tiny particles are allowed to coalesce in a controlled fashion, their color can
be varied from pink through violet to blue.
Another common type of heat energy calculation involves the transfer of heat from
one substance to another. The following two generalizations always apply to such situations.
1. Heat always flows from the warmer body to the colder body.
2. The heat lost by the warmer body is equal to the heat gained by the colder body.
EXAMPLE 11.5 Calculation Involving “Heat Lost Is Equal to Heat Gained.”
A 125 g piece of a rock of unknown specific heat is heated to 93⬚C and then the rock is
dropped into 100.0 g of water at 19⬚C. The temperature of the water rises to 31⬚C. What
is the specific heat, in J>1g # ⬚C2, of the rock?
SOLUTION
The heat lost by the rock (the hotter body) is equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to
the heat gained by the water (the colder body). Thus,
-[heat lost 1rock2] = heat gained 1water2
Using the general equation for heat lost or heat gained, which is
heat lost or gained = specific heat * mass * temperature change
we have for our present situation
J
− specific heat × 125 g × (−62°C) = 4.18 × 100.0 g × (12°C)
g · °C
heat lost by rock heat gained by water
Solving this equation for the specific heat of the rock gives
J
g # ⬚C
c 4.18 * 100.0 g * 112⬚C2 d
specific heat of rock =
-[125 g * 1-62⬚C2]
= 0.6472258 J>1g # ⬚C2 1calculator answer2
#
= 0.65 J>1g ⬚C2 1correct answer2
Answer Double Check: Is the magnitude of the specific heat value reasonable? Yes. The
water and rock have roughly the same mass, and the rock temperature drops more than
the water temperature increases. This indicates that the specific heat of the rock should
be less than the specific heat of the water. The calculated answer is consistent with this
line of reasoning.
11.10 TEMPERATURE CHANGES AS A SUBSTANCE IS HEATED

Student Learning Focus: Be familiar with the step-wise temperature behavior that occurs as a solid
is changed to a liquid and then to a gas.
For a given pure substance, molecules in the gaseous state possess more energy than
molecules in the liquid state, which in turn possess more energy than molecules in the
solid state. This fact is obvious: We know that it takes energy (heat) to melt a solid and
still more energy (heat) to change the resulting liquid to a gas. Additional information
concerning the relationship of energy to the states of matter can be obtained by a closer
examination of what happens, step-by-step, to a solid (which is below its melting point)
as heat is continuously supplied, causing it to melt and ultimately to change to a gas.
The heating curve shown in Figure 11.7 gives the steps involved in changing a
solid to a gas, using water as the example. As the ice (solid) is heated, its temperature
rises until the melting point for ice is reached. The temperature increase indicates that
the added heat causes an increase in the kinetic energy of the water molecules (recall
Sec. 11.3, kinetic molecular theory). Once the melting point is reached, the temperature
remains constant while the ice melts. The constant temperature during the melting process
indicates that the added heat has decreased the potential energy of the water molecules
without increasing their kinetic energy—the intermolecular attractions are being weak-
ened by the decrease in potential energy. The net result is that the ice becomes liquid
water. The addition of more heat to the liquid water increases its temperature until the
FIGURE 11.7 A
heating curve depicting 120° Temperature rises
m
the addition of heat 110° as steam warms
ea
St
(at a constant rate) 100° Water boils from 100°C to 120°C
to a solid (ice) at a 90° Temperature stays constant
temperature below its 80° until all liquid water has
70° Temperature rises
melting point 1- 20⬚C2
er
become steam (water vapor)
Temperature (°C)
as liquid water
d wat
until it becomes 60°
50° warms from 0°C
a gas (steam) at a to 100°C
Liqui
temperature above its 40°
boiling point 1120⬚C2.
30°
20°
Note that when heat
10°
is added during a Temperature stays constant until all ice has become liquid
0° Ice melts
transition between –10° water
e
Ic
physical states, the –20° Temperature rises as ice warms from –20°C to 0°C
temperature does not –30°
change. –40° Heat added
boiling point is reached. During this stage the water molecules are again gaining kinetic
energy. At the boiling point another state change occurs (liquid to gas) as heat is added
with the temperature remaining constant. The constant temperature again indicates a
decrease in potential energy. Once the system is completely changed to steam (water
vapor), the temperature again increases with further heating.
The actual amount of energy that must be added to a system to cause it to undergo
the series of changes just described depends on values of three properties of the sub-
stance. These properties are (1) specific heat, (2) heat of fusion, and (3) heat of vaporiza-
tion. Specific heat was discussed in Section 11.9. Heats of fusion and vaporization are the
subject of Section 11.11.
11.11 ENERGY AND CHANGES OF STATE

Student Learning Focus: Be familiar with the quantities heat of fusion, heat of solidification, heat
of vaporization, and heat of condensation and how such quantities are used in heat energy
calculations.
When heat energy is added to a solid, its temperature rises until the melting point is
reached, with the amount of heat added governed by the specific heat (Sec. 11.9) of the
solid. Once the melting point is reached, the temperature then remains constant while the
solid changes to a liquid (Sec. 11.10). The energetics of the system during this transition
from the solid state to the liquid state depend on the value of the substance’s heat of
fusion. (The term fusion means melting.)
The heat of fusion is the amount of heat energy absorbed in the conversion of one
gram of a solid to a liquid at the solid’s melting point. Units for heat of fusion are joules
Ice cubes cool drinks per gram ( J/g). Note that these units do not involve temperature (degrees), as was the
case for specific heat [J>1g # ⬚C2]. No temperature units are needed because the tempera-
not only by being cold,
but also by absorbing
heat as they melt. Each ture remains constant during a change of state.
gram of ice absorbs 334 The reverse of the fusion process is solidification (or freezing). The heat of solidifi-
joules from the liquid as cation is the amount of heat energy evolved in the conversion of one gram of a liquid to a
it melts. The amount of solid at the liquid’s freezing point. The heat of solidification always has the same numeri-
heat it takes to melt
1 gram of ice can cool
cal value as the heat of fusion. The only difference between these two entities is in the
1 gram of water from direction of heat flow (in or out), which is indicated by a sign (positive or negative). Heat
80⬚C to 0⬚C. of solidification has a negative sign because it is associated with an exothermic process,
TABLE 11.3 Heats of Fusion for Various Substances at Their Melting Points
Heat of Fusion
Solid Melting Point (⬚C) J/g kJ/mole

Methane -182 59 0.94
Ethyl alcohol -117 109 5.01
Carbon tetrachloride -23 16.3 2.51
Water 0 334 6.01
Benzene 6 126 9.87
Aluminum 658 393 10.6
Copper 1083 205 13.0
and heat of fusion has a positive sign because it is associated with an endothermic pro-
cess. The amount of heat required to melt 50.0 g of ice at its melting point is the same as
the amount of heat that must be removed to freeze 50.0 g of water at its freezing point.
The heats of fusion for selected substances are given in Table 11.3 in the units J/g.
Table 11.3 also gives a second heat of fusion value for each substance, the molar
heat of fusion, which has the units kJ/mole. In some types of calculations, kJ/mole are
more convenient units to use.
The magnitude of the heat of fusion for a given solid depends on the intermo-
lecular forces of attraction in the solid state. The strength of such forces is the subject of
Section 11.16.
The general equation for calculating the amount of heat absorbed as a substance
changes from a solid to a liquid is
heat absorbed 1J2 = heat of fusion 1J>g2 * mass1g2
Similarly, for the amount of heat released as a liquid freezes to a solid, we have
heat released 1J2 = heat of solidification 1J>g2 * mass1g2
Example 11.6 illustrates the use of the first of these two equations.
EXAMPLE 11.6 Calculating the Heat Energy Absorbed as a Substance Melts
How much heat energy, in joules, is required to melt 25.1 g of copper at its melting point
of 1083⬚C?
SOLUTION
The heat of fusion for copper, from Table 11.3, is 205 J/g. Therefore, the total amount of
heat energy required is
205 J
Heat energy change = 25.1 g * = 5145.5 J 1calculator answer2
g

Chemical Insight: COPPER

Copper and copper alloys have been, and still are, used as coinage metal in the United
States. In recent years, many changes in such formulations have occurred as the result
of changes in metal prices.
A “copper penny” is a coin of the past. In 1982, the composition of a penny was
changed from 95% copper and 5% zinc to copper-plated coins that contain 97.5% zinc
and 2.5% copper. The change was necessitated by rising copper prices that reached a
level such that the value of the copper in a penny was greater than one cent. Copper-
plated zinc pennies are still in production today. As of mid 2011, the metallurgical
value of a pre-1982 penny was 258% of face value and that of a post-1982 penny was
56% of face value. Zinc is a much less expensive metal than copper.
The five-cent “nickel” coins now contain 75% copper and 25% nickel. Despite
the coin’s name, the element nickel has never been the predominant metal in a nickel
coin. Current 10-, 25- and 50-cent pieces are three-layer composites. The outer clad-
dings are 75% copper and 25% nickel, and the core is 100% copper. The “gold” dollar
coin is an alloy containing 88.5% copper, 6% zinc, 3.5% manganese, and 2% nickel. No
gold is present in the “gold” dollar coin; it is simply gold-colored.
Thus, copper is the predominant metal in all general circulation United States
coins except the penny.
Principles similar to those just considered for solid–liquid or liquid–solid changes

apply to changes between the liquid and gaseous states. Here the specific energy quanti-
ties involved are heats of vaporization and heats of condensation. The heat of vaporiza-
tion is the amount of heat energy absorbed in the conversion of one gram of a liquid to a
Steam at 100⬚C is much gas at the liquid’s boiling point. Heats of vaporization are usually measured at the normal
more dangerous than boiling point (Sec. 11.15) of the liquid.
water at 100⬚C. If steam
contacts the skin, it is not
The reverse of the vaporization (evaporation) process is condensation (liquefac-
only hot, it also releases tion). The heat of condensation is the amount of heat energy evolved in the conversion
its heat of condensation of one gram of a gas to a liquid at the liquid’s boiling point. The heat of vaporization and
as it condenses on the the heat of condensation will always have the same numerical value because these two
skin. This exothermic re- quantities characterize processes that are the reverse of each other; they will also always
lease of energy can cause
severe burns.
have opposite signs—the former is positive and the latter is negative. The only difference
is direction of heat flow; one process is endothermic (vaporization), and the other is exo-
Refrigerators work by
thermic (condensation). Table 11.4 gives heats of vaporization for selected substances.
letting a fluid evaporate The general equation for calculating the amount of heat absorbed as a substance
in coils inside the refrig- changes from a liquid to a gas is
erator. The endothermic
evaporation absorbs heat heat absorbed 1J2 = heat of vaporization 1J>g2 * mass 1g2
from inside the refrig-
erator. The compressor
Similarly, for the amount of heat released as a gas condenses to a liquid, we have
recondenses the gas heat released 1J2 = heat of condensation 1J>g2 * mass 1g2
back to a fluid outside
the cooling coils. (This
is where most of the
electricity is consumed.)
The heat released in the
EXAMPLE 11.7 Calculating the Heat of Vaporization from Given
condensation is radiated Thermochemical Data
out of the coils in the
rear. That is why it is
The vaporization of 15.0 g of an unknown liquid at its boiling point requires 5744
always warm at the back joules of heat energy. What is the heat of vaporization, in joules per gram, of this
of a refrigerator. unknown liquid?
TABLE 11.4 Heats of Vaporization for Various Substances at Their Boiling Points
Heat of Vaporization
Liquid Boiling Point ( ⬚C ) J/g kJ/mole

Methane -161 648 10.4
Ammonia -33 1380 23.4
Diethyl ether 34.6 375 27.8
Carbon tetrachloride 77 195 30.0
Ethyl alcohol 78.3 837 38.6
Benzene 80.1 394 30.8
Water 100 2260 40.7
SOLUTION
Rearranging the equation
heat absorbed = heat of vaporization * mass
to isolate heat of vaporization, which is our desired quantity, gives
heat absorbed
heat of vaporization =
mass
Substituting the given quantities into this equation gives
5744 J
heat of vaporization = = 382.93333 J>g 1calculator answer2
15.0 g
= 383 J>g 1correct answer2
Answer Double Check: Is the numerical value of the heat of vaporization reasonable,
based on the numbers used to calculate it? Yes. Using rounded input numbers, a rough
estimate of the numerical value is 6000/15, which equals 400. The calculated answer of
383 is of the same order as 400.
11.12 HEAT ENERGY CALCULATIONS

Student Learning Focus: Be able to carry out general thermochemical calculations that involve both
one or more changes of state and one or more changes in temperature.
In doing bookkeeping on heat energy added to or removed from a chemical system, the
following two generalizations always apply.
1. The amount of energy added to or removed from a chemical system that undergoes
a temperature change but no change in state is governed by the substance’s specific
heat. The way in which specific heat is used in calculations involving this situation
was considered in Section 11.9 (Examples 11.2 and 11.3).
2. The amount of energy added to or removed from a chemical system that undergoes
a change of state at constant temperature is governed by heat of fusion or heat of
solidification (solid–liquid changes) and heat of vaporization or heat of condensa-
tion (liquid–gas changes). The way in which these entities are used in change-of-
state situations was considered in Section 11.11 (Examples 11.6 and 11.7).
Heat (joules)
States
Solid Solid + liquid Liquid Liquid + gas Gas
present
Boiling or Gas warms
Solid Melting or Liquid vaporization or cools
warms fusion warms
Temperature (°C)
Condensation or liquefaction
Temperature or cools Freezing or or cools
vs. solidification
heat graph
Key thermo- Heat of fusion Heat of vaporization

Specific heat Specific heat Specific heat
chemical or or
of solid of liquid of gas
property heat of solidification heat of condensation
Q = ΔHfus × m Q = ΔHvap × m
Calculational Q = C × m × ΔT or Q = C × m × ΔT or Q = C × m × ΔT
equation Q = ΔHsol × m Q = ΔHcon × m
FIGURE 11.8 A temperature–heat–energy graph showing what happens as a solid, below its melting
point, is heated to higher and higher temperatures.
Figure 11.8 is a useful summary diagram of common energy-change-of-temperature

and energy-change-of-state situations that occur. Also, at the bottom of this diagram are
the key equations needed for doing heat energy calculations. These equations are pre-
sented with some new symbols (abbreviations). The new symbols are as follows:
Q = heat absorbed or heat released
C = specific heat of the substance in a given physical state
m = mass of the substance
⌬T = change in temperature of the substance
⌬Hfus = heat of fusion of the substance
⌬Hsol = heat of solidification of the substance
⌬Hvap = heat of vaporization of the substance
⌬Hcon = heat of condensation of the substance
In problem-solving situations where a pure substance experiences both a tempera-
ture change and one or more changes of state (a common situation), the calculational
equations of Figure 11.8 are used in an additive manner. Examples 11.8 and 11.9 illustrate
problem solving in such combination situations.
EXAMPLE 11.8 Thermochemical Calculation Involving Both Change of

State and Change of Temperature
Calculate the heat released, in joules, when 324 g of steam at 100⬚C are condensed and
the resulting liquid water is cooled to 45⬚C.
SOLUTION
We may consider this process to occur in two steps.
a. Condensing the steam to liquid water at 100⬚C
b. Cooling the liquid water from 100⬚C to 45⬚C
We will calculate the amount of heat released in each of the steps, then add these
amounts together to get our final answer.
Step 1 gas100⬚C S liquid100⬚C
This step involves a change of state, from the gaseous to the liquid state (the
fourth column of the heating curve of Figure 11.8). The heat energy equation for
this change is
heat released = heat of condensation * mass
The heat of condensation of H2O has the same numerical value but is opposite
in sign to the heat of vaporization. The latter is given in Table 11.4 as 2260 J/g.
Thus, we have –2260 J/g as the value for the heat of condensation.
-2260 J
heat released = * 324 g = -732,240 J 1calculator answer2
g
= -732,000 J 1correct answer2
Step 2 liquid100⬚C S liquid45⬚C
From the third column of Figure 11.8 we note that the heat energy equation for
the change in temperature of a liquid substance is
heat released = specific heat * mass * temperature change
From the values given in Table 11.2, we find that the specific heat of water (as a
liquid) is 4.18 J>1g # ⬚C2. The temperature change is -55⬚C, and the mass is given
as 324 g. Plugging these values into our equation gives
4.18 J
g # ⬚C
heat released = * 324 g * 1-55⬚C2 = 74,487.6 J 1calculator answer2
= -74,000 J 1correct answer2
The temperature change limits the correct answer to two significant figures.
The total heat released is the sum of that released in each step.
From step 1: -732,000 J
From step 2: -74,000 J
-806,000 J 1calculator and correct answer2
Answer Double Check: Is the sign of the heat energy value consistent with the process
with which it is associated? Yes. The heat energy sign is negative, which denotes an exo-
thermic process. Condensing steam to liquid water is an exothermic process; heat energy
has to be removed (released) in order for this to occur.
EXAMPLE 11.9 Thermochemical Calculation Involving All Three States

of Matter
Calculate the amount of heat, in joules, needed to convert 23.6 g of ice at -27⬚C to steam
at 121⬚C.
SOLUTION
We may consider the change process to occur in five steps.
1. Heating the ice from -27⬚C to 0⬚C, its melting point. (This change corresponds to
the first column of the heating curve of Figure 11.8.)
2. Melting the ice, while the temperature remains at 0⬚C. (This change corresponds to
the second column of the heating curve of Figure 11.8.)
3. Heating the liquid water from 0⬚C to 100⬚C, its boiling point. (This change corre-
sponds to the third column of the heating curve of Figure 11.8.)
4. Evaporating the water, while the temperature remains at 100⬚C. (This change cor-
responds to the fourth column of the heating curve of Figure 11.8.)
5. Heating the steam from 100⬚C, to 121⬚C. (This change corresponds to the last
column of the heating curve of Figure 11.8.)
We will calculate the amount of heat required in each of the steps, and then add
these amounts together to get our desired answer. In doing this, we will need the follow-
ing heat energy values associated with water.
Step 1 specific heat of ice, 2.09 J>1g # ⬚C2 (Table 11.2)
Step 2 heat of fusion, 334 J/g (Table 11.3)
Step 3 specific heat of water, 4.18 J>1g # ⬚C2 (Table 11.2)
Step 4 heat of vaporization, 2260 J/g (Table 11.4)
Step 5 specific heat of steam, 2.03 J>1g # ⬚C2 (Table 11.2)
Step 1 solid -27⬚C S solid 0⬚C

heat required = specific heat * mass * temperature change
2.09 J
g # ⬚C
= * 23.6 g * 27⬚C = 1331.748 J 1calculator answer2
Step 2 solid 0⬚C S liquid 0⬚C

heat required = heat of fusion * mass
334 J
= * 23.6 g = 7882.4 J 1calculator answer2
g
Step 3 liquid 0⬚C S liquid 100⬚C

4.18 J
= # * 23.6 g * 100⬚C = 9864.8 J 1calculator answer2
g ⬚C
Step 4 liquid100⬚C S gas100⬚C

heat required = heat of vaporization * mass
2260 J
= * 23.6 g = 53,336 J 1calculator answer2
g
Step 5 gas100⬚C S gas121⬚C

2.03 J
= # * 23.6 g * 21⬚C = 1006.068 J 1calculator answer2
g ⬚C

The total heat required is the sum of the results of the five steps.
11300 + 7880 + 9860 + 53,300 + 10002 J = 73,340 J 1calculator answer2
(The answer must be rounded to the hundreds place. In adding, the numbers 1300,
53,300, and 1000 are limiting, with uncertainty in the hundreds place.)
Answer Double Check: Was the temperature accounted for correctly in each of the
steps in the overall change process? Yes. Steps 2 and 4 involve changes of state during
which the temperature remains constant. There is no ⌬T factor in the calculation for these
two steps. The other three steps are temperature increases with no change of state. In
each of these steps ⌬T is included as a factor in the calculation.
11.13 EVAPORATION OF LIQUIDS

Student Learning Focus: Explain, at a molecular level, what happens during the process of evapo-
ration. Be familiar with the differences that exist between evaporation occurring in an open con-
tainer and evaporation occurring in a closed container.
Evaporation is the process by which molecules escape from a liquid phase to the gas
phase. It is a familiar process. We are all aware that water left in an open container at
room temperature will slowly disappear by evaporation.
The phenomenon of evaporation can readily be explained using kinetic molecular the-
ory. Statement 5 of this theory (Sec. 11.3) indicates that not all the molecules in a liquid (or
solid or gas) possess the same kinetic energy. At any given instant some molecules will have
above-average kinetic energies and others will have below-average kinetic energies as a result
of collisions between molecules. A given molecule’s energy constantly changes as a result of For a liquid to evaporate,
collisions with neighboring molecules. Molecules considerably above average in kinetic energy its molecules must gain
enough kinetic energy to
can overcome the attractive forces (potential energy) that are holding them in the liquid and
overcome the attractive
escape if they are at the liquid surface and moving in a favorable direction relative to the surface. forces between them.
Note that evaporation is a surface phenomenon. Molecules within the interior of a
liquid are surrounded on all sides by other molecules, making escape very improbable.
Surface molecules are subject to fewer attractive forces because they are not completely
surrounded by other molecules; escape is much more probable (see Fig. 11.9).
Surface Interior FIGURE 11.9

Molecules at the surface
of a liquid experience
fewer intermolecular
attractions than do
molecules within the
interior of a liquid.
Molecules within
the interior of a
liquid experience
intermolecular attraction
to neighboring
molecules in all
directions. Molecules on
the surface of a liquid
are attracted by other
surface molecules and
by molecules below the
surface.
Liquid surface area is an important factor in determining the rate at which evaporation
occurs. Increased surface area results in an increased evaporation rate; a greater fraction
of molecules occupy surface locations.
Rate of Evaporation and Temperature

Water evaporates faster from a glass of hot water than from a glass of cold water. Why
is this so? A certain minimum kinetic energy is required for molecules to overcome the
attractions of neighboring molecules. As the temperature of a liquid increases, a larger frac-
tion of the molecules present possess this needed minimum kinetic energy. Consequently,
the rate of evaporation always increases as liquid temperature increases. Figure 11.10
contrasts the fraction of molecules possessing the needed minimum kinetic energy for
escape at two temperatures. Note that at both the lower and higher temperatures, a broad
distribution of kinetic energies is present and some molecules possess the needed mini-
mum kinetic energy at each temperature. However, at the higher temperature a larger
fraction of molecules present have the requisite kinetic energy, so the rate of evaporation
increases.
The escape of high-energy molecules from a liquid during evaporation affects the
liquid in two ways: The amount of liquid decreases, and the liquid temperature is low-
ered. The temperature lowering reflects the fact that the average kinetic energy of the
remaining molecules is lower than the pre-evaporation value due to the loss of the most
energetic molecules. (Analogously, if all the tall people are removed from a classroom of
students, the average height of the remaining students decreases.) A lower average kinetic
energy corresponds to a lower temperature (statement 4 of kinetic molecular theory);
hence a cooling effect is produced.
Evaporative cooling is important in many processes. Our own bodies use evap-
oration to maintain a constant temperature. In hot summer weather and also during
strenuous exercise, the human body produces perspiration. Perspiration production is an
effective method for body temperature regulation because evaporation of the perspiration
cools our skin. The cooling effect of evaporation is quite noticeable when someone first
comes out of a swimming pool on a hot day (especially if a breeze is blowing). A can-
vas water bag keeps water cool because some of the water seeps through the canvas
and evaporates, a process that removes heat from the remaining water. In medicine, the
local skin anesthetic ethyl chloride 1C2H5Cl2 exerts its effect through evaporative cooling
(freezing). The minimum kinetic energy that molecules of this substance need to acquire
to escape (evaporate) is very low, resulting in a very rapid evaporation rate. Evaporation
is so fast that the cooling “freezes” tissue near the surface of the skin, with temporary loss
FIGURE 11.10 Kinetic

energy distributions
of molecules of a Lower temperature
liquid at two different
temperatures. The
Fraction of molecules
dashed line represents

the minimum kinetic
energy required for
molecules of the liquid
to overcome attractive Higher temperature
forces and escape
into the gas phase.
Molecules in the shaded
area have the necessary
energy to overcome
attractions. Kinetic energy
of feeling in the region of application. Certain alcohols also evaporate quite rapidly. An
alcohol rub is sometimes used to reduce body temperature when a high fever is present.
For a liquid in a container, the decrease in temperature that occurs as a result of
evaporation can be actually measured only if the container is an insulated one. When
a liquid evaporates from a noninsulated container, there is sufficient heat flow from the
surroundings into the container to counterbalance the loss of energy in the escaping mol-
ecules and thus prevent any cooling effect. The thermos bottle is an insulated container
that minimizes heat transfer, making it useful for maintaining liquids at a cool temperature
for a short period of time. Figure 11.11 contrasts the evaporation process occurring in an
uninsulated container with that which occurs within an insulated one. The temperature
of liquid and surroundings is the same in an uninsulated container; in an insulated one,
liquid temperature drops below that of the surroundings because of evaporative cooling.
Collectively, the molecules that escape from an evaporating liquid are often referred
to as vapor rather than gas. A vapor is the gaseous state of a substance at a temperature and
pressure at which the substance is normally a liquid or solid. For example, at room tempera-
ture and atmospheric pressure, the normal state for water is the liquid state. Molecules that
escape (evaporate) from liquid water at these conditions are called water vapor.
Evaporation and Equilibrium

The evaporative behavior of a liquid in a closed container is quite different from that in an
open container. In a closed container we observe that some liquid evaporation occurs, as
indicated by a drop in liquid level. However, unlike the open container system, the liquid
level, with time, ceases to drop (becomes constant), an indication that not all of the liquid
will evaporate.
Kinetic molecular theory explains these observations in the following way. The mole-
cules that do evaporate are unable to move completely away from the liquid as they did in
the open container. They find themselves confined in a fixed space immediately above the
liquid (see Fig. 11.12a). These trapped vapor molecules undergo many random collisions
FIGURE 11.11 For

an evaporative cooling
effect to be measured,
Evacuated a container that
space
minimizes heat flow
into the container from
its surroundings must
Liquid Liquid
be used.
Heat No heat
flows in transfer
Uninsulated container Insulated container
FIGURE 11.12
Evaporation of a liquid
in a closed container.
Liquid Constant liquid level

Liquid
Liquid
(a) Initially (b) After some time (c) At equilibrium

Keeping a lid on a pot with the container walls, other vapor molecules, and the liquid surface. Molecules colliding
of water allows the pot with the liquid surface may be recaptured by the liquid. Thus, two processes—evaporation
of water to boil faster.
Without a lid, the heat
(escape) and condensation (recapture)—take place in the closed container.
of vaporization absorbed In a closed container, for a short time, the rate of evaporation exceeds the rate of
when water turns to condensation and the liquid level drops. However, as more and more of the liquid evapo-
steam escapes into the rates, the number of vapor molecules increases and the chance of their recapture through
air. With a lid on, the striking the liquid surface also increases. Eventually the rate of condensation becomes
water recondenses inside
the lid and releases its
equal to the rate of evaporation and the liquid level stops dropping (see Fig. 11.12c). At
heat of condensation this point, the number of molecules that escape in a given time is the same as the number
back into the pot. recaptured; a steady-state condition has been reached. The amounts of liquid and vapor
in the container are not changing, even though both evaporation and condensation are
still occurring.
This steady-state situation, which will continue as long as the temperature of the
system remains constant, is an example of an equilibrium state. An equilibrium state
is a situation in which two opposite processes take place at equal rates. For systems in a
state of equilibrium, no net macroscopic changes can be detected. However, the system
is dynamic; both forward and reverse processes are still occurring but in a manner such
that they balance each other.
11.14 VAPOR PRESSURE OF LIQUIDS

Student Learning Focus: Know the factors that affect a liquid’s vapor pressure and be able to relate
vapor pressure to the concept of a liquid–vapor system at equilibrium.
For a liquid–vapor system in equilibrium in a closed container, the vapor in the fixed
space immediately above the liquid exerts a constant pressure on the liquid surface and the
walls of the container. This pressure is called the liquid’s vapor pressure. Vapor pressure
is the pressure exerted by a vapor above a liquid when the liquid and vapor are in
equilibrium.
The magnitude of vapor pressure depends on the nature and temperature of the
liquid. Liquids with strong attractive forces between molecules will have lower vapor pres-
sures than liquids in which only weak attractive forces exist between particles. Substances
with high vapor pressures evaporate readily; that is, they are volatile. A volatile substance
is a substance that readily evaporates at room temperature because of a high vapor pressure.
The vapor pressures of all liquids increase with temperature. Why? An increase in
temperature results in more molecules having the minimum energy required for evapo-
ration. Hence, at equilibrium the pressure of the vapor is greater. Table 11.5 shows the
variation in vapor pressure with increasing temperature for water.
When the temperature of a liquid–vapor system in equilibrium is changed, the
equilibrium is upset. The system immediately begins the process of establishing a new equi-
librium. Let us consider a case where the temperature is increased. The higher temperature
signifies that energy has been added to the system. More molecules will have the
minimum energy needed to escape. Thus, immediately after the temperature is increased,
molecules begin to escape at a rate greater than that at which they are recaptured. With
time, however, the rates of escape and recapture will again become equal. The new rates
will, however, be different from those for the previous equilibrium. Since energy has been
added to the system, the rates will be higher, resulting in higher vapor pressure.
The size (volume) of the space that the vapor occupies does not affect the magni-
tude of the vapor pressure. A larger fixed space will enable more molecules to be present
in the vapor at equilibrium. However, the larger number of molecules spread over a larger
volume results in the same pressure as a small number of molecules in small volume.
TABLE 11.5 Vapor Pressure of Water at Various Temperatures
Temperature Vapor Pressure Temperature Vapor Pressure

( ⬚C ) (mm Hg)* ( ⬚C ) (mm Hg)*
0 4.6 60 149.4
10 9.2 70 233.7
20 17.5 80 355.1
30 31.8 90 525.8
40 55.3 100 760.0
50 92.5
*The units used to specify vapor pressure in this table will be discussed in detail in Section 12.2.
Vapor
h
Vapor pressures for liquids are commonly measured in an apparatus similar to that
pictured in Figure 11.13. At the moment liquid is added to the vessel, the space above
the liquid is filled only with air and the levels of mercury in the U-tube are equal. With Liquid
time, liquid evaporates and equilibrium is established. The vapor pressure of the liquid
is proportional to the difference between the heights of the mercury columns. The larger Hg
the vapor pressure, the greater the extent to which the mercury column is pushed up.
FIGURE 11.13
Apparatus for
determining the vapor
11.15 BOILING AND BOILING POINTS pressure of a liquid.
Student Learning Focus: Be able to describe the process of boiling from a molecular viewpoint;
know what is meant by the designation normal boiling point and know the external factors that
affect boiling point.
Usually, for a molecule to escape from the liquid state, it must be on the surface of the
liquid. Boiling is a special form of evaporation in which conversion from the liquid to the
vapor state occurs within the body of a liquid through bubble formation. This phenom-
enon begins to occur when the vapor pressure of a liquid, which is steadily increasing
as a liquid is heated, reaches a value equal to that of the prevailing external pressure on
Anyone who has let a
the liquid; for liquids in open containers, this value is atmospheric pressure. When these
pan of water boil dry
two pressures become equal, bubbles of vapor form around any speck of dust or any knows that boiling is an
irregularity associated with the surface of the container. Being less dense than the liquid endothermic process. As
itself, these vapor bubbles quickly rise to the surface and escape. The quick ascent of the long as the water is boil-
bubbles causes the agitation associated with a boiling liquid. ing, the pan stays at a
“cool” 100⬚C. Once all the
Let us consider this bubble phenomenon in more detail. As the heating of a liquid
water boils away, the pan
begins, the first small bubbles that form on the bottom and sides of the container are turns red-hot.
bubbles of dissolved air (oxygen and nitrogen), which have been driven out of the solu-
tion by the rising liquid temperature. (The solubilities of oxygen and nitrogen in liquids
decrease with increasing temperature.)
As the liquid is heated further, larger bubbles form and begin to rise. These bubbles,
usually also formed on the bottom of the container (where the heat is being applied
and the liquid is hottest), are vapor bubbles rather than air bubbles. Initially, these vapor
bubbles disappear as they rise, never reaching the liquid surface. Their disappearance is
related to vapor pressure. In the hotter lower portions of the liquid, the liquid’s vapor
pressure is high enough to sustain bubble formation. [For a bubble to exist, the pressure
within it (vapor pressure) must equal external pressure (atmospheric pressure).] In the
cooler, higher portions of the liquid, where the vapor pressure is lower, the bubbles are
FIGURE 11.14 Bubble

formation associated
with a liquid that is
boiling.
collapsed by external pressure. Finally, with further heating, the temperature throughout
the liquid becomes high enough to sustain bubble formation. Then bubbles rise all the
way to the surface and escape (see Fig. 11.14). At this point we say the liquid is boiling.
Like evaporation, boiling is actually a cooling process. When heat is taken away
from a boiling liquid, boiling ceases almost immediately. It is the highest-energy mole-
cules that are escaping. Quickly the temperature of the remaining molecules drops below
the boiling point of the liquid.
Factors that Affect Boiling Point

A boiling point is the temperature of a liquid at which the vapor pressure of the liquid
becomes equal to the external (atmospheric) pressure exerted on the liquid. Since atmo-
spheric pressure fluctuates from day to day, so does the boiling point of a liquid. To
compare the boiling points of different liquids, the external pressure must be the same.
The boiling point of a liquid most often used for comparison and tabulation purposes (in
reference books, for example) is the normal boiling point. A normal boiling point is the
temperature of a liquid at which the liquid boils under a pressure of 760 mm Hg.
At any given location, the changes in the boiling point of liquids due to natural
The converse of the
variation in atmospheric pressure seldom exceed a few degrees; in the case of water the
pressure cooker phenom-
enon is that food cooks maximum is about 2⬚C. However, variations in boiling points between locations at differ-
more slowly at reduced ent elevations can be quite striking, as shown by the data in Table 11.6.
pressures. The pressure The boiling point of a liquid can be increased by increasing the external pressure.
reduction associated with Use is made of this principle in the operation of a pressure cooker. Foods cook faster
higher altitudes means
in pressure cookers because the elevated pressure causes water to boil above 100⬚C. An
that food cooked over a
campfire in the moun- increase in temperature of only 10⬚C will cause food to cook in approximately half the
tains requires longer normal time. (Cooking involves chemical reactions, and the rate of a chemical reaction
cooking times. generally doubles with every 10⬚C increase in temperature.) Table 11.7 gives the boiling
TABLE 11.6 Variation of the Boiling Point of Water with Elevation
Location Elevation (ft above sea level) Boiling Point of Water (⬚C)
San Francisco, CA 0 100.0
Salt Lake City, UT 4,390 95.6
Denver, CO 5,280 95.0
La Paz, Bolivia 12,795 91.4
Mount Everest 28,028 76.5
TABLE 11.7 Boiling Points of Water in a Pressure Cooker
Pressure above Atmospheric
lb>in.2 mm Hg Boiling Point of Water ( ⬚C )

5 259 108
10 517 116
15 776 121
temperatures reached by water in normal household pressure cookers. Hospitals use the
same principle in sterilizing instruments and laundry in autoclaves; sufficiently high tem-
peratures are reached to destroy bacteria.
Liquids that have high normal boiling points or that undergo undesirable
chemical reactions at boiling temperatures can be made to boil at low tempera-
tures by reducing the external pressure. This principle is used in the preparation
of numerous food products including frozen fruit juice concentrates. At a reduced
pressure some of the water in a fruit juice is boiled away, concentrating the juice
without having to heat it to a high temperature. Heating to a high temperature
would cause changes that would spoil the taste of the juice and/or reduce its
nutritional value.
11.16 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES IN LIQUIDS

Student Learning Focus: Be able to describe, in terms of characteristic and occurrence, the five
major types of intermolecular forces that can be present in a liquid.
For a liquid in an open container to boil, its vapor pressure must reach atmospheric
pressure. For some substances this occurs at temperatures well below zero; for example,
oxygen has a boiling point of -183⬚C. Other substances do not boil until the tempera-
ture is much higher. Mercury, for example, has a boiling point of 357⬚C, which is 540⬚C
higher than that of oxygen. An explanation for this variation involves a consideration of
the nature of the intermolecular forces that must be overcome in order for molecules (or
atoms) to escape from the liquid state to the vapor state. An intermolecular force is an
attractive force that acts between a molecule and another molecule. [Strictly speaking, the
term intermolecular force refers only to the attraction between molecules, but in practice
it is used to refer to interactions in liquids that involve all types of particles (molecules,
ions, and atoms).]
Intermolecular forces are similar in one way to the previously discussed intramo-
lecular forces (within molecules) involved in covalent bonding (Sec. 7.10). They are
electrostatic in origin; that is, they involve positive–negative interactions (Sec. 11.3). A major
difference between inter- and intramolecular forces is their magnitude; the former are
much weaker. However, intermolecular forces, despite their relative weakness, are suf-
ficiently strong to influence the behavior of liquids, often in a very dramatic way. Figure
11.15 pictorially contrasts intermolecular forces and intramolecular forces for water
molecules.
Five types of intermolecular forces that can be present in a liquid are considered
in this section. They are (1) dipole–dipole interactions, (2) hydrogen bonds, (3) London
forces, (4) ion–dipole interactions, and (5) ion–ion interactions.
FIGURE 11.15
H
Intermolecular
forces exist O
between molecules. H H
Intramolecular forces
exist within molecules O
H
and hold the molecules
together; they are O
the chemical bonds H
within the molecule. H H
Intermolecular forces O
are much weaker than Intramolecular H
intramolecular forces. forces
Intermolecular
forces
Dipole–Dipole Interactions
A dipole–dipole interaction is an intermolecular attractive force that occurs between
polar molecules. Polar molecules, it should be recalled, are electrically unsymmetrical
(Sec. 7.20); that is, they have a positive end and a negative end. This uneven charge dis-
tribution in a polar molecule is called a dipole; the molecule has two poles or ends, one
pole being more negative than the other, hence the terminology dipole–dipole interac-
tions for interactions between polar molecules.
When polar molecules approach each other, they tend to line up so that the rela-
tively positive end of one molecule is directed toward the relatively negative end of the
other molecule. As a result, there is an electrostatic attraction between the molecules. The
greater the polarity of the molecules, the greater the strength of the dipole–dipole inter-
action. Figure 11.16 shows the many dipole–dipole interactions possible for a random
arrangement of polar ClF molecules.
Hydrogen Bonds
Unusually strong dipole–dipole interactions are found among hydrogen-containing mol-
ecules in which hydrogen is covalently bonded to a highly electronegative element of
small atomic size (fluorine, oxygen, and nitrogen). Two factors account for the extra
strength of these dipole–dipole interactions.
1. The highly electronegative element to which hydrogen is covalently bonded domi-
nates the electron-sharing process to such a degree that the hydrogen atom is left
with significant partial positive charge (Sec. 7.19).
d+ d- d+ d- d+ d-
HiF HiO HiN
FIGURE 11.16 −
F
Dipole–dipole Cl
interactions between −F +
F−
randomly arranged Cl Cl +
+ −
CIF molecules. + −
Cl F + Cl F Cl
F
− +
Cl + F
−
+
− +
Cl + Cl F Cl F−
F−
+ Cl F −
The hydrogen atom is essentially a “bare” nucleus because it has no electrons besides The three elements that
the one attracted to the electronegative element—a unique property of hydrogen. have significant hydro-
gen bonding ability are
2. The small size of the hydrogen atom allows the bare nucleus to approach closely fluorine, oxygen, and ni-
and be strongly attracted to an unshared pair of electrons on the electronegative trogen. They are all very
atom of another molecule. electronegative elements
of small atomic size.
Dipole–dipole interactions of the type we are now considering are given a special Chlorine has the same
name, hydrogen bonds. A hydrogen bond is an extra strong dipole–dipole interaction electronegativity as nitro-
involving a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a small, very electronegative atom (F, O, gen, but its larger atomic
or N) and an unshared pair of electrons on another small, very electronegative atom size causes it to have little
hydrogen bonding ability.
(F, O, or N).
Water is the most commonly encountered substance wherein hydrogen bond-
ing is significant. Figure 11.17 depicts the process of hydrogen bonding among water
molecules. Note that the oxygen atom in water can participate in two hydrogen
bonds—one involving each of its nonbonding electron pairs and that a given water
molecule can participate in four hydrogen bonds (see the “center” water molecule in
Fig. 11.17).
The effects of hydrogen bonding on the properties of water are significant. It is not
an overstatement to say that hydrogen bonding makes life possible. Were it not for hydro-
gen bonding, water, the most abundant compound in the human body, would be a gas
Hydrogen bonding also
at room temperature. Life as we know it could not exist under such a condition. Section
plays a major role in the
11.17 discusses in detail how water’s properties are significantly changed as a result of behavior of DNA and
hydrogen bonding. proteins. Both DNA and
The two molecules that participate in a hydrogen bond need not be identical as was proteins contain O i H
the case with the water molecules whose hydrogen bonding is depicted in Figure 11.17. and N i H bonds, which
participate in hydrogen
Hydrogen bond formation is possible whenever two molecules, the same or different,
bonding. Such hydrogen
have the following characteristics: bonds have just the right
strength that they are
1. One molecule has a hydrogen atom attached by a covalent bond to an atom of
capable of being broken
nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine. and then re-formed with
2. The other molecule has a nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine atom present that possesses relative ease in a bio-
one or more nonbonding electron pairs. chemical setting.
FIGURE 11.17
Depiction of hydrogen
O bonding among water
H molecules. The dotted
H lines are the hydrogen
O bonds.
H
H H
O
H
O
H H O
H
H
H
O H
O
H
H
O H
H
FIGURE 11.18
H
Depiction of hydrogen H
bonding between
various simple F H F N H N
molecules. The dotted
lines are the hydrogen H H
H
bonds.
H
Hydrogen fluoride–hydrogen fluoride Ammonia–ammonia
H H H
F H O N H O
H
H H
Hydrogen fluoride–water Ammonia–water
O H F O H N
H H
H H H
Water–hydrogen fluoride Water–ammonia
Figure 11.18 shows additional examples of hydrogen bonding between simple molecules.
The meaning of the word bond in the term hydrogen bond is different than that usu-
ally encountered. A hydrogen bond is not a chemical bond in the normal sense that the
word is used. Sharing of electrons does not occur when a hydrogen bond forms. A hydro-
gen bond is an attraction between atoms carrying opposite partial charges. This attraction
is much weaker than that which occurs in a covalent bond.
EXAMPLE 11.10 Predicting Whether Molecules Can Participate in

Hydrogen Bonding
Indicate whether hydrogen bonding is possible between two molecules of each of the
following substances:
a. Nitrogen trifluoride b. Ethyl alcohol c. Formaldehyde
F H H O
F N H C C O H H C H
F H H
SOLUTION
a. Hydrogen bonding cannot occur. No hydrogen atoms are present.
b. Hydrogen bonding should occur, because we have an O i H bond and an oxygen
atom with unshared electron pairs.
c. Hydrogen bonding cannot occur. We have an oxygen atom with unshared electron
pairs, but no N i H, O i H, or F i H bond is present.
London Forces
Named after the German physicist Fritz London (1900–1954), who first postulated
their existence, London forces are the weakest type of intermolecular force. A
London force is a weak temporary dipole–dipole interaction that occurs between
an atom or molecule (polar or nonpolar) and another atom or molecule (polar or
nonpolar). The origin of London forces is more difficult to visualize than that of
dipole–dipole interactions.
London forces result from momentary (temporary) uneven electron distributions in As an analogy for London
molecules. Most of the time electrons can be visualized as being distributed in a molecule forces, consider what
happens when a bucket
in a definite pattern determined by their energies and the electronegativities of the atoms. filled with water is
However, there is a small statistical chance (probability) that the electrons will deviate moved. The water will
from their normal pattern. For example, in the case of a nonpolar diatomic molecule, slosh from side to side.
more electron density may temporarily be located on one side of the molecule than on This is similar to the
the other. This condition causes the molecule to become polar for an instant. The nega- movement of electrons.
The sloshing from side to
tive side of this instantaneously polar molecule will tend to repel electrons of adjoining side is instantaneous; a
molecules and cause these molecules to also become polar (an induced polarity). The given slosh quickly disap-
original (statistical) polar molecule and all the molecules with induced polarity are then pears. Uneven electron
attracted to each other. This happens many times per second throughout the liquid, distribution is likewise an
resulting in a net attractive force. Figure 11.19 depicts the situation present when London instantaneous situation.
forces exist.
The strength of London forces depends on the ease with which an electron distribu-
tion in a molecule can be distorted (polarized) by the polarity present in another molecule.
In large-diameter molecules the outermost electrons are necessarily located farther from
the nucleus than are the outermost electrons in small molecules. The farther electrons are
located from the nucleus, the weaker the attractive forces that act on them, the more freedom
they have, and the more susceptible they are to polarization. This leads to the observation
that for related molecules, boiling points increase with molecular mass, which usually par-
allels size. This trend is reflected in the boiling points given in Table 11.8 for two series of
related substances: the noble gases and the elements of group VIIA.
If two molecules have approximately the same molecular mass and polarity but
are of different diameter, the smaller one will have the lower boiling point because its
electrons are less susceptible to polarization. The nonpolar SF6 and C10H22 molecules
(molecular masses 146 and 142 amu, respectively) reflect this trend with boiling points
of -64⬚C and 174⬚C, respectively.
Of the three types of intermolecular forces discussed so far (dipole–dipole interac-
tions, hydrogen bonds, and London forces), the London forces are the most common
and, in the majority of cases, the most prevalent. They are the only attractive forces
present between nonpolar molecules, and it is estimated that London forces contribute
85% of the total intermolecular force in the polar HCl molecule. Only where hydrogen
bonding is involved do London forces play a minor role. In water, for example, about
80% of the intermolecular attraction is attributed to hydrogen bonding and only 20% to
London forces.
−− FIGURE 11.19 A
−− − −
− −− − −
London force. The
−− − − instantaneous
− −− − −
A −−− − B −−
− (temporary) polarity
− −− − −− − present in atom A
results in induced
Instantaneous Induced polarity in atom B.
polarity polarity
TABLE 11.8 Boiling Point Trends for Related Series of Nonpolar Molecules
Substance Molecular Mass (amu) Boiling Point ( ⬚C )
Noble Gases
He 4.0 -269
Ne 20.2 -246
Ar 39.9 -186
Kr 83.8 -153
Xe 131.3 -107
Rn 222 -62
Group VIIA Elements
F2 39.0 -187
Cl2 70.9 -35
Br2 159.8 +59
I2 253.8 +184
Ion–Dipole Interactions
An ion–dipole interaction is an intermolecular attractive force between an ion and a
polar molecule. Polar molecules are dipoles; they have a positive end and a negative end.
A positive ion (cation) can attract the negative end of dipoles and a negative ion (anion)
can attract the positive end of dipoles, as shown in Figure 11.20. Ion–dipole interactions
are an important consideration in aqueous solutions in which dissolved ionic compounds
are present, a topic to be considered in Chapter 13.
Ion–Ion Interactions
Our discussion of intermolecular forces to this point has assumed that the particles mak-
ing up a liquid are primarily molecules or atoms. This is a valid assumption for liquids
encountered at normal temperatures. However, at extremely high temperatures, liquids
exist in which no molecules are present. Liquids obtained by melting ionic compounds,
which always requires an extremely high temperature, contain only ions. The attractive
forces in such liquids are those that result from ion–ion interactions among positive
and negative ions. An ion–ion interaction is an intermolecular attractive force between
oppositely charged ions present in liquid state (molten) ionic compounds.
FIGURE 11.20
Ion–dipole interactions. + −
(a) The negative ends +
of polar molecules −
− −
are attracted by a + +
positive ion, and (b) the
positive ends of polar +
molecules are attracted −
by a negative ion. −
Such attractions are
−
+ +
important when ionic + −
compounds dissolve in + −
water, because water is
a polar molecule. (a) (b)
11.17 HYDROGEN BONDING AND THE PROPERTIES OF WATER

Student Learning Focus: Be able to describe four ways in which the properties of water are
affected by hydrogen bonding.
Water is the most abundant and most essential compound known to human beings. This
substance covers approximately 75% of Earth’s surface and constitutes 60%–70% of the
mass of a human body. In this section we consider four “unusual” hydrogen-bonding
caused properties of water:
1. A lower-than-expected vapor pressure

2. Higher-than-expected thermal properties
3. A seldom-encountered temperature dependence for density
4. A higher-than-expected surface tension
Vapor Pressure
Liquids in which significant hydrogen bonding occurs have vapor pressures that are
significantly lower than those of similar liquids where little or no hydrogen bonding
occurs. The presence of hydrogen bonds makes it more difficult for molecules to escape
from the condensed state; additional energy is needed to overcome the hydrogen bonds.
The greater the hydrogen bond strength, the lower the vapor pressure at any given
temperature.
Since the boiling point of a liquid depends upon vapor pressure (Sec. 11.15),
liquids with low vapor pressures will have to be heated to higher temperatures to
bring their vapor pressures up to the point where boiling occurs (atmospheric pres-
sure). Hence, boiling points are much higher for liquids in which hydrogen bonding
occurs.
The effect that hydrogen bonding has on water’s boiling point can be seen by
comparing it with the boiling points of other hydrogen compounds of group VIA
elements—H2S, H2Se, and H2Te. In this series of compounds—H2O, H2S, H2Se, and
H2Te—water is the only one in which significant hydrogen bonding occurs (Sec. 11.16).
Normally, the boiling points of a series of compounds containing elements in the same
periodic table group increase with increasing molar mass. Thus, in the hydrogen-group
VIA element series, we would expect that H2Te, the heaviest member of the series, would
have the highest boiling point and that water, the compound of lowest molar mass, would
have the lowest boiling point. Contrary to expectation, H2O has the highest boiling point,
as can be seen from the boiling-point data shown in Figure 11.21. The data in Figure
11.21 indicate that water “should have” a boiling point of approximately -80⬚C, a value
obtained by extrapolation of the line connecting the three heavier compounds. The ac-
tual boiling point of water, 100⬚C, is nearly 200⬚C higher than predicted. Indeed, in the
absence of hydrogen bonding, water would be a gas at room temperature, as mentioned
in Section 11.16.
A higher-than-expected freezing point is also characteristic of water, and a plot of
freezing points for similar compounds would have the same general shape as that in
Figure 11.21.
Thermal Properties
The extensive hydrogen bonding between water molecules increases significantly the
ability of water to absorb heat energy as it warms and then evaporates (endothermic
processes) and to release energy when freezing (an exothermic process). Thus, water
has higher-than-normal specific heat, heat of vaporization, and heat of solidification
FIGURE 11.21 Boiling

points of the hydrogen
compounds of group
VIA elements. Water is 100 H2O (100°C)
the only one of the four
compounds in which
significant hydrogen
bonding occurs.
50
Boiling point (°C)

H2Te
0
(−2.2°C)
H2Se
H2S
−50 (−41.3°C)
(−60.3°C)
H2O (predicted)
−100 (−80°C)
2 3 4 5
Number of period (horizontal row) in periodic table
values, as can be seen by comparing numerical values for water with those of other
substances [see Table 11.2 (specific heat), Table 11.3 (heat of fusion/solidification),
and Table 11.4 (heat of vaporization/condensation)]. These higher-than-normal thermal
properties for water, together with its abundance, largely account for water’s widespread
use as a coolant.
Large bodies of water exert a temperature-moderating effect on their surroundings.
In the heat of a summer day, extensive water evaporation occurs, and in the process
energy is absorbed from the surroundings. The net effect of the evaporation is a lowering
of the temperature of the surroundings. In the cool of evening, some of this water vapor
condenses back to the liquid state, releasing heat that raises the temperature of the sur-
roundings. In this manner the temperature variation between night and day is reduced. In
the winter a similar process occurs; water freezes on cold days and releases heat energy
to the surroundings. The hottest and coldest regions on Earth are all inland regions, those
distant from the moderating effects of large bodies of water.
The large release of heat from freezing water is the basis for the practice of spray-
ing orange trees with water when freezing temperatures are expected. The freezing water
liberates enough heat energy to keep the temperature of the air higher than the freezing
point of the fruit.
Water’s thermal properties are a factor in the cooling of the human body. The cool-
ant in this case is perspiration, which evaporates, absorbs heat in the process, and lowers
skin temperature. For similar reasons, a swimmer upon emerging from the water on a
warm but windy day will feel cold and will shiver as excess water rapidly evaporates from
his or her body. Additionally, water’s ability to absorb large amounts of heat helps keep
water loss to a minimum, thus making it easier for humans, animals, and plants to exist in
environments where water is scarce.
Density
A very striking and unusual behavior pattern occurs in the variation of the density
of water with temperature. For most liquids, density increases with decreasing tem-
perature, reaching a maximum for the liquid at its freezing point. The density pattern
for water is different. Maximum density is reached not at its freezing point, but at a
temperature a few degrees higher than the freezing point. As shown in Figure 11.22
the maximum density for liquid water occurs at 4⬚C. This abnormality, that water at its
freezing point is less dense than water at slightly higher temperatures, has tremendous
ecological significance. Furthermore, at 0⬚C, solid water (ice), is significantly less dense
than liquid water—0.9170 g/mL versus 0.9998 g/mL. All of this “strange” density behavior
of water is directly related to hydrogen bonding.
Of primary importance is the fact that hydrogen bonding between water mole-
cules is directional. Hydrogen bonds can form only at certain angles between molecules
because of the angular geometry of the water molecule. The net result is that water
molecules that are hydrogen bonded are farther apart than those that are not.
From a molecular viewpoint, let us now consider what happens to water molecules
as the temperature of water is lowered. At high temperatures, such as 80⬚C, the kinetic en-
ergy of the water molecules is sufficiently great to prevent hydrogen bonding from having
much of an orientation effect on the molecules. Hydrogen bonds are rapidly and continu-
ally being formed and broken. As the temperature is lowered, the accompanying decrease
in kinetic energy decreases molecular motion and the molecules move closer together.
This results in an increase in density. The kinetic energy is still sufficient to negate most
of the orientation effects from hydrogen bonding. When the temperature is lowered still
further, the kinetic energy finally becomes insufficient to prevent hydrogen bonding from
orienting molecules into definite patterns that require “open spaces” between molecules.
At 4⬚C, the temperature at which water has its maximum density, the trade-off between
random motion from kinetic energy and orientation from hydrogen bonding is such that
the molecules are as close together as they will ever be. Cooling below 4⬚C causes a de-
crease in density as hydrogen bonding causes more and more “open spaces” to be present
in the liquid. Density decrease continues down to the freezing point, at which tempera-
ture the hydrogen bonding causes molecular orientation to the maximum degree, and the
solid crystal lattice of ice is formed. This solid crystal lattice of ice (Fig. 11.23) is an open
structure, with the result that solid ice has a lower density than liquid water. Water is one
4°C FIGURE 11.22

A plot of density versus
1.00 0.9997 g/mL temperature for liquid
water.
(maximum density)
0.999 1.000 g/mL
Density (g/mL)
0.9982 g/mL
0.998
0.997
0 5 10 15 20 25
Temperature (°C)
FIGURE 11.23 The

crystalline structure of
ice. Normal covalent
bonds between oxygen
and hydrogen, which
hold water molecules
together, are shown
by solid short lines.
The weaker hydrogen
bonds are shown by
dotted lines.
of only a few substances known whose solid phase is less dense than the liquid phase at
the freezing point.
Two important consequences of ice being less dense than water are that ice floats
in liquid water and liquid water expands upon freezing.
When ice floats in liquid water, approximately 8% of its volume is above water. In
the case of icebergs found in far northern locations, 92% of the volume of an iceberg is
located below the liquid surface. The common expression “it is only the tip of the ice-
berg” is literally true; what is seen is only a very small part of what is actually there.
If a container is filled with water and sealed, the force generated from the expansion
of the water upon freezing will break the container. Antifreeze is added to car radiators in
the winter to prevent the water present from freezing and cracking the engine block; suf-
ficient force is generated from water expansion upon freezing to burst even iron or copper
parts. During the winter season, also, the weathering of rocks and concrete and the forma-
tion of “potholes” in the streets are hastened by the expansion of freezing water in cracks.
Water’s density pattern also explains why lakes freeze from top to bottom and
not vice versa, and why aquatic life can continue to exist for extended periods of time
in bodies of water that are “frozen over.” In the fall of the year, surface water is cooled
through contact with cold air. This water becomes denser than the warmer water un-
derneath and sinks. In this way, cool water is circulated from the top of a lake to the
bottom until the entire lake has reached the temperature of water’s maximum density,
4⬚C. During the circulation process, oxygen and nutrients are distributed throughout
the water. Upon further cooling, below 4⬚C, a new behavior pattern emerges. Surface
water, upon cooling, no longer sinks, since it is less dense than the water underneath.
Eventually a thin layer of surface water is cooled to the freezing point and changed to
ice, which floats because of its still lower density. Even in the coldest winters, lakes will
usually not freeze to a depth of more than a few feet because the ice forms an insulating
layer over the water. Thus, aquatic life can live throughout the winter, under the ice, in
water that is “thermally insulated” and contains nutrients. If water behaved as “normal”
substances do, freezing would occur from the bottom up, and most, if not all, aquatic life
would be destroyed.
For a few weeks in the early spring, circulation again occurs in a body of water
during the melting and warming of the surface water. This process stops when the sur-
face water is warmed above 4⬚C. Above this temperature surface water is less dense and
forms a layer over the colder water of higher density. This causes a thermal stratification
that persists through the hot summer months. In the fall, circulation again begins, and the
cycle is repeated.
FIGURE 11.24
Molecules on
the surface of a
liquid experience
an imbalance in
intermolecular forces.
Molecules within the
liquid are uniformly
attracted in all
directions.
Surface Tension
Surface tension is a property of liquids that is directly related to intermolecular forces.
Molecules within a liquid, because they are completely surrounded by other molecules,
experience equal intermolecular attractions in all directions. Molecules on the surface of a
liquid, because there are no molecules above them, experience an imbalance in intermo-
lecular attractions that pulls them toward the interior of the liquid. Figure 11.24 illustrates
this unbalance of force. Surface tension is a measure of the inward force on the surface
of a liquid caused by unbalanced intermolecular forces.
The strong attraction of water molecules for each other as a result of hydrogen bonding
gives water a very high surface tension. This high surface tension causes water surfaces to
seem to have a “membrane” or “skin” covering them. A steel needle or a razor blade will float
on the surface of water because of surface tension even though each has a density greater
than that of water. Water bugs are able to skitter across water because of surface tension.
Because of surface tension it is possible to fill a container with water slightly above FIGURE 11.25 Surface
the rim (see Fig. 11.25). Surface tension prevents the water from running over. It is also tension enables one
surface tension that causes water to form droplets in many situations. Almost everyone to fill a glass with
has observed water droplets that have formed on a car windshield or on greasy or waxed water above the rim.
surfaces. Surface tension causes water to resist increasing its surface area. For a given (Eric Schrader–Pearson
Science)
volume of any liquid, the geometrical shape having the minimum surface area is a sphere;
hence, water tends to form spherical droplets.
The property of surface tension helps water to rise in the narrow vessels in plant
stems and roots. High surface tension also helps to hold water in the small spaces
between soil particles.
The surface tension of a liquid can be “broken” by dissolved substances. Soaps and
detergents are used for this purpose. Water bugs will sink in soapy water. Soapy water
spreads out over a glass surface instead of forming droplets as pure water would.
1. Physical State Differences The physical state of the physical states include (1) definiteness of
of a substance is determined by (1) its chemical volume and shape, (2) relative density, (3) rela-
identity, (2) its temperature, and (3) the pressure tive compressibility, and (4) relative thermal
to which it is subjected. Distinguishing properties expansion.
2. Kinetic Molecular Theory of Matter The 7. Heat Energy Calculations Important physical
kinetic molecular theory of matter is a set of five quantities used when calculating the heat energy
statements that explains the physical behavior of added or removed from a chemical system are
the three states of matter. Two premises of this (1) heat of fusion/solidification, (2) heat of
theory are that the particles (atoms, molecules, vaporization/condensation, and (3) specific heat
or ions) present in a substance (1) are in con- for each of the three physical states.
stant motion and therefore possess kinetic en- 8. Evaporation The evaporation rate for a liquid
ergy and (2) interact with each other through depends on the liquid’s temperature and on its
attractions and repulsions and therefore possess surface area. The evaporative behavior of a liquid
potential energy. in a closed container is dependent on both the
3. Kinetic and Potential Energy Kinetic energy rate of evaporation and rate of condensation of
is energy that matter possesses because of the the liquid. With time, a steady-state situation (an
movement (motion) of its particles. Potential en- equilibrium state) is reached in which the rates of
ergy is energy that matter possesses as a result these two opposite processes become equal.
of its position, condition, and/or composition. 9. Vapor Pressure The pressure exerted by a
The solid state is characterized by a dominance vapor in equilibrium with its liquid is the vapor
of potential energy over kinetic energy. The liq- pressure of the liquid. Vapor pressure increases
uid state is characterized by potential energy and as liquid temperature increases.
kinetic energy of about the same magnitude. 10. Boiling and Boiling Points Boiling is a special
The gaseous state is characterized by a com- form of evaporation in which bubbles of vapor
plete dominance of kinetic energy over potential form within the liquid and rise to the surface.
energy. The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature
4. Endothermic and Exothermic Changes of at which the vapor pressure of the liquid be-
State Endothermic changes of state, which re- comes equal to the external (atmospheric)
quire the input of heat energy, are melting, subli- pressure exerted on the liquid. The boiling point
mation, and evaporation. Exothermic changes of of a liquid increases or decreases as the prevail-
state, which require the release of heat energy, ing atmospheric pressure increases or decreases.
are deposition, condensation, and freezing. 11. Intermolecular Forces Intermolecular forces
5. Specific Heat and Heat Capacity The specific are the attractive interactions between the parti-
heat of a substance is the amount of heat energy cles (molecules, ions, atoms) present in a chemi-
that is necessary to raise the temperature of 1 gram cal system. In the liquid state, five different types
of the substance in a specific physical state by 1⬚C. of intermolecular forces can be present, depend-
Heat capacity is the amount of heat energy needed ing on the composition of the liquid: (1) dipole–
to raise the temperature of a given quantity of a dipole interactions, (2) hydrogen bonds, (3)
substance in a specific physical state by 1⬚C. London forces, (4) ion–dipole interactions, and
6. Temperature Changes as a Substance Is (5) ion–ion interactions.
Heated As a solid is heated, its temperature 12. Properties of Water Because of hydrogen
rises until the melting point is reached, and then bonding the substance water has (1) a lower-
it remains constant during the change of state than-expected vapor pressure and a higher-than-
from solid to liquid. Heating the resultant liquid expected boiling point; (2) higher-than-expected
causes the temperature to rise again until the specific heat, heat of vaporization, and heat of
boiling point is reached. The temperature then solidification; (3) a seldom-encountered tem-
remains constant during the change of state from perature dependence for density resulting in the
liquid to gas. Heating the resultant gas again solid state being less dense than the liquid state;
causes the temperature to rise. and (4) a higher-than-expected surface tension.
Key Terms Listing

boiling Sec. 11.15 change of state Sec. 11.8 dipole–dipole interaction Sec. 11.16
boiling point Sec. 11.15 compressibility Sec. 11.2 electrostatic force Sec. 11.3
endothermic change of state heat of vaporization Sec. 11.11 London force Sec. 11.16
Sec. 11.8 hydrogen bond Sec. 11.16 normal boiling point Sec. 11.15
equilibrium state Sec. 11.13 intermolecular force Sec. 11.16 potential energy Sec. 11.3
evaporation Sec. 11.13 ion–dipole interaction Sec. 11.16 solid Sec. 11.4
exothermic change of state Sec. 11.8 ion–ion interaction Sec. 11.16 specific heat Sec. 11.9
gas Sec. 11.6 joule Sec. 11.9 surface tension Sec. 11.17
heat capacity Sec. 11.9 kinetic energy Sec. 11.3 thermal expansion Sec. 11.2
heat of condensation Sec. 11.11 kinetic molecular theory of matter vapor Sec. 11.13
heat of fusion Sec. 11.11 Sec. 11.3 vapor pressure Sec. 11.14
heat of solidification Sec. 11.11 liquid Sec. 11.5 volatile substance Sec. 11.14

PHYSICAL STATES OF MATTER 11.5 How many of the “highlighted” elements in the fol-
(SECS. 11.1 AND 11.2) lowing periodic table have the listed physical state
characterizations?
11.1 Indicate whether each of the following statements a. gases at room temperature and pressure
about the physical states of matter is true or false. b. liquids at room temperature and pressure
a. The term “definite volume” applies to both solids
and liquids.
b. Thermal expansion for a liquid is generally greater
than that of the corresponding solid.
c. The compressibility of a gas is generally less than
that of the corresponding liquid.
d. The density of a solid is about the same as that of
the corresponding gas.
about the physical states of matter is true or false.
a. The term “indefinite shape” applies to both liquids 11.6 How many of the “highlighted” elements in the pe-
and gases. riodic table in Problem 11.5 have the listed physical
b. Thermal expansion for a gas is generally less than state characterizations?
that of the corresponding liquid. a. solids at room temperature and pressure
c. The compressibility of a liquid is generally greater b. liquids at temperatures reached on a hot summer
than that of the corresponding solid. day
d. The density of a liquid is about the same as that of
the corresponding gas.
KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF MATTER
11.3 For which of the following pairs of elements do both
(SECS. 11.3–11.6)
members of the pair have the same physical state
(solid, liquid, gas) at room temperature and pressure? 11.7 Identify the principal type of energy (kinetic or
a. chlorine and oxygen potential) that is exhibited by each of the following.
b. mercury and silver a. a car parked on a hill
c. krypton and neon b. a car traveling 65 mi/hr on a level road
d. phosphorus and aluminum c. an elevator stopped at the 35th floor
11.4 For which of the following pairs of elements do both d. water behind a dam
members of the pair have the same physical state 11.8 Identify the principal type of energy (kinetic or
(solid, liquid, gas) at room temperature and pressure? potential) that is exhibited by each of the following.
a. fluorine and iodine a. a piece of coal
b. nitrogen and hydrogen b. a falling rock
c. sodium and sulfur c. a compressed metal spring
d. bromine and mercury d. a rolling soccer ball on a level field
11.9 Using kinetic molecular theory concepts, answer the 11.15 Indicate whether each of the following characteriza-
following questions. tions describes a gas, a liquid, or a solid. More than one
a. What is the relationship between temperature answer may be correct for some characterizations.
and the average velocity at which particles move? a. On a relative scale, density is described as high
b. What type of energy is related to cohesive forces? rather than low.
c. What effect does temperature have on the mag- b. On a relative scale, thermal expansion is
nitude of disruptive forces? described as very small rather than small.
d. In which of the three states of matter are disrup- c. In general, the interactions between particles are
tive forces present? very weak (almost zero).
11.10 Using kinetic molecular theory concepts, answer the d. In general, particles are far apart in a random
following questions. arrangement.
a. How do molecules transfer energy from one to 11.16 Indicate whether each of the following characteriza-
another? tions describes a gas, a liquid, or a solid. More than
b. What type of energy is related to disruptive one answer may be correct for some characterizations.
forces? a. On a relative scale, compressibility is described
c. What effect does temperature have on the mag- as large rather than small.
nitude of cohesive forces? b. On a relative scale, thermal expansion is de-
d. In which of the three states of matter are cohe- scribed as moderate rather than small.
sive forces present? c. In general, particles are held together in a rigid
11.11 Classify each of the following as a description of the structural arrangement.
solid, liquid, or gaseous state. d. In general, particles are very close together in a
a. Cohesive forces dominate over disruptive forces. random arrangement.
b. Neither potential energy nor kinetic energy
dominates.
c. Potential energy dominates over kinetic energy. PHYSICAL CHANGES OF STATE (SEC. 11.8)
d. There is very small thermal expansion and small
11.17 In which of the following pairs of physical state
compressibility.
changes are both members of the pair of the same
11.12 Classify each of the following as a description of the
thermicity (both exothermic or both endothermic)?
solid, liquid, or gaseous state.
a. evaporation and freezing
a. Disruptive forces dominate over cohesive forces.
b. melting and deposition
b. Kinetic energy dominates over potential energy.
c. freezing and condensation
c. Neither disruptive forces nor cohesive forces
d. sublimation and evaporation
dominate.
11.18 In which of the following pairs of physical state
d. There is large compressibility and moderate ther-
changes are both members of the pair of the same
mal expansion.
thermicity (both exothermic or both endothermic)?
a. sublimation and condensation
that relate to aspects of kinetic molecular theory is
b. freezing and deposition
true or false.
c. melting and evaporation
a. Particles in a solid occupy essentially fixed
d. deposition and condensation
positions.
11.19 In which of the pairs of state changes in Problem
b. The compressibility of gases is much greater than
11.17 is the final state (solid, liquid, gas) the same for
that of liquids and solids.
both members of the pair?
c. Liquids show little change in volume with changes
11.20 In which of the pairs of state changes in Problem
in temperature.
11.18 is the final state (solid, liquid, gas) the same for
d. In gases, particles are free to move about in all
both members of the pair?
directions.
11.21 In which of the pairs of state changes in Problem 11.17
are the two members of the pair opposite changes?
that relate to aspects of kinetic molecular theory is
11.22 In which of the pairs of state changes in Problem 11.18
true or false.
are the two members of the pair opposite changes?
a. A gas always exerts a pressure on the object or
container with which it is in contact.
b. The particles in both liquids and solids essen-
tially touch each other. HEAT ENERGY AND SPECIFIC HEAT (SEC. 11.9)
c. The constituent particles of a solid are located as 11.23 What is the heat energy equivalent of 345 kJ in each
close together as possible. of the following units?
d. There are a large number of particles per unit a. joules b. kilocalories
volume in a liquid. c. calories d. Calories
11.24 What is the heat energy equivalent of 721 J in each of 11.34 For each of the following pairs of changes, indicate
the following units? whether the first change releases more heat energy
a. kilojoules b. kilocalories or less heat energy than the second change.
c. Calories d. calories a. cooling 15.0 g of copper from 50⬚C to 30⬚C or
11.25 Which quantity of heat energy in each of the follow- cooling 20.0 g of copper from 72⬚C to 55⬚C
ing pairs of heat energy values is the larger? b. cooling 15.0 g of copper from 50⬚C to 20⬚C or
a. 2.0 J or 2.0 cal cooling 30.0 g of water from 30⬚C to 24⬚C
b. 1.0 kcal or 92 cal 11.35 What are the most commonly used units for specific
c. 100 Cal or 100 cal heat?
d. 2.3 Cal or 1000 kcal 11.36 What are the most commonly used units for heat
11.26 Which quantity of heat energy in each of the follow- capacity?
ing pairs of heat energy values is the larger? 11.37 Consider samples of the metals X and Z that have
a. 6.0 J or 20.0 cal the same mass and that are at the same tempera-
b. 1.0 kcal or 785 cal ture 135⬚C2. Using identical heating conditions,
c. 10 Cal or 1000 cal which metal would take the least time to reach a
d. 4.4 Cal or 2.5 kcal temperature of 45⬚C if metal X has a specific heat
11.27 Calculate the number of joules of heat energy of 0.36 J>1g # ⬚C2 and metal Z has a specific heat of
required to change the temperature of 40.0 g of each 0.34 J>1g # ⬚C2?
of the following substances from 25.0⬚C to 35.0⬚C. 11.38 Consider samples of the metals Q and R that have
a. copper b. iron the same mass and that are at the same tempera-
c. nitrogen d. ethyl alcohol ture 125⬚C2. Using identical cooling conditions,
11.28 Calculate the number of joules of heat energy which metal would take the least time to reach a
required to change the temperature of 30.0 g of each temperature of 15⬚C if metal Q has a specific heat
of the following substances from 32.0⬚C to 44.0⬚C. of 0.30 J>1g # ⬚C2 and metal R has a specific heat of
a. silver b. gold 0.28 J>1g # ⬚C2?
c. oxygen d. liquid water 11.39 Calculate the specific heat of a substance, if each of
11.29 Calculate the final temperature of a 7.73 g sample of the following amounts of heat energy is required to
aluminum metal, originally at a temperature of 43.2⬚C, raise the temperature of 40.0 g of the substance by
after each of the following heat energy changes occur. 3.0⬚C.
a. 145 J of heat energy is added. a. 39.8 J b. 46.9 J
b. 145 J of heat energy is removed. c. 57.8 J d. 75.0 J
c. 325 J of heat energy is added. 11.40 Calculate the specific heat of a substance, if each of the
d. 525 J of heat energy is removed. following amounts of heat energy is required to raise
11.30 Calculate the final temperature of a 6.44 g sample of the temperature of 60.0 g of the substance by 5.0⬚C.
zinc metal, originally at a temperature of 33.4⬚C, after a. 33.8 J b. 48.7 J
each of the following heat energy changes occur. c. 61.3 g d. 83.0 J
a. 163 J of heat energy is added. 11.41 Based on Table 11.2 data, what is the mass, in grams,
b. 163 J of heat energy is removed. of a copper sample that has a heat capacity of
c. 425 J of heat energy is added. 66.85 J/⬚C?
d. 273 J of heat energy is removed. 11.42 Based on Table 11.2 data, what is the mass, in grams,
11.31 What is the mass, in grams, of a sample of each of the of an aluminum sample that has a heat capacity of
following substances if its temperature changes from 158.9 J/⬚C?
20.0⬚C to 95⬚C when it absorbs 371 J of heat energy? 11.43 Which has the higher heat capacity, 40.0 g of gold or
a. iron b. zinc 80.0 g of copper?
c. liquid water d. ethyl alcohol 11.44 Which has the higher heat capacity, 20.0 g of liquid
11.32 What is the mass, in grams, of a sample of each of the water or 30.0 g of ethyl alcohol?
following substances if its temperature changes from 11.45 The heat capacity of 75.1 g of a metal is 28.7 J/⬚C.
30.0⬚C to 85⬚C when it absorbs 402 J of heat energy? What is the specific heat, in J>1g # ⬚C2, for this metal?
a. copper b. gold 11.46 The heat capacity of 4.71 g of a metal is 0.60 J/⬚C.
c. liquid water d. sodium chloride What is the specific heat, in J>1g # ⬚C2, for this metal?
11.33 For each of the following pairs of changes, indicate
whether the first change releases more heat energy
ENERGY AND CHANGES OF STATE (SEC. 11.11)
or less heat energy than the second change.
a. cooling 10.0 g of water from 50⬚C to 20⬚C or 11.47 Which one of the quantities heat of fusion, heat
cooling 15.0 g of water from 75⬚C to 25⬚C of solidification, heat of vaporization, or heat of
b. cooling 10.0 g of water from 50⬚C to 20⬚C or condensation is needed to calculate how much
cooling 20.0 g of copper from 37⬚C to 25⬚C energy is absorbed or released during each of the
following changes? (Do not actually carry out the en- 11.55 Two samples of one of the substances listed in
ergy calculation.) Table 11.3, each at the substance’s melting point, are
a. changing of 50.0 g of molten aluminum at 658⬚C melted with the following results:
(its melting point) to solid aluminum at the same a. 1273 J of heat energy are required to melt 6.21 g
temperature of the substance.
b. changing of 50.0 g of steam at 100⬚C to liquid b. 914 J of heat energy are required to melt 4.46 g
water at 100⬚C of the substance.
c. changing of 50.0 g of solid copper at its melting What is the chemical identity of the substance?
point 11083⬚C2 to molten copper at the same 11.56 Two samples of one of the substances listed in
temperature Table 11.3, each at the substance’s melting point, are
d. changing of 50.0 g of liquid water at 100⬚C to melted with the following results:
steam at 100⬚C a. 2095 J of heat energy are required to melt 5.33 g
11.48 Which one of the quantities heat of fusion, heat of of the substance.
solidification, heat of vaporization, or heat of con- b. 872 J of heat energy are required to melt 2.22 g
densation is needed to calculate how much energy of the substance.
is absorbed or released during each of the follow- What is the chemical identity of the substance?
ing changes? (Do not actually carry out the energy 11.57 The heat of fusion of Na at its melting point is 2.40
calculation.) kJ/mole. How much heat, in joules, must be ab-
a. changing of 35.0 g of liquid water at its boiling sorbed by 7.00 g of solid Na at its melting point to
point to steam at the same temperature convert it to molten Na?
b. changing of 35.0 g of molten copper at 1083⬚C 11.58 The heat of vaporization of Hg at its boiling point
(its melting point) to solid copper at 1083⬚C is 58.6 kJ/mole. How much heat, in joules, must be
c. changing of 35.0 g of steam at 100⬚C to liquid absorbed by 13.0 g of liquid Hg at its boiling point to
water at the same temperature convert it to gaseous Hg?
d. changing of 35.0 g of solid aluminum at its
melting point 1658⬚C2 to molten aluminum at
HEAT ENERGY CALCULATIONS (SEC. 11.12)
658⬚C
11.49 Calculate how much heat energy, in joules, would be 11.59 Draw the general shape of the temperature–energy
absorbed or evolved in each of the changes listed in graph (heating curve; Fig. 11.7) for carbon tetrachlo-
Problem 11.47. ride from -100⬚C to 100⬚C. The melting and boil-
11.50 Calculate how much heat energy, in joules, would be ing points of carbon tetrachloride are, respectively,
absorbed or evolved in each of the changes listed in -23⬚C and 77⬚C.
Problem 11.48. 11.60 Draw the general shape of the temperature–energy
11.51 If 3075 J of energy are absorbed in changing 15.0 g graph (heating curve; Fig. 11.7) for benzene from
of solid Cu at its melting point into molten (liquid) -50⬚C to 150⬚C. The melting and boiling points of
copper at the same temperature, how much energy, benzene are, respectively, 6⬚C and 80⬚C.
in joules, is released when 15.0 g of molten copper 11.61 The heating curve for a substance is
at its freezing point are changed to solid copper at 125
the same temperature?
100
11.52 If 34,500 J of energy are evolved in changing 25.0 g
Temperature (°C)
75
of gaseous ammonia at its boiling point tempera-
ture to the liquid state at the same temperature, how 50
much energy, in joules, is needed to change 25.0 g 25
of liquid ammonia at its boiling point to gaseous 0
ammonia at the same temperature? −25
11.53 The heats of fusion of sodium hydroxide and sodium
−50
sulfate, respectively, are 15.79 kJ/mole and 80.93 kJ/ 0 10 20 30 40
mole. How many times greater is the energy input Heating time (minutes)
needed to melt 1.00 mole of sodium sulfate than 1.00 Based on this heating curve
mole of sodium hydroxide at their melting points? a. What is the approximate boiling point of the
11.54 The heats of fusion of sodium thiosulfate and substance?
sodium carbonate, respectively, are 49.75 kJ/mole b. Is the substance a solid, liquid, or gas at 50⬚C?
and 71.88 kJ/mole. How many times greater is the c. After 30 minutes of heating time, what is the
energy input needed to melt 1.00 mole of sodium physical state of the substance?
carbonate than 1.00 mole of sodium thiosulfate at d. If the substance is heated from 20⬚C to 50⬚C,
their melting points? what will occur?
11.62 Based on the heating curve given in Problem 11.61 PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS (SECS. 11.13–11.15)
a. What is the approximate melting point of the
substance? 11.69 Match the following statements to the appropriate term:
b. Is the substance a solid, liquid, or gas at 15⬚C? vapor, vapor pressure, volatile, boiling, boiling point.
c. After 10 minutes of heating time, what is the a. This is a temperature at which the liquid vapor pres-
physical state of the substance? sure is equal to the external pressure on a liquid.
d. If the substance is cooled from 50⬚C to 10⬚C, b. This property can be measured by allowing a liq-
what will occur? uid to evaporate in a closed container.
11.63 Calculate the amount of heat energy needed, in c. In this process, bubbles of vapor form within a
joules, to convert 52.0 g of ice at - 18⬚C to each of liquid.
the following conditions of state and temperature. d. This temperature changes with changes in atmo-
a. ice at - 3⬚C spheric pressure.
b. water at 37⬚C 11.70 Match the following statements to the appropriate term:
c. water at 100⬚C vapor, vapor pressure, volatile, boiling, boiling point.
d. steam at 115⬚C a. This state involves gaseous molecules of a substance
11.64 Calculate the amount of heat energy needed, in at a temperature and pressure where we would or-
joules, to convert 87.0 g of ice at -28⬚C to each of dinarily expect the substance to be a liquid.
the following conditions of state and temperature. b. A substance that readily evaporates at room tem-
a. ice at 0⬚C perature because of a high vapor pressure has
b. water at 0⬚C this property.
c. steam at 100⬚C c. This process is a special form of evaporation.
d. steam at 120⬚C d. This property always increases in magnitude
11.65 The melting point of iron is 1530⬚C, its solid-state with increasing temperature.
specific heat is 0.444 J>1g # ⬚C2, and its heat of 11.71 Offer a concise, clear explanation for each of the fol-
fusion is 247 J/g. How much heat energy, in joules, lowing observations.
is required to melt 35.2 g of iron that is at each of the a. Increasing the temperature of a liquid increases
following initial temperatures? its vapor pressure.
a. its melting point b. It takes more time to cook an egg in boiling
b. 25C⬚ below its melting point water on a mountain top than at sea level.
c. 1120⬚C c. Food cooks faster in a pressure cooker than in an
d. 27⬚C open pan.
11.66 The melting point of calcium is 851⬚C, its solid- d. Evaporation is a cooling process.
state specific heat is 0.632 J>1g # ⬚C2, and its heat of 11.72 Offer a concise, clear explanation for each of the fol-
fusion is 233 J/g. How much heat energy, in joules, is lowing observations.
required to melt 52.0 g of calcium that is at each of a. Liquids do not all have the same vapor pressure
the following initial temperatures? at a given temperature.
a. its melting point b. The boiling point of a liquid varies with atmo-
b. 42C⬚ below its melting point spheric pressure.
c. 657⬚C c. A person emerging from an outdoor swimming
d. 27⬚C pool on a breezy warm day gets the shivers.
11.67 Calculate the heat required to convert 15.0 g of ethyl d. Food will cook just as fast in boiling water with
alcohol, C2H6O, from a solid at -135⬚C into the gas- the stove set at low heat as in boiling water at
eous state at 95⬚C. The normal melting and boil- high heat.
ing points of this substance are -117⬚C and 78⬚C, 11.73 What effect (increase, decrease, or no change) will
respectively. The heat of fusion is 109 J/g, and the each of the following changes have on the rate
heat of vaporization is 837 J/g. The specific heats of of evaporation of a liquid in an open cylindrical
the solid, liquid, and gaseous states are 0.97, 2.3, and container?
0.95 J>1g # ⬚C2. a. increasing the temperature of the liquid by 10⬚C
11.68 Calculate the heat required to convert 25.0 g of pro- at constant pressure
pyl alcohol, C3H8O, from a solid at - 150⬚C into the b. moving the container to a higher elevation (alti-
gaseous state at 115⬚C. The normal melting and boil- tude) at constant temperature
ing points of this substance are -127⬚C and 97⬚C, c. transferring the liquid, at constant temperature
respectively. The heat of fusion is 86.2 J/g, and the and pressure, to a new container whose dimen-
heat of vaporization is 694 J/g. The specific heats of sions are double those of the old container
the solid, liquid, and gaseous states are 2.36, 2.83, d. doubling the amount of liquid in the container at
and 1.76 J>1g # ⬚C2. constant temperature and pressure
11.74 What effect (increase, decrease, or no change) will 11.82 Indicate whether each of the following statements
each of the following changes have on the rate concerning intermolecular forces is true or false.
of evaporation of a liquid in an open cylindrical a. Hydrogen bonding occurs among all hydrogen-
container? containing molecules.
a. decreasing the external pressure on the surface b. The two molecules that participate in a hydrogen
of the liquid at constant temperature bond need not be identical.
b. transferring the liquid, at constant temperature c. London forces are the only attractive forces be-
and pressure, to a new container that doubles tween nonpolar molecules.
the surface area for the liquid d. Both molecules participating in a dipole–dipole
c. decreasing, at constant temperature and pres- interaction must be polar molecules.
sure, the amount of liquid in the container 11.83 In liquids, what is the relationship between boiling
d. decreasing the temperature of the liquid by 20⬚C point magnitude and the strength of intermolecular
at constant pressure forces?
11.75 What effect (increase, decrease, or no change) will 11.84 In liquids, what is the relationship between vapor
each of the changes in Problem 11.73 have on the pressure magnitude and the strength of intermolecu-
magnitude of the boiling point of a liquid in an open lar forces?
container? 11.85 For liquid-state samples of the following diatomic
11.76 What effect (increase, decrease, or no change) will molecules, indicate the type or types of intermo-
each of the changes in Problem 11.74 have on the lecular forces (dipole–dipole interactions, hydro-
magnitude of the boiling point of a liquid in an open gen bonding, London forces) present. There may
container? be more than one correct response in a given
11.77 What effect (increase, decrease, or no change) will situation.
each of the changes in Problem 11.73 have on the a. H2 b. HF
magnitude of the vapor pressure of a liquid in a c. CO d. F2
closed, rigid container? 11.86 For liquid-state samples of the following diatomic
11.78 What effect (increase, decrease, or no change) will molecules, indicate the type or types of intermo-
each of the changes in Problem 11.74 have on the lecular forces (dipole–dipole interactions, hydrogen
magnitude of the vapor pressure of a liquid in a bonding, London forces) present. There may be
closed, rigid container? more than one correct response in a given situation.
11.79 Identical amounts of liquids A and B are placed in a. O2 b. HCl
identical open containers on a tabletop. Liquid B c. Cl2 d. BrCl
evaporates at a faster rate than liquid A even though 11.87 For liquid-state samples of each of the molecules in
both liquids are at the same temperature. Explain Problem 11.85, identify the strongest type of intermo-
why this could be so. lecular force present.
11.80 Two liquid state samples of the same substance, 11.88 For liquid-state samples of each of the molecules in
of identical volume, are placed in open cylindrical Problem 11.86, identify the strongest type of intermo-
containers of different diameters on a tabletop. The lecular force present.
liquid in one container evaporates faster than the 11.89 In which of the following substances, in the pure
liquid in the other container even though both liq- liquid state, would hydrogen bonding occur?
uids are at the same temperature. Explain why this
could be so. a. H H
H C O C H
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES IN LIQUIDS H H

(SEC. 11.16)
b. H
concerning intermolecular forces is true or false. H C N H
a. Hydrogen bonds are extra strong London
forces. H H
b. Dipole–dipole interactions are electrostatic in
origin. c. H H H
c. All hydrogen bonds involve a hydrogen atom
H C C C O H
interacting with a lone pair of electrons on
another atom. H H H
d. A London force is a very weak permanent
dipole–dipole interaction. d. H I
11.90 In which of the following substances, in the pure 11.96 In each of the following pairs of substances, pre-
liquid state, would hydrogen bonding occur? dict which member of the pair would be expected
to have the higher boiling point, and indicate why.
a. H H b. Cl N H a. Cl2 and Br2 (both are nonpolar substances)
H C C H H b. O2 and CO (O2 is nonpolar and CO is polar)
c. H2O and H2S (both are polar substances)
H H d. C4H10 and CO2 (both are nonpolar substances)
11.97 In each of the following pairs of molecules, predict
c. H N N H d. H O which member of the pair would be expected to
have the greatest polarizability.
H H H C C H a. CH4 and SiH4 b. SiH4 and SiCl4
c. SiCl4 and GeBr4 d. N2 and C2H4
H
11.98 In each of the following pairs of molecules, predict
11.91 The oxygen atom in a water molecule 1H2O2 which member of the pair would be expected to
participates in two bonds to hydrogen atoms and have the greatest polarizability.
also possesses two nonbonding pairs of electrons. a. SiH4 and GeH4 b. GeCl4 and GeBr4
What is the maximum number of hydrogen bonds c. F2 and Cl2 d. CO2 and C3H8
that a water molecule can form to other water
molecules?
11.92 The nitrogen atom in an ammonia molecule 1NH3 2 HYDROGEN BONDING AND THE PROPERTIES
participates in three bonds to hydrogen atoms and OF WATER (SEC 11.17)
also possesses one nonbonding pair of electrons.
What is the maximum number of hydrogen bonds 11.99 Explain, in terms of hydrogen bonding, why water
that an ammonia molecule can form to other am- has a higher-than-expected boiling point.
monia molecules? 11.100 What would be the approximate boiling point of
11.93 Based on strength of intermolecular forces consid- water if hydrogen bonding effects were not present?
erations, explain why NF3 (a polar molecular com- 11.101 Explain why the maximum density of water occurs at
pound) is a gas at room temperature, while NiF3 a temperature that is higher than its freezing point.
(an ionic compound) is a solid at room tempera- 11.102 What is the “density behavior” pattern of a sample of
ture with a melting point that exceeds 1000⬚C. water as its temperature is lowered from 10⬚C to 0⬚C?
11.94 Based on strength of intermolecular forces con- 11.103 What structural feature of ice causes ice to be less
siderations, explain why H2O (a polar molecular dense than liquid water at water’s freezing point?
compound) is a liquid at room temperature, while 11.104 What would be the consequences, to humans, of
Na2O (an ionic compound) is a solid at room tem- solid ice being more dense than liquid water?
perature with a melting point that exceeds 1000⬚C. 11.105 Explain why large bodies of water have a moderat-
11.95 In each of the following pairs of substances, pre- ing effect on the climate of the surrounding area.
dict which member of the pair would be expected 11.106 Explain why the formation of “potholes” in streets
to have the higher boiling point, and indicate why. is hastened during the winter season.
a. F2 and H2 (both are nonpolar substances) 11.107 Define the property of liquids called surface
b. HF and HBr (both are polar substances) tension.
c. CO and N2 (CO is polar and N2 is nonpolar) 11.108 What is the relationship between intermolecular
d. C2H6 and O2 (both are nonpolar substances) force strength and the property of surface tension?
numbered problems.
11.109 The vapor pressure of SnCl4 reaches 400 mm Hg at
c. Which substance should have the stronger inter-
92⬚C. The vapor pressure of SnI4 reaches 400 mm
molecular forces?
Hg at 315⬚C.
d. At 80⬚C, which substance should have the lower
a. At 100⬚C, which substance should evaporate at the
vapor pressure?
faster rate?
b. Which substance should have the higher normal
boiling point?
11.110 The vapor pressure of PBr3 reaches 400 mm Hg at 11.114 If 10.0 g of ice at -20.0⬚C and 60.0 g of liquid water
150⬚C. The vapor pressure of PCl3 reaches 400 mm at 70.0⬚C are mixed in an insulated container, what
Hg at 57⬚C. will the final temperature of the liquid be?
a. At 100⬚C, which substance should evaporate at 11.115 A 500.0 g piece of metal at 50.0⬚C is placed in 100.0 g
the faster rate? of water at 10.0⬚C in an insulated container. The
b. Which substance should have the lower normal metal and water come to the same temperature of
boiling point? 23.4⬚C. What is the specific heat, in joules per gram
c. Which substance should have the weaker inter- per degree Celsius, of the metal?
molecular forces? 11.116 A 100.0 g piece of metal at 80.0⬚C is placed in 200.0
d. At 50⬚C, which substance should have the higher g of water at 20.0⬚C in an insulated container. The
vapor pressure? metal and water come to the same temperature of
11.111 A quantity of ice at 0.0⬚C was added to 40.0 g of 33.6⬚C. What is the specific heat, in joules per gram
water at 19.0⬚C in an insulated container. All of the per degree Celsius, of the metal?
ice melted, and the water temperature decreased to 11.117 Heat is added to a 25.3 g sample of a metal at the
0.0⬚C. How many grams of ice were added? constant rate of 136 J/sec. After the sample reaches
11.112 A quantity of ice at 0.0⬚C was added to 55.0 g of the metal’s melting point temperature, the temper-
water at 25.3⬚C in an insulated container. All of the ature remains constant for 4.3 min. Calculate the
ice melted, and the water temperature decreased to heat of fusion for this metal in joules per gram.
0.0⬚C. How many grams of ice were added? 11.118 Heat is added to a 35.2 g sample of a metal at the
11.113 If 10.0 g of ice at - 10.0⬚C and 30.0 g of liquid constant rate of 189 J/sec. After the sample reaches
water at 80.0⬚C are mixed in an insulated the metal’s melting point temperature, the temper-
container, what will the final temperature of the ature remains constant for 5.2 min. Calculate the
liquid be? heat of fusion for this metal in joules per gram.

MC 11.1 Which of the following statements concerning MC 11.4 In which of the following groupings of terms are
the physical states of the elements at room temperature and the three terms closely related?
pressure is correct? a. kinetic energy, energy of motion, cohesive forces
a. The vast majority of the elements are solids. b. potential energy, energy of attraction, disruptive forces
b. Elements in the liquid state are more numerous c. kinetic energy, electrostatic attractions, cohesive
than those in the gaseous state. forces
c. Only four of the elements are gases. d. more than one correct response
e. no correct response MC 11.5 In the liquid state, disruptive forces are
MC 11.2 Which of the following statements is not part of a. roughly of the same magnitude as cohesive forces.
the kinetic molecular theory of matter? b. very weak compared to cohesive forces.
a. Matter is composed of particles that are in con- c. more important than electrostatic attractions.
stant motion. d. more than one correct response
b. Particle velocity increases as the temperature e. no correct response
increases. MC 11.6 The phrases “particles close together and held in
c. Particles in a system cannot transfer energy to fixed positions” and “particles occupy the entire volume of
each other. the container” apply, respectively, to
d. more than one correct response a. liquids and solids. b. solids and liquids.
e. no correct response c. gases and liquids. d. liquids and gases.
MC 11.3 The phrases “indefinite volume” and “definite e. no correct response
shape” apply collectively to the MC 11.7 In which of the following pairs of state changes is
a. solid state of matter. the final state (solid, liquid, or gas) the same for both mem-
b. liquid state of matter. bers of the pair?
c. gaseous state of matter. a. sublimation and evaporation
d. more than one correct response b. condensation and freezing
e. no correct response c. deposition and melting
MC 11.8 Which of the following statements concerning MC 11.15 The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature
specific heat are correct? at which
a. Specific heat magnitude depends on the physical a. the rates of sublimation and evaporation become
state of a substance. equal.
b. J/g is a correct set of units for specific heat. b. the vapor pressure of the liquid becomes equal to
c. The lower its specific heat the greater the tem- the external pressure on the liquid.
perature change when heat is absorbed by a c. a state of liquid–vapor equilibrium is reached.
substance. d. more than one correct response
e. no correct response MC 11.16 Intermolecular forces differ from intramolecular
MC 11.9 Which of the following statements concerning forces in that the former
temperature change as a substance is heated is incorrect? a. occur only in liquids.
a. As a solid is heated, its temperature rises until its b. are much stronger.
melting point is reached. c. occur only between molecules that contain hydro-
b. During the time a solid changes to a liquid its tem- gen atoms.
perature remains constant. d. more than one correct response
c. During the time a liquid changes to a solid its tem- e. no correct response
perature decreases. MC 11.17 Which of the following statements about inter-
d. more than one correct response molecular forces is correct?
e. no correct response a. They must be overcome in order for molecules to
MC 11.10 Which of the following would have the same escape from the liquid to the vapor state.
numerical magnitude? b. They are electrostatic in origin.
a. heats of fusion and solidification c. They occur only among polar molecules.
b. heats of vaporization and condensation d. more than one correct response
c. heat of fusion and condensation e. no correct response
d. more than one correct response MC 11.18 Which of the following statements concerning
e. no correct response intermolecular forces is correct?
MC 11.11 Which of the following quantities is needed in a. Dipole–dipole interaction strength increases with
calculating the amount of heat energy released as liquid increasing polarity.
water is cooled from 100⬚C to 15⬚C? b. Hydrogen bonding occurs only between nonpolar
a. heat of condensation of water hydrogen-containing compounds.
b. heat of fusion for water c. London forces are extra strong dipole–dipole
c. specific heat for liquid water interactions.
MC 11.12 What is the final temperature of 30.1 g of water MC 11.19 In which of the following liquids would London
at 25.1⬚C after 455 J of heat energy is added? The specific forces be the predominant intermolecular force?
heat of liquid water is 4.184 J>1g # ⬚C2. a. HF b. Br2 c. H2O d. ClF
a. 28.7⬚C b. 30.1⬚C c. 42.5⬚C d. 52.3⬚C e. no correct response
e. no correct response MC 11.20 Hydrogen bonding among water molecules pro-
MC 11.13 Which of the following statements concerning duces which of the following property effects?
the process of evaporation is correct? a. causes water’s boiling point to be lower than predicted
a. Evaporation causes the liquid temperature to increase. b. causes ice to be less dense than liquid water
b. Increasing the liquid temperature increases the c. causes water’s specific heat to be higher than predicted
rate of evaporation. d. more than one correct response
c. Decreasing the liquid surface area decreases the e. no correct response
rate of evaporation.
ANSWERS TO MULTIPLCE CHOICE PRACTICE TEST
MC 11.14 Which of the following statements incorrectly MC 11.1 a MC 11.8 d MC 11.15 b
describes a liquid-vapor state of equilibrium? MC 11.2 c MC 11.9 c MC 11.16 e
a. two opposite processes take place at equal rates MC 11.3 e MC 11.10 d MC 11.17 d
b. no net macroscopic changes in the system can be MC 11.4 e MC 11.11 c MC 11.18 a
detected MC 11.5 a MC 11.12 a MC 11.19 b
c. two opposing chemical reactions are occurring at MC 11.6 e MC 11.13 d MC 11.20 d
equal rates MC 11.7 a MC 11.14 c
C H A P T E R
12
Gas Laws
12.1 Properties of Some Common Gases

12.2 Gas Law Variables
12.3 Boyle’s Law: A Pressure–Volume Relationship
12.4 Charles’s Law: A Temperature–Volume Relationship
12.5 Gay-Lussac’s Law: A Temperature–Pressure Relationship
12.6 The Combined Gas Law
12.7 Avogadro’s Law
12.8 An Ideal Gas
12.9 The Ideal Gas Law
12.10 Modified Forms of the Ideal Gas Law Equation
12.11 Volumes of Gases in Chemical Reactions
12.12 Volumes of Gases and the Limiting Reactant Concept
12.13 Molar Volume of a Gas
12.14 Chemical Calculations Using Molar Volume
12.15 Mixtures of Gases
12.16 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
12.1 PROPERTIES OF SOME COMMON GASES

Student Learning Focus: Be familiar with the color, odor, and toxicity properties for elements that
are gases at ordinary temperatures and pressures.
The word gas is used to refer to a substance that is normally in the gaseous state at ordi-
nary temperatures and pressures. The word vapor (Sec. 11.13) describes the gaseous form
of any substance that is a liquid or solid at normal temperatures and pressures. Thus, we
speak of oxygen gas and water vapor.
The normal state for 11 of the elements is that of a gas (Sec. 11.1). A listing of these
elements along with some of their properties is given in Table 12.1. This table also lists
some common compounds that are gases at room temperature and pressure.
488
Chapter 12 • Gas Laws 489
TABLE 12.1 Color, Odor, and Toxicity of Elements and Common Compounds that Are
Gases at Ordinary Temperatures and Pressures
Element Properties
H2 hydrogen colorless, odorless
O2 oxygen colorless, odorless
N2 nitrogen colorless, odorless
Cl2 chlorine greenish-yellow, choking odor, toxic
F2 fluorine pale yellow, pungent-odor, toxic
He helium colorless, odorless
Ne neon colorless, odorless
Ar argon colorless, odorless
Kr krypton colorless, odorless
Xe xenon colorless, odorless
Rn radon colorless, odorless
Compound Properties
CO2 carbon dioxide colorless, faintly pungent odor
CO carbon monoxide colorless, odorless, toxic
NH3 ammonia colorless, pungent odor, toxic
CH4 methane colorless, odorless
SO2 sulfur dioxide colorless, pungent choking odor, toxic
H2 S hydrogen sulfide colorless, rotten egg odor, toxic
HCl hydrogen chloride colorless, choking odor, toxic
NO2 nitrogen dioxide reddish-brown, irritating odor, toxic
The three most commonly encountered elemental gases—hydrogen, oxygen, and

nitrogen—are colorless and odorless. So also are all of the noble gases (Sec. 6.11). From
these observations one should not conclude that all gases, or even all elemental gases, are
colorless and odorless. Note from Table 12.1 the pale yellow and greenish-yellow colors
associated with elemental fluorine and chlorine and the irritating odors of both of them.
Many gaseous compounds have pungent odors.
Table 12.1 also brings to your attention again (recall Sec. 10.2) that all of the
elemental gases, except for the noble gases, exist in the form of diatomic molecules
(H2, O2, N2, F2, Cl2).
Many of the gaseous compounds listed in Table 12.1 are colorless, have odors, and
are toxic. Note that odor and toxicity do not have to go together. Carbon monoxide, a
deadly poison, is odorless but toxic.
12.2 GAS LAW VARIABLES

Student Learning Focus: List commonly used units for the gas law variables amount, pressure, tem-
perature, and volume. Know the relationships that exist among the commonly used pressure units
torr, millimeters of mercury, atmosphere, and pounds per square inch.
The behavior of a gas can be described reasonably well by simple quantitative relation-
ships called gas laws. Gas laws are generalizations that summarize in mathematical
490 Chapter 12 • Gas Laws
terms experimental observations about the relationships among the amount, pressure,
temperature, and volume of a gas.
It is only the gaseous state that is describable by simple mathematical laws. Laws
describing liquid and solid-state behavior are mathematically more complex. Consequently,
quantitative treatments of these latter behaviors will not be given in this text.
Before we discuss the mathematical form of the various gas laws, some comments
concerning the major variables involved in gas law calculations—amount, volume, tem-
perature, and pressure—are in order. Three of these four variables, amount, volume,
and temperature, have been discussed previously (Secs. 9.5, 3.4, and 3.11, respectively).
Amount is usually specified in terms of moles of gas present. The units of liter or millili-
ter are usually used in specifying gas volume. Only one of the three temperature scales
discussed in Section 3.11, the Kelvin scale, can be used in gas law calculations if the
results are to be valid. Therefore, you should be thoroughly familiar with the conversion
of Celsius and Fahrenheit scale readings to kelvins (Sec. 3.11). We have not yet discussed
pressure, the fourth variable. Comments concerning pressure occupy the remainder of
this section.
Pressure is the force applied per unit area, that is, the total force on a surface
divided by the area of that surface.
F 1force2
P 1pressure2 =
A 1area2
A sharp knife cuts better Note that pressure and force are not the same. Identical forces give rise to different pres-
than a dull knife. Because sures if they are acting on areas of different size. For areas of the same size, the larger the
the pushing force acts on
force, the greater the pressure.
a smaller area in a sharp
knife, the pressure is Barometers, manometers, and gauges are the instruments commonly used by chem-
greater and the knife cuts ists to measure gas pressure. Barometers and manometers measure pressure in terms of
better with less effort. the height of a column of mercury, whereas gauges are usually calibrated in terms of
force per area, for example, in pounds per square inch (psi).
The air that surrounds Earth exerts a pressure on all objects with which it has con-
tact. A barometer is a device used for measuring atmospheric pressure. It was invented by
the Italian physicist Evangelista Torricelli (1608–1647) in 1643. The essential components
of a barometer are shown in Figure 12.1. A barometer can be constructed by filling a long
glass tube, sealed at one end, all the way to the top with mercury and then inverting the
FIGURE 12.1 The Vacuum

essential components of
a mercury barometer.
Height of
mercury column
Pressure due to
mass of mercury
Mercury Pressure due to

mass of
atmosphere
tube (without letting any air in) into a dish of mercury. The mercury in the tube falls until Blood pressure is
the pressure from the mass of the mercury in the tube is just balanced by the pressure measured with the aid of
an apparatus known as
of the atmosphere on the mercury in the dish. The pressure of the atmosphere is then a sphygmomanometer,
expressed in terms of the height of the supported column of mercury. which is essentially
Mercury is the liquid of choice in a barometer for two reasons: (1) it is a very dense a barometer tube
liquid, and therefore only a short glass tube is needed; and (2) it has a very low vapor connected to an inflatable
pressure, so the pressure reading does not have to be corrected for vapor pressure. cuff by a hollow tube. A
normal blood pressure
The height of the mercury column is most often expressed in millimeters or inches. is 120:80; this ratio
Millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) are used in laboratory work. The most common use of means a systolic pressure
inches of mercury (in. Hg) is in weather reporting. of 120 mm Hg above
The pressure of the atmosphere varies with altitude, decreasing at the rate of atmospheric pressure
approximately 25 mm Hg per 1000 ft increase in altitude. It also fluctuates with weather and a diastolic pressure
of 80 mm Hg above
conditions. Recall the terminology used in a weather report: high-pressure front, low- atmospheric pressure.
pressure front, and so on. At sea level the height of a column of mercury in a barometer
fluctuates with weather conditions between about 740 and 770 mm Hg and averages
about 760 mm Hg. Another pressure unit, the atmosphere (atm), is defined in terms of
this average sea-level pressure.
1 atm = 760 mm Hg
Because of its size, 760 times larger than 1 mm Hg, the atmosphere unit is fre- The popping feeling in
quently used to express the high pressures encountered in many industrial processes and the ears encountered
when driving up a steep
in some experimental work.
mountainous road is
It is impractical to measure the pressure of gases other than air with a barometer. caused by the decrease in
One cannot usually introduce a mercury barometer directly into a container of a gas. pressure with altitude.
A manometer is a device used to measure gas pressures in a laboratory. It is a U-tube filled
with mercury. One side of the U-tube is connected to the container in which the pressure
is to be measured, and the other side is connected to a region of known pressure. Such
an arrangement is depicted in Figure 12.2. The gas in the container exerts a pressure on
the Hg on that side of the tube, while atmospheric pressure pushes on the open end.
A difference in the heights of the Hg columns in the two arms of the manometer indicates a
pressure difference between the gas and the atmosphere. In Figure 12.2 the gas pressure
in the container exceeds atmospheric pressure by an amount, ⌬P, that is equal to the dif-
ference in the heights of the Hg columns in the two arms.
Pcontainer = Patm + ⌬P
Atmospheric FIGURE 12.2 Pressure

pressure measurement by means
of a manometer.
. . . . . .
. . . . .
. .
.. .
.
.
.
. .
.
Pressure .
. ΔP
.
. . .
. . . of gas ..
Mercury
.
. . .
. .
.
. . . . .
. . .
. . . .
. . . .
. .
. . . . . . .
. . .
. . . .
TABLE 12.2 Units of Pressure and Their Relationship to the Unit Atmosphere
Unit Relationship to Atmosphere Area of Use

Atmosphere — gas law calculations
Millimeters of mercury 760 mm Hg = 1 atm gas law calculations
Inches of mercury 29.92 in. Hg = 1 atm weather reports
Pounds per square inch 14.68 psi = 1 atm stored or bottled gases
Pascal 1.013 * 10 Pa = 1 atm
5 calculations requiring SI units
Automobile tire pressure Pressures of contained gas samples can also be measured by special gas pres-
is measured in psi units. sure gauges attached to their containers. Such gauges are commonly found on tanks
The pressure inside the
tire is the pressure shown
(cylinders) of gas purchased commercially. These gauges are most often calibrated in
by the gauge plus atmo- terms of pounds per square inch (lb>in.2 or psi). The relationship between psi and at-
spheric pressure. mospheres is
14.68 psi = 1 atm
Table 12.2 summarizes the relationships among the various pressure units we have
discussed and also lists one additional pressure unit, the pascal. The pascal is the SI unit
(Sec. 3.1) of pressure.
The values 1 atm and 760 mm Hg are exact numbers since they arise from a defini-
tion. Consequently, these two values have an infinite number of significant figures. All
other values in Table 12.2 are not exact numbers; they are given to four significant figures
in the table.
The equalities of Table 12.2 can be used to construct conversion factors for problem
solving in the usual way (Sec. 3.6). Example 12.1 illustrates the use of such conversion
factors in the context of change in pressure unit problems.
EXAMPLE 12.1 Interconverting between Various Pressure Units
At a certain altitude, a weather balloon recorded a barometric pressure of 367 mm Hg.

Express this barometric pressure in the following units:
a. atmospheres b. inches Hg c. pounds per square inch
SOLUTION
a. The given quantity is 367 mm Hg, and the unit of the desired quantity is atmospheres.
367 mm Hg = ? atm
The conversion factor relating these two units is
1 atm
760 mm Hg
The result of using this conversion factor is
1 atm
367 mm Hg * = 0.48289473 atm 1calculator answer 2
760 mm Hg
= 0.483 atm 1correct answer 2
b. This time, the unit for the desired quantity is in. Hg.
367 mm Hg = ? in. Hg
A direct relationship between mm Hg and in. Hg is not given in Table 12.1. However,
the table does give the relationships of both inches and millimeters of mercury to
atmospheres. Hence, we can use atmospheres as an intermediate step in the unit
conversion sequence.
mm Hg h atm h in. Hg
1 atm 29.92 in. Hg
367 mm Hg * *
760 mm Hg 1 atm
= 14.44821 in. Hg 1 calculator answer 2
= 14.4 in. Hg 1 correct answer 2
c. The problem to be solved here is
367 mm Hg = ? psi
The unit conversion sequence will be
mm Hg h atm h psi
The dimensional analysis sequence of conversion factors, for this pathway, is
1 atm 14.68 psi
367 mm Hg * * = 7.0888947 psi 1calculator answer 2
760 mm Hg 1 atm
= 7.09 psi 1correct answer 2
Answer Double Check: Are the magnitudes of the answers reasonable? Yes. Since the given
pressure is approximately one-half atmosphere 1760>2 = 3802, all of the answers should be
numbers that are approximately one-half the numbers in the following chain of equalities.
760 mm Hg = 1 atm = 29.92 in. Hg = 14.68 psi
Such is the case, with answers of 0.483 atm, 14.4 in. Hg, and 7.09 psi.
Pressure Readings and Significant Figures

Standard procedure in obtaining pressures that are based on the height of a column of
mercury (barometric and manometric readings) is to estimate the column height to the
closest millimeter. Thus, such pressure readings have an uncertainty in the ones place,
that is, to the closest millimeter of mercury.
When considering significant figures for pressure readings, the preceding opera- A similar common sense
tional procedure must be taken into account. Millimeter of mercury pressure readings of approach to significant
figures for temperature
750, 730, 720, 650, etc., are considered to have three significant figures even though no readings was considered
decimal point is explicitly shown after the zero (Sec. 2.5). A pressure reading of 700 mm Hg in Section 3.11.
or 600 mm Hg is considered to possess three significant figures.
Note that the previous paragraph applies to ordinary pressures obtained using
mercury column heights. A very high pressure, such as 19,000 mm Hg (25 atm), would
be assumed to be a two-significant-figure pressure reading rather than a five-significant-
figure reading, without further information being given. Obviously, this pressure was not
determined by reading the height of a column of mercury.
12.3 BOYLE’S LAW: A PRESSURE–VOLUME RELATIONSHIP

Student Learning Focus: State Boyle’s law in words and as a mathematical equation; know how to
use this law in problem-solving situations.
Of the several relationships that exist between gas law variables, the first to be discovered
was the one that relates gas pressure to gas volume. It was formulated over 350 years
ago, in 1662, by the British chemist and physicist Robert Boyle (1627–1691; see “The
Human Side of Chemistry 12”) and is known as Boyle’s law. Boyle’s law states that the
The phrase “fixed mass volume of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to the pressure applied to the gas if
of gas” in the statement
the temperature is kept constant. This means that if the pressure on the gas increases, the
of Boyle’s law means that
the number of moles of volume decreases proportionally; and conversely, if the pressure is decreased, the volume
gas present is a constant. will increase. Doubling the pressure cuts the volume in half, tripling the pressure cuts
the volume to one-third its original value, quadrupling the pressure cuts the volume to
one-fourth, and so on. Any time two quantities are inversely proportional, as pressure and
volume are (Boyle’s law), one increases as the other decreases. Data illustrating Boyle’s
law are given in Figure 12.3.
Boyle’s law can be illustrated physically quite simply with the J-tube apparatus
shown in Figure 12.4. The pressure on the trapped gas is increased by adding mercury to
the J-tube. The volume of the trapped gas decreases as the pressure is raised.
Boyle’s law can be stated mathematically as
P * V = constant
In this expression, V is the volume of the gas at a given temperature and P is the pressure.
This expression thus indicates that at constant temperature the product of the pressure
times the volume is always the same (or constant). (Note that Boyle’s law is valid only if
the temperature of the gas does not change.)
An alternative, and more useful, mathematical form of Boyle’s law can be derived
by considering the following situation. Suppose a gas is at an initial pressure P1 and has
a volume V1. (We will use the subscript 1 to indicate the initial conditions.) Now imagine

Robert Boyle the gas law that bears his name. However, he His book The Sceptical Chymist (1661),
(1627–1691) made many other significant contributions in which attacked many of the false concepts
chemistry and physics. of previous years, influenced generations of
Robert Boyle, one of During his lifetime his name was known chemists. In this book he developed the con-
the most prominent of throughout the learned world as a leading cept of “primary particles,” a forerunner of our
seventeenth-century advocate of the “experimental philosophy.” present concept of atoms and elements. He at-
scientists, spent most of his life in England Through his efforts, the true value of experi- tempted to explain different kinds of matter in
a lthough he was born in Ireland. Born to mental investigation was first realized. terms of the organization and motion of these
wealth and nobility, the 14th of 15 children Historically, before chemistry could primary particles.
of the earl of Cork, he was an infant prodigy. become a flourishing science, a period of Boyle was a prolific writer on not only
At the age of 14 he was in Italy studying the “housecleaning” was needed to get rid of scientific but also philosophical and religious
works of the recently deceased Galileo. a ccumulated false concepts of previous topics. In later years he became increasingly
Like most men of the seventeenth cen- centuries. Perhaps Boyle’s greatest work in interested in religion. Upon his death, Boyle
tury who devoted themselves to science, Boyle chemistry was in this area. He was very instru- left a sum of money to fund the Boyle lectures,
was self-taught. Primarily known as a chemist mental in demolishing the false dogma of only which were to be not on science, but on the
and natural philosopher, he was best known for four elements—earth, air, water, and fire. defense of Christianity against unbelievers. ▪
FIGURE 12.3 Data

100 mm Hg
illustrating the inverse
proportionality
associated with
8 Boyle’s law.
200 mm Hg
8L
Volume (L)
6
400 mm Hg
4 4L
2 2L
0
100 200 300 400
Pressure (mm Hg)
FIGURE 12.4 An
apparatus for
demonstrating Boyle’s
law. The volume of
PHg the trapped gas in the
closed end of the
Gas
PHg tube (V1, V2, and V3)
PHg V3 decreases as mercury
V1 V2 is added through the
open end of the tube.
Pgas = PHg + Patm Mercury
that the pressure is changed to some final pressure P2. The volume will also change, and
we will call the final volume V2. (We will use the subscript 2 to indicate the final condi-
tions.) According to Boyle’s law,
P1 * V1 = constant
After the change in pressure and volume, we have
P2 * V2 = constant
The constant is the same in both cases; we are dealing with the same sample of gas. Thus,
we can combine the two PV products to give the equation
P1 * V1 = P2 * V2
This PV product equation is more commonly written without multiplication signs as
P1V1 = P2V2
When we know any three of the four quantities in this equation, we can calculate the
fourth, which will usually be the final pressure, P2, or the final volume, V2, as illustrated
in Examples 12.2 and 12.3.
EXAMPLE 12.2 Calculating Final Volume of a Gas Using Boyle’s Law with
Pressure Values Given in the Same Units
An air bubble forms at the bottom of a lake, where the total pressure is 2.45 atm. At this
pressure, the bubble has a volume of 3.1 mL. What volume, in milliliters, will it have
when it rises to the surface, where the pressure is 0.93 atm? Assume that the temperature
remains constant, as does the amount of gas in the bubble.
SOLUTION
A suggested first step in working all gas law problems involving two sets of conditions is
to analyze the given data in terms of initial and final conditions. Doing this, we find that
P1 = 2.45 atm P2 = 0.93 atm
V1 = 3.1 mL V2 = ? mL
Next, we rearrange Boyle’s law to isolate V2 (the quantity to be calculated) on one
side of the equation. This is accomplished by dividing both sides of the Boyle’s law equa-
tion by P2.
P1V1 = P2V2 1Boyle>s law2
P1V1 P2V2
= 1division of each side of the equation by P2 2
P2 P2
P1
V2 = V1 *
P2
Substituting the given data in the rearranged equation and doing the arithmetic gives
2.45 atm
V2 = 3.1 mL * = 8.1666666 mL 1calculator answer 2
0.93 atm
= 8.2 mL 1correct answer 2
Answer Double Check: Is the answer, in terms of magnitude, reasonable? Yes. Boyle’s
law involves an inverse proportion; as one variable increases, the other variable must
decrease. Decreasing the pressure on a fixed amount of gas, which is the case in this
problem, should result in a volume increase for the gas. Our answer is consistent with
this conclusion.
EXAMPLE 12.3 Calculating Final Volume of a Gas Using Boyle’s Law with
Pressure Values Given in Different Units
On an airliner, an inflated toy has a volume of 0.310 L at 25⬚C and 745 mm Hg. During
flight, the cabin pressure unexpectedly drops to 0.810 atm, with the temperature remain-
ing the same. What is the volume, in liters, of the toy at the new conditions?
SOLUTION
Analyzing the given data in terms of initial and final conditions gives
P1 = 745 mm Hg P2 = 0.810 atm
V1 = 0.310 L V2 = ? L
The temperature is constant; it will not enter into the calculation.
A slight complication exists with the pressure values; they are not given in the same
units. We must make the units the same before proceeding with the calculation. It does
not matter whether they are both millimeters of mercury or both atmospheres. The same
answer is obtained with either unit. Let us arbitrarily decide to change atmospheres to
mm Hg.
760 mm Hg
0.810 atm * = 615.6 mm Hg 1calculator answer 2
1 atm
= 616 mm Hg 1correct answer 2
Our given conditions are now
P1 = 745 mm Hg P2 = 616 mm Hg
V1 = 0.310 L V2 = ? L
Boyle’s law with V2 isolated on the left side has the form
P1
V2 = V1 *
P2
Plugging the given quantities into this equation and doing the arithmetic gives
745 mm Hg
V2 = 0.310 L * = 0.37491883 L 1calculator answer 2
616 mm Hg
= 0.375 L 1correct answer 2
The answer is reasonable. Decreased pressure, at constant temperature, should produce
a volume increase. Rearrangement of Boyle’s
In solving this problem, we arbitrarily chose to use mm Hg pressure units. If we had law from the form
used atmosphere pressure units instead, the answer obtained would still be the same, as P1 V1 = P2 V2 to the form
V1 >V2 = P2 >P1 shows
we now illustrate. that the law involves a
ratio of volumes and a
1 atm
745 mm Hg * = 0.98026315 atm 1calculator answer 2 ratio of pressures. What
760 mm Hg units should be used
for the volumes and the
= 0.980 atm 1 correct answer 2
pressures? Any volume
Using P1 = 0.980 atm and P2 = 0.810 atm, we get unit may be used as
long as it is used for
0.980 atm both volumes, because
V2 = 0.310 L * = 0.37506172 L 1calculator answer 2 the units will cancel.
0.810 atm Similarly, because of unit
= 0.375 L 1correct answer 2 cancellation, any pressure
unit may be used as long
as it is used for both
Answer Double Check: Is the direction of change for the volume of the gas reasonable? pressures.
Yes. A pressure increase, under Boyle’s law conditions (fixed quantity of gas, constant
temperature), should result in a volume increase. Such is the case.
Boyle’s law is consistent with kinetic molecular theory (Sec. 11.3). The theory states
that the pressure a gas exerts results from collisions of the gas molecules with the sides of
the container. The pressure of the gas at a given temperature is proportional to the num-
ber of collisions within a unit area on the container wall at a given instant. If the volume
of a container holding a specific number of gas molecules is increased, the total wall area
of the container will also increase and the number of collisions in a given area (the pres-
sure) will decrease due to the greater wall area. Conversely, if the volume of the container
FIGURE 12.5 The 2 L flask

pressure exerted
by a gas is doubled
1 L flask
when the volume of . .
the gas, at constant . .
.. .. ..
temperature, is cut by . .
. . .. .... .. . .
one-half. . .. ..
. . . . . ..... ..
. . .
. ..... .. .. .. .....
. . . .. . . . . . .
. . .
.
. . . ... . .. . .. .. ... .. .. .
. . . . . . . . ..
. . . . .. . . . . . . .
.
. . . . .
. . .. .. .... ... .. .. .. . .. ..
. . . .. . . .
. . . .
The volume is decreased by one-half. A given molecule hits container walls

twice as often.
(a) (b)
Filling a medical syringe is decreased, the wall area will be smaller and there will be more collisions in a given
with a liquid demon- wall area. This means an increase in pressure. Figure 12.5 illustrates this idea.
strates Boyle’s law. As the
plunger is drawn out of
The phenomenon described by Boyle’s law has practical importance. Helium-filled
the syringe, the increase research balloons, used to study the upper atmosphere, are only half-filled with helium
in volume inside the sy- when launched. As the balloon ascends, it encounters lower and lower pressures. As the
ringe chamber results in pressure decreases, the balloon expands until it reaches full inflation. A balloon launched
decreased pressure there. at full inflation would burst in the upper atmosphere because of the reduced external
The liquid, which is at
atmospheric pressure,
pressure.
flows into this reduced- Breathing is an example of Boyle’s law in action, as is the operation of a respirator,
pressure area. This liquid a machine designed to help patients with respiration difficulties to breathe. A respirator
is then expelled from contains a movable diaphragm that works in opposition to the patient’s lungs. When the
the chamber by pushing diaphragm is moved out so that the volume inside the respirator increases, the lower
the plunger back in. This
ejection of liquid does
pressure in the respirator allows air to expand out of the patient’s lungs. When the dia-
not involve Boyle’s law; phragm is moved in the opposite direction, the higher pressure inside the respirator com-
a liquid is incompress- presses the air into the lungs and causes them to increase in volume.
ible and mechanical force
pushes it out.
12.4 CHARLES’S LAW: A TEMPERATURE–VOLUME RELATIONSHIP
Student Learning Focus: State Charles’s law in words and as a mathematical equation; know how
to use this law in problem-solving situations.
The relationship between the temperature and the volume of a fixed amount of gas at con-
stant pressure is called Charles’s law, after the French scientist Jacques Charles (1746–1823;
see “The Human Side of Chemistry 13”). In 1787, over 100 years after the discovery of
Boyle’s law, Charles showed that a simple mathematical relationship exists between the
volume and temperature of a fixed amount of gas, at constant pressure, provided the tem-
perature is expressed in kelvins. Charles’s law states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas
is directly proportional to its Kelvin temperature if the pressure is kept constant. Contained
within the wording of this law is the phrase directly proportional; this contrasts with Boyle’s
law, which contains the phrase inversely proportional. Any time a direct proportion exists
between two quantities, one increases when the other increases, and one decreases when
the other decreases. Thus a direct proportion and an inverse proportion portray “opposite”
behaviors. The direct proportion relationship of Charles’s law means that if the temperature
increases the volume will also increase and if the temperature decreases the volume will
also decrease. Data illustrating Charles’s law are given in Figure 12.6.
FIGURE 12.6 Data

illustrating the direct
8 400 K proportionality
associated with
Charles’s law.
6
Volume (L)
8L
4 200 K
2 4L
100 K
2L
0
100 200 300 400
Temperature (K)
Charles’s law can be qualitatively illustrated by a balloon filled with air. If the bal-
loon is placed near a heat source, such as a lightbulb that has been on for some time,
the heat will cause the balloon to increase in size (volume). The change in volume is
usually apparent. Cooling the air in the balloon will cause the balloon to shrink (see
Fig. 12.7).
Charles’s law can be stated mathematically as
V
= constant When you use the math-
T ematical form of Charles’s
law, the temperatures
In this expression V is the volume of a gas at a given pressure and T is the temper- used must always be
ature, expressed on the Kelvin temperature scale. A consideration of two sets of Kelvin scale temperatures.

Jacques Alexandre contributions to the developing science of balloon- different gases expanded the same way when
César Charles ing. He was the first to design a hydrogen-filled, heated. From further observations he was able
(1746–1823) rather than air-filled, balloon for manned flight. In to estimate the degree of thermal expansion
constructing the balloon Charles showed much for gases as a function of temperature. This led
Jacques Alexandre César innovation in the design of scientific apparatus. to what is now known as Charles’s law.
Charles, a French physi- The first hot-air balloon flight with Charles never published his work. He
cist, had an early career completely removed passengers was made on November 17, 1783. did, however, tell another scientist, Joseph
from science. He worked at a routine job in Burning straw was the source of heat for such Louis Gay-Lussac (“The Human Side of
the Bureau of Finances in Paris. All was well hot-air balloons. A few days later Charles Chemistry 14”), about it, and it was Gay-Lussac
until, during a period of government austerity, made an ascent in his hydrogen-filled balloon. who made it public. In an article on the ex-
he was discharged from his job. Unemployed, His landing put him in a rural area. The peas- pansion of gases by heat, published in 1802,
he decided to study physics. ants in the area, terrified at their first exposure Gay-Lussac described, criticized, and consid-
During this time of transition in Charles’s to manned flight, attacked and destroyed the erably improved upon Charles’s experimental
life, hot-air ballooning, both unmanned and balloon, using pitchforks. procedures.
manned, was in its first stages of development. In the process of working with balloons, Charles’s contributions to science were
Charles was best known to his colleagues for his about 1787, Charles observed that several limited to those associated with his ballooning. ▪
FIGURE 12.7 As liquid

nitrogen (- 196⬚C) is
poured over a balloon,
the gas in the balloon is
cooled and the volume
decreases. (Richard
Megna/Fundamental
Photographs, NYC)
temperature–volume conditions for a gas, in a manner similar to that done for Boyle’s law,
leads to the following useful form of the law.
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
Again, note that in any of the mathematical expressions of Charles’s laws, or any other gas
law, the symbol T is understood to mean the Kelvin temperature.
EXAMPLE 12.4 Calculating Final Volume of a Gas Using Charles’s Law
A helium-filled birthday balloon has a volume of 223 mL at a temperature of 24⬚C (room

temperature). The balloon is placed in a car overnight during the winter where the tem-
perature drops to -13⬚C. What is the balloon’s volume, in milliliters, when it is removed
from the car in the morning (assuming no helium has escaped)?
SOLUTION
Writing all the given data in the form of initial and final conditions, we have
V1 = 223 mL V2 = ? mL
T1 = 24⬚C = 297 K T2 = -13⬚C = 260 K
Note that both of the given temperatures have been converted to Kelvin scale readings
by adding 273 to them.
Rearranging Charles’s law to isolate V2, the desired quantity, on one side of the
equation is accomplished by multiplying each side of the equation by T2.
V1 V2
= 1Charles>s law2
T1 T2
V1T2 V2T2
= 1multiplication of each side by T2 2
T1 T2
T2
V2 = V1 *
T1
Substituting the given data into the equation and doing the arithmetic gives
260 K
V2 = 223 mL *
297 K
= 195.21885 mL 1calculator answer 2
= 195 mL 1correct answer 2
Answer Double Check: Is the direction of change for the temperature reasonable? Yes.
Since Charles’s law involves a direct proportion, as the temperature decreases, at constant
pressure, the volume should also decrease. Such is the case.
Figure 12.8 is a graph showing four sets of volume–temperature data for a gas, each
data set being at a different constant pressure. The plot of each data set gives a straight
line. These four straight lines can be used to show the basis for the use of the Kelvin tem-
perature scale in gas law calculations. If each of these lines is extrapolated (extended) to
lower temperatures (the dashed portions of the lines in Fig. 12.8), we find that they all in-
tersect at a common point on the temperature axis. This point of intersection, correspond-
ing to a temperature value of -273⬚C, is the point at which the volume of the gas “would
become” zero. Notice that the words “would become” in the last sentence are in quotation
marks. In reality, the volume of a gas never reaches zero; all gases would liquefy before
they reach a temperature of -273⬚C, and Charles’s law would no longer apply. Thus, the
extrapolated portions of the four straight lines portray a hypothetical situation. It is not,
however, a situation without significance.
The Scottish mathematician and physicist William Thomson (1824–1907), better
known as Lord Kelvin, was the first to recognize the importance of the “zero-volume”
temperature value of -273⬚C. It is the lowest temperature that is theoretically attainable,
a temperature now referred to as absolute zero. It is this temperature that is now used
as the starting point for the temperature scale called the Kelvin temperature scale. When
temperatures are specified in kelvins, Charles’s law assumes the simple mathematical
form in which it was previously given in this section.
Charles’s law is readily understood in terms of kinetic molecular theory. The theory
states that when the temperature of a gas increases, the velocity of the gas particles
increases. The speedier particles hit the container walls harder. For the pressure of the gas
P1
4.0
P2
3.0
Volume (L)
P3
2.0
Extrapolation P4
1.0
T = −273°C
0
−250 −200 −150 −100 −50 0 50
Temperature (°C)
FIGURE 12.8 A graph showing the variation of the volume of a gas with
temperature at a constant pressure. Each line in the graph represents a
different fixed pressure for the gas. The pressures increase from P1 to P4.
The solid portion of each line represents the temperature region before the
gas condenses to a liquid. The extrapolated (dashed) portion of each line
represents the hypothetical volume of the gas if it had not condensed. All
extrapolated lines intersect at the same point, a point corresponding to zero
volume and a temperature of - 273⬚C.
Thunder can be related to remain constant, it is necessary for the container volume to increase. This will result
to Charles’s law. A typical in fewer particles hitting a unit area of wall at a given instant. A similar argument applies
lightning bolt heats the
air around it to 30,000⬚C
if the temperature of the gas is lowered, only this time the velocity of the molecules
in a few microseconds. decreases and the wall area (volume) must decrease to increase the number of collisions in
The heated air expands a given area in a given time.
rapidly and pushes Charles’s law is the principle used in the operation of a convection heater. When air
against the cooler sur- comes in contact with the heating element, it expands (its density becomes less). The hot,
rounding air. This creates
the shock wave of sound
less dense air rises, causing continuous circulation of warm air. This same principle has
known as thunder. ramifications in closed rooms in which there is not effective air circulation. The warmer
and less dense air stays near the top of the room. This is desirable in the summer but not
in the winter.
In a similar manner, Charles’s law offers an explanation for the wind currents
(breezes) prevalent at many beach locations. Air above land heats up faster than air above
water. As the temperature of the air above land increases, the density of this air decreases
because the air occupies a larger volume (Charles’s law). This less-dense air rises and the
lower temperature air above the water moves inland, replaces the rising less-dense air,
and creates a breeze.
12.5 GAY-LUSSAC’S LAW: A TEMPERATURE–PRESSURE

RELATIONSHIP
Student Learning Focus: State Gay-Lussac’s law in words and as a mathematical equation; know
how to use this law in problem-solving situations.
If a gas is placed in a rigid container, one that cannot expand, the volume of the gas
must remain constant. What is the relationship between the pressure and temperature
of a fixed amount of gas in such a situation? This question was answered in 1802 by the
French scientist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778–1850; see “The Human Side of Chemistry
14”). Performing a number of experiments similar to those performed by Charles, he dis-
covered the relationship between pressure and the temperature of a fixed amount of gas
when it is held at constant volume. Gay-Lussac’s law states that the pressure of a fixed

Joseph Louis Gay- baptized. His father added the appendage earlier by Charles. His greatest achievement,
Lussac (1778–1850) Lussac (which has geographical connotations) which came in 1808, was work involving the
to the family name to distinguish his family ratio, by volume, in which gases combine dur-
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, from many others in the area with the same ing chemical reactions. From this work came
the eldest of five chil- surname. the law of combining volumes that now bears
dren, is considered one Gay-Lussac devoted nearly all of his life his name (Sec. 12.9).
of the greatest scholars France has produced. to pure and applied science. Much of it, from He was the first to isolate the ele-
Because of the French Revolution and the un- 1809 on, was spent as a professor at the Ecole ments potassium and boron. With a coworker,
certainties created by it, Gay-Lussac’s formal Polytechnique in Paris. He did have a brief he made the first thorough studies of iodine
education had to be delayed until he was 16. political career (1831–1838) as an elected and cyanogen. He was an early pioneer in the
He quickly distinguished himself as a student. French legislator. area of volumetric analysis. The Gay-Lussac
His grandfather was a physician and Gay-Lussac’s first major research tower, an essential part of sulfuric acid plants
his father a lawyer. The family surname was (1801–1802) involved the thermal expansion of for many years, is evidence of his interest in
actually Gay, the surname by which he was gases. Here he followed up on work performed chemical technology. ▪
mass of gas is directly proportional to its Kelvin temperature if the volume is kept constant.
Thus, as the temperature of the gas increases, the pressure increases; conversely, as tem-
perature is decreased, pressure decreases.
The kinetic molecular theory explanation for Gay-Lussac’s law is very simple. As
the temperature increases, the velocity of the gas molecules increases. This increases the
number of times the molecules hit the container walls in a given time, which translates
into an increase in pressure.
Gay-Lussac’s law explains the observed pressure increase inside an automobile tire
after a car has been driven for a period of time. It also explains why aerosol cans should
not be disposed of in a fire. The aerosol can keeps the gas at a constant volume. The
elevated temperatures encountered in the fire increase the pressure of the confined gas
to the point that the can will probably explode.
Mathematical forms of Gay-Lussac’s law are
P P1 P2
= constant and =
T T1 T2
Again, note that the symbol T is understood to mean the Kelvin temperature. Any pres-
sure unit is acceptable; P1 and P2 must, however, be in the same units.
EXAMPLE 12.5 Calculating Final Temperature of a Gas Using

Gay-Lussac’s Law
A pressurized can of shaving cream contains a gas under an internal pressure of 1.065
atm at 24⬚C (room temperature). The can itself is able to withstand an internal pressure
of 3.00 atm before it explodes. What temperature, in degrees Celsius, is needed to elevate
the internal pressure within the can to its maximum value?
SOLUTION
P1 = 1.065 atm P2 = 3.00 atm
T1 = 24⬚C = 297 K T2 = ? K
Rearrangement of Gay-Lussac’s law to isolate T2, the quantity we desire, on the left side
of the equation gives
P2
T2 = T1 *
P1
Substituting the given data into the equation and doing the arithmetic gives
3.00 atm
T2 = 297 K * = 836.61971 K 1calculator answer 2
1.065 atm
= 837 K 1correct answer 2
Our answer is in kelvins. We were asked for the temperature in degrees Celsius. Subtracting
273 from the Kelvin temperature will give us the Celsius temperature.
T1⬚C 2 = 837 K - 273 = 564⬚C
Answer Double Check: Is the direction of change for the temperature reasonable? Yes.
Because pressure and temperature are directly proportional under Gay-Lussac law con-
ditions, an increased pressure should produce a temperature increase. Such is the case.
12.6 THE COMBINED GAS LAW

Student Learning Focus: State the combined gas law in words and as a mathematical equation;
know how to use the law in problem-solving situations.
The combined gas law states that the product of the pressure and volume of a fixed mass of
gas is directly proportional to its Kelvin temperature. It is obtained by mathematically combin-
ing Boyle’s, Charles’s, and Gay-Lussac’s laws. The combined gas law’s mathematical form is
P1V1 P2V2
=
T1 T2
This combined gas law is a much more versatile equation than the individual gas
laws. With it, for a fixed mass of gas, a change in any one of the other three gas law vari-
ables brought about by changes in both of the remaining two variables can be calculated.
Each of the individual gas laws requires that an additional variable besides amount of gas
be held constant.
The combined gas law reduces (simplifies) to each of the equations for the indi-
vidual gas laws when the appropriate variable is held constant. These reduction relation-
ships are given in Table 12.3. Because of the ease with which they can be derived from
the combined gas law, you need not memorize the mathematical forms for the individual
gas laws if you know the mathematical form for the combined gas law.
The three most used forms of the combined gas law are those that isolate V2, P2,
and T2 on the left side of the equation.
P1 T2
V2 = V1 * *
P2 T1
V1 T2
P2 = P1 * *
V2 T1
P2 V2
T2 = T1 * *
P1 V1
TABLE 12.3 Relationship of the Individual Gas Laws to the Combined Gas Law
Constancy Requirement
Law (for a fixed mass of gas) Mathematical Form of the Law
Combined gas law none P1V1 P2V2
=
T1 T2
Boyle’s law T1 = T2 Since T1 and T2 are equal, substitute T1 for
T2 in the combined gas law and cancel.
P1V1 P2V2
= or P1V1 = P2V2
T1 T1
Charles’s law P1 = P2 Since P1 and P2 are equal, substitute P1 for
P2 in the combined gas law and cancel.
P1V1 P1V2 V1 V2
= or =
T1 T2 T1 T2
Gay-Lussac’s law V1 = V 2 Since V1 and V2 are equal, substitute V1 for
V2 in the combined gas law and cancel.
P1V1 P2V1 P1 P2
= or =
T1 T2 T1 T2
Students frequently have questions about the algebra involved in accomplishing these
rearrangements. Example 12.6 should clear up any such questions. Examples 12.7 and 12.8
illustrate the use of the combined gas law equation.
EXAMPLE 12.6 Mathematical Manipulation of the Combined Gas Law
Rearrange the standard form of the combined gas law equation such that the variable P2
is by itself on the left side of the equation.
SOLUTION
In rearranging the standard form of the combined gas law into various formats, the fol-
lowing rule from algebra is useful.
If two fractions are equal,
a c
=
b d
then the numerator of the first fraction (a) times the denominator of the second fraction (d) is
equal to the numerator of the second fraction (c) times the denominator of the first fraction (b).
a c
If = then a * d = c * b
b d
Applying this rule to the standard form of the combined gas law gives
P1V1 P2V2
= h P1V1T2 = P2V2T1
T1 T2
With the combined gas law in the form P1V1T2 = P2V2T1, any of the six variables can be
isolated by a simple division. To isolate P2, we divide both sides of the equation by V2T1
(the other quantities on the same side of the equation as P2).
P1V1T2 P2V2T1
=
V2T1 V2T1
P1V1T2 V1 T2
P2 = or P2 = P1 * *
V2T1 V2 T1
EXAMPLE 12.7 Calculating Final Volume of a Gas Using the Combined

Gas Law
Hydrogen gas 1H2 2 is the least dense of all gases. A sample of H2 gas is found to
occupy a volume of 1.23 L at 755 mm Hg and 0⬚C. What volume, in liters, will this same gas
sample occupy at 735 mm Hg pressure and a temperature of 50⬚C?
SOLUTION
P1 = 755 mm Hg P2 = 735 mm Hg
V1 = 1.23 L V2 = ? L
T1 = 0⬚C = 273 K T2 = 50⬚C = 323 K
Rearrangement of the combined gas law expression to isolate V2 on the left side gives
P1 T2
V2 = V1 * *
P2 T1
Substituting numerical values into this equation and doing the arithmetic gives
755 mm Hg 323 K
V2 = 1.23 L * *
735 mm Hg 273 K
= 1.494874 L 1calculator answer 2
Answer Double Check: Is the setup for solving the problem reasonable? Yes. The origi-
nal volume, V1, is multiplied by a pressure factor and a temperature factor. The pressure
factor has a value greater than one because volume increases with a decrease in pressure.
The temperature factor also has a value greater than one because volume increases as
temperature increases.
Chemical Insight: HYDROGEN

Naturally occurring hydrogen gas 1H22 is relatively rare on Earth. Only trace amounts of
it are found in the Earth’s atmosphere, even though the element hydrogen is the most
abundant element in outer space. The reason for the lack of hydrogen in the Earth’s
atmosphere relates to the high velocities at which H2 molecules travel. The smaller
the mass of a molecule, the greater its velocity at a given temperature. Possessing the
smallest mass of any molecule, gaseous H2 molecules obtain molecular velocities suf-
ficient for the H2 molecules to overcome the gravitational attraction of the Earth and
escape into outer space.
Industrial production of H2 is an energy-intensive process, so the production
method used is determined by energy costs. In areas where hydroelectric power is
plentiful, such as in Scandinavia, H2 is obtained from the electrolysis of water. In the
United States and other countries where natural gas is plentiful from oil-refinery opera-
tions, thermal methods are used to produce H2. The most common method involves
the reaction of CH4 (obtained from natural gas) with water. Industrially produced H2 is
primarily used to make other products. For example, raw materials for the production
of ammonia (NH3) are elemental hydrogen and elemental nitrogen; ammonia produc-
tion is the keystone compound in chemical fertilizer production.
EXAMPLE 12.8 Calculating Final Temperature of a Gas Using the

Combined Gas Law
A sample of helium gas [the gas used in lighter-than-air airships (blimps)] occupies a vol-
ume of 180.0 mL at a pressure of 0.800 atm and a temperature of 29⬚C. What will be the
temperature of the gas, in degrees Celsius, if the volume of the container is decreased to
90.0 mL and the pressure is increased to 1.60 atm?
SOLUTION
P1 = 0.800 atm P2 = 1.60 atm
V1 = 180.0 mL V2 = 90.0 mL
T1 = 29⬚C = 302 K T2 = ?⬚C
Rearrangement of the combined gas law to isolate T2 on the left side of the equation gives
P2 V2
T2 = T1 * *
P1 V1
Substituting the given data into this equation and doing the arithmetic gives
1.60 atm 90.0 mL
T2 = 302 K * *
0.800 atm 180.0 mL
= 302 K 1calculator and correct answer in kelvins2
Converting the temperature to the Celsius scale by subtracting 273 gives 29⬚C as the final
answer.
T1⬚C2 = 302 K - 273 = 29⬚C
Answer Double Check: The temperature did not change! Is this a reasonable answer?
Yes. The pressure correction factor, considered by itself, would cause the temperature to
increase by a factor of 2; the pressure was doubled. The volume correction factor, consid-
ered by itself, would cause the temperature to decrease by a factor of 2; the volume was
halved. Considered together, the effects of the two factors cancel each other and result in
the temperature’s not changing.
Chemical Insight: HELIUM

Helium is the only element discovered extraterrestrially before being found on Earth.
In 1868, spectroscopic studies of the Sun’s solar flares, during an eclipse, revealed the
existence of a bright yellow line in the solar flare light that could not be ascribed to any
known element. The name helium comes from the Greek helios, which means “sun.” It
was not until 1895 that terrestrial evidence was obtained for helium’s existence of Earth.
Natural gas serves as the only economical source of helium at present. It is now
known that helium is continuously produced in Earth’s rocks by the radioactive decay
of uranium and thorium present in small amounts in the rocks. Some of this helium,
through the process of diffusion through rock formations, becomes incorporated into
natural gas deposits, from which it can be isolated during processing of the natural gas.
12.7 AVOGADRO’S LAW

Student Learning Focus: State Avogadro’s law in words and as a mathematical equation; know
how to use the law in problem-solving situations.
In the year 1811, Amedeo Avogadro, the same Avogadro who is the namesake for
Avogadro’s number (Sec. 9.5), published observations dealing with the relationship
between the volume and amount of a gas. His observations are now embodied in what is
called Avogadro’s law. Several different ways of stating this law exist, two of which are
considered in this section.
Avogadro’s earliest formulation of the law, which is in terms of the number of mol-
ecules present in equal volumes of different gases, is considered first. Avogadro’s law
Boyle’s law, Charles’s
states that equal volumes of different gases, measured at the same temperature and pres-
law, Gay-Lussac’s law,
sure, contain equal numbers of molecules. Although Avogadro’s law seems very simple and the combined gas
in terms of today’s scientific knowledge, it was a very astute conclusion at the time it law all share a common
was first proposed. At that time scientists were still struggling with the differences be- feature—in each case a
tween atoms and molecules, and Avogadro’s reasoning eventually led to the realization fixed amount of gas is
present. What happens
that many of the common gaseous elements, such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and
if the amount of gas
chlorine, occur naturally as diatomic molecules (H2, O2, N2, Cl2) rather than single atoms. present in a sample is
Equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure, because they contain changed? Avogadro’s law
equal numbers of molecules, must also contain equal numbers of moles of molecules. deals with this situation.
Thus, Avogadro’s law can also be stated in terms of volumes and moles rather than vol-
umes and molecules.
Avogadro’s law can also be stated in another alternative form, which uses termi-
nology similar to that used in Boyle’s, Charles’s, and Gay-Lussac’s laws. This alternative
form deals with two samples of the same gas rather than two samples of different gases.
Avogadro’s law states that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the number of
moles of gas present if the temperature and pressure are kept constant. When the original
number of moles of gas present is doubled, the volume of the gas increases twofold.
Halving the number of moles present halves the volume.
Experimentally, it is easy to show the direct relationship between volume and amount
of gas present at constant temperature and pressure. All that is needed is an inflated balloon.
Adding more gas to the balloon increases the volume of the balloon. The more gas added
to the balloon, the greater the volume increase. Conversely, letting gas out of the balloon
decreases its volume. It should be noted that this balloon demonstration is an approximate
rather than exact demonstration for the law, since the tension of the rubber material from
which the balloon is made exerts an effect on the proportionality between volume and moles.
Mathematical statements of Avogadro’s law, where n represents the number of moles, are
V V1 V2
= constant and =
n n1 n2
Note the similarity in mathematical form between this law and the laws of Charles and
Gay-Lussac. The similarity results from all three laws’ being direct proportionality relation-
ships between two variables.
Avogadro’s law in the form
V1 V2
=
n1 n2
can be used to calculate the change in the volume of a gas when the molar amount of
the gas changes. Example 12.9 illustrates the use of Avogadro’s law in this context, which
involves the comparison of two different samples of the same gas.
Avogadro’s law can also be used in comparisons involving samples of two different
gases as long as both samples are at the same temperature and pressure. The original for-
mulation of Avogadro’s law, as discussed at the start of this section, came from comparing
samples of different gases. The message of Avogadro’s law, in mathematical terms, is that
the volume-to-mole ratio for all samples of gases, at a given temperature and pressure, is
the same; that is, this ratio is a constant. Volume depends only on the number of moles
present and not on the chemical identity of the gas.
This constancy of the volume-to-mole ratio at a given set of conditions means that
if 1.00 mole of carbon dioxide gas 1CO22 has a volume of 4.00 L, then 2.00 moles of
ammonia gas 1NH32 will have a volume of 8.00 L at the same temperature and pressure.
The volume-to-mole ratio for both gas samples is 4.00
VCO2 4.00 L L VNH3 8.00 L L
= = 4.00 and = = 4.00
nCO2 1.00 mole mole nNH3 2.00 mole mole
This ratio constancy means that Avogadro’s law can be viewed as having the following
form when samples of different gases are compared:
Vgas A Vgas B
=
ngas A ngas B
This interpretation of Avogadro’s law can be used in applicable problem-solving situa-
tions that involve different gaseous systems.
EXAMPLE 12.9 Calculating Final Volume of a Gas Using Avogadro’s Law
A balloon containing 2.00 moles of He has a volume of 0.500 L at a given temperature

and pressure. If 0.48 mole of He gas is removed from the balloon without changing tem-
perature and pressure conditions, what will be the new volume, in liters, of the balloon?
SOLUTION
V1 V2
=
n1 n2
in solving the problem.

Writing the given data in terms of initial and final conditions, we have
V1 = 0.500 L V2 = ? L
n1 = 2.00 moles n2 = 12.00 - 0.482 moles = 1.52 moles
Rearrangement of the Avogadro’s law expression to isolate V2 on the left side gives
n2
V2 = V1 *
n1
Substituting numerical values into the equation gives
1.52 moles
V2 = 0.500 L * = 0.38 L 1calculator answer2
2.00 moles
= 0.380 L 1correct answer2
Answer Double Check: Is our answer consistent with reasoning? Yes. Decreasing the
number of moles of gas present in the balloon at constant temperature and pressure
should decrease the volume of the balloon.
Chemical Insight: HELIUM

Behind hydrogen, helium is the second most abundant element in the universe and
the second lightest element. It also possesses the lowest freezing point and boiling
point of all elements. The largest single use for helium is in cryogenic (low temperature)
operations. Particularly important is its use in the cooling of superconducting magnets,
such as those in MRI scanners used in medical diagnostic procedures.
The best known use of helium is actually a very minor use for the element, that
of a lifting gas in balloons and airships. Although twice as dense as hydrogen under
the same conditions, helium is chosen to provide buoyancy instead of hydrogen
because it is nonflammable.
Almost everyone has heard of the Hindenburg disaster, the disastrous fire in the
German hydrogen-filled airship Hindenburg as it landed in Lakehurst, New Jersey, in
1937. The Hindenburg was actually designed to use helium. Hydrogen had to be used,
however, because the United States refused to supply Germany with helium, fearing
the gas would be used for military purposes. The Goodyear Blimp and other advertis-
ing blimps are helium-filled airships.
Avogadro’s law and the combined gas laws can be combined to give the
expression
P1V1 P2V2
=
n1T1 n2T2
This equation covers the situation where none of the four variables, P, T, V, and n, is con-
stant. With it, a change in any one of the four variables brought about by changes in the
other three variables can be calculated.
EXAMPLE 12.10 Calculating Final Volume of a Gas When None of the

Other Gas Law Variables Are Constant
A balloon containing 4.00 moles of N2 gas has a volume of 0.750 L at a pressure of 1.00
atm and a temperature of 27⬚C. What will the new volume of the balloon be, in liters, if
the pressure is doubled to 2.00 atm, the temperature is increased to 127⬚C, and 1.50 moles
of N2 is removed from the balloon?
SOLUTION
P1V1 P2V2
=
n1T1 n2T2
in the rearranged form
P1 n2 T2
V2 = V1 * * *
P2 n1 T1
in solving the problem.

Writing the given data in terms of initial and final conditions, we have
V1 = 0.750 L V2 = ?L
n1 = 4.00 moles n2 = 14.00 - 1.502 moles = 2.50 moles
P1 = 1.00 atm P2 = 2.00 atm
T1 = 27⬚C + 273 = 300 K T2 = 127⬚C + 273 = 400 K
Substituting numerical values into the rearranged equation where V1 is alone on the left
side of the equation gives
1.00 atm 2.50 moles 400 K

V2 = 0.750 L * * *
2.00 atm 4.00 moles 300 K
= 0.3125 L 1calculator answer2
Answer Double Check: Is the answer correct in terms of the number of significant fig-
ures present? Yes. Every one of the numbers used in the calculation contains three signifi-
cant figures. Therefore, having three significant figures in the answer is correct.
Chemical Insight: NITROGEN

Nitrogen (N2) is the major component of air, constituting 78.1% by volume of this gas-
eous mixture. It is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, relatively unreactive (inert) gas at nor-
mal temperatures and pressures. The dominant factor in its chemistry is its inertness.
The bond between the two nitrogen atoms in a N2 molecule (a triple bond) is
sufficiently strong that living organisms have difficulty breaking it. The bond strength
also creates problems in industrial chemical processes when N2 is converted to
nitrogen-containing compounds. This triple bond is the cause of nitrogen’s inertness.
In the human respiration process, when air is taken into the body, the more reac-
tive O2 present in air is used in the body’s metabolic processes. This is not the case for
nitrogen. It is taken into the body, remains unreactive, and then is exhaled. It leaves
the body in the same form in which it was inhaled.
At high temperatures and pressures, such as those that exist in an internal com-
bustion automobile engine or in a lightning discharge, the O2 and N2 in air become
slightly reactive toward each other, producing nitrogen oxides. The small amounts of
nitrogen oxides formed in the operation of an internal combustion engine contribute
to air pollution problems associated with smog formation.
12.8 AN IDEAL GAS

Student Learning Focus: Be able to distinguish between the meaning of the terms ideal gas and
real gas.
Most simple gases such as N2, O2, H2, CO, CO2, and the noble gases obey the gas laws
we have so far considered as well as those we have yet to consider very closely at the
temperatures and pressures at which these gases are normally encountered. However,
when very precise measurements are made on a gaseous system, it is found that slight
deviations from the gas laws do occur. These deviations increase in magnitude when gas
pressures are very high or when temperatures are near the point where the gas is about
to change to a liquid.
A gas that would exactly obey all gas laws, a hypothetical situation, is called an
ideal gas. An ideal gas is a gas that would obey gas laws exactly over all temperatures
and all pressures. Real gases exhibit behavior more and more like an ideal gas as pressure
decreases (from high values) and temperature increases (away from the condensation
point). Real gases, under the conditions at which they are normally encountered can be
considered to be ideal gases.
Remarkably, the individual gas laws are singular expressions that apply to all gases.
Different expressions are not needed for different gases. The behavior of N2, O2, H2, He,
CO, and CO2 as well as other gases can be predicted using a single set of gas laws as long
as temperature and pressure conditions are those normally encountered.
12.9 THE IDEAL GAS LAW

Student Learning Focus: State the ideal gas law as a mathematical equation and know the value
for the ideal gas law constant; know how to use the law in problem-solving situations.
All of the gas laws so far considered in this chapter are used to describe gaseous sys-
tems where change occurs. Two sets of conditions, with one unknown variable, is the
common feature of the systems that they describe. It is useful to also have a gas law that
describes a chemical system where no changes in conditions occurs. Such a law exists
and is known as the ideal gas law. The name given to this law, ideal gas law, relates to the
previous discussion in Section 12.8 of the concept of an ideal gas. The ideal gas law is a
gas law that describes the relationships among the four variables pressure, volume, molar
amount, and temperature for a gaseous substance at a given set of conditions.
The ideal gas law is easily derived from the gas laws we have previously considered.
Specifically, Boyle’s law (Sec. 12.3), Charles’s law (Sec 12.4), and Avogadro’s law (Sec.
12.7), which constitute three independent relationships that deal with the volume of a
gas, can be used to derive the ideal gas law.
1
Boyle>s law: V = k a b 1n and T constant2
P
Charles>s law: V = kT 1n and P constant2
Avogadro>s law: V = kn 1P and T constant2
We can combine these three equations into a single expression
kTn
V =
P
since we know (from mathematics) that if a quantity is independently proportional to two
or more quantities, it is also proportional to their product. This combined equation is a
mathematical statement of the ideal gas law. Any gas that obeys the individual laws of
Boyle, Charles, and Avogadro will also obey the ideal gas law.
An alternate statement of the ideal gas law is
PV = nRT
The ideal gas law applies This form of the ideal gas law, besides being rearranged, differs from the previous form in
to systems that do not that the proportionality constant k has been given the symbol R. The constant R is called the
undergo changes in pres-
sure, volume, tempera-
ideal gas constant. To use the ideal gas law in chemical calculations, the numerical value of
ture, and amount (moles) R must be known. Its value is dependent on the units chosen to express P and V. (The
of gas. variables n and T will always have the units moles and K, respectively.) Volume, for gases, is
most often expressed in liters. There are two commonly encountered units for gas pressure—
atm and mm Hg (Sec 12.2). The two most commonly used numerical values for R are
atm # L
mole # K
R = 0.082057
and
mm Hg # L
mole # K
R = 62.364
The difference in the two R values relates to the choice of pressure unit—atm or mm Hg.
The two values are related to each other by the number 760, which is the number of mil-
limeters of mercury in an atmosphere.
Note the complex units associated with the ideal gas law constant R; all four of
the variables pressure, volume, moles, and K are involved since no cancellation of units
occurs. Remembering the arrangement of these units is facilitated by recalling the math-
ematical expression for the ideal gas law when it is solved for R.
PV
R =
nT
Pressure and volume units are in the numerator and mole and K units are in the
denominator.
The preceding two R values have an experimental basis. Laboratory measurements

indicate that 1 mole of a gas at a temperature of 0⬚C (273.15 K) and a pressure of 1 atm
(or 760 mm Hg) occupies a volume of 22.414 L. Substituting these values into the ideal
gas equation, solved for R, generates the R values that were previously given, as is shown
by the following equations.
PV 11 atm2 122.414 L2 atm # L
mole # K
R = = = 0.082057477 1calculator answer 2
nT 11 mole2 1273.15 K2
atm # L
mole # K
= 0.082057 1correct answer 2
PV 1760 mm Hg2 122.414 L2 mm Hg # L

mole # K
R = = = 62.363682 1calculator answer2
nT 11 mole2 1273.15 K2
mm Hg # L
mole # K
In these two expressions, from a significant figure standpoint, the value 22.414 L is treated
as a measured quantity and the other three variables are treated as defined quantities;
thus the volume measurement determines the number of significant figures in the value
of R.
These two values of R, to four significant figures, should be memorized, since it is
these unit combinations that are usually used in problem solving.
atm # L mm Hg # L
mole # K mole # K
0.08206 62.36
When pressure units other than millimeters of mercury or atmosphere and volume
units other than liters are encountered, convert them to one of these units and then use
the appropriate known R value.
If three of the four variables in the ideal gas law are known, the fourth can be cal-
culated. Importantly, this fourth variable can have only one value. This means that the
state of a gas can be determined by specifying any three of the four variables in the ideal
gas law.
The ideal gas law is used in chemical calculations, when one set of conditions is
given (P, V, n, T ) with the value of one variable not known. The combined gas law
(Sec 12.6) is used when two sets of conditions are given with the value of one variable
not known. Examples 12.11 and 12.12 illustrate the use of the ideal gas law in the manner
just described.
EXAMPLE 12.11 Calculating the Volume of a Gas Using the Ideal Gas Law
The colorless, odorless, tasteless, toxic gas carbon monoxide, CO, is a by-product of
incomplete combustion of any material that contains the element carbon. Calculate the
volume, in liters, occupied by 1.52 moles of this gas at 0.992 atm pressure and a tempera-
ture of 65⬚C.
SOLUTION
This problem deals with only one set of conditions, a situation where the ideal gas equa-
tion is applicable. Three of the four variables in the ideal gas equation (P, n, and T ) are
given, and the fourth (V ) is to be calculated.
P = 0.992 atm n = 1.52 moles
V = ?L T = 65⬚C = 338 K
Rearranging the ideal gas equation to isolate V on the left side of the equation gives
nRT
V =
P
Since the pressure is given in atmospheres and the volume unit is in liters, the
appropriate R value is
atm # L
mole # K
R = 0.08206
Substituting the given numerical values into the equation and cancelling units gives
atm # L
mole # K
11.52 moles2a 0.08206 b 1338 K2
V =
0.992 atm
Note how all of the parts of the ideal gas constant unit system cancel except for one, the
volume part.
Doing the arithmetic, we get as an answer 42.5 L CO.
1.52 * 0.08206 * 338
V = L CO
0.992
= 42.499138 L CO 1calculator answer 2
= 42.5 L CO 1correct answer 2
Answer Double Check: Is the ideal gas law, in its rearranged form, in a form such that
all of the units cancel except for that of volume (liters)? The answer is yes.

That carbon monoxide (CO) is toxic to humans is a well-known fact. It acts by reduc-
ing the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood. Normally, hemoglobin present in blood
picks up oxygen in the lungs and distributes it to cells throughout the body. Carbon
monoxide bonds to hemoglobin at the location where oxygen normally bonds, thus
preventing the oxygen from attaching itself to the hemoglobin. Someone who dies
from CO poisoning actually dies from lack of oxygen.
There is no way for a person to tell that CO is present (without a CO detec-
tor or chemical tests) because CO is a nonirritating, colorless, odorless, tasteless gas.
Drowsiness is usually the first symptom of CO exposure. There are many other com-
mon gases, including several air pollutants, that are more toxic than CO. However, they
have properties, such as odor or irritant, that give warning of their presence.
EXAMPLE 12.12 Calculating the Temperature of a Gas Using the Ideal

Gas Law
Nitrous oxide, N2O, is naturally present, in trace amounts, in the atmosphere. Its source
is decomposition reactions occurring in soils. What would be the temperature, in
degrees Celsius, of a 67.4 g sample of N2O gas under a pressure of 5.00 atm in a 7.00 L
container?
SOLUTION
The amount of N2O present is given in grams rather than moles. The grams need to be
changed to moles prior to using the ideal gas law.
1 mole N2O
67.4 g N2O * = 1.5311222 moles N2O 1calculator answer2
44.02 g N2O
= 1.53 moles N2O 1 correct answer 2
Three of the four variables in the ideal gas equation (P, V, and n) are now known, and
the fourth (T ) is to be calculated.
P = 5.00 atm n = 1.53 moles
V = 7.00 L T = ?K
Rearranging the ideal gas equation to isolate T on the left side gives
PV
T =
nR
Since the pressure is given in atmospheres and the volume in liters, the value of R
to be used is
atm # L
mole # K
R = 0.08206
Substituting numerical values into the equation gives

15.00 atm217.00 L2
T =
atm # L
mole # K
11.53 moles2a 0.08206 b
Notice again how the gas constant units, except for K, cancel. After cancellation, the ex-
pression 1/(1/K) remains. This expression is equivalent to K. That this is the case can be
easily shown. All we need to do is multiply both the numerator and denominator of the
fraction by K.
1 * K
= K
1
* K
K
Doing the arithmetic, we get as an answer 279 K for the temperature of the N2O gas.
15.00217.002
T = K = 278.7694 K 1calculator answer2
11.53210.082062
= 279 K 1correct answer2
The calculated temperature is in kelvins. To convert to degrees Celsius, the unit specified
in the problem statement, we subtract 273 from the Kelvin temperature.
T 1⬚C2 = 279 K - 273 = 6⬚C
Answer Double Check: Is the magnitude of the numerical answer reasonable? Yes.
Rounding off the input numbers for the calculation to numbers easier to work with—5,
10, 2, and 0.1—the ballpark answer for the problem is 15 * 102>12 * 0.12 = 250.
The value of the calculated answer, in kelvins, is of the same order as the rounded
answer.
Chemical Insight: NITROUS OXIDE

Nitrous oxide (N2O), a sweet-smelling, colorless gas, is also known by the name
laughing gas. As early as 1800, it was noted that when N2O is inhaled in relatively
small amounts, it produces a state often accompanied by convulsive laughter or crying;
hence the laughing gas designation. It is used in minor surgery and dentistry for its
anesthetic and analgesic (pain relief) effects. When used as an anesthetic, N2O is
normally administered as a mixture of 30% N2O and 70% O2. Being fat-soluble, N2O
also has use as a propellent gas in whipped-cream dispensers.
It is the only common gas other than oxygen to support combustion. At elevated
temperatures, it decomposes to produce nitrogen and oxygen in a 2 to 1 molar ratio. Since
the oxygen content (mass percent) of N2O is 36% and that of air is 21%, a candle glows
brighter in N2O than in air. At normal temperatures N2O itself is not flammable in air.
12.10 MODIFIED FORMS OF THE IDEAL GAS LAW EQUATION

Student Learning Focus: Be able to use the ideal gas law, in modified form, to calculate the molar
mass of a gas or the density of a gas.
In its standard form, PV = nRT, the ideal gas law equation is a very useful equation, as
was considered in the previous section. Recasting the ideal gas law equation into slightly
modified forms expands the uses that can be made of this equation. In this section the
calculation of molar masses for gases and gas densities using modified forms of the ideal
gas law equation are considered.
The Molar Mass of a Gas

For compounds that are gases at usually encountered temperatures and pressures, the
ideal gas law provides a basis for determining molar mass. Required information is the
mass of the gas and the conditions it is under (P, T, and V ). The quantity molar mass (M )
is incorporated directly into the ideal gas equation before using it, and then the equation
is solved directly for the molar mass.
Recall, from Section 9.8 (Example 9.8), that the units for molar mass are grams/mole
and that the molar mass of a substance is given by the expression
mass 1m2
molar mass 1M2 =
moles 1n2
Rearranging this expression to isolate moles on the left side of the equation gives
m
n =
M
Replacing n in the ideal gas equation with this equivalent expression gives
PV = nRT
m
= a b RT
M
This equation, in the rearranged form where molar mass is isolated on the left side of the
equation, can be used to calculate the molar mass of a gas.
mRT
M =
PV
Example 12.13 illustrates the use of this equation in calculating a molar mass for a
gaseous substance.
EXAMPLE 12.13 Calculating the Molar Mass of a Gas Using the Ideal Gas
Law in Modified Form
A 3.30 g sample of chlorine gas 1Cl22 occupies a volume of 1.20 L at 741 mm Hg and 33⬚C.
Based on this data, calculate the molar mass of chlorine gas.
SOLUTION
Rearranging the modified ideal gas equation
m
PV = a b RT
M
to isolate M on the left side of the equation gives
mRT
M =
PV
This equation can be used to directly calculate molar mass since all quantities on
the right side of the equation are known.
mm Hg # L
mole # K
m = 3.30 g, R = 62.36 , T = 33⬚C + 273 = 306 K
P = 741 mm Hg, V = 1.20 L

Substitution of these known values in the equation gives
mm Hg # L
mole # K
13.30 g2a 62.36 b 1306 K2
M =
1741 mm Hg2 11.20 L2
All units cancel except for grams per mole, the units of molar mass.
Doing the arithmetic, we obtain a value of 70.8 for the molar mass of Cl2.
3.30 * 62.36 * 306 g g
M = = 70.817732 1calculator answer2
741 * 1.20 mole mole
g
mole
Answer Double Check: Is the answer reasonable? Yes. The calculated molar mass can
be compared to that obtained using atomic masses from the periodic table. The periodic
table molar mass of chlorine 1Cl22 is 70.90 g/mole. The answer obtained, using the ideal
gas law and allowing for experimental error, is consistent with the periodic table value.
Chemical Insight: CHLORINE

Chlorine is a yellow-green, dense, sharp-smelling, toxic gas. Inhaling even a small
amount of Cl2 gas can cause extensive lung damage. Interestingly, the color of Cl2 gas
diminishes with temperature, and it is almost colorless at -195⬚C.
The toxicity of Cl2 at low concentrations toward microorganisms leads to its use
in disinfecting wastewater, swimming pools, and drinking-water supplies. Waterborne
disease-causing agents have been virtually eliminated from drinking supplies in devel-
oped countries because of chlorination.
Aqueous chlorine solutions are effective bleaches. Before the bleaching effects of
chlorine solutions were known, linen had to be left in the sun for weeks at a time to
make it white. The linen cloth was placed over wooden frames with the wooden frames
arranged in large arrays in what were known as bleach fields or bleachers. This is the
origin of the name bleachers for the bench seats at athletic fields that have a resemblance
in structure. (Today other bleaching agents than chlorine are used to bleach linen.)
The Density of a Gas

The density of a substance is equal to its mass divided by its volume (Sec. 3.8).
m 1gram2
d =
V 1liter2
The ideal gas law in the form
m
PV = a b RT
M
can be rearranged to calculate density by isolating m/V on the left side of the equation.
m PM
=
V RT
Thus, the density form of the ideal gas equation is
PM
d =
RT
Before doing a calculation using this density equation, let us consider messages
about the density of a gas conveyed by this equation.
1. The density of a gas is directly proportional (Sec. 12.4) to pressure. The higher the
pressure, the more dense the gas.
2. The density of a gas is directly proportional to its molar mass. The higher the molar
mass, the more dense the gas. At a given temperature and pressure, CO2 gas (with
a molar mass of 44.01 g/mole) will have a higher density than O2 gas (with a molar
mass of 32.00 g/mole).
3. The density of a gas is inversely proportional (Sec. 12.3) to temperature. The higher
the temperature, the less dense the gas.
EXAMPLE 12.14 Calculating the Density of a Gas Using the Ideal Gas Law
in Modified Form
In gas law calculations, air is often considered to be a single gas with a molar mass of
29 g/mole. On this basis, calculate the density of air, in grams per liter, on a hot summer
day (41⬚C) when the atmospheric pressure is 0.91 atm.
SOLUTION
The ideal gas equation in the modified form
PM
d =
RT
is used to calculate the density of a gas.
All the quantities on the right side of this equation are known.
P = 0.91 atm, M = 29 g>mole

atm # L
mole # K
R = 0.08206 T = 41⬚C = 314 K
Substitution of these values into the equation gives
g
10.91 atm2 a 29 b
mole
d =
atm # L
mole # K
a 0.08206 b (314 K)
All units cancel except for the desired ones, grams per liter.
Doing the arithmetic, we obtain a value of 1.0 g/L for the density of air at the speci-
fied temperature and pressure.
0.91 * 29 g g
d = = 1.0241845 1calculator answer 2
0.08206 * 314 L L
g
L
Using Density to Calculate Molar Mass

If the modified form of the ideal gas law in which both molar mass (M) and density (d)
are present, which is
PM
d =
RT
is rearranged to isolate molar mass on the left side of the equation, an expression is gen-
erated by which the molar mass of a gas can be calculated given its density at a given
temperature and pressure.
dRT
M =
P
Example 12.15 illustrates a molar mass calculation using this form of the modified ideal
gas law.
EXAMPLE 12.15 Calculating the Molar Mass of a Gas Given Its Density
At 25⬚C and a pressure of 1.14 atm, a gas is found to have a density of 1.40 g/L. Calculate
the molar mass of the gas.
SOLUTION
The ideal gas law in the modified form
dRT
M =
P
is used to calculate the molar mass of a gas given its density at a given temperature and
pressure.
All of the quantities on the right side of this equation are known.
d = 1.40 g>L P = 1.14 atm

atm # L
mole # K
R = 0.08206 T = 25⬚C = 298 K
Substitution of these values into the equation gives
g atm # L
mole # K
a 1.40 b a 0.08206 b 1298 K2
L
M =
1.14 atm
All units cancel except for the desired ones, which are grams per mole.
Doing the arithmetic, we obtain a value of
1.40 * 0.08206 * 298 g g

M = = 30.031081 1calculator answer 2
1.14 mole mole
g
mole
Answer Double Check: Is the magnitude of the answer reasonable? Yes. There are
a number of common gases that have molar masses of about 30 g/mole. Included
among them are O2 (32.00 g/mole), N2 (28.02 g/mole), CO (28.01 g/mole) and NO
(30.01 g/mole).
12.11 VOLUMES OF GASES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Student Learning Focus: Understand the relationship between the volumes of gas consumed or
produced in a chemical reaction and the coefficients in the balanced equation for the chemical
reaction.
Gases are involved as reactants or products in many chemical reactions. In such reactions
it is often easier to determine the volumes rather than the masses of the gases involved.
A very simple relationship exists between the volumes of different gases consumed
or produced in chemical reactions, provided the volumes are all determined at the same
temperature and pressure. This relationship, known as Gay-Lussac’s law of combining
volumes, was first formulated in 1808 by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (the same Gay-Lussac
discussed in Sec. 12.5). Gay-Lussac’s law of combining volumes states that the vol-
umes of different gases that participate in a chemical reaction, measured at the same
temperature and pressure, are in the same ratio as the coefficients for these gases in the
balanced equation for the reaction. For example, 1 volume of nitrogen and 3 volumes of
hydrogen react to give 2 volumes of ammonia 1NH3 2 .
N21g2 + 3 H21g2 h 2 NH31g2
1 volume 3 volumes 2 volumes
“Volume” is used here in the general sense of relative volume in any units. It could, for
example, be 1 L of N2, 3 L of H2, and 2 L of NH3 or 0.1 mL of N2, 0.3 mL of H2, and
0.2 mL of NH3. Note that in making volume comparisons, the units must always be the
same; if the volume of N2 is measured in milliliters, the volumes of H2 and NH3 must also
be in milliliters.
It is important to remember that these volume relationships apply only to gases, and
then only when all gaseous volumes are measured at the same temperature and pressure.
The volumes of solids and liquids involved in reactions cannot be treated this way.
The previously given statement of the law of combining volumes is a modern ver-
sion of the law. At the time the law was first formulated by Gay-Lussac, chemists were still
struggling with the difference between atoms and molecules. Equations as we now write
them were unknown; formulas for substances were still to be determined. The original
statement of the law simply noted that the ratio of volumes was always a ratio of small
whole numbers. Gay-Lussac’s work was based solely on volume measurements and had
nothing to do with chemical equations. The explanation for the small whole numbers and
the linkup with equations came later.
This volume interpretation for the coefficients in a balanced chemical equation in-
volving gaseous substances is the third interpretation we have encountered for equation
coefficients. In Section 10.4 we learned that equation coefficients can be interpreted in
terms of molecules, and in Section 10.7 a molar interpretation for equation coefficients
was considered. Thus, for the equation
4 NH3 1g2 + 3 O2 1g2 h 2 N2 1 g2 + 6 H2O1 g2
it is correct to say
4 molecules NH3 1g2 + 3 molecules O2 1g2 h 2 molecules N2 1 g2 + 6 molecules H2O1 g2
and
4 moles NH3 1g2 + 3 moles O2 1g2 h 2 moles N2 1g2 + 6 moles H2O1g2
and, as a result of Gay-Lussac’s law of combining volumes,
4 volumes NH3 1g2 + 3 volumes O2 1g2 h 2 volumes N2 1g2 + 6 volumes H2O1 g2
Again, all the volumes must be measured at the same temperature and pressure for these
volume relationships to be valid.
Table 12.4 summarizes the three ways of interpreting equation coefficients in chemi-
cal equations where gaseous substances are involved.
In calculations involving chemical reactions, where two or more gases are partici-
pants, this volume interpretation of coefficients can be used to generate conversion fac-
tors useful in problem solving. Consider the balanced equation
2 CO1g2 + O2 1g2 S 2 CO2 1 g2
TABLE 12.4 Ways in Which Equation Coefficients May Be Interpreted
For the general equation 2A (g) + 3B (g) h C (g) + 2D (g)

The ratio of molecules is 2 : 3 : 1 : 2
The ratio of moles is 2 : 3 : 1 : 2
The ratio of volumes of gas 2 : 3 : 1 : 2
(at the same temperature
and pressure) is
At constant temperature and pressure, three volume–volume relationships are obtainable

from this equation.
2 volumes CO produce 2 volumes CO2

1 volume O2 produces 2 volumes CO2
2 volumes CO react with 1 volume O2
From these three relationships, six conversion factors can be written. From the first
relationship,
2 volumes CO 2 volumes CO2

and
2 volumes CO2 2 volumes CO
From the second relationship,
1 volume O2 2 volumes CO2

and
2 volumes CO2 1 volume O2
From the third relationship,
2 volumes CO 1 volume O2
and
1 volume O2 2 volumes CO
The more gaseous reactants and products there are in a chemical reaction, the greater
the number of volume–volume conversion factors obtainable from the equation for
the chemical reaction. The use of volume–volume conversion factors is illustrated in
Example 12.16.
EXAMPLE 12.16 Using Gay-Lussac’s Law of Combining Volumes to

Determine Reactant–Product Volume Relationships
Nitrogen 1 N2 2 reacts with hydrogen 1H2 2 to produce ammonia 1NH3 2 as shown by the
equation
N2 1g2 + 3 H2 1g2 h 2 NH3 1g2
Note that when Gay- What volume of H2, in liters, at 750 mm Hg and 25⬚C is required to produce 1.75 L of NH3
Lussac’s law of combining at the same temperature and pressure?
volumes does apply, you
do not need to know the SOLUTION
exact temperature and
pressure values for the
Step 1 The given quantity is 1.75 L of NH3, and the desired quantity is liters of H2.
gases since they are not
used in the calculation. 1.75 L NH3 = ? L H2
All you need to know is
that the temperature and Step 2 This is a volume–volume problem. The conversion factor needed for this one-step
pressure, whatever they problem is derived from the coefficients of H2 and NH3 in the equation for the
may be, are the same for chemical reaction. The equation tells us that at constant temperature and pres-
all of the gases. sure, three volumes of H2 are needed to prepare two volumes of NH3. From this
relationship, the conversion factor
3 L H2
2 L NH3
is obtained.
Step 3 The dimensional analysis setup for this problem is If gases are not at identi-
cal temperatures and
pressures, Gay-Lussac’s
3 L H2 law of combining volumes
1.75 L NH3 * does not apply. In such
2 L NH3
cases, the best approach
is to convert volume
Note that it makes no difference what the temperature and pressure are, as long information to a mole
as they are the same for the two gases involved in the calculation. basis, using other gas
laws. Then use the mole
Step 4 Doing the arithmetic, after cancellation of units, gives
interpretation for the co-
efficients in the chemical
1.75 * 3 equation. Section 12.14
L H2 = 2.625 L H2 1calculator answer 2 considers this approach
2 in detail.
= 2.62 L H2 1correct answer 2
Answer Double Check: Is the calculated answer consistent with the fact that the two
gases react in a 3:2 volume ratio? Yes. The calculated volume of 2.62 L is 1.5 times as large
as the given volume of 1.75 L.
Chemical Insight: AMMONIA

Ammonia (NH3) production from the elemental gases N2 and H2 does not occur at
room temperature and room pressure. For a successful reaction to occur, high pres-
sures (100–1000 atm), high temperatures (400-550⬚C), and a catalyst are required.
The needed conditions for successful reaction were first worked out by the German
chemist Fritz Haber (1868–1934), and commercially this reaction is known as the
Haber process for ammonia production. The Haber process is the central reaction for
the production of chemical fertilizers.
The raw materials for the Haber process are air and natural gas. Fractional distilla-
tion of liquid air supplies the needed N2. Natural gas is the source of the H2. Using H2O
as the source for H2 is not economically feasible because of the high cost of the elec-
tricity needed for the electrolysis process by which H2 is obtained from H2O. Currently,
methane (CH4), the main component of natural gas, is subjected to steam reforming
to obtain the needed H2. Steam reforming is a process in which CH4 reacts with water
vapor (steam) at high temperatures to produce H2 and CO2 as products. The H2 and
CO2 are then separated.
12.12 VOLUMES OF GASES AND THE LIMITING

REACTANT CONCEPT
Student Learning Focus: Be able to carry out limiting reactant calculations when the given data
involves volumes of gaseous reactants.
In Section 10.10, we considered the concept of a limiting reactant and did calculations
that determined limiting reactant identity. These calculations were based on moles of
product formed from given masses of various reactants. Limiting reactant calculations can
also be made using volumes of gases and the volume interpretation of equation coef-
ficients. Example 12.17 illustrates how volume-based limiting reactant calculations are
carried out.
EXAMPLE 12.17 Calculating a Limiting Reactant Using Volumes of Gases
Many high-temperature welding torches use an acetylene–oxygen mixture as a fuel. The

equation for the reaction between these two substances is
2 C2H2 1g2 + 5 O2 1g2 h 4 CO2 1g2 + 2 H2O1g2
If a fuel mixture contains 30.0 L of C2H2 and 80.0 L of O2, which mixture component is
the limiting reactant?
SOLUTION
To determine a limiting reactant by using volumes, we calculate how many volumes
of gaseous product can be formed from given volumes of reactants, assuming constant
conditions of temperature and pressure. In this particular problem there are two gaseous
products: CO2 and H2O. It is sufficient to calculate the volume of just one of the products.
The decision as to which product is used for the calculation is arbitrary; we will choose
CO2. We go through the calculation twice, once for each reactant. For C2H2,
4 L CO2
30.0 L C2H2 * = 60 L CO2 1calculator answer 2
2 L C2 H 2
= 60.0 L CO2 1correct answer 2
The conversion factor used was obtained from the coefficients of the balanced equation.
For O2,
4 L CO2
80.0 L O2 * = 64 L CO2 1calculator answer 2
5 L O2
= 64.0 L CO2 1correct answer 2
The limiting reactant is the reactant that will produce the fewest number of liters of CO2,
which in this case is C2H2.
Answer Double Check: Limiting reactant calculations are always calculations in

which amounts (volumes in this case) of the same product are compared from each
of several parallel calculations. Such is the case here; volumes of the product CO2 are
compared.
Chemical Insight: ACETYLENE

When acetylene (C2H2), a very reactive, colorless gas, is burned with oxygen gas in an
oxyacetylene welding torch, a torch flame temperature of about 3300ºC is reached. A
flame of such high temperature can be used to cut through metals or to weld metals.
About 20% of acetylene production is consumed in these well known uses for acety-
lene. The majority of acetylene production is, however, converted to chemical interme-
diates needed to make various types of plastics, fibers, and resins.
In the early twentieth century, acetylene was widely used for illumination.
Illumination applications included street lights in many cities and headlights for early
models of cars. Car headlights used acetylene produced by the action of slowly drip-
ping water on calcium carbide (CaC2). A similar type of lamp was used by underground
miners as headlamps.
12.13 MOLAR VOLUME OF A GAS

Student Learning Focus: Be familiar with the concept of molar volume of a gas and how it is calcu-
lated using the ideal gas law; be familiar with the concept of STP conditions for a gas.
Chemical-equation-based calculations that involve volumes of gases is the topic of the

next section in the text. A prerequisite for doing such calculations is an understanding of
the concept of molar volume, the topic of this section. The molar volume of a gas is
the volume occupied by one mole of a gas at a specified temperature and pressure. There
are many different molar volumes for a gas since there are many different temperature–
pressure combinations under which a sample of the gas can exist. Since gaseous volume
is usually specified in liters, the most common units for molar volume are liters per mole.
Molar volume is a quite different quantity from the previously discussed concept
of molar mass (Secs. 9.6 and 9.8). Molar mass has the units of grams per mole. Every
compound has a specific molar mass that does not vary with external conditions such
as temperature and pressure. There is only one molar mass for a given substance. Molar
mass is easily calculated from a substance’s chemical formula (Sec. 9.6). Molar volume
has the units liters per mole. Molar volumes are not unique for substances as are molar
masses since they depend on temperature and pressure, which can vary. Molar volumes
for a substance are calculated using the ideal gas law. Examples 12.18 and 12.19 illustrate
how such molar volume calculations proceed. Example 12.18 emphasizes the point that
the molar volume of a gas changes as temperature and volume change. Example 12.19
emphasizes the point that all gases have the same molar volume at the same temperature
and pressure.
EXAMPLE 12.18 Calculating the Molar Volume of a Gas
What is the molar volume of O2 gas at each of the following sets of pressure–temperature
conditions?
a. 1.20 atm and 25⬚C
b. 1.20 atm and 125⬚C
c. 1.70 atm and 25⬚C
d. 1.70 atm and 125⬚C
SOLUTION
The molar volume of a sample of any gas is calculated using the ideal gas law with vol-
ume isolated on the left side of the equation.
nRT
V =
P
By definition, molar volume involves 1 mole of a gas. Molar volume is calculated by sub-
stituting this molar amount and the given values for temperature and pressure, into the
preceding equation.
atm # L
mole # K
11 mole2a 0.08206 b 1298 K2
nRT
a. molar volume 1V2 = =
P 11.20 atm2
atm # L
mole # K
11 mole2a 0.08206 b 1398 K2
nRT
b. molar volume 1V2 = =
P 11.20 atm2

atm # L
mole # K
11 mole2a 0.08206 b 1298 K2
nRT
c. molar volume 1V2 = =
P 11.70 atm2

atm # L
mole # K
11 mole2a 0.08206 b 1398 K2
nRT
d. molar volume 1V2 = =
P 11.70 atm2

Answer Double Check: As the pressure on a gas is increased, its volume should
decrease with other variables being held constant. Comparing the answers to parts
(a) and (c) or to parts (b) and (d) shows that this is the case. As the temperature of a
gas increases, the volume of the gas should increase with other variables being held
constant. Comparing the answers to parts (a) and (b) or to parts (c) and (d) shows
that this is the case.
EXAMPLE 12.19 Calculating the Molar Volume of a Gas
What is the molar volume of each of the following gases at a temperature of 25⬚C and a
pressure of 0.673 atm?
a. H2
b. He
c. CO
d. HCN
SOLUTION
As in the previous example, the ideal gas law, rearranged in the form in which volume is
isolated on the left side of the equation, is used to do each of the calculations. The tem-
perature, pressure, and number of moles (1 mole by definition) are known. Note that the
chemical formula of the gas does not enter into the calculation as there is nothing in the
ideal gas law equation that relates specifically to a gas’s chemical identity. This means that
the calculation in each part will be identical. All gases at a given temperature and pres-
sure will have the same molar volume as is shown in this set of calculations.
atm # L
mole # K
11 mole2a 0.08206 b 1298 K2
nRT
a. molar volume of H2 1V 2 = =
P 10.673 atm2
= 36.335631 L H2 1calculator answer2

= 36.3 L H2 1correct answer2
atm # L
mole # K
11 mole2 a 0.08206 b 1298 K2
nRT
b. molar volume of He 1V 2 = =
P 10.673 atm2
= 36.335631 L He 1calculator answer2

= 36.3 L He 1correct answer2
atm # L
mole # K
11 mole2a 0.08206 b 1298 K2
nRT
c. molar volume of CO 1V 2 = =
P 10.673 atm2
= 36.335631 L CO 1calculator answer2

= 36.3 L CO 1correct answer2
atm # L
mole # K
11 mole2a 0.08206 b 1298 K2
nRT
d. molar volume of HCN 1V 2 = =
P 10.673 atm2
= 36.335631 L HCN 1calculator answer2

= 36.3 L HCN 1correct answer2
Answer Double Check: Different gaseous substances at the same temperature and pres-
sure should have the same molar volume. Thus, answers to all parts of this example
should be the same. Such is the case.
Standard Temperature and Standard Pressure Conditions

The volumes of liquids and solids change only slightly with temperature and pressure
changes (Sec. 11.2). This is not the case for volumes of gases. As was illustrated in Example
12.18, the molar volume of a gas is always dependent of its temperature and pressure.
Volume of different gases can be compared only if the gases are at the same temperatures
and pressures. It is convenient to specify a particular temperature and pressure as standards
for comparison purposes. Standard temperature for gases is defined as 0⬚C (273.15 K).
Standard pressure for gases is defined as 1 atm (760 mm Hg). Gases that are at standard
temperature and standard pressure conditions are said to be at STP conditions. STP condi-
tions for gases are those of standard temperature (0⬚C) and standard pressure (1 atm).
In terms of significant figures, we note that in the definitions for standard tempera-
ture and standard pressure, the values 0⬚C, 1 atm, and 760 mm Hg are defined (exact)
numbers and the value 273.15 K is an experimental value. In problem solving, standard
temperature on the Kelvin scale is usually specified to three significant figures (273 K)
rather than five significant figures (273.15 K). This operational rule is based on the gen-
eral practice of specifying laboratory-measured temperatures to the closest number of
degrees. The value 273.15 K is available, however, for use when temperatures involve
tenths or hundredths of a degree.
The molar volume of any gas at STP conditions, to five significant figures, is 22.414 L.
atm # L
mole # K
11 mole2a 0.082057 b 1273.15 K2
nRT
V = =
P 1 atm
The selection of 0⬚C and Because STP conditions are so frequently encountered, it is useful to remember (memo-
1 atm pressure as the rize) this molar volume value. The value 22.414 is known as the standard molar volume
values for standard tem-
of a gas. The standard molar volume of a gas is the volume occupied by one mole of
perature and standard
pressure for gases is an gas at STP conditions, which is 22.414 L. To visualize a volume equal to 22.414 L, think of
arbitrary decision in the standard-size basketballs; the volume occupied by three standard-size basketballs is very
same way that the selec- close to 22.414 L. When used in chemical calculations, standard molar volume is usually
tion of 12C as the reference specified to four significant figures (22.41 L) rather than five significant figures (24.414 L).
point for the amu scale
(Sec. 5.8) was an arbitrary
decision. Using Molar Volume to Calculate Density
The molar volume of a gas, in conjunction with its molar mass, can be used to calculate
the gas’s density. Dividing the molar mass (grams/mole) of the substance by its molar
volume (liters/mole) gives density (grams/liter). The mole unit cancels from the equation,
leaving grams per liter.
grams
molar mass mole grams
density = = =
molar volume liters liter
mole
Since molar volume is the same for all gases at a given temperature and pressure,
the density of a gas is solely a function of (depends only on) the molar mass. Density for
a gas does change, however, if the temperature and pressure are changed. Example 12.20
shows a molar-volume-based density calculation for the gas hydrogen cyanide (HCN).
EXAMPLE 12.20 Calculating Density Using Molar Volume and Molar Mass
Calculate the density of HCN, a highly poisonous gas, at each of the following sets of
conditions.
a. 250⬚C and 2.00 atm pressure
b. 0⬚C and 1.00 atm pressure (STP conditions)
SOLUTION
a. The molar mass and molar volume relationships needed for this HCN density calcu-
lation are
molar mass = 27.03 g>mole molar volume = 21.5 L>mole
The molar volume value was obtained in the same manner as that shown in
Examples 12.18 and 12.19.
atm # L
mole # K
11 mole2a 0.08206 b 1523 K2
nRT
V = =
P 2.00 atm
Substituting molar volume and molar mass into the density equation gives
27.03 g
molar mass mole
density = =
molar volume 21.5 L
mole
g
= 1.2572093 1calculator answer 2
L
g
L
b. The molar mass of a gas is independent of temperature and pressure. Thus, molar
mass for HCN remains at 27.03 grams/mole. The molar volume of HCN will, how-
ever, be different than it was in part (a) since the temperature and pressure have
changed. Molar volume now has the value 22.41 liters/mole, the molar volume
value associated with STP conditions, which are the conditions for this part of
the example. Substituting into the density equation gives
27.03 g
molar mass mole
density = =
molar volume 22.41 L
mole
g
= 1.2061580 1calculator answer 2
L
g
L
Chemical Insight: HYRDOGEN CYANIDE

Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) is a colorless, extremely toxic liquid that changes to a gas at a
temperature slightly above room temperature (79°F). The deaths of people in house fires
are often caused by breathing toxic gases rather than from actual physical burns. It is
common knowledge that carbon monoxide (CO) is formed in smoldering fires. It is not
so common knowledge that HCN is often formed when plastics burn. Hydrogen cyanide
may be equally as important as carbon monoxide in some house-fire deaths. Hydrogen
cyanide exerts its deadly effect within the body by interfering with the operation of cer-
tain iron-containing enzymes (catalysts) associated with the process of respiration.
The standard antidote for HCN poisoning, which must be administered quickly
because of the rapid action of HCN, is sodium thiosulfate (Na2S2O3) solution. A sulfur
-
atom is transferred from the thiosulfate ion 1S2O2-
3 2 to the cyanide ion 1CN 2, con-
-
verting it to nonpoisonous thiocyanate ion 1SCN 2. One medical recommendation is
that fire-department crews carry hypodermic syringes filled with sodium thiosulfate
solution for emergency treatment of smoke-inhalation victims.
12.14 CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS USING MOLAR VOLUME

Student Learning Focus: Be able to use molar volume as a conversion factor in chemical calcula-
tions that involve volumes of gases.
Molar volume, in the form of a conversion factor, is a useful entity in a variety of chemi-
cal calculations that involve volumes of gases. An example of a reciprocal pair of molar
volume conversion factors is
19.82 L gas 1 mole gas

or
1 mole gas 19.82 L gas
A common type of problem requiring molar volume conversion factors is one where
the volume of gas is known at a given set of conditions and you are asked to calculate
from it moles, grams, or particles of gas present, or vice versa. Figure 12.9 summarizes the
relationships needed in performing calculations of this general type.
Perhaps you recognize Figure 12.9 as being very similar to a diagram you have
already encountered many times in problem solving, Figure 9.5. This new diagram dif-
fers from Figure 9.5 in only one way: Volume boxes have been added at the top of the
diagram. The diagram in Figure 12.9 is used in the same way as the earlier one. The given
and desired quantities are determined, and the arrows of the diagram are used to map out
the pathway to be used in going from the given quantity to the desired quantity.
Examples 12.21 through 12.25 which follow, illustrate the usefulness of Figure 12.9
in several different contexts. We begin with a simple volume-of-gas-A to grams-of-gas-A
problem, Example 12.21, which has the simplifying feature that STP conditions are pres-
ent. At STP, the molar volume of a gas is known to be 22.41 L (Sec. 12.13).
FIGURE 12.9 Volume Volume

Quantitative of gas A of gas B
relationships necessary
for solving mass-to-
volume and volume-to-
mass chemical-formula- Molar volume Molar volume
based problems.
Equation
Particles Avogadro's Moles coefficients Moles Avogadro's Particles
of A number of A Formula of B number of B
subscripts
Molar mass Molar mass
Grams Grams
of A of B
EXAMPLE 12.21 Calculating the Volume of a Gas at STP Given Its Mass
Fluorine gas, F2, is one of the most reactive of all gases. Calculate the volume, in liters, of
a 15.0 g sample of this gas at STP conditions?
SOLUTION
Step 1 The given quantity is 15.0 g of F2, and the unit of the desired quantity is liters
of F2.
15.0 g F2 = ? L F2
Step 2 In terms of Figure 12.9, this problem is a grams-of-A to volume-of-gas-A problem.

The pathway is
Grams Molar Moles Molar Volume

of A mass of A volume of gas A
Using dimensional analysis, we set up this sequence of conversion factors as
1 mole F2 22.41 L F2
15.0 g F2 * *
38.00 g F2 1 mole F2
grams A h moles A h volume A
Note how the standard molar volume relationship that 1 mole of gas is equal to
22.41 L is used as the last conversion factor.
Step 3 The solution, obtained by doing the arithmetic, is
15.0 * 1 * 22.41
L F2 = 8.8460526 L F2 1calculator answer 2
38.00 * 1
= 8.85 L F2 1correct answer 2
Answer Double Check: Is the magnitude of the answer reasonable? Yes. The given
amount of fluorine gas, 15.0 g, is less than one-half mole of this gas. Thus, the volume
should be less than one-half of the standard molar volume of 22.4 liters. Such is the case;
one-half of 22.4 L is 11.2 L, and 8.85 L (the answer) is less than that.
Chemical Insight: FLUORINE

The element fluorine, in the form of F2 gas, is the most reactive of all elements. It
reacts with every other element in the periodic table except for noble gases helium,
neon, and argon. (There are no known compounds of these three noble gases; that is,
they will not react with anything.) Asbestos, silicon, and water burst into flame in the
presence of fluorine gas. Because of its extreme reactivity, fluorine is never found as a
free element in nature; instead it occurs only in compounds.
Because of its extreme reactivity, it is difficult to find a container to hold gas-
eous F2. It attacks both glass and quartz and causes most metals to burst into flame.
Containers made of certain copper-nickel alloys can be used to handle fluorine. The
fluorine still reacts with these alloys; the result, however, is a coating of metal fluoride
that protects the metal from further reaction with the fluorine.
Example 12.22, which follows, is a problem in which the molar volume conversion
factor needed must be determined in a “side calculation” because the conditions are other
than STP conditions. This problem also illustrates the important point that equal volumes
of different gases at the same set of conditions do not have equal masses since the mol-
ecules present have different masses.
The use of a side calculation to determine a quantity needed for a conversion fac-
tor, in this case molar volume, is not a new concept. In Chapters 9 and 10, any time a
conversion from moles-of-A to grams-of-A (or vice versa) was carried out the molar mass
of A had to be determined in a side calculation. In a similar manner, a side calculation is
needed to determine molar volume any time a change from volume-of-gas-A to moles-of-
A, at non STP conditions, is carried out. The molar volume side calculation involves use
of the ideal gas law (Sec. 12.13).
EXAMPLE 12.22 Calculating the Mass of a Gas Given Its Volume
What is the mass, in grams, of 2.50 L of each of the following gases at 28⬚C and 1.05 atm
pressure?
a. carbon monoxide (CO) b. carbon dioxide 1CO2 2
SOLUTION
a. Calculation of the mass of CO proceeds as follows:

Step 1 The given quantity is 2.50 L of CO and the desired quantity is grams of CO.
2.50 L CO = g CO
Step 2 This is a volume-of-gas-A to grams-of-A problem. The pathway appropriate for

solving this problem, as indicated in Figure 12.9, is
Volume Molar Moles Molar Grams

of gas A volume of A mass of A
This pathway shows that two conversion factors are needed in the dimensional
analysis setup for the problem: one involving molar volume and the other involv-
ing molar mass. The numerical values for both of these conversion factors are
obtained using side calculations. Using atomic masses, the molar mass of CO is
determined to be 28.01 g. Using the ideal gas law, the molar volume of CO is
determined to be 23.5 L. The setup for this latter determination is
atm # L
mole # K
11 mole2 a 0.08206 b 1301 K2
nRT
V = =
P 1.05 atm
Using these conversion factors, the setup for the problem from dimensional anal-
ysis becomes
1 mole CO 28.01 g CO
2.50 L CO * *
23.5 L CO 1 mole CO
Step 3 Collecting the numerical terms after cancellation of units and doing the
arithmetic gives
2.50 * 1 * 28.01
g CO = 2.9797872 g CO 1calculator answer 2
23.5 * 1
= 2.98 g CO 1 correct answer 2
b. The analysis and setup for this part are identical to those in (a), except that CO2
and its molecular mass replace CO and its molecular mass. The molar volume factor
remains the same because the temperature–pressure conditions in both parts are the
same. Thus, the setup is

2.50 L CO2 * * = 4.6819149 g CO2 1calculator answer 2
23.5 L CO2 1 mole CO2
= 4.68 g CO2 1 correct answer 2
Equal volumes of different gases at STP do not have equal masses; 2.50 L of CO has
a mass of 2.98 g, and 2.50 L of CO2 has a mass of 4.68 g.
Answer Double Check: Are the magnitudes of the two answers reasonable when com-
pared to each other? Yes. For equal volumes of the two gases, the mass of the CO2 should
be greater than the mass of CO because a CO2 molecule is heavier than a CO molecule.
Example 12.23 illustrates the use of the molar volume concept in the context of a
chemical reaction calculation where information is given about a solid-state reactant and
information is desired about a gaseous product.
EXAMPLE 12.23 Calculating the STP Volume of a Gaseous Reactant

in a Chemical Reaction
Lithium metal is one of the few substances with which nitrogen gas 1N2 2 will react.
6 Li1s 2 + N2 1g2 h 2 Li3N1s 2
What volume, in liters, of N2 at STP will completely react with 75.0 g of Li metal?
SOLUTION
Step 1 The given quantity is 75.0 g of Li, and the desired quantity is liters of N2 at STP
conditions.
75.0 g Li = ? L N2
Step 2 This is a grams-of-A to volume-of-gas-B problem. The pathway used in solving it,
in terms of Figure 12.9, is
Grams Molar Moles Equation Moles Molar Volume

of A mass of A coefficients of B volume of gas B
The dimensional analysis setup for the calculation is
1 mole Li 1 mole N2 22.41 L N2

75.0 g Li * * *
6.94 g Li 6 moles Li 1 mole N2
Step 3 The solution, obtained from combining all the numerical factors, is
75.0 * 1 * 1 * 22.41
L N2 = 40.363832 L N2 1calculator answer 2
6.94 * 6 * 1
= 40.4 L N2 1correct answer 2
Answer Double Check: Is the magnitude of the numerical answer of the right order?
Yes. Rounding numbers in the numerical setup, the numerator (other than 22.41) is about
80 and the denominator is about 40. This division gives a factor of 2; therefore, the an-
swer should be approximately twice the standard molar volume value 12 * 222. The
calculated answer of 40.4 is consistent with this analysis.
Chemical Insight: LITHIUM

The element lithium, with an atomic number of 3, is the first metal encountered in the
periodic table. Hydrogen and helium, the elements with atomic numbers 1 and 2, are
nonmetals rather than metals. Lithium is the lightest metal (lowest-density metal) and
the least dense element that is a solid at room temperature and pressure. Lithium is so
“light” that it can float on water, with which it also reacts. In moist air, lithium will ignite
and burn. Because of this, it must be stored in a viscous liquid; it cannot be stored in
mineral oil because it cannot be completely submerged in such; it “floats” to the top.
Lithium is a soft metal. It can be cut with a knife. When freshly cut, it exhibits a
metallic luster. Reaction with moist air quickly changes the cut surface, giving it a dull,
silver-gray appearance. Because of its relatively high reactivity, lithium is never found
as a free element in nature. Naturally occurring compounds containing lithium are,
however, prevalent.
Examples 12.24 and 12.25 are both chemical-equation-based calculations. Example

12.24 involves a situation where information is given about a gaseous product and infor-
mation is desired about a solid reactant. Example 12.25 brings limiting reactant consider-
ations into the calculational picture.
EXAMPLE 12.24 Calculating the Mass of a Reactant from the Volume

of a Gaseous Product
Oxygen gas can be generated by heating KClO3 to a high temperature.
2 KClO3 1s 2 h 2 KCl1s 2 + 3 O2 1g2
How much KClO3, in grams, is needed to generate 7.50 L of O2 at a pressure of 1.00 atm
and a temperature of 37⬚C?
SOLUTION
Step 1 The given quantity is 7.50 L of O2, and the desired quantity is grams of KClO3.
7.50 L O2 = ? g KClO3
Step 2 This is a volume-of-gas-A to grams-of-B problem. The pathway, in terms of

Figure 12.9, is
Volume Molar Moles Equation Moles Molar Grams

of gas A volume of A coefficients of B mass of B
For the first unit change (volume-of-gas-A to moles-of-A) the molar volume conver-
sion factor relationship needed, calculated using the ideal gas law, is
1 mole O2
25.4 L O2
The complete dimensional analysis setup for the problem becomes
1 mole O2 2 moles KClO3 122.55 g KClO3

7.50 L O2 * * *
25.4 L O2 3 moles O2 1 mole KClO3
volume A h moles A h moles B h grams B
Step 3 The solution, obtained from combining all the numerical factors, is
7.50 * 1 * 2 * 122.55
g KClO3 = 24.124016 g KClO3 1calculator answer 2
25.4 * 3 * 1
= 24.1 g KClO3 1correct answer 2
Chemical Insight: OXYGEN

The solubility of O2 in water is much lower than that of most gases. Solubilities, in mil-
liliters at STP per 1000 mL of H2O for the gases N2, O2, CO2, HCl, and NH3 are, respec-
tively, 23.5, 48.9, 1713, 79,800, and 1,130,000. Nevertheless, the concentration of O2 in
natural waters is sufficient to support aquatic life under normal conditions.
The solubility of O2, as well as that of most other gases, decreases with increasing
temperature. Thus, cold waters can support larger fish populations than warm waters.
On hot summer days, the temperatures of shallow waters sometimes reach a
point where the amount of dissolved oxygen is not sufficient to support life; under
these conditions, suffocated fish are often found on the surface. Such a situation is
often called “thermal pollution.” Thermal pollution actually has a double-barreled ef-
fect on fish. In the hotter water, fish require more oxygen because of an increased
respiration rate, yet the available oxygen in such water has been decreased.
EXAMPLE 12.25 Calculating Gaseous Product Volume from Gaseous

Reactant Volumes
How many liters of NO2 gas at 3.00 atm pressure and 55⬚C can be produced from 20.0 L
of N2 gas at 1.00 atm pressure and 35⬚C and 30.0 L of O2 gas at 2.00 atm pressure and
45⬚C, according to the following chemical reaction?
N21g2 + 2 O2 1g2 h 2 NO21g2

SOLUTION
First, we must determine the limiting reactant because specific volumes of both reactants are
given in the problem. This determination involves two separate volume-of-gas-A to moles-of-B
calculations—one for each reactant. The pathway for these parallel calculations is
Volume Molar Moles Equation Moles

of gas A volume of A coefficients of B
The molar volume conversion factors for N2 and O2 will be different because the two
gases are under different temperature–pressure conditions. Using the ideal gas law, we
obtain the needed molar volume conversion factors as follows:
atm # L
mole # K
11 mole2 a 0.08206 b 1308 K2
nRT
VN2 = =
P 11.00 atm2
atm # L
mole # K
11 mole2 a 0.08206 b 1318 K2
nRT
VO2 = =
P 12.00 atm2
With these two conversion factors known, the limiting reactant calculation proceeds in
the normal manner.
For N2,
1 mole N2 2 moles NO2
20.0 L N2 * *
25.3 L N2 1 mole N2
= 1.5810276 moles NO2 1calculator answer2
= 1.58 moles NO2 1correct answer2
For O2,
1 mole O2 2 moles NO2
30.0 L O2 * *
13.0 L O2 2 moles O2
= 2.3076923 moles NO2 1calculator answer 2

= 2.31 moles NO2 1correct answer 2
Nitrogen 1 N22 is the limiting reactant since it produces fewer moles of NO2.
The overall calculation is a volume-of-gas-A to volume-of-gas-B calculation.
Volume Molar Moles Equation Moles Molar Volume

of gas A volume of A coefficients of B volume of gas B
In doing the limiting reactant calculation we obtained moles of B (1.58 moles of

NO2). Thus, all that is left to do is to go from moles-of-B to volume-of-gas-B. A new molar
volume conversion factor is needed since NO2 is present at different temperature–pres-
sure conditions than was either N2 or O2.
This molar volume conversion factor is
atm # L
mole # K
11 mole2 a 0.08206 b 1328 K2
nRT
V NO2 = =
P 13.00 atm2
= 8.9718933 L NO2 1 calculator answer 2
= 8.97 L NO2 1 correct answer 2
The moles-of-B to grams-of-B calculation, a one-step calculation, becomes
8.97 L NO2
1.58 moles NO2 *
1 mole NO2
= 14.1726 L NO2 1calculator answer2
= 14.2 L NO2 1correct answer2
Chemical Insight: NITROGEN

The nitrogen gas (N2) used as a reactant in chemical synthesis, such as the production
of NO2 considered in this example, is industrially obtained from air by liquefaction and
then fractional distillation. The 13⬚C difference in boiling points between N2 and O2,
air’s major components, is sufficient to separate the two gases.
The chief use of N2 not involving chemical reactions is as a blanketing agent
(inert atmosphere) where the presence of air would involve danger of fire or explosion
(preparation of highly reactive compounds) or result in the oxidation of the substance
because of the oxygen present in air.
Nitrogen is relatively insoluble in water and blood at atmospheric pressure. The
increased solubility of N2 in blood at higher pressures presents problems for deep-sea
divers. The diver’s blood becomes saturated with air (N2 and O2) at high pressure.
Oxygen is used by the cells, but nitrogen accumulates. If a diver is brought to the sur-
face too quickly, the rapid release of N2 forms bubbles in the blood that block blood
capillaries and cause the “bends,” so named because the condition is painful enough
to cause the diver to double up in pain. To avoid this problem, which can be fatal,
oxygen-helium mixtures are now used for deep diving, because helium has a much
lower blood solubility than N2.
12.15 MIXTURES OF GASES

Student Learning Focus: Understand how gas laws apply to mixtures of gas that do not react with
each other.
Many of the original experiments from which the gas laws we have considered in this
chapter were “discovered” were based on the behavior of samples of air. Air is a mixture
of gases. The simple gas laws and the ideal gas law apply not only to individual gases but
also to mixtures of gases that do not react with each other.
Often the gas laws can be applied to gaseous mixtures by using, for the value of n
(moles of gas), the sum of the moles of the various components present in a gaseous mix-
ture. This approach to using gas laws for gaseous mixtures is illustrated in Example 12.26.
EXAMPLE 12.26 Applying the Ideal Gas Law to a Mixture of Gases
A gaseous mixture consists of 3.00 g of N2 and 7.00 g of Ne. What is the volume, in liters,
occupied by this mixture if it is under a pressure of 2.00 atm and at a temperature of 27⬚C?
SOLUTION
We first calculate the number of moles of each of the gases present and then add these
quantities together to obtain the total moles of gas present.
1 mole N2
nN2: 3.00 g N2 * = 0.10706638 mole N2 1calculator answer 2
28.02 g N2
= 0.107 mole N2 1correct answer 2
1 mole Ne
nNe: 7.00 g Ne * = 0.34687809 mole Ne (calculator answer)
20.18 g Ne
= 0.347 mole Ne (correct answer)
ntotal = nN2 + nNe = 10.107 + 0.3472 mole = 0.454 mole
1calculator and correct answer 2
Rearranging the ideal gas law to isolate V on the left side of the equation gives
nRT
V =
p
All of the quantities on the right side of the equation are known.
atm # L
mole # K
ntotal = 0.454 mole, R = 0.08206 T = 300 K, P = 2.00 atm
Substituting in our equation, cancelling units, and doing the arithmetic gives
atm # L
mole # K
10.454 mole2a 0.08206 b 1300 K2
V =
2.00 atm

Approximately 0.5 total moles of gas are present, which would give 11.2 L of gas at STP
conditions. The conditions differ from STP mainly in pressure, which is double that at
STP. This would decrease the volume by a factor of 2 to 5.6 L. The calculated answer is
consistent with this rough analysis.
12.16 DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURES

Student Learning Focus: Be familiar with the concept of partial pressure in the context of a mixture
of gases; be able to use Dalton’s law of partial pressures in problem-solving situations that involve
mixtures of gases.
In a mixture of gases that do not react with each other, each type of molecule moves
about in the container as if the other kinds were not there. This type of behavior is
possible because attractions between molecules in the gaseous state are negligible at
most temperatures and pressures and because a gas is mostly empty space (Sec. 11.6).
Each gas in the mixture occupies the entire volume of the container; that is, it distrib-
utes itself uniformly throughout the container. The molecules of each type strike the
walls of the container as frequently and with the same energy as though they were
the only gas in the mixture. Consequently, the pressure exerted by a gas in a mixture
is the same as it would be if the gas were alone in the same container under the same
conditions.
John Dalton—the same John Dalton discussed in Section 5.1—was the first to
notice this independent behavior of gases in mixtures. In 1803 he published a sum-
mary statement concerning such behavior, which is now known as Dalton’s law of par-
tial pressures. Dalton’s law of partial pressures states that the total pressure exerted
by a mixture of gases is the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases. A new
term, partial pressure, is used in stating Dalton’s law. A partial pressure is the pres-
sure that a gas in a gaseous mixture would exert if it were the only gas present under
the same conditions.
Expressed mathematically, Dalton’s law states that
Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3 + g
where Ptotal is the total pressure of a gaseous mixture and P1, P2, P3, and so on are
the partial pressures of the individual gaseous components of the mixture. (When the
identity of a gas is known, its molecular formula is used as a subscript in the partial-
pressure notation; for example, PCO2 is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in a
mixture.)
To illustrate Dalton’s law, consider the four identical gas containers shown in
Figure 12.10. Suppose we place amounts of three different gases (represented by A, B,
and C) into three of the containers and measure the pressure exerted by each sample.
We then place all three samples in the fourth container and measure the pressure
exerted by this mixture of gases. It is found that
Ptotal = PA + PB + PC
Using the pressures given in Figure 12.10, we see that
Ptotal = 1 + 3 + 2 = 6
1234 56 1234 56 1234 56 1234 56
FIGURE 12.10 An
illustration of Dalton’s
PA + PB + PC = Ptotal law of partial pressures.
EXAMPLE 12.27 Using Dalton’s Law to Calculate a Partial Pressure
An unknown quantity of the noble gas xenon (Xe) is added to a cylinder already contain-
ing a mixture of the noble gases helium (He) and argon (Ar) at partial pressures, respec-
tively, of 3.00 atm and 1.00 atm. After the Xe addition, the total pressure in the cylinder is
5.80 atm. What is the partial pressure, in atmospheres, of the Xe gas?
SOLUTION
The partial pressures of the He and Ar in the mixture will not be affected by the addition
of the Xe (Dalton’s law). Thus, the partial pressures of the He and Ar remain at 3.00 atm
and 1.00 atm, respectively.
The sum of the partial pressures of He and Ar is 4.00 atm.
3.00 atm + 1.00 atm = 4.00 atm
The difference between this pressure sum and the total pressure in the cylinder is caused
by the Xe present. Thus, the partial pressure of the Xe is
PXe = Ptotal - (PHe + PAr)

= 5.80 atm - 4.00 atm = 1.8 atm (calculator answer)
The validity of Dalton’s law of partial pressures is easily demonstrated by using the ideal
gas law (Sec. 12.9). For a mixture of three gases (A, B, and C), the total pressure is given
by the expression
RT
Ptotal = ntotal
V
The total number of moles present is the sum of the moles of A, B, and C; that is,
ntotal = nA + nB + nC
Substituting this equation into the previous one gives
RT
Ptotal = 1nA + nB + nC 2
V
Expanding the right side of this equation results in the expression
RT RT RT
Ptotal = nA + nB + nC
V V V
The three individual terms on the right side of this equation are, respectively, the partial
pressures, of A, B, and C.
RT RT RT
PA = nA , PB = nB , PC = nC
V V V
Substitution of this information into the previous equation gives
Ptotal = PA + PB + PC
which is a statement of Dalton’s law of partial pressures for a mixture of three gases.
In the preceding derivation, two of the expressions that are encountered are
RT RT
PA = nA and Ptotal = ntotal
V V
If we divide the first of these expressions by the second, we obtain

RT
nA
PA V nA PA nA
= = or =
Ptotal RT ntotal Ptotal ntotal
ntotal
V
Rearrangement of this equation gives

nA
PA = * Ptotal
ntotal
The fraction nA >ntotal in this equation is called the mole fraction of A in the mixture. It is the
fraction of the total moles that is accounted for by gas A. A mole fraction is a dimensionless
quantity that gives the ratio of the number of moles of a component in a mixture to the number
of moles of all components present. The symbol X is used to denote a mole fraction.
nA
XA =
ntotal
Substituting this equation into the preceding equation gives
PA = XA * Ptotal
The partial pressure of a gas in a mixture is equal to its mole fraction multiplied by
the total pressure. Example 12.28 shows how mole fractions are calculated, and Example
12.29 shows how mole fractions are used in obtaining partial pressures.
EXAMPLE 12.28 Calculating the Mole Fraction for a Gas

in a Gaseous Mixture
A gaseous mixture contains 10.0 g each of the gases N2, O2, and Ar. What is the mole
fraction of each gas in the mixture?
SOLUTION
We first calculate the number of moles of each gas present.
1 mole N2
N2: 10.0 g N2 * = 0.35688793 mole N2 1calculator answer 2
28.02 g N2
= 0.357 mole N2 1 correct answer 2
1 mole O2
O2 : 10.0 g O2 * = 0.3125 mole O2 1calculator answer 2
32.00 g O2
= 0.312 mole O2 1 correct answer 2
1 mole Ar
Ar: 10.0 g Ar * = 0.25031289 mole Ar 1calculator answer 2
39.95 g Ar
= 0.250 mole Ar 1 correct answer 2
The total number of moles of gas present is
ntotal = nN2 + nO2 + nAr

= 10.357 + 0.312 + 0.2502 mole
= 0.919 mole 1calculator and correct answer 2
Mole fractions are calculated as ratios of individual component moles to total moles.
0.357 mole
XN 2 = = 0.38846572 1calculator answer 2
0.919 mole
0.312 mole
XO2 = = 0.33949945 1calculator answer 2
0.919 mole
0.250 mole
XAr = = 0.27203482 1calculator answer 2
0.919 mole
Answer Double Check: The sum of all mole fractions should always add to one. Such
is the case here.
0.388 + 0.339 + 0.272 = 0.999
Rounding errors cause the sum to be 0.999 rather than 1.000.
EXAMPLE 12.29 Calculating Partial Pressures Using Mole Fractions
The composition of a gaseous mixture is 4.23 moles of Ne, 0.93 mole of Ar, and 7.65
moles of H2. Calculate the partial pressure, in atmospheres, of each gas in the mixture if
the total pressure is 5.00 atm at a certain temperature.
SOLUTION
We first calculate the mole fraction of each gas.
4.23 moles
XNe = = 0.33021077 1calculator answer 2
14.23 + 0.93 + 7.65 2 moles
0.93 mole
XAr = = 0.072599531 1calculator answer 2
14.23 + 0.93 + 7.65 2 moles
7.65 moles
XH2 = = 0.59718969 1calculator answer 2
14.23 + 0.93 + 7.65 2 moles
To calculate partial pressures, we rearrange the equation
PA
= XA
Ptotal
to isolate the partial pressure on a side by itself.
PA = XA * Ptotal
Substituting known quantities into this equation gives the partial pressures.
PNe = 0.330 * 5.00 atm = 1.65 atm 1calculator and correct answer 2
PAr = 0.073 * 5.00 atm = 0.365 atm 1 calculator answer 2
PH2 = 0.597 * 5.00 atm = 2.985 atm 1 calculator answer 2
Answer Double Check: The sum of the partial pressures of the gases in the mixture
should equal the total pressure of the mixture. Such is the case here.
11.65 + 0.36 + 2.982 atm = 4.99 atm
The sum 4.99 atm is consistent with the given total pressure of 5.00 atm; rounding errors
are the basis for the two pressures differing in the hundredths digit.
EXAMPLE 12.30 Calculating the Partial Pressure of a Gas Using the

Ideal Gas Law
Calculate the partial pressure of O2, in atmospheres, in a gaseous mixture with a volume
of 2.50 L at 20⬚C, given that the mixture composition is 0.50 mole O2 and 0.75 mole N2.
SOLUTION
This problem differs from Example 12.29 in that both the temperature and volume of
the gaseous mixture are given. This added information will enable us to calculate the
partial pressure of O2 using two different methods: (1) mole fractions, and (2) the
ideal gas law.
Using the mole fraction method, we calculate first the total pressure of the gaseous
mixture based on the presence of 1.25 total moles of gas 1 0.50 mole + 0.75 mole2 :
atm # L
mole # K
11.25 moles 2 a 0.08206 b 1293 K2
ntotal RT
Ptotal = =
V 2.50 L
= 12.02179 atm 1calculator answer 2
Next we calculate the mole fraction of O2:

nO2 0.50 mole
XO2 = = = 0.4 1calculator answer2
ntotal 10.50 + 0.752 moles
The partial pressure of the O2 is obtained using the mole fraction O2 and the total pressure:
PO2 = XO2 Ptotal = 0.40 * 12.0 atm = 4.8 atm 1calculator and correct answer 2
This problem can also be solved without the use of mole fractions by using the con-
cept that the partial pressure exerted by the O2 is determined by the number of moles of
O2 present. With this approach, we substitute directly into the ideal gas law the quantities
given in the problem statement.
atm # L
mole # K
10.50 mole2 a 0.08206 b 1293 K2
nO2 RT
PO2 = =
V 2.50 L
Answer Double Check: The partial pressure of the O2 gas should be 40%
of the total pressure, based on its mole fraction of 0.40. Such is the case;
0.40 * 12.0 atm (total pressure) = 4.8 atm.
The air we breathe is a most important mixture of gases. The composition of clean
air from which all water vapor has been removed (dry air) is found to be virtually con-
stant over the entire Earth. Table 12.5 gives the composition of clean, dry air in terms of
mole fractions. All components that have a mole fraction of at least 1 * 10-5 10.001% 2
are listed.
Atmospheric pressure is the sum of the partial pressures of the gaseous components
present in air. Table 12.5 also gives the partial pressure of each component of air in a situ-
ation where total atmospheric pressure is 760 mm Hg.
In going to higher altitudes, the composition of the Earth’s atmosphere does not
change, even though the total atmospheric pressure does change (decrease). Decreasing
atmospheric pressure evokes a corresponding decrease in the partial pressure of each
component of the Earth’s atmosphere. An individual going from sea level to a high alti-
tude usually experiences some tiredness because his or her body is not functioning as
efficiently at the higher altitude. At the higher altitude, red blood cells take up a smaller
amount of oxygen because the oxygen’s partial pressure at the higher altitude is lower. A
person’s body acclimates itself to the higher altitude after a period of time as additional
red blood cells are produced by the body.
TABLE 12.5 The Major Components of Clean, Dry Air

Gaseous Partial Pressure (mm Hg) When Total
Component Formula Mole Fraction Pressure Is 760.0 mm Hg
Nitrogen N2 0.78084 593.4
Oxygen O2 0.20948 159.2
-3
Argon Ar 9.34 * 10 7.1
-4
Carbon dioxide CO2 3.1 * 10 0.24
Neon Ne 2 * 10-5 0.02
Helium He 1 * 10-5 0.01
FIGURE 12.11
Collection of oxygen gas
Oxygen by water displacement.
+ H2O Pgas = PO2 + PH2O Potassium chlorate
vapor 1KClO3 2 decomposes
to form oxygen 1O2 2,
which is collected over
water.
Potassium
chlorate
Water
The composition of air is not absolutely constant. The variability in composition is

caused predominantly by the presence of water vapor, a substance not listed in Table 12.5
because those statistics are for dry air. The amount of water vapor in air varies between
almost zero and a mole fraction of 0.05–0.06, depending on weather and temperature.
A common application of Dalton’s law of partial pressures is encountered in the
laboratory preparation of gases. Such gases are often collected by displacement of water.
Figure 12.11 shows O2, prepared from the decomposition of KClO3, being collected by
water displacement. A gas collected by water displacement is never pure. It always con-
tains some water vapor. The total pressure exerted by the gaseous mixture is the sum of
the partial pressures of the gas being collected and the water vapor.
Ptotal = Pgas + PH2O
The pressure exerted by the water vapor in the mixture will be constant at any
given temperature if sufficient time has been allowed to establish equilibrium
conditions.
For gases collected by water displacement, the partial pressure of the water
vapor can be obtained from a table showing the variation of water vapor pressure with
temperature (see Table 12.6). Thus, the partial pressure of the collected gas is easily
determined.
Pgas = Patm - PH2O
TABLE 12.6 Vapor Pressure of Water at Various Temperatures
Vapor Pressure Vapor Pressure Vapor Pressure

T (ºC) (mm Hg) T (ºC) (mm Hg) T (ºC) (mm Hg)
15 12.8 22 19.8 29 30.0
16 13.6 23 21.1 30 31.8
17 14.5 24 22.4 31 33.7
18 15.5 25 23.8 32 35.7
19 16.5 26 25.2 33 37.7
20 17.5 27 26.7 34 39.9
21 18.7 28 28.3 35 42.2
EXAMPLE 12.31 Calculating the Partial Pressure of a Gas Collected

over Water
What is the partial pressure of oxygen gas collected over water at 17⬚C on a day when the
barometric pressure is 743 mm Hg?
SOLUTION
From Table 12.6, we determine that water has a vapor pressure of 14.5 mm Hg at 17⬚C.
Using the equation
PO2 = Patm - PH2O
we find the partial pressure of the oxygen to be 728 mm Hg.
PO2 = 1743 - 14.52 mm Hg = 728.5 mm Hg 1calculator answer 2

= 728 mm Hg 1correct answer 2
When considering the components of a gaseous mixture, a useful set of equalities for
any given component (A) of the gaseous mixture, at a given temperature and pressure, is
mole percent A = pressure percent A = volume percent A

where
nA
mole % A = * 100
ntotal
PA
pressure % A = * 100
Ptotal
VA
volume % A = * 100
Vtotal
Example 12.32 is a calculation showing the equality of these three quantities.
EXAMPLE 12.32 Expressing Gaseous Mixture Composition in Mole

Percent, Pressure Percent, and Volume Percent
A 17.92 L flask, at STP, contains 0.200 mole of O2, 0.300 mole of N2, and 0.300 mole of Ar.
For this gaseous mixture, calculate the
a. mole percent of O2 present.
b. pressure percent of O2 present.
c. volume percent of O2 present.
SOLUTION
a. The total number of moles of gas present is 0.800 mole (0.200 mole + 0.300 mole +
0.300 mole). The mole percent O2 is
nO2 0.200 mole

mole % O2 = * 100 = * 100 = 25% 1calculator answer 2
ntotal 0.800 mole
= 25.0% 1correct answer 2
b. Since conditions are specified as STP, the total pressure in the flask is 1.00 atm. The
partial pressure of the O2 is
PO2 = XO2 * Ptotal

0.200 mole
= * 1.00 atm
0.800 mole
The pressure percent O2 is

PO2 0.250 atm
pressure % O2 = * 100 = * 100
Ptotal 1.00 atm
= 25% 1calculator answer 2
c. The total volume of the flask is given as 17.92 L. The volume of the oxygen present,
if it were alone at STP conditions in a different container, is
22.41 L O2
0.200 mole O2 * = 4.482 L O2 1calculator answer 2
1 mole O2
= 4.48 L O2 1correct answer 2
The volume percent O2 is
VO2 4.48 L
volume % O2 = * 100 = * 100
Vtotal 17.92 L
= 25% 1calculator answer 2
Note, from the answers to parts (a), (b), and (c), that for O2 the
mole percent = pressure percent = volume percent
1. Gas Laws Gas laws are generalizations that de- applied to the gas if the temperature is kept con-
scribe in mathematical terms the relationships stant. This means that when the pressure on the
among the amount, pressure, temperature, and gas increases, the volume decreases proportion-
volume of a gas. When gas laws are used, it is ally; conversely, when the volume decreases, the
necessary to express the temperature of the gas pressure increases.
on the Kelvin scale. Pressure is usually expressed 3. Charles’s Law Charles’s law, the temperature–
in atmospheres or millimeters of mercury. volume law, states that the volume of a fixed
2. Boyle’s Law Boyle’s law, the pressure–volume mass of gas is directly proportional to its
law, states that the volume of a fixed mass of Kelvin temperature if the pressure is kept con-
gas is inversely proportional to the pressure stant. This means that when the temperature
increases, the volume also increases and that from the ideal gas law by substitution of vari-
when the temperature decreases, the volume ables can be used to calculate the density and
also decreases. molar mass of a gas.
4. Gay-Lussac’s Law Gay-Lussac’s law, the tem- 9. Gay-Lussac’s Law of Combining Volumes
perature–pressure law, states that the pressure of Gay-Lussac’s law of combining volumes states that
a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its the volumes of different gases involved in a reaction,
Kelvin temperature if the volume is kept con- measured at the same temperature and pressure,
stant. As the temperature of the gas increases, are in the same ratio as the coefficients for these
the pressure also increases; conversely, as the gases in the balanced equation for the reaction.
temperature is decreased, pressure decreases. 10. Molar Volume of a Gas The molar volume of a
5. Combined Gas Law The combined gas law is gas is the volume occupied by one mole of a gas
an expression obtained by mathematically com- at a specific temperature and pressure. The ideal
bining Boyle’s, Charles’s, and Gay-Lussac’s laws. gas law is used to calculate a molar volume. The
A change in pressure, temperature, or volume of standard molar volume of a gas, which has the
a fixed quantity of gas that is brought about by value 22.414 L, is the volume of one mole of a
changes in the other two variables can be calcu- gas at STP conditions (0⬚C and 1 atm).
lated by using this law. 11. Chemical Calculations Using Molar Volume
6. Avogadro’s Law Avogadro’s law, the volume– A simple extension of the procedures used in
quantity law, states that equal volumes of dif- mass-to-mass stoichiometric calculations enables
ferent gases, measured at the same temperature mass-to-volume and volume-to-mass calculations
and pressure, contain equal numbers of mole- to be carried out for reactions where at least one
cules. An alternative statement of the law is that gas is involved. The extension is based on the
the volume of a gas, at constant temperature and concept of molar volume for a gas.
pressure, is directly proportional to the number 12. Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures Dalton’s
of moles of gas present. law of partial pressures states that the total pres-
7. Ideal Gas An ideal gas is a gas that obeys ex- sure exerted by a mixture of gases that do not
actly all of the gas laws. Real gases approximate react with each other is the sum of the partial
the behavior of an ideal gas at normally encoun- pressures of the individual gases present. A par-
tered temperatures and pressures. tial pressure is the pressure that a gas in a mix-
8. Ideal Gas Law The ideal gas law describes the ture would exert if it were present alone under
relationships among the four gas law variables the same conditions. Dalton’s law of partial
temperature, pressure, volume, and moles for a pressures, in modified form, may also be used
gas under one set of conditions. This law is used to specify gas mixture concentrations in terms
to calculate any one of the gas law variables of mole percent, volume percent, and pressure
(P, V, T, n), given the other three. Equations derived percent.
Key Terms Listing

Avogadro’s law Sec. 12.7 Gay-Lussac’s law of combining pressure Sec. 12.2
barometer Sec. 12.2 volumes Sec. 12.11 standard molar volume of a gas
Boyle’s law Sec. 12.3 ideal gas Sec. 12.8 Sec. 12.13
Charles’s law Sec. 12.4 ideal gas law Sec. 12.9 standard pressure for gases
combined gas law Sec. 12.6 manometer Sec. 12.2 Sec. 12.13
Dalton’s law of partial pressures molar volume of a gas standard temperature for gases
Sec. 12.16 Sec. 12.13 Sec. 12.13
gas laws Sec. 12.2 mole fraction Sec. 12.16 STP conditions for gases
Gay-Lussac’s law Sec. 12.5 partial pressure Sec. 12.16 Sec. 12.13

MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE (SEC. 12.2)

12.1 Convert each of the following pressures into millime- or decrease when the pressure is changed, at con-
ters of mercury pressure units. stant temperature, to the following values.
a. 1.17 atm a. 0.75 atm b. 0.333 atm
b. 38.5 in. Hg c. 1.25 atm d. 200 mm Hg
c. 15.2 psi 12.8 A sample of gas occupies a volume of 2.00 L at 33⬚C
d. 14.4 lb/in.2 and a pressure of 1.50 atm. Without actually doing a
12.2 Convert each of the following pressures into atmo- calculation, predict whether the volume will increase
sphere pressure units or decrease when the pressure is changed, at con-
a. 666 mm Hg stant temperature, to the following values.
b. 677 lb/in.2 a. 2.00 atm b. 0.952 atm
c. 20.0 psi c. 1.20 atm d. 775 mm Hg
d. 7.22 in. Hg 12.9 All entries in the following table involve pressure–
12.3 For each of the following pairs of pressure measure- volume data for a sample of a gas under conditions of
ments, indicate whether the first listed measurement is constant temperature and constant amount of gas. Each
larger than, equal to, or smaller than the second listed row in the table is a separate set of data. Based on
measurement. Boyle’s law, fill in the blank in each row in the table. The
a. 578 mm Hg and 1.01 atm first row in the table is already completed as an example.
b. 14.21 lb>in.2 and 775 mm Hg
c. 29.92 in. Hg and 760 mm Hg P1 V1 P2 V2
d. 3.57 atm and 48.7 psi 2.00 atm 2.00 L 4.00 atm 1.00 L
12.4 For each of the following pairs of pressure measure-
a. 2.67 atm 1.25 L 1.10 L
ments, indicate whether the first listed measurement is
larger than, equal to, or smaller than the second listed b. 3.50 atm 2.75 atm 2.20 L
measurement. c. 1.75 atm 2.00 L 1.95 atm
a. 1.01 atm and 759 mm Hg
b. 27.00 psi and 29.92 in. Hg d. 3.25 L 3.00 atm 7.90 L
c. 14.68 psi and 1 atm 12.10 All entries in the following table involve pressure–volume
d. 760 mm Hg and 35.0 in. Hg data for a sample of a gas under conditions of constant
12.5 The mercury level in the arm of a manometer (see temperature and constant amount of gas. Each row in
Fig. 12.2) that is open to the atmosphere is found to the table is a separate set of data. Based on Boyle’s law,
be 237 mm higher than the mercury level in the arm fill in the blank in each row in the table. The first row in
of the manometer connected to the container of gas. the table is already completed as an example.
Measured barometric pressure is 762 mm Hg. What is
the pressure, in millimeters of mercury, of the gas in P1 V1 P2 V2
the container?
12.6 The mercury level in the arm of a manometer (see Fig. 4.00 atm 1.00 L 2.00 atm 2.00 L
12.2) that is open to the atmosphere is found to be a. 2.44 atm 1.11 L 1.94 atm
35 mm lower than the mercury level in the arm of the
b. 2.00 L 3.00 atm 3.50 L
manometer connected to the container of gas. Measured
barometric pressure is 743 mm Hg. What is the pressure, c. 3.25 atm 3.75 atm 2.22 L
in millimeters of mercury, of the gas in the container? d. 4.44 atm 5.00 L 4.44 L
BOYLE’S LAW (SEC. 12.3) 12.11 What is the change in volume, in liters, when
6.00 L of a gas is subjected to the following pres-
12.7 A sample of gas occupies a volume of 3.00 L at 27⬚C sure changes at constant temperature?
and a pressure of 1.00 atm. Without actually doing a a. Pressure is tripled.
calculation, predict whether the volume will increase b. Pressure is reduced by a factor of 4.
c. Pressure is changed from 1.20 atm to 1.30 atm. 12.18 All entries in the following table involve tempera-
d. Pressure is changed from 1.20 atm to 1.10 atm. ture–volume data for a sample of a gas under con-
12.12 What is the change in volume, in liters, when 4.00 L ditions of constant pressure and constant amount
of a gas is subjected to the following pressure of gas. Each row of the table is a separate set
changes at constant temperature? of data. Based on Charles’s law, fill in the blank
a. Pressure is doubled. in each row of the table. The first row is already
b. Pressure is reduced by a factor of 2. completed.
c. Pressure is changed from 2.30 atm to 2.05 atm.
d. Pressure is changed from 2.30 atm to 2.55 atm. V1 T1 V2 T2
12.13 Diagram I depicts a gas, in a cylinder of variable 1.00 L 27⬚C 1.33 L 127⬚C
volume, at the conditions specified in the diagram.
Which of the diagrams II through IV depicts the re- a. 1.25 L 127⬚C 1.50 L
sult of doubling the pressure on the gas at constant b. 3.33 L 149⬚C 49⬚C
temperature and constant number of moles of gas?
c. 227⬚C 4.50 L 535⬚C
1 atm d. 4.21 L 4.35 L 45⬚C

300 K
12.19 What is the change in volume, in liters, when 6.00 L
of a gas is subjected to the following temperature
changes at constant pressure?
a. Kelvin temperature is tripled.
b. Kelvin temperature is reduced by a factor of 4.
I II III IV c. Temperature is changed from 120⬚C to 130⬚C.
d. Temperature is changed from 120⬚C to 110⬚C.
12.14 Using the diagrams given in Problem 12.13, which
12.20 What is the change in volume, in liters, when 4.00 L
of the diagrams II through IV correctly depicts the
of a gas is subjected to the following temperature
result of halving the pressure on the gas at constant
changes at constant pressure?
temperature and constant number of moles of gas?
a. Kelvin temperature is doubled.
b. Kelvin temperature is reduced by a factor of 2.
CHARLES’S LAW (SEC. 12.4) c. Temperature is changed from 125⬚C to 150⬚C.
12.15 A sample of gas occupies a volume of 3.00 L at 27⬚C d. Temperature is changed from 125⬚C to 100⬚C.
and a pressure of 1.00 atm. Without actually doing a 12.21 Diagram I depicts a gas, in a cylinder of variable
calculation, predict whether the volume will increase volume, at the conditions specified in the diagram.
or decrease when the temperature is changed, at Which of the diagrams II through IV depicts the re-
constant pressure, to the following values. sults of decreasing the Kelvin temperature of the gas
a. 23⬚C b. 63⬚C c. -23⬚C d. 303 K by a factor of 2 at constant pressure and constant
12.16 A sample of gas occupies a volume of 2.00 L at 33⬚C number of moles of gas?
and a pressure of 0.50 atm. Without actually doing a
calculation, predict whether the volume will increase 1 atm
300 K
or decrease when the temperature is changed, at
constant pressure, to the following values.
a. 37⬚C b. 17⬚C c. 375⬚C d. 295 K
12.17 All entries in the following table involve temperature–
volume data for a sample of a gas under conditions of
constant pressure and constant amount of gas. Each
I II III IV
row of the table is a separate set of data. Based on
Charles’s law, fill in the blank in each row of the table. 12.22 Using the diagrams in Problem 12.21, which of the
The first row is already completed. diagrams II through IV correctly depicts the result of
increasing the Kelvin temperature of the gas by a fac-
V1 T1 V2 T2 tor of 2 at constant pressure and constant number of
moles of gas?
2.00 L 27⬚C 4.00 L 327⬚C
a. 2.50 L 4.00 L 367⬚C
GAY-LUSSAC’S LAW (SEC. 12.5)
b. 3.30 L 165⬚C 265⬚C
c. 7.90 L 270⬚C 4.45 L
12.23 A sample of gas occupies a volume of 3.00 L at
27⬚C and a pressure of 1.00 atm. Without actually
d. 100⬚C 1.00 L 110⬚C doing a calculation, predict whether the pressure
will increase or decrease when the temperature is c. Temperature is changed from 120⬚C to 130⬚C.
changed, at constant volume, to the following values. d. Temperature is changed from 120⬚C to 110⬚C.
a. 23⬚C b. 63⬚C c. - 23⬚C d. 303 K 12.29 A spray can is empty except for the propellant gas,
12.24 A sample of gas occupies a volume of 2.00 L at 33⬚C which exerts a pressure of 1.2 atm at 24⬚C. If the can
and a pressure of 0.50 atm. Without actually doing is thrown into a fire (485⬚C), what will be the pres-
a calculation, predict whether the pressure will in- sure, in atmospheres, inside the hot can?
crease or decrease when the temperature is changed, 12.30 A spray can is empty except for the propellant
at constant value, to the following values. gas, which exerts a pressure of 1.2 atm at 24⬚C.
a. 37⬚C b. 17⬚C c. 375⬚C d. 295 K If the can is placed in a refrigerator (3⬚C), what
will be the pressure, in atmospheres, inside the
12.25 All entries in the following table involve temperature– cold can?
pressure data for a sample of a gas under con-
ditions of constant volume and constant amount THE COMBINED GAS LAW (SEC. 12.6)
of gas. Each row of the table is a separate set of
data. Based on Gay-Lussac’s law, fill in the blank 12.31 Rearrange the standard form of the combined gas
in each row of the table. The first row is already law to result in the following.
completed. a. The variable T2 is isolated on the left side of the
equation.
P1 T1 P2 T2 b. The quantity V2 >P1 is isolated on the left side of
the equation.
3.00 atm 127⬚C 6.00 atm 527⬚C
12.32 Rearrange the standard form of the combined gas
a. 1.11 atm 1.15 atm 22⬚C law to result in the following.
b. 1.15 atm 24⬚C - 33⬚C a. The variable T1 is isolated on the left side of the
equation.
c. 7.50 atm 627⬚C 5.50 atm
b. The quantity P2 >V1 is isolated on the left side of
d. 52⬚C 2.20 atm 62⬚C the equation.
12.33 What is the new volume, in milliliters, of a 3.00 mL
12.26 All entries in the following table involve temperature– sample of air at 0.980 atm and 230⬚C that is com-
pressure data for a sample of a gas under conditions pressed and cooled to each of the following sets of
of constant volume and constant amount of gas. Each conditions?
row of the table is a separate set of data. Based on a. 25⬚C and 2.00 atm
Gay-Lussac’s law, fill in the blank in each row of the b. - 25⬚C and 3.00 atm
table. The first row is already completed. c. - 75⬚C and 5.00 atm
d. - 125⬚C and 7.75 atm
P1 T1 P2 T2 12.34 What is the new volume, in liters, of a 25.0 L
4.00 atm 27⬚C 8.00 atm 327⬚C sample of air at 1.11 atm and 152⬚C that is com-
pressed and cooled to each of the following sets of
a. 2.00 atm - 73⬚C 127⬚C conditions?
b. 77⬚C 1.32 atm 97⬚C a. 142⬚C and 1.50 atm
c. 5.82 atm 52⬚C 6.00 atm
b. 35⬚C and 2.00 atm
c. - 35⬚C and 4.00 atm
d. 1.00 atm 1.30 atm 597⬚C d. - 125⬚C and 5.67 atm
12.35 A sample of CO2 gas has a volume of 15.2 L at a
12.27 What is the change in pressure, in atmospheres, pressure of 1.35 atm and a temperature of 33⬚C.
when a gas under a pressure of 2.25 atm is sub- Determine the following for this gas sample.
jected to the following temperature changes at con- a. volume, in liters, at T = 35⬚C and P = 3.50 atm
stant volume? b. volume, in milliliters, at T = 97⬚C and P = 6.70 atm
a. Kelvin temperature is doubled. c. pressure, in atmospheres, at T = 42⬚C and
b. Kelvin temperature is reduced by a factor of 2. V = 10.0 L
c. Temperature is changed from 125⬚C to 150⬚C. d. temperature, in degrees Celsius, at P = 7.00 atm
d. Temperature is changed from 125⬚C to 100⬚C. and V = 0.973 L
12.28 What is the change in pressure, in atmospheres, 12.36 A sample of NO2 gas has a volume of 37.3 mL at a
when a gas under a pressure of 1.75 atm is sub- pressure of 621 mm Hg and a temperature of 52⬚C.
jected to the following temperature changes at Determine the following for this gas sample.
constant volume? a. volume, in milliliters, at T = 35⬚C and
a. Kelvin temperature is tripled. P = 650 mm Hg
b. Kelvin temperature is reduced by a factor of 4. b. volume, in liters, at T = 43⬚C and P = 1.11 atm
c. pressure, in millimeters of mercury, at T = 125⬚C samples of F2 gas at the same temperature and
and V = 52.4 mL pressure?
d. temper ature, in degrees Celsius, at a. 1.00 mole b. 2.50 moles
P = 775 mm Hg and V = 23.0 mL c. 3.50 moles d. 5.00 moles
12.37 A sample of ammonia gas, NH3, in a 375 mL con- 12.43 All entries in the following table involve amount–
tainer at a pressure of 1.03 atm and a temperature of volume data for samples of a gas under constant con-
27⬚C is transferred to a container with a volume of ditions of temperature and pressure. Each row of the
1.25 L. table is a separate set of data. Based on Avogadro’s
a. What is the new pressure, in millimeters of mer- law, fill in the blank in each row of the table. The
cury, if no change in temperature occurs? first row is already completed.
b. What is the new temperature, in degrees Celsius,
if no change in pressure occurs? V1 n1 V2 n2
12.38 A sample of carbon monoxide gas, CO, in a 475 mL
container at a pressure of 676 mm Hg and a tem- 2.00 L 4.00 moles 4.00 L 8.00 moles
perature of 22⬚C is transferred to a container with a a. 2.67 L 3.33 moles 5.00 moles
volume of 5.00 L. b. 1.00 L 3.21 L 5.41 moles
a. What is the new pressure, in atmospheres, if no
change in temperature occurs? c. 2.50 L 3.50 moles 2.60 L
b. What is the new temperature, in degrees Celsius, d. 2.00 moles 5.50 L 9.75 moles
if no change in pressure occurs?
12.39 A sample of carbon monoxide gas, CO in a non- 12.44 All entries in the following table involve amount–
rigid container at a temperature of 33⬚C occupies a volume data for samples of a gas under constant
certain volume at a certain pressure. What will be conditions of temperature and pressure. Each row
its temperature, in degrees Celsius, in each of the of the table is a separate set of data. Based on
following situations? Avogadro’s law, fill in the blank in each row of the
a. Both pressure and volume are tripled. table. The first row is already completed.
b. Both pressure and volume are cut in half.
c. The pressure is tripled and the volume is cut in V1 n1 V2 n2
half.
d. The pressure is cut in half and the volume is 4.00 L 2.00 moles 8.00 L 4.00 moles
doubled. a. 1.67 L 2.67 moles 3.67 L
12.40 A sample of nitric oxide gas, NO, in a nonrigid con-
b. 5.75 moles 4.05 L 6.05 moles
tainer, occupies a volume of 2.50 L at a certain tem-
perature and pressure. What will be its volume, in c. 1.12 L 2.20 L 2.25 moles
liters, in each of the following situations? d. 3.73 L 8.50 moles 4.56 moles
a. Both pressure and Kelvin temperature are
doubled. 12.45 Diagram I depicts a gas, in a cylinder of variable
b. Both pressure and Kelvin temperature are cut by volume, at the conditions specified in the diagram.
one-third. Which of the diagrams II through IV depicts the re-
c. The pressure is doubled, and the Kelvin tempera- sults of adding more gas to the container until the
ture is cut by one-third. volume has increased to twice its original value, at
d. The pressure is cut in half, and the Kelvin tem- constant temperature and pressure?
perature is tripled.
2.00 L
AVOGADRO’S LAW (SEC. 12.7) 1.00 mole
12.41 If 1.00 mole of Cl2 gas occupies a volume of 24.0 L

at a certain temperature and pressure, what would
be the volume, in liters, of the following molar-sized
samples of Cl2 gas at the same temperature and
pressure? I II III IV
a. 2.00 moles b. 2.32 moles
c. 5.40 moles d. 0.500 mole 12.46 Diagram I depicts a gas, in a cylinder of variable
12.42 If 3.00 moles of F2 gas occupies a volume of 18.0 L volume, at the conditions specified in the diagram.
at a certain temperature and pressure, what would Which of the diagrams II through IV depicts the re-
be the volume, in liters, of the following molar-sized sults of decreasing the amount of gas in the container
until the volume has decreased to one-half its origi- will be the volume of the gas, in liters, if the following
nal value, at constant temperature and pressure? changes are made to the system: The amount of gas is
4.00 L decreased by 0.100 mole, the pressure is decreased by
2.00 mole 0.50 atm, and the temperature is increased by 20⬚C?
12.54 A 2.00 mole sample of a gas has a volume of 4.0 L
at a pressure of 0.50 atm and a temperature of 35⬚C.
What will be the volume of the gas, in liters, if the
following changes are made to the system: The
amount of gas is increased by 0.100 mole, the pres-
sure is increased by 0.50 atm, and the temperature is
decreased by 20⬚C?
I II III IV
THE IDEAL GAS LAW (SEC. 12.9)
12.47 A balloon containing 7.83 moles of He has a volume
12.55 Using the ideal gas law, calculate the volume, in
of 27.5 L at a certain temperature and pressure. What
liters, of 1.20 moles of Cl2 gas at each of the following
would be the volume of the balloon, in liters, if the
sets of conditions.
following adjustments are made to the contents of
a. 0⬚C and 1.00 atm b. 73⬚C and 1.54 atm
the balloon at constant temperature and pressure?
c. 525⬚C and 15.0 atm d. - 23⬚C and 765 mm Hg
a. 1.00 mole of He is added to the balloon.
12.56 Using the ideal gas law, calculate the volume, in
b. 3.00 moles of He are added to the balloon.
liters, of 1.15 moles of F2 gas at each of the following
c. 1.00 mole of He is removed from the balloon.
sets of conditions.
d. 3.00 moles of He are removed from the balloon.
a. 0⬚C and 1.25 atm
12.48 A balloon containing 5.25 moles of H2 has a volume
b. 315⬚C and 456 mm Hg
of 22.3 L at a certain temperature and pressure. What
c. - 45⬚C and 4.50 atm
would be the volume of the balloon, in liters, if the
d. 23⬚C and 762 mm Hg
following adjustments are made to the contents of
12.57 All entries in the following table involve pressure-
the balloon at constant temperature and pressure?
volume-temperature-amount data for samples of
a. 2.00 moles of H2 are added to the balloon.
a gas. Each row of the table is a separate set of
b. 4.00 moles of H2 are added to the balloon.
data. Based on the ideal gas law, fill in the blank
c. 2.00 moles of H2 are removed from the balloon.
in each row of the table. The first row is already
d. 4.00 moles of H2 are removed from the balloon.
completed.
12.49 If 1.00 mole of Cl2 gas occupies a volume of 24.0 L at
a certain temperature and pressure, what would be
P V n T
the volume, in liters, of the following gram-sized sam-
ples of Cl2 gas at the same temperature and pressure? 10.9 atm 3.00 L 1.00 mole 127⬚C
a. 2.00 grams b. 2.32 grams a. 2.00 L 1.00 mole 0⬚C
c. 5.40 grams d. 0.500 gram
b. 4.00 atm 3.00 moles - 73⬚C
12.50 If 3.00 moles of F2 gas occupies a volume of 18.0 L
at a certain temperature and pressure, what would c. 4.75 atm 4.75 L 102⬚C
be the volume, in liters, of the following gram-sized d. 1.22 atm 3.73 L 0.100 mole
samples of F2 gas at the same temperature and
pressure? 12.58 All entries in the following table involve
a. 1.00 gram b. 2.50 grams pressure-volume-temperature-amount data for
c. 3.50 grams d. 5.00 grams s amples of a gas. Each row of the table is a sepa-
12.51 A 0.625 mole sample of N2 gas at 1.50 atm and 45°C rate set of data. Based on the ideal gas law, fill in
occupies a volume of 10.9 L. What volume, in liters, the blank in each row of the table. The first row
would a 0.625 mole sample of each of the following is already completed.
gases occupy at the same temperature and pressure?
a. NO b. N2O c. NO2 d. N2O3 P V n T
12.52 A 1.25 mole sample of O2 gas at 2.50 atm and 75°C 24.6 atm 1.00 L 1.00 mole 27⬚C
occupies a volume of 14.3 L. What volume, in liters, a. 44.8 atm 2.00 moles 0⬚C
would a 1.25 mole sample of each of the following
gases occupy at the same temperature and pressure? b. 8.62 L 1.50 moles 77⬚C
a. CO2 b. CO c. SO2 d. SO3 c. 1.50 atm 1.50 L - 123⬚C
12.53 A 0.500 mole sample of a gas has a volume of 2.0 L at d. 5.00 atm 10.0 L 1.73 moles
a pressure of 1.5 atm and a temperature of 27⬚C. What
12.59 What is the pressure, in atmospheres, inside a 6.00 L identity? A 1.98 L sample of the gas exerts a pressure
container that contains the following amounts of N2 of 2.00 atm, has a mass of 3.20 g, and is at a tempera-
gas at 25⬚C? ture of 30⬚C.
a. 0.30 mole b. 1.20 moles 12.71 All entries in the following table involve molar mass-
c. 0.30 g d. 1.20 g pressure-volume-temperature data for 10.0 g samples
12.60 What is the pressure, in millimeters of mercury, of various gases. Each row of the table is a separate
inside a 4.00 L container that contains the following set of data. Using the ideal gas law in modified form
amounts of O2 gas at 40⬚C? fill in the blank in each row of the table. The first
a. 0.72 mole b. 4.5 moles row is already completed.
c. 0.72 g d. 4.5 g
12.61 At a temperature of 152⬚C and a pressure of 13.3 Molar Mass P V T
atm 1.14 moles of the noble gas argon occupy a 32.0 g/mole 3.85 atm 2.00 L 27⬚C
volume of 3.00 L. Use this information to calculate
the value of the ideal gas constant R in the units of a. 28.0 g/mole 2.00 L 0⬚C
atm # L>mole # K. b. 17.0 g/mole 1.50 atm 127⬚C
12.62 At a temperature of 25⬚C and a pressure of 679 mm c. 1.50 atm 1.50 L 40⬚C
Hg 0.317 mole of the noble gas helium occupies a
d. 44.0 g/mole 4.00 atm 1.73 L
volume of 8.67 L. Use this information to calculate
the value of the ideal gas constant R in the units of
mm Hg # L>mole # K.
12.72 All entries in the following table involve molar mass-
pressure-volume-temperature data for 10.0 g samples
12.63 A 1.00 mole sample of liquid water is placed in a flex-
of various gases. Each row of the table is a separate
ible sealed container and allowed to evaporate. After
set of data. Using the ideal gas law in modified form
complete evaporation, what will be the container vol-
fill in the blank in each row of the table. The first
ume, in liters, at 127⬚C and 0.908 atm pressure?
row is already completed.
12.64 A 1.00 mole sample of dry ice (solid CO2) is placed
in a flexible sealed container and allowed to sublime.
Molar Mass P V T
After all the CO2 has changed from solid to gas, what
will be the container volume, in liters, at 23⬚C and 2.02 g/mole 55.5 atm 2.00 L 0⬚C
0.983 atm pressure? a. 4.00 g/mole 3.00 L 100⬚C
12.65 A 30.0 L cylinder contains 100.0 g of Cl2 at 23⬚C.
b. 18.0 g/mole 7.00 atm 2.00 L
How many grams of Cl2 must be added to the con-
tainer to increase the pressure in the cylinder to 1.65 c. 1.33 atm 1.33 L 22⬚C
atm? Assume that the temperature remains constant. d. 64.1 g/mole 2.00 atm 60⬚C
12.66 A 50.0 L cylinder contains 100.0 g of F2 at 30⬚C. How
many grams of F2 must be removed from the con- 12.73 Calculate the density of H2S gas, in grams per liter,
tainer to decrease the pressure in the cylinder to 1.00 at each of the following temperature–pressure
atm? Assume that the temperature remains constant. conditions.
a. 24⬚C and 675 mm Hg
b. 24⬚C and 1.20 atm
c. 370⬚C and 1.30 atm
MODIFIED FORMS OF THE IDEAL GAS LAW
d. -25⬚C and 452 mm Hg
EQUATION (SEC. 12.10)
12.74 Calculate the density of SCl2 gas, in grams per liter,
12.67 A 1.305 g sample of carbon monoxide gas (CO) at each of the following temperature–pressure
occupies a volume of 1.20 L at 741 mm Hg pressure conditions.
and 33⬚C. Based on these data, calculate the molar a. 27⬚C and 1.20 atm b. 37⬚C and 5.00 atm
mass of carbon monoxide. c. 227⬚C and 4.00 atm d. 550⬚C and 1.00 atm
12.68 A 1.305 g sample of nitrogen gas (N2) occupies a 12.75 What pressure, in atmospheres, is required to cause
volume of 1.20 L at 0.975 atm pressure and 33⬚C. each of the following gases to have a density of
Based on these data, calculate the molar mass of 1.00 g/L at 47⬚C?
nitrogen gas. a. N2 b. Xe c. ClF d. N2O
12.69 A gas is either CO or CO2. Based on the following 12.76 What pressure, in atmospheres, is required to cause
information about a sample of the gas, what is its each of the following gases to have a density of
identity? A 0.902 L sample of the gas exerts a pres- 1.00 g/L at 53⬚C?
sure of 1.65 atm, has a mass of 1.733 g, and is at a a. O2 b. O3 c. SO2 d. CH4
temperature of 20⬚C. 12.77 A gas is either NO or CO. Based on the following
12.70 A gas is either CH4 or HF. Based on the following information about a sample of the gas, what is its
information about a sample of the gas, what is its identity? A sample of the gas at a temperature of
27⬚C and a pressure of 2.00 atm has a density of 12.86 The equation for the combustion of the fuel butane,
2.27 g/L. C4H10, is
12.78 A gas is either H2S or HF. Based on the following
2 C4H10 1g2 + 13 O2 1g2 h 8 CO2 1g2 + 10 H2O1g2
information about a sample of the gas, what is its
identity? A sample of the gas at a temperature of a. How many liters of C4H10 must be burned to pro-
127⬚C and a pressure of 3.00 atm has a density of duce 2.60 L of CO2 if both volumes are measured
3.12 g/L. at 15⬚C and 1.00 atm?
12.79 Calculate the molar mass of a gas whose density is b. How many liters of C4H10 must be burned to pro-
1.35 g/L at 25⬚C and a pressure of 1.32 atm. duce 2.60 L of H2O if both volumes are measured
12.80 Calculate the molar mass of a gas whose density is at 1.75 atm and 43⬚C?
1.21 g/L at 35⬚C and a pressure of 0.955 atm. 12.87 For the reaction in Problem 12.85, how many liters
12.81 A gas with a molar mass of 30.01 g/mole has a den- of C3H8 must be burned to produce a combined total
sity of 1.25 g/L at a pressure of 1.20 atm. What is the of 0.75 liter of gaseous products if all volumes are
temperature, in degrees Celsius, of this gas? measured at the same temperature and pressure?
12.82 A gas with a molar mass of 28.01 g/mole has a den- 12.88 For the reaction in Problem 12.86, how many liters of
sity of 1.15 g/L at a pressure of 1.15 atm. What is the C4H10 must be burned to produce a combined total
temperature, in degrees Celsius, of this gas? of 1.75 liters of gaseous products if all volumes are
measured at the same temperature and pressure?
VOLUMES OF GASES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS
(SEC. 12.11) VOLUMES OF GASES AND THE LIMITING
12.83 Ammonia reacts with oxygen to form nitrogen and REACTANT CONCEPT (SEC. 12.12)
water: 12.89 For the chemical reaction
4 NH3 1g2 + 3 O2 1g2 h 2 N2 1g2 + 6 H2O1g2 2 H2S1g2 + 3 O21g2 S 2 SO21g2 + 2 H2O1g2
It can also react with oxygen to form nitric oxide determine for each of the following combinations of
(NO) and water: volumes of reactant gases which reactant is the limit-
4 NH3 1g2 + 5 O2 1g2 h 4 NO1g2 + 6 H2O1g2 ing reactant. (Assume all gases are at the same tem-
perature and pressure.)
Which of these two reactions occurred if 1.60 liters of a. 1.25 L of H2S and 1.60 L of O2
NH3 are found by experiment to react with 2.00 liters b. 2.50 L of H2S and 3.33 L of O2
of O2? Assume that both gas volumes are measured c. 5.00 L of H2S and 4.00 L of O2
at the same temperature and pressure. d. 3.00 L of H2S and 7.77 L of O2
12.84 Methane, CH4, reacts with steam to form hydrogen 12.90 For the chemical reaction
and carbon monoxide:
3 CO1g2 + 7 H21g2 S C3H81g2 + 3 H2O1g2
CH4 1g2 + H2O1g2 h 3 H2 1g2 + CO1g2
determine for each of the following combinations of
It can also react with steam to form hydrogen and volumes of reactant gases which reactant is the limit-
carbon dioxide: ing reactant. (Assume all gases are at the same tem-
perature and pressure.)
CH4 1g2 + 2 H2O 1g2 h 4 H2 1g2 + CO2 1g2
a. 1.25 L of CO and 2.50 L of H2
Which of these two reactions occurred if 2.33 L of b. 2.50 L of CO and 5.33 L of H2
methane is found by experiment to react with c. 5.00 L of CO and 4.00 L of H2
2.33 L of steam? Assume that both gas volumes d. 3.50 L of CO and 8.88 L of H2
are measured at the same temperature and 12.91 Under appropriate conditions, the reaction between
pressure. methane gas and steam proceeds as shown by the
12.85 The equation for the combustion of the fuel pro- equation
pane, C3H8, is
CH4 1g2 + 2 H2O1g2 S CO2 1g2 + 4 H2 1g2
C3H8 1g2 + 5 O2 1g2 h 3 CO2 1g2 + 4 H2O1g2
How many liters of each of the products can be
a. How many liters of C3H8 must be burned to pro- produced from the following volumes of reactants?
duce 1.30 L of CO2 if both volumes are measured Assume all gases are at the same conditions.
at 25⬚C and 1.00 atm? a. 45.0 L of CH4 and 45.0 L of H2O
b. How many liters of C3H8 must be burned to pro- b. 45.0 L of CH4 and 66.0 L of H2O
duce 1.30 L of H2O if both volumes are measured c. 64.0 L of CH4 and 134 L of H2O
at 2.00 atm and 56⬚C? d. 16.0 L of CH4 and 32.0 L of H2O
12.92 Under appropriate conditions, the reaction between 12.100 All entries in the following table involve temperature-
methane gas and oxygen gas proceeds as shown by pressure-molar volume data for samples of a gas.
the equation Each row of the table is a separate set of data.
Based on the ideal gas law fill in the blank in
CH4 1g2 + 2 O2 1g2 S CO2 1g2 + 2 H2O1g2
each row of the table. The first row is already
How many liters of each of the products can be completed.
produced from the following volumes of reactants?
Assume all gases are at the same conditions. T P Molar Volume
a. 45.0 L of CH4 and 45.0 L of O2 77⬚C 1.00 atm 28.7 L
b. 45.0 L of CH4 and 65.0 L of O2
a. 2.00 atm 18.5 L
c. 64.0 L of CH4 and 142 L of O2
d. 56.0 L of CH4 and 112 L of O2 b. 177⬚C 3.00 atm
c. 277⬚C 11.3 L
MOLAR VOLUME OF A GAS d. STP STP
(SEC. 12.13)
12.101 What is the density of a gas, in grams per liter, given
12.93 What is the molar volume of a sample of NH3 gas at
that it has a molar mass of 17.04 g/mole and that its
each of the following sets of pressure–temperature
molar volume has each of the following values?
conditions?
a. 17.21 L/mole b. 22.41 L/mole
a. 1.20 atm and 33⬚C
c. 23.34 L/mole d. 35.00 L/mole
b. 1.20 atm and 45⬚C
12.102 What is the density of a gas, in grams per liter, given
c. 123⬚C and 1.00 atm
that it has a molar mass of 18.02 g/mole and that its
d. 123⬚C and 2.00 atm
molar volume has each of the following values?
12.94 What is the molar volume of a sample of CO2 gas at
a. 18.07 L/mole b. 22.76 L/mole
each of the following sets of temperature–pressure
c. 28.75 L/mole d. 32.00 L/mole
conditions?
12.103 Based on the ratio between molar mass and
a. 0.975 atm and 50⬚C
molar volume, what is the density, in grams per
b. 0.975 atm and 75⬚C
liter, of each of the following gases at the speci-
c. 45⬚C and 2.33 atm
fied conditions?
d. 45⬚C and 2.75 atm
a. CO2 at 25⬚C and 1.20 atm pressure
12.95 What is the molar volume of each of the following
b. CO at 35⬚C and 1.33 atm pressure
gases at a temperature of 22⬚C and a pressure of
c. CH4 gas at STP conditions
2.00 atm?
d. C2H6 gas at STP conditions
a. N2 b. Ar c. SO2 d. SO3
12.104 Based on the ratio between molar mass and molar
12.96 What is the molar volume of each of the following
volume, what is the density, in grams per liter, of each
gases at a temperature of 27⬚C and a pressure of
of the following gases at the specified conditions?
1.50 atm?
a. NO2 gas at 27⬚C and 2.00 atm pressure
a. O2 b. Kr c. Cl2 d. NO
b. N2O gas at 37⬚C and 0.750 atm pressure
12.97 What is the molar volume of each of the gases in
c. NH3 gas at STP conditions
Problem 12.95 at STP conditions?
d. PH3 gas at STP conditions
12.98 What is the molar volume of each of the gases in
12.105 Which gas in each of the following pairs of gases
Problem 12.96 at STP conditions?
will have the greater density at STP conditions?
12.99 All entries in the following table involve temperature-
a. O2 and O3 b. NH3 and PH3
pressure-molar volume data for samples of a gas.
c. CO and CO2 d. F2 and CH4
Each row of the table is a separate set of data.
12.106 Which gas in each of the following pairs of gases
Based on the ideal gas law fill in the blank in
will have the greater density at STP conditions?
a. SO2 and S2O b. F2 and OF2
completed.
c. NO and CO d. SF6 and UF6
T P Molar Volume 12.107 Calculate molar masses for gases with the following
densities at STP conditions.
27⬚C 2.00 atm 12.3 L
a. 1.97 g/L b. 1.25 g/L
a. 127⬚C 3.00 atm c. 0.714 g/L d. 3.17 g/L
b. 127⬚C 8.21 L 12.108 Calculate molar masses for gases with the following
densities at STP conditions.
c. 5.00 atm 8.21 L
a. 1.70 g/L b. 0.897 g/L
d. STP STP c. 1.16 g/L d. 0.759 g/L
12.109 Two identical volume flasks, both at STP condi- 12.122 A sample of H2 with a volume of 35.0 L at 35⬚C and
tions, contain, respectively, the colorless gases He 1.35 atm is reacted with excess O2 to produce H2O.
and Ne. Without opening the flasks, how can some- The equation for the reaction is
one determine which flask contains the Ne gas?
12.110 Two identical volume flasks, both at STP condi- 2 H2 1g2 + O2 1g2 h 2 H2O1g2
tions, contain, respectively, the colorless gases H2 How many grams of H2O are produced?
and Ar. Without opening the flasks, how can some- 12.123 Hydrogen gas can be produced in the laboratory
one determine which flask contains the Ar gas? through reaction of magnesium metal with hydro-
chloric acid:
CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS USING MOLAR Mg1s2 + 2 HCl1aq 2 h MgCl2 1aq 2 + H2 1g2
VOLUME (SEC. 12.14)
What volume, in liters, of H2 at 23⬚C and 0.980 atm
12.111 What is the mass, in grams, of 23.7 L samples of pressure can be produced from the reaction of 12.0 g
each of the following gases at STP conditions? of Mg with an excess of HCl?
a. Ar b. N2O c. SO3 d. PH3 12.124 A common laboratory preparation for O2 gas in-
12.112 What is the mass, in grams, of 35.2 L samples of volves the thermal decomposition of potassium
each of the following gases at STP conditions? nitrate:
a. Kr b. S2O c. O3 d. NH3
12.113 What is the mass, in grams, of 23.7 L samples of each 2 KNO3 1s2 h 2 KNO2 1s2 + O2 1g2
of the gases in Problem 12.111 at 44⬚C and 1.15 atm? What volume, in liters, of O2 at 35⬚C and 1.31 atm
12.114 What is the mass, in grams, of 35.2 L samples of each pressure can be produced from the decomposition
of the gases in Problem 12.112 at 54⬚C and 1.25 atm? of 35.0 g of KNO3?
12.115 What is the volume, in liters, occupied by 1.25 12.125 Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3, can decompose
mole samples of each of the following gases at STP explosively when heated to a high temperature
conditions? according to the equation
a. N2 b. NH3 c. CO2 d. Cl2
12.116 What is the volume, in liters, occupied by 1.75 2 NH4NO3 1s2 h 2 N2 1g2 + 4 H2O1g2 + O2 1g2
mole samples of each of the following gases at STP
conditions? If a 100.0 g sample of ammonium nitrate decom-
a. O3 b. O2 c. NO2 d. NO poses at 450⬚C, how many liters of gaseous prod-
12.117 What is the volume, in liters, occupied by 1.25 mole ucts would be formed? Assume that atmospheric
samples of each of the gases in Problem 12.115 at pressure is 1.00 atm.
46⬚C and 1.73 atm pressure? 12.126 The industrial explosive nitroglycerin, C3H5N3O9,
12.118 What is the volume, in liters, occupied by 1.75 mole detonates according to the equation
samples of each of the gases in Problem 12.116 at 4 C3H5N3O9 1s2 h 6 N2 1g2 + O2 1g2 +
53⬚C and 1.42 atm pressure? 12 CO21g2 + 10 H2O1g2
12.119 A mixture of 25.0 g of NO and an excess of O2
reacts according to the balanced equation At a detonation temperature of 1950⬚C, how many
liters of gaseous products would be formed from
2 NO1g2 + O2 1g2 h 2 NO2 1g2 100.0 g of nitroglycerin? Assume that atmospheric
a. How many liters of NO2, at STP, are produced? pressure is 1.00 atm.
b. How many liters of NO2, at 55⬚C and a pressure 12.127 How many liters of NO2 gas at 21⬚C and 2.31 atm
of 2.50 atm, are produced? must be consumed in producing 75.0 L of NO gas
12.120 A mixture of 25.0 g of H2 and an excess of N2 reacts at 38⬚C and 645 mm Hg according to the following
according to the balanced equation reaction?
3 H2 1g2 + N2 1g2 h 2 NH3 1g2 3 NO21g2 + H2O1l2 h 2 HNO31aq2 + NO1g2

a. How many liters of NH3, at STP, are produced? 12.128 How many liters of Cl2 gas at 25⬚C and 1.50 atm
b. How many liters of NH3, at 43⬚C and a pressure are needed to react completely with 3.42 L of NH3
of 0.876 atm, are produced? gas at 50⬚C and 2.50 atm according to the following
12.121 A sample of O2 with a volume of 25.0 L at 27⬚C and reaction?
1.00 atm is reacted with excess N2 to produce NO.
2 NH3 1g2 + 3 Cl2 1g2 S N2 1g2 + 6 HCl1g2
The equation for the reaction is
12.129 How many liters of CO2 gas at 2.00 atm pressure
O2 1g2 + N2 1g2 h 2 NO1g2
and 75⬚C can be produced from 10.0 L of C2H2 gas
How many grams of NO are produced? at 3.00 atm pressure and 125⬚C and 2.50 L of O2 gas
at a pressure of 0.750 atm and 20⬚C, according to 12.138 Nitrogen gas 1N2 2 is added to an empty gas cylin-
the following reaction? der until the pressure reaches 8.0 atm. Helium gas
is then added to the cylinder until the total pres-
2 C2H2 1g2 + 5 O2 1g2 h 4 CO2 1g2 + 2 H2O1g2
sure is 10.0 atm. Carbon monoxide gas (CO) is then
12.130 How many liters of CO2 gas at 2.00 atm pressure added to the cylinder until the total cylinder pres-
and 75⬚C can be produced from 10.0 L of C2H6 gas sure reaches 20.0 atm. What is the partial pressure
at 3.00 atm pressure and 125⬚C and 12.50 L of O2 of each gas in the cylinder?
gas at a pressure of 0.750 atm and 20⬚C, according 12.139 A mixture of H2, N2, and Ar gases is present in a
to the following reaction? steel cylinder. The total pressure within the cylinder
is 675 mm Hg and the partial pressures of N2 and
2 C2H6 1g2 + 7 O2 1g2 h 4 CO2 1g2 + 6 H2O1g2 Ar are, respectively, 354 mm Hg and 235 mm Hg.
If CO2 gas is added to the mixture at constant tem-
perature until the total pressure reaches 842 mm
MIXTURES OF GASES (SEC. 12.15) Hg, what is the partial pressure, in millimeters of
12.131 A gaseous mixture consists of 3.00 moles of N2 and Hg, of the following?
3.00 moles of O2. What is the volume, in liters, oc- a. CO2 b. N2 c. Ar d. H2
cupied by this mixture if it is under a pressure of 12.140 A mixture of O2, He, and Ne gases is present in a
20.00 atm and at a temperature of 27⬚C? steel cylinder. The total pressure within the cylinder
12.132 A gaseous mixture consists of 4.00 moles of N2 and is 652 mm Hg and the partial pressures of He and
5.00 moles of O2. What is the volume, in liters, oc- Ne are, respectively, 251 mm Hg and 152 mm Hg.
cupied by this mixture if it is under a pressure of If CO2 gas is added to the mixture at constant tem-
20.00 atm and at a temperature of 27⬚C? perature until the total pressure reaches 704 mm
12.133 What would be the volume, in liters, of a gaseous Hg, what is the partial pressure, in millimeters of
mixture at 1.00 atm pressure and 27⬚C if its compo- Hg, of the following?
sition is each of the following? a. CO2 b. He c. Ne d. O2
a. 3.00 g Ne and 3.00 g Ar 12.141 The following diagram depicts a gaseous mixture
b. 4.00 g Ne and 2.00 g Ar of neon (blue spheres), argon (gray spheres), and
c. 3.00 moles Ne and 5.00 g Ar krypton (white spheres).
d. 4.00 moles Ne and 4.00 moles Ar
12.134 What would be the volume, in liters, of a gaseous
mixture at 1.00 atm pressure and 27⬚C if its compo-
sition is each of the following?
a. 4.00 g He and 8.00 g H2
b. 4.00 g He and 8.00 g N2
c. 3.00 moles He and 3.00 moles N2
d. 3.00 moles He and 3.00 moles H2
If the total pressure in the container is 0.060 atm,
12.135 What would be the pressure, in atmospheres,
what is the partial pressure, in atmospheres, of the
of a gaseous mixture that occupies a volume of
following gases?
27.0 L at 20⬚C if
a. neon b. argon c. krypton
a. 3.00 moles each of Ar, Ne, and N2 are present?
12.142 The following diagram depicts a gaseous mixture
b. 3.00 grams each of Ar, Ne, and N2 are present?
of O2 (blue spheres), N2 (gray spheres), and H2
12.136 What would be the pressure, in atmospheres, of a gas-
(white spheres).
eous mixture that occupies a volume of 2.00 L at 40⬚C if
a. 4.00 moles each of O2, Xe, and He are present?
b. 4.00 grams each of O2, Xe, and He are present?
DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURES

(SEC. 12.16)
12.137 Helium gas is added to an empty gas cylinder until
the pressure reaches 9.0 atm. Neon gas is then Assuming that the gases do not react with each
added to the cylinder until the total pressure is other, what is the total pressure, in atmospheres, in
14.0 atm. Argon gas is then added to the cylin- the container if the partial pressure of the O2 gas is
der until the total cylinder pressure reaches 29.0 0.020 atm?
atm. What is the partial pressure of each gas in the 12.143 A gaseous mixture contains 25.0 g of each of
cylinder? the gases CO, CO2, and H2S. Assuming that the
gases do not react with each other, calculate the c. The partial pressures of Ar, He, and Ne are in a
following: 2:2:3 ratio.
a. the mole fraction of each gas present in the d. The partial pressure of He is one-half that of
mixture the other two gases.
b. the partial pressure of each gas present given that 12.148 A gaseous mixture containing Ar, Kr, and Xe
the total pressure exerted by the gaseous mixture exerts a total pressure of 6.00 atm. What is the
is 1.72 atm partial pressure of each gas in the mixture under
12.144 A gaseous mixture contains 15.0 g of each of the following conditions?
the gases HCl, H2S, and Xe. Assuming that the a. The number of moles of Ar, present is twice
gases do not react with each other, calculate the that of each of the other gases.
following: b. There is an equal number of atoms of each ele-
a. the mole fraction of each gas present in the ment present.
mixture c. The partial pressures of Xe, Ar, and Kr are in a
b. the partial pressure of each gas present, given 2:3:1 ratio.
that the total pressure exerted by the gaseous d. The partial pressure of Ar is twice that of Xe
mixture is 2.24 atm and three times that of Kr.
12.145 All entries in the following table involve mass-mole 12.149 What is the total pressure in a flask that con-
fraction data for a gaseous mixture of N2 and O2 in tains 4.0 moles He, 2.0 moles Ne, and 0.50 mole
which the total moles of gas present is 1.00 mole. Ar, and in which the partial pressure of Ar is
Each row of the table is a separate set of data. Fill 0.40 atm?
in the blank or blanks in each row of data. The first 12.150 What is the total pressure in a flask that con-
row is already completed. tains 2.0 moles H2, 6.0 moles O2, and 0.50 mole
N2, and in which the partial pressure of H2 is
Grams N2 Grams O2 XN2 XO2 0.80 atm?
12.151 Calculate the partial pressure of O2, in atmospheres,
14.0 g 16.0 g 0.500 0.500
in a gaseous mixture of O2 and N2, given that
a. 2.80 g 0.100 0.900 a. the total pressure is 6.00 atm and the mole frac-
b. 24.0 g 0.250 tion of N2 is 0.150.
b. the partial pressure of N2 is 2.26 atmospheres
c. 2.64 g 29.0 g
and the mole fraction N2 is 0.180.
d. 0.223 12.152 Calculate the partial pressure of O2, in atmospheres,
in a gaseous mixture of O2 and N2, given that
12.146 All entries in the following table involve mass- a. the total pressure is 5.00 atm and the mole frac-
mole fraction data for a gaseous mixture of tion of N2 is 0.800.
He and CO2 in which the total moles of gas b. the partial pressure of N2 is 3.00 atm and the
present is 1.00 mole. Each row of table is a mole fraction N2 is 0.220.
separate set of data. Fill in the blank or blanks 12.153 What is the mole fraction of each gas in a mixture
in each row of data. The first row is already having the partial pressures of 0.500 atm for He,
completed. 0.250 atm for Ar, and 0.350 atm for Xe?
12.154 What is the mole fraction of each gas in a mixture
Grams He Grams CO2 XHe XCo2 having the particle pressures of 0.350 atm for Ne,
0.550 atm for Kr, and 0.750 atm for He?
2.00 g 22.0 g 0.500 0.500
12.155 All entries in the following table involve partial
a. 4.40 g 0.900 0.100 pressure-mole fraction data for a gaseous mixture
b. 0.400 g 39.6 g of He and CO2 for which the total pressure is 6.00
c. 0.250 0.750
atm. Each row of the table is a separate set of data.
Fill in the blank or blanks in each row of data. The
d. 2.56 g first row is already completed.
12.147 A gaseous mixture containing He, Ne, and Ar exerts PHe PCO2 XHe XCO2
a total pressure of 3.00 atm. What is the partial pres-
3.00 atm 3.00 atm 0.500 0.500
sure of each gas in the mixture under the following
conditions? a. 1.80 atm 0.700 0.300
a. There is an equal number of moles of each gas b. 1.80 atm 4.20 atm
present. c. 0.511 0.489
b. The number of atoms of He present is three
times that of each of the other gases. d. 2.70 atm
12.156 All entries in the following table involve partial 12.161 What would be the partial pressure, in millimeters of
pressure-mole fraction data for a gaseous mixture mercury, of O2 collected over water at the following
of N2 and O2 for which the total pressure is 4.00 conditions of temperature and atmospheric pressure?
atm. Each row of the table is a separate set of data. a. 19⬚C and 743 mm Hg
Fill in the blank or blanks in each row of data. The b. 28⬚C and 645 mm Hg
first row is already completed. c. 34⬚C and 762 mm Hg
d. 21⬚C and 0.933 atm
PN2 PO2 XN2 XO2 12.162 What would be the partial pressure, in millimeters of
mercury, of O2 collected over water at the following
2.00 atm 2.00 atm 0.500 0.500
conditions of temperature and atmospheric pressure?
a. 2.40 atm 0.600 0.400 a. 15⬚C and 632 mm Hg
b. 3.60 atm 0.900 b. 35⬚C and 749 mm Hg
c. 31⬚C and 682 mm Hg
c. 1.50 atm 2.50 atm
d. 26⬚C and 0.975 atm
d. 0.750 12.163 A 24.64 L flask, at STP, contains 0.100 mole of He,
0.200 mole of Ne, and 0.800 mole of Ar. For this
12.157 A sample of N2 gas of mass 20.0 g is present in a ves- gaseous mixture, calculate the
sel at 0⬚C and 1.00 atm. What will be the final pres- a. mole fraction He. b. mole percent Ar.
sure, in atmospheres, in the vessel after 8.00 g of Ar c. pressure percent Ne. d. volume percent He.
is pumped into the vessel at constant temperature? 12.164 A 15.68 L flask, at STP, contains 0.200 mole of Ar,
12.158 A sample of O2 gas of mass 25.0 g is present in a ves- 0.400 mole of Kr, and 0.100 mole of Xe. For this
sel at 35⬚C and 2.00 atm. What will be the final pres- gaseous mixture, calculate the
sure, in atmospheres, in the vessel after 20.00 g of He a. mole fraction Ar. b. mole percent Kr.
is pumped into the vessel at constant temperature? c. pressure percent Xe. d. volume percent Ar.
12.159 A sample of ammonia, NH3, is completely decom- 12.165 Three containers of gases are combined into a sin-
posed to its constituent elements. gle large container; that is, 2.0 L of O2 at STP, 3.0 L
2 NH3 1g2 h N2 1g2 + 3 H2 1g2 of Ar at STP, and 3.0 L of Ne at STP are put into an
8.0 L container at STP. Calculate the following items
If the total pressure of the N2 and H2 produced is pertaining to the gaseous mixture.
852 mm Hg, calculate the partial pressures, in mil- a. volume percent O2 b. mole percent Ar
limeters of mercury, of N2 and H2. c. pressure percent Ne d. partial pressure O2
12.160 A sample of steam, H2O, is completely decomposed 12.166 Three containers of gases are combined into a
to its constituent elements. single large container; that is, 1.0 L of N2 at STP, 4.0 L
of He at STP, and 1.0 L of Xe at STP are put into a
2 H2O1g2 h 2 H2 1g2 + O2 1g2
6.0 L container at STP. Calculate the following items
If the total pressure of the H2 and O2 produced is pertaining to the gaseous mixture.
1.35 atm, calculate the partial pressures, in atmo- a. volume percent He b. mole percent Xe
spheres, of H2 and O2. c. pressure percent He d. partial pressure N2
numbered problems.
12.167 Arrange the following gases in order of increasing 12.169 Arrange the following gases in order of increasing
density at STP. molar volume at STP.
Cl2 F2 SO2 NO2 CO2 O2 NO CO N2 NH3
12.168 Arrange the following gases in order of increasing 12.170 Arrange the following gases in order of increasing
density at STP. molar volume at STP.
O2 NO CO N2 NH3 Cl2 F2 SO2 NO2 CO2
12.171 How many molecules of carbon dioxide 1CO2 2 gas 12.180 The volume of a fixed quantity of gas, at constant
are contained in 1.00 L of CO2 at STP? temperature, is increased by 30.0%. What is the result-
12.172 How many molecules of hydrogen sulfide 1H2S 2 ing percentage decrease in the pressure of the gas?
gas are contained in 2.00 L of H2S at STP? 12.181 Calculate the ratio of the densities of O2 and N2 at
12.173 At a particular temperature and pressure, 8.00 g of a. STP conditions.
N2 gas occupy 6.00 L. What would be the volume, b. 1.25 atm and 25⬚C.
in liters, occupied by 1.00 * 1023 molecules of NH3 12.182 Calculate the ratio of the densities of He and Ne at
at the same temperature and pressure? a. STP conditions.
12.174 At a particular temperature and pressure, b. 2.30 atm and 57⬚C.
2.00 * 1023 molecules of N2 gas occupy 5.00 L. 12.183 Suppose 532 mL of Ne gas at 20⬚C and 1.04 atm
What would be the volume, in liters, occupied by and 376 mL of SF6 gas at 20⬚C and 0.97 atm are put
25.7 g of SO2 at the same temperature and pressure? into a 275 mL flask. Assuming that the temperature
12.175 A piece of Al is placed in a 1.00 L container with remains constant, calculate the partial pressure, in
pure O2. The O2 is at a pressure of 1.00 atm and a atmospheres, of the SF6 gas in the mixture.
temperature of 25⬚C. One hour later the pressure 12.184 Suppose 734 mL of Ar gas at 18⬚C and 1.25 atm
has dropped to 0.880 atm and the temperature has and 252 mL of HF gas at 18⬚C and 2.25 atm are put
dropped to 22⬚C. Calculate the number of grams of into a 545 mL flask. Assuming that the temperature
O2 that reacted with the Al. remains constant, calculate the partial pressure, in
12.176 A piece of Ca is placed in a 1.00 L container with atmospheres, of the HF gas in the mixture.
pure N2. The N2 is at a pressure of 1.12 atm and a 12.185 A mixture of 15.0 g of Ar and 15.0 g of CH4 occupies
temperature of 26⬚C. One hour later the pressure a 4.0 L container at 8.80 atm and 54⬚C. What is the
has dropped to 0.924 atm and the temperature has partial pressure, in atmospheres, of Ar in the mixture?
dropped to 24⬚C. Calculate the number of grams of 12.186 A mixture of 30.0 g of Ar and 15.0 g of CH4 occu-
N2 that reacted with the Ca. pies a 4.0 L container at 11.9 atm and 27⬚C. What is
12.177 At constant temperature, the pressure on a sample the partial pressure, in atmospheres, of CH4 in the
of H2 gas is increased from 1.50 atm to 3.50 atm. This mixture?
action decreases the sample volume by 25.0 mL. 12.187 Suppose 30.0 mL of N2 gas at 27⬚C and 645 mm
What was the original volume, in milliliters, of the Hg pressure is added to a 40.0 mL container that
gas sample? already contains He at 37⬚C and 765 mm Hg. If
12.178 At constant temperature, the pressure on a sample the resulting mixture is brought to 32⬚C, what is
of HCl gas is decreased from 3.50 atm to 1.50 atm. the total pressure, in millimeters of mercury, of the
This action increases the sample volume by 75.0 mL. mixture?
What was the original volume, in milliliters, of the 12.188 Suppose 50.0 mL of Xe gas at 45⬚C and 0.998 atm
gas sample? pressure is added to a 100.0 mL container that al-
12.179 The volume of a fixed quantity of gas, at constant ready contains He at 37⬚C and 765 mm Hg. If the
temperature, is decreased by 20.0%. What is the re- resulting mixture is warmed to 75⬚C, what is the total
sulting percentage increase in the pressure of the gas? pressure, in millimeters of mercury, of the mixture?

MC 12.1 In terms of size, the mm Hg pressure unit is d. P and V
a. 100 times larger than the torr unit. e. no correct response
b. 760 times larger than the atmosphere unit. MC 12.3 A sample of O2 gas in a 6.00 L container is under
c. 14.68 times larger than the psi unit. a pressure of 4.00 atm. If the volume of the container is de-
d. more than one correct response creased to 2.00 L at constant temperature, what is the new
e. no correct response pressure, in atm?
MC 12.2 In calculations based on Boyle’s law, which two of a. 3.00 atm
the gas law variables P, T, V, and n are held constant? b. 6.00 atm
a. P and n c. 9.00 atm
b. V and T d. 12.0 atm
c. n and T e. no correct response
MC 12.4 Charles’s law involves which of the following? c. 760 atm and 273⬚C.
a. an inverse proportion d. more than one correct response
b. a constant volume e. no correct response
c. a constant temperature MC 12.12 At STP conditions for gases, what is the volume,
d. more than one correct response in liters, of H2O vapor (steam) that is produced from the reac-
e. no correct response tion of 8.00 L of H2 and 4.00 L of O2 according to the reaction
MC 12.5 If the volume of a sample of F2 gas is reduced by
2 H2 1g2 + O2 1g2 h 2 H2O1g2
one-fourth at constant pressure, what happens to its Kelvin
temperature? a. 4.00 L b. 6.00 L c. 8.00 L
a. It remains constant. d. 12.0 L e. no correct response
b. It decreases by one-fourth. MC 12.13 At STP conditions, one mole of any gas will
c. It increases by a factor of 4. occupy a volume of
d. more than one correct response a. 1.000 milliliter. b. 1.000 liter.
e. no correct response c. 22.41 milliliters. d. 22.41 liters.
MC 12.6 The Gay-Lussac’s law observation that an e. no correct response
increased temperature causes an increased pressure is MC 12.14 A correct form of the ideal gas law equation is
explained using kinetic molecular theory in the following a. PV = nRT.
manner: The molecules of the gas b. P>V = nRT.
a. strike the container walls less often. c. P = nRT>V.
b. strike the container walls more often. d. more than one correct response
c. move at a slower speed. e. no correct response
d. more than one correct response MC 12.15 What is the volume, in liters, occupied by 1.73
e. no correct response moles of N2 gas at 0.992 atm pressure and a temperature of
MC 12.7 A gas has a volume of 6.00 liters at a temperature of 75⬚C?
27⬚C and a pressure of 1.00 atm. What is the volume of the gas, a. 10.7 L b. 33.8 L c. 49.8 L d. 52.2 L
in liters, at a temperature of 327⬚C and a pressure of 3.00 atm? e. no correct response
a. 80.0 atm b. 40.0 atm MC 12.16 What is the density of F2 gas at 24⬚C and a pres-
c. 10.0 atm d. 5.00 atm sure of 0.986 atm?
e. no correct response a. 1.54 g/L
MC 12.8 Which of the following sets of variables are pres- b. cannot be determined without knowing the vol-
ent in mathematical statements of Avogadro’s law? ume of the gas
a. n and V c. cannot be determined without knowing the
b. n and T amount of gas present
c. n, T, and V d. more than one correct response
e. no correct response MC 12.17 In the reaction
MC 12.9 Which of the following statements concerning
molar volume is correct? Fe2O31s2 + 3 H21g2 h 2 Fe1s2 + 3 H2O1g2
a. It has the value 22.41 L at all temperature– how many grams of Fe can be produced from 17.4 L
pressure combinations. of H2 at STP?
b. It cannot be determined without knowing the a. 17.4 g b. 28.9 g c. 44.4 g d. 65.3 g
chemical identity of the gas. e. no correct response
c. It has the value 13.3 L at 25⬚C and 2.00 atm pres- MC 12.18 In the reaction
sure for all gases.
d. more than one correct response Fe2O3 1s2 + 3 H2 1g2 h 2 Fe1s2 + 3 H2O1g2
e. no correct response how many moles of Fe2O3 must react to produce 10.8 L
MC 12.10 Using molar mass and molar volume the density of H2O at 125⬚C and 1.00 atm pressure?
of a gas is calculated in which of the following ways? a. 0.110 mole b. 0.331 mole
a. 1molar mass2 * 1molar volume 2 c. 0.917 mole d. 1.01 moles
b. 1molar mass2 , 1molar volume 2 e. no correct response
c. 1molar mass2 + 1molar volume 2 MC 12.19 The partial pressure of He gas in a gaseous mix-
d. 1molar mass2 - 1molar volume2 ture of He and H2 gas is
e. no correct response a. the pressure that the He would exert in the
MC 12.11 The conditions known as STP are absence of H2 under the same conditions.
a. 760 mm Hg and 273 K. b. equal to the total pressure divided by helium’s
b. 1 atm and 0⬚C. atomic mass.
c. equal to the total pressure multiplied by the mole ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE CHOICE PRACTICE TEST
fraction of He present.
d. more than one correct response MC 12.1 e MC 12.8 a MC 12.15 c
e. no correct response MC 12.2 c MC 12.9 e MC 12.16 a
MC 12.20 What is the mole fraction of Ar gas present in a MC 12.3 d MC 12.10 b MC 12.17 b
mixture of 0.40 mole He, 0.20 mole Ne, and 0.60 mole Ar, MC 12.4 e MC 12.11 d MC 12.18 a
if the total pressure exerted by the mixture is 2.00 atm at a MC 12.5 b MC 12.12 c MC 12.19 d
temperature of 0⬚C? MC 12.6 b MC 12.13 d MC 12.20 c
a. 0.20 b. 0.30 c. 0.50 d. 0.60 MC 12.7 e MC 12.14 d
C H A P T E R
13
Solutions
13.1 Characteristics of Solutions

13.2 Solubility
13.3 Solution Formation
13.4 Solubility Rules
13.5 Solution Concentrations
13.6 Percentage Concentration Unit
13.7 Parts per Million and Parts per Billion Concentration Units
13.8 Molarity Concentration Unit
13.9 Molarity and Chemical Reactions in Aqueous Solution
13.10 Dilution Calculations
13.11 Molality Concentration Unit
13.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLUTIONS

Student Learning Focus: Recognize the general properties of solutions and distinguish between
the terms solute and solvent.
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances, with each substance re-
taining its chemical identity. To form a homogeneous mixture, the intermingling of com-
ponents must be on the molecular level; that is, the particles present must be of atomic
or molecular size.
In discussing solutions it is often convenient to categorize the components of a
solution as solvent and solute(s). A solvent is the component of the solution present in
the greatest amount. The solvent may be thought of as the medium in which the other
substances present are dissolved. A solute is a solution component present in a small
amount relative to that of a solvent. More than one solute may be present in the same
solution. For example, both sugar and salt (two solutes) may be dissolved in water
(a solvent).
564
Chapter 13 • Solutions 565
In most situations we will encounter, the solutes present in a solution will be of

more interest to us than the solvent. The solutes are the “active ingredients” in the solu-
tion. They are the substances that may react when solutions are mixed.
Solutions used in the laboratory are often liquids, and the solvent is almost always
water. However, as we shall see shortly, gaseous solutions and solid solutions of several
types do exist.
A solution, since it is homogeneous, will have the same properties throughout. “All solutions are mixtures”
No matter from where we take a sample in a solution, it will have the same composi- is a valid statement.
tion as that of any other sample from the solution. The composition of a solution can However, the reverse
statement, “All mixtures
be varied, usually within certain limits, by changing the relative amounts of solvent are solutions,” is not valid.
and solute present. (If the composition limits are violated, a heterogeneous mixture is Only those mixtures that
formed.) are homogeneous are
Two-component solutions can be classified into nine types according to the solutions.
physical states of the solvent and solute before mixing. These types, along with an
example of each, are listed in Table 13.1. Solutions in which the final state of the solu-
tion components is liquid are the most common and are the type that are emphasized
in this text.
The physical state of the solute becomes that of the solvent when a solution is
formed. For example, solid naphthalene (moth repellent) must be sublimed (Sec. 4.4) for
it to dissolve in air. Pulverizing a solid to a fine powder and dispersing it in air does not
produce a solution. (Dust particles in air would be an example of this.) The particles of
the solid must be subdivided to the molecular level; the solid must sublime. Similarly, fog
is a suspension of water droplets in air; the droplets are large enough to reflect light, a
fact that becomes evident when we drive an automobile on a foggy night. Thus, fog is
not a solution. Water vapor, however, is present in solution form in air. When hydrogen
gas dissolves in platinum metal (a gas-in-solid solution), the gas molecules take up fixed
positions in the metal lattice. The gas is “solidified” as a result.
TABLE 13.1 Examples of Various Types of Solutions
Solution Type (solute listed first) Example

Gaseous Solutions
Gas dissolved in gas Dry air (oxygen and other gases dissolved in nitrogen)
Liquid dissolved in gas* Wet air (water vapor in air)
Solid dissolved in gas* Moth repellent (or mothballs) sublimed into air
Liquid Solutions
Gas dissolved in liquid Carbonated beverage (carbon dioxide in water)
Liquid dissolved in liquid Vinegar (acetic acid dissolved in water)
Solid dissolved in liquid Salt water
Solid Solutions
Gas dissolved in solid Hydrogen in platinum
Liquid dissolved in solid Dental filling (mercury dissolved in silver)
Solid dissolved in solid Sterling silver (copper dissolved in silver)
*An alternative viewpoint is that liquid-in-gas and solid-in-gas solutions do not actually exist as true solutions. From this viewpoint, water
vapor or moth repellent in air is considered to be a gas-in-gas solution since the water or moth repellent must evaporate or sublime first in
order to enter the air.
566 Chapter 13 • Solutions
13.2 SOLUBILITY
Student Learning Focus: Know general solubility trends accompanying temperature change
and pressure change; distinguish between the members of the following pairs of solubility terms:
saturated and unsaturated, dilute and concentrated, and aqueous and nonaqueous.
In addition to solvent and solute, several other terms are useful in describing characteris-
tics of solutions. Solubility is the maximum amount of solute that will dissolve in a given
amount of solvent. Numerous factors affect the numerical value of a solute’s solubility in
a given solvent, including the nature of the solvent itself, the temperature, and in some
cases the pressure and the presence of other solutes. Common units for expressing solu-
bility are grams of solute per 100 g of solvent.
Effect of Temperature on Solubility

Most solids become more soluble in water with increasing temperature. The data in
Table 13.2 illustrate this temperature–solubility pattern. Here, the solubilities of selected
ionic solids in water are given at three different temperatures. Note from the values in
this table that a temperature-caused solubility increase can be dramatic (AgNO3, 680%
increase by going from 0⬚C to 100⬚C) to slight (NaCl, 11% increase in going from 0⬚C to
A few ionic compounds,
100⬚C). Figure 13.1 shows the solubility change with temperature, at 10⬚C intervals, for
Na2 SO4 for example,
have solubilities that the molecular substance sucrose (C12H22O11, table sugar) in water.
decrease with increasing The use of specific units for solubility, as in Table 13.2, allows us to compare sol-
temperature. ubilities quite accurately. Such precision is often unnecessary, and instead qualitative
TABLE 13.2 Solubilities of Various Compounds in Water at 0ⴗC, 50ⴗC, and 100ⴗC
Solubility (g solute>100 g H2O)

Solute 0ⴗC 50ⴗC 100ⴗC
Lead(II) bromide 1PbBr2 2 0.455 1.94 4.75
Silver sulfate 1Ag2SO4 2 0.573 1.08 1.41
Copper(II) sulfate 1CuSO4 2 14.3 33.3 75.4
Sodium chloride 1NaCI2 35.7 37.0 39.8
Silver nitrate 1AgNO3 2 122 455 952
Cesium chloride 1CsCI2 161.4 218.5 270.5
FIGURE 13.1 Solubility

Solubility in water in boiling water
of the molecular 500
g sucrose/100 g water
compound sucrose
487.3
(C12H22O11, table 400

420.0
sugar) as a function
369.0
of temperature in the 300

325.0
range 0⬚C to 100⬚C. Solubility

289.0
in ice water
260.4
238.1
200
219.5
203.9
190.5
179.2
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Temperature, °C
TABLE 13.3 Qualitative Solubility Terms

Solute Solubility (g solute/100 g solvent) Qualitative Solubility Description
Less than 0.1 insoluble
0.1–1 slightly soluble
1–10 soluble
Greater than 10 very soluble
statements about solubilities are made by using terms such as very soluble, slightly soluble,
and so forth. The guidelines for the use of such terms are given in Table 13.3.
In contrast to the solubilities of solids, gas solubilities in water decrease with
increasing temperature. For example, both N2 and O2, the major components of air, are
less soluble in hot water than in cold water.
Effect of Pressure on Solubility

Pressure has little effect on the solubility of solids and liquids in water. However, it has a
major effect on the solubility of gases in water. The amount of gas that will dissolve in a
liquid at a given temperature is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas above the
liquid. In other words, as the pressure of a gas above a liquid increases, the solubility of
the gas increases; conversely, as the pressure of the gas decreases, its solubility decreases.
Respiratory therapy takes advantage of the fact that increased pressure increases the
solubility of a gas. Patients with lung problems who are unable to get sufficient oxygen from
air are given an oxygen-enriched mixture of gases to breathe. The larger oxygen partial pres-
sure in the enriched mixture translates into increased oxygen uptake in the patient’s lungs.
Terminology for Relative Amount of Solute in a Solution

When the amount of
A saturated solution is a solution that contains the maximum amount of solute that can dissolved solute in a
be dissolved under the conditions at which the solution exists. A saturated solution together solution corresponds to
with excess undissolved solute is an equilibrium situation where the rate of dissolution the solute’s solubility in
the solvent, the solution
of undissolved solute is equal to the rate of crystallization of dissolved solute. Consider
is a saturated solution.
the process of adding table sugar (sucrose) to a container of water. Initially the sugar dis-
solves as the solution is stirred. Finally, as we add more sugar, a point is reached where
no amount of stirring will cause the added sugar to dissolve. Sugar remains as a solid on
the bottom of the container; the solution is saturated. Although it appears to the eye that
nothing is happening once the saturation point is reached, on the molecular level this is
not the case. Solid sugar from the bottom of the container is continuously dissolving in
the water, and an equal amount of sugar is coming out of the solution. Accordingly, the
Saturated
net number of sugar molecules in the liquid remains the same, and outwardly it appears solution
that the dissolution process has stopped. This equilibrium situation in the saturated solu-
tion is somewhat similar to the previously discussed evaporation of a liquid in a closed
container (Sec. 11.12). Figure 13.2 illustrates the dynamic equilibrium process occurring
in a saturated solution in the presence of undissolved excess solute.
An unsaturated solution is a solution that contains less solute than the maxi-
Undissolved solute
mum amount that could dissolve. The majority of solutions encountered are unsaturated
solutions. FIGURE 13.2 The
Sometimes it is possible to exceed the maximum solubility of a compound, produc- dynamic equilibrium
process occurring in a
ing a supersaturated solution. A supersaturated solution is a solution that contains saturated solution that
more dissolved solute than that needed for a saturated solution. An indirect rather than a contains undissolved
direct procedure is needed for preparing a supersaturated solution; it involves the slow solute.
cooling, without agitation of any kind, of a high-temperature saturated solution in which

no excess solid solute is present. Even though solute solubility decreases as the tempera-
ture is reduced, the excess solute remains in solution. A supersaturated solution is an un-
stable situation; with time, excess solute will crystallize out, and the solution will become
a saturated solution. A supersaturated solution will produce crystals rapidly, often in a
dramatic manner, if it is slightly disturbed or if it is seeded with a tiny crystal of solute.
The terms dilute and concentrated are also used to convey qualitative information
about the degree of saturation of a solution. A dilute solution is a solution that contains
a small amount of solute in solution relative to the amount that could dissolve. On the other
hand, a concentrated solution is a solution that contains a large amount of solute relative
to the amount that could dissolve. A concentrated solution need not be a saturated solution.
Aqueous and Nonaqueous Solutions

When the term solution A set of solution terms that relates to the identity of the solvent present is aqueous and
is used, it is generally nonaqueous. An aqueous solution is a solution in which water is the solvent. The pres-
assumed that “aqueous
ence of water is not a prerequisite for a solution, however. A nonaqueous solution is a
solution” is meant, unless
the context makes it clear solution in which a substance other than water is the solvent. Alcohol-based solutions are
that the solvent is not often encountered in a medical setting.
water.
13.3 SOLUTION FORMATION

Student Learning Focus: Describe, at the atomic level, the solution process as an ionic solute
dissolves in water; be familiar with the factors that affect the rate of solution formation.
In a solution, solute particles are uniformly dispersed throughout the solvent. Considering
what happens at the molecular level during the solution process will help us to under-
stand how this is achieved. Let us consider in detail the process of dissolving sodium
chloride, a typical ionic solid, in water.
Figure 13.3 shows what is thought to happen when sodium chloride is placed in
water. The polar water molecules become oriented so that the negative oxygen portion
points toward positive sodium ions and the positive hydrogen portions point toward nega-
tive chloride ions. As the polar water molecules begin to surround ions on the crystal
surface, they exert sufficient attraction to cause these ions to break away from the crystal
surface. After leaving the crystal, an ion retains its surrounding group of water molecules; it
FIGURE 13.3 The H H

solution process for an O
H
ionic solid in water. H O H H H H
H O O
+ H H
O H +
O O
H O H O
H H H
H H O
O H H H
H H O H
H H H
O H O H
O H O H
H + − + O O
+ H
H O H H
H O − + − − H
H H O H
− + − + H H O
O
H H −
+ − + − + − H H
H O O
O H
− + − + − + H H
− + − + −
has become a hydrated ion. As each hydrated ion leaves the surface, other ions are exposed
to the water, and the crystal is picked apart ion by ion. Once in solution, the hydrated ions
are uniformly distributed by stirring or by random collisions with other molecules or ions.
The random motion of solute ions in solution causes them to collide with each
other, with solvent molecules, and occasionally with the surface of the undissolved solute.
Ions undergoing this last type of collision occasionally stick to the solid surface and thus
leave the solution. When the number of ions in solution is low, the chances for collision
with the undissolved solute are low. However, as the number of ions in solution increases,
so do the chances for such collisions, and more ions are recaptured by the undissolved
solute. Eventually, the number of ions in solution reaches such a level that ions return to
the undissolved solute at the same rate as other ions leave. At this point the solution is
saturated, and the equilibrium process discussed in the last section is in operation.
Factors Affecting the Rate of Solution Formation

The rate at which a solution forms is governed by how rapidly the solute particles are
distributed throughout the solvent. Three factors that affect the rate of solution formation
are as follows:
1. The state of subdivision of the solute. A crushed aspirin tablet will dissolve in water
more rapidly than a whole aspirin tablet. The more compact whole aspirin tablet has
less surface area, and thus fewer solvent molecules can interact with it at a given time.
2. The degree of agitation during solution preparation. Stirring solution components
disperses the solute particles more rapidly, increasing the possibilities for solute–
solvent interactions. Hence, the rate of solution formation is increased.
3. The temperature of the solution components. Solution formation occurs more rapidly
as the temperature is increased. At a higher temperature, both solute and solvent
molecules move more rapidly (Sec. 11.3) so more interactions between them occur
within a given time period.
13.4 SOLUBILITY RULES

Student Learning Focus: Know the basis for the solubility rule “like dissolves like” and be familiar
with the solubility guidelines for common types of ionic solutes in water.
In this section rules are presented for qualitatively predicting solubilities. They summarize
in a concise form the results of thousands of experimental solute–solvent solubility deter-
minations. The basis for the rules is polarity considerations—specifically, the magnitude
of the difference between the polarity of the solute and solvent. In general, it is found that Solvent Solute
the greater the difference in solute–solvent polarity, the less soluble the solute.
A simple summary statement of the polarity–solubility relationship is substances of
like polarity tend to be more soluble in each other than substances that differ in polarity. Solvent Solvent
This conclusion is often expressed as the even simpler phrase “like dissolves like.” Polar
substances, in general, are good solvents for other polar substances but not for nonpolar Solute
substances. Similarly, nonpolar substances exhibit greater solubility in nonpolar solvents
than they do in polar solvents.
A consideration of the intermolecular forces present in a solution reveals the basis Solute
for the like-dissolves-like rule. The same types of intermolecular forces present in pure
liquids (Sec. 11.16) also operate in solutions. However, the situation is more complex for FIGURE 13.4 Solution
solutions because there are three types of interactions present: solute–solute interactions, formation occurs when
these three kinds of
solute–solvent interactions, and solvent–solvent interactions. intermolecular forces
Solutions form when these three types of interactions are similar in nature and in are similar in nature
magnitude (see Fig. 13.4). Cholesterol (C27H46O), a nonpolar substance, is soluble in fat and in magnitude.
(also a nonpolar material) because of the similar magnitude of the London forces (Sec.
11.16) present. Cholesterol has limited solubility in water because of the dissimilarity of
the intermolecular forces, which are London forces for cholesterol and hydrogen bond-
ing for water (Sec. 11.16). Sodium chloride is soluble in water because the strong Na +
ion-water and Cl - ion-water attractions (ion–dipole attractions; Sec. 11.16) are similar in
nature to the strong attractions between Na + and Cl - ions (ion–ion attractions; Sec. 11.16)
and the strong hydrogen bonds between water molecules.
The generalization “like dissolves like” is a useful tool for predicting solubility be-
havior in many, but not all, solute–solvent situations. Results that agree with the gen-
eralization are almost always obtained in the cases of gas-in-liquid and liquid-in-liquid
solutions and for solid-in-liquid solutions in which the solute is not an ionic compound.
For example, NH3 gas (a polar gas) is much more soluble in H2O (a polar liquid) than
is O2 gas (a nonpolar gas). (The actual solubilities of NH3 and O2 in water at 20⬚C are,
respectively, 51.8 g>100 g H2O and 0.0043 g>100 g H2O.)
For those solid-in-liquid solutions in which the solute is an ionic compound—a
very common situation—the rule like dissolves like is not adequate. One would predict
that since all ionic compounds are polar, they all would dissolve in polar solvents such
as water. This is not the case. The failure of the generalization here is related to the com-
plexity of the factors involved in determining the magnitude of the solute–solute (ion–
ion) and solute–solvent (ion–polar solvent molecule) interactions. Among other things,
both the charge on and the size of the ions in the solute must be considered. Changes in
these factors affect both types of interactions, but not to the same extent.
Some guidelines concerning the solubility of ionic compounds in water, which
should be used in place of like dissolves like, are given in Table 13.4.
There is no such thing as an absolutely insoluble ionic compound; all dissolve to
a slight extent. Thus, the insoluble classification in Table 13.4 really means ionic com-
pounds that have a very limited solubility in water.
You should become thoroughly familiar with the rules in Table 13.4. They find
extensive use in chemical discussions. We will next encounter them in Section 15.3 when
the topic of net ionic equations is presented.
TABLE 13.4 Solubility Guidelines for Ionic Compounds in Water
Soluble Compounds Important Exceptions

Compounds containing the following ions are soluble, with exceptions as noted.
Group IA (Li + , Na + , K + , etc.) none
Ammonium (NH4 + ) none
-
Acetate (C2H3O2 ) none
-
Nitrate (NO3 ) none
- - -
Chloride (Cl ), bromide (Br ), and iodide (I ) Ag + , Pb2 + , Hg22 +
Sulfate (SO42 - ) Ca2 + , Sr2 + , Ba2 + , Pb2 + , Ag +
Insoluble Compounds Important Exceptions
Compounds containing the following ions are insoluble, with exceptions as noted.
Carbonate (CO32 - ) NH4 + , group IA,
Phosphate (PO43 - ) NH4 + , group IA
Sulfide (S2 - ) NH4 + , group IA, Ca2 + , Sr2 + , Ba2 +
Hydroxide (OH - ) group IA, Ca2 + , Sr2 + , Ba2 +
EXAMPLE 13.1 Using Solubility Guidelines to Predict Compound Solubilities
Predict the solubility of each of the following solutes in the solvent indicated.
a. ammonia (a polar gas) in benzene (a nonpolar liquid)
b. NaBr (an ionic solid) in water
c. CaCO3 (an ionic solid) in water
d. AgCl (an ionic solid) in water
SOLUTION
a. Insoluble. Since the two substances are of unlike polarity, they should be relatively
insoluble in each other.
b. Soluble. Table 13.4 indicates that all compounds containing Na+ ion are soluble.
c. Insoluble. Table 13.4 indicates that all carbonates are insoluble except those of
group IA ions and NH4 + ions.
d. Insoluble. Table 13.4 indicates that silver is an exception to the rule that all chlorides
are soluble.
13.5 SOLUTION CONCENTRATIONS

Student Learning Focus: In generalized terms, be able to state the two common methods for speci-
fying solution concentration.
In Section 13.2 we learned that, in general, there is a limit to the amount of solute that can
be dissolved in a specified amount of solvent and also that a solution is said to be satu-
rated when this maximum amount of solute has been dissolved. The amount of dissolved
solute in a saturated solution is given by the solute’s solubility.
Most solutions chemists deal with are unsaturated rather than saturated solutions. The
amount of solute present in an unsaturated solution is specified by stating the concentration
of the solution, an entity that describes the composition of the solution. Concentration is
the amount of solute present in a specified amount of solvent or a specified amount of solu-
tion. Thus, concentration is a ratio of two quantities, being either the ratio
amount of solute amount of solute

or
amount of solvent amount of solution
In specifying a concentration, what are the units used to indicate the amounts of sol-
ute and solvent or solution present? In practice, a number of different unit combinations are
used, with the choice of units depending on the use to be made of the concentration units.
In the sections that follow we shall discuss five commonly encountered units used to express
solution concentration. They are (1) percentage of solute (Sec. 13.6), (2) parts per million
and parts per billion (Sec. 13.7), (3) molarity (Sec. 13.8), and (4) molality (Sec. 13.11).
13.6 PERCENTAGE CONCENTRATION UNIT

Student Learning Focus: Be familiar with the three different methods for specifying solution con-
centration in terms of percentage of solute; be able to use percentage solute concentration as a
conversion factor in problem solving.
The concentration of a solution is often specified in terms of the percentage of solute

in the total amount of solution. Since the amounts of solute and solution present can be
stated in terms of either mass or volume, different types of percent units exist. The three
most common are
1. Percent by mass concentration (or mass–mass percent concentration)
2. Percent by volume concentration (or volume–volume percent concentration)
3. Mass–volume percent concentration
The concentration percent unit most frequently used by chemists is percent by
mass (or mass–mass percent). Percent by mass concentration is the mass of solute
divided by the total mass of solution multiplied by 100 (to put the value in terms of per-
centage). (Percentage is always part of the whole divided by the whole times 100; see
Sec. 3.10.)
mass of solute
The concentration of
percent by mass = * 100
mass of solution
butterfat in milk is
expressed in terms of The solute and solution masses must be in the same units but any units are allowed. The
mass percent. When you
mass of solution is equal to the mass of solute plus the mass of solvent.
buy 2% milk, you are
buying milk that contains
mass of solute
2 grams of butterfat per percent by mass = * 100
100 grams of milk. mass of solute + mass of solvent
A solution of 5.0% by mass concentration would contain 5.0 g of solute in 100.0 g of solu-
tion (5.0 g of solute and 95.0 g of solvent). Thus, percent by mass gives directly the number
of grams of solute in 100 g of solution. The abbreviation for percent by mass is % (m/m).
EXAMPLE 13.2 Calculating Mass Percent Concentration from Mass of

Solute and Mass of Solvent
What is the percent by mass, % (m/m), concentration of sucrose (table sugar) in a solu-
tion made by dissolving 5.4 g of sucrose in 75.0 g of water?
SOLUTION
To calculate percent by mass, we need both mass of solute and mass of solution.
mass of solute
percent by mass = * 100
mass of solution
The mass of solute is given (5.4 g) and the mass of solution is calculated by adding to-
gether mass of solute and mass of solvent.
mass of solution = 5.4 g + 75.0 g = 80.4 g (calculator and correct answer)
Substituting these values into the defining equation for percent by mass gives
5.4 g
percent by mass = * 100 = 6.7164179% (calculator answer)
80.4 g
Answer Double Check: Is the magnitude of the answer reasonable? Yes. A concentra-
tion of 6.7 mass percent means 6.7 g of solute per 100 g of solution. The ratio 6.7/100 is
consistent with the given ratio of 5.4/80. The larger amount of solution should contain the
larger amount of solute.
Chemical Insight: SUCROSE

Sucrose, commonly called table sugar, is naturally found throughout the plant world.
It is present in many fruits, in the nectar of flowers, and in the juices of many plants.
Sugar cane (20% sucrose by mass) and sugar beets (17% sucrose by mass) are the com-
mercial sources for this substance. The chemical formula for sucrose is C12H22O11; a
total of 45 atoms are present in a single sucrose molecule.
For many decades, until the mid-1970s, sucrose was the main sweetener added
to foods consumed by humans, particularly sweetened beverages. Since that time,
however, sucrose use has decreased steadily, with high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS)
progressively displacing the sucrose. The annual per capita consumption of sucrose
in the United States, in pounds, has dropped from 75 lbs per person in 1970 to a cur-
rent level of approximately 40 lbs per person. This decrease is matched with an almost
equal increase in the use of HFCS.
There are three major reasons for the switch from sucrose to high-fructose corn
syrup: (1) HFCS is cheaper to produce because of the relative abundance of corn, farm
subsidies, and sugar import tariffs in the United States, (2) HFCS is easier to blend and
transport because it is a liquid, and (3) HFCS usage leads to products with a much
longer shelf life.
Percent by volume (or volume–volume percent) finds use as a concentration unit The proof system used
when both the solute and solvent are liquids or gases. In such cases it is often more for alcoholic beverages
is twice the volume–
convenient to measure volumes than masses. Percent by volume concentration is the volume percent. Forty
volume of solute divided by the total volume of solution multiplied by 100. proof is 20% (v/v)
alcohol; 100 proof is
volume of solute 50% (v/v) alcohol.
percent by volume = * 100
volume of solution
Solute and solution volumes must always be expressed in the same units when this When volumes of two
different liquids are
expression is used. The abbreviation for percent by volume is % (v/v).
combined, the volumes
The numerical value of a concentration expressed as a percent by volume gives are not additive. This
directly the number of milliliters of solute in 100 mL of solution. Thus, a 100 mL sample process is somewhat
of a 5.0% alcohol-in-water solution contains 5.0 mL of alcohol dissolved in enough analogous to pouring
water to give 100 mL of solution. Note that such a 5.0%-by-volume solution could not marbles and golf balls
together. The marbles can
be made by adding 5 mL of alcohol to 95 mL of water, since volumes of different liquids
fill in the spaces between
are not usually additive. Differences in the way molecules are packed as well as in the the golf balls. This results
distances between molecules almost always result in the volume of a solution being in the “mixed” volume
less than the sum of the volumes of solute and solvent. For example, the final volume being less than the
resulting from the addition of 50.0 mL of ethyl alcohol to 50.0 mL of water is 96.5 mL sum of the “premixed”
volumes.
of solution.
EXAMPLE 13.3 Calculating the Percent by Volume Concentration

of a Solution
A windshield washer solution is made by mixing 37.8 mL of methyl alcohol (CH4O) with
46.2 mL of water to produce 80.0 mL of solution. What is the concentration of methyl
alcohol in the solution expressed as percent by volume methyl alcohol?
SOLUTION
To calculate this percent by volume, the volumes of methyl alcohol and of solution are
needed. Both are given in this problem.
methyl alcohol volume = 37.8 mL
solution volume = 80.0 mL
Note that the solution volume is not the sum of the solute and solvent volumes. As previ-
ously mentioned, liquid volumes of different substances are generally not additive.
Substituting the given values into the equation
volume of methyl alcohol
percent by volume = * 100
volume of solution
gives
37.8 mL
percent by volume = * 100 = 47.25% (calculator answer)
80.0 mL
Answer Double Check: Since the solute and solvent volumes are roughly equal, the
volume percent should be a percentage close to the 50% mark; such is the case, 47.0%.
Chemical Insight: METHYL ALCOHOL

Methyl alcohol (methanol), which has the chemical formula CH4O, is a colorless liquid
that has excellent solvent properties, and it is the solvent of choice for many shellacs
and varnishes.
Specially designed internal combustion engines can operate using methyl alcohol
as the fuel. For forty years, from 1965 to 2005, race cars at the Indianapolis Speedway
were fueled with methyl alcohol. A major reason for the switch from gasoline to
methyl alcohol relates to fires accompanying crashes. Methyl alcohol fires are easier
to put out than gasoline fires because water mixes with and dilutes methyl alcohol.
Ethyl alcohol (ethanol) has now replaced methyl alcohol as the fuel of choice for race
cars. This switch in fuels was promoted and funded by a consortium of ethyl alcohol
producers as a marketing effort to address public concerns that ethyl alcohol use in
automobiles led to engine damage and poor performance. The switch to ethyl alcohol
also boosts the fuel mileage of race cars. With the switch, the fuel-tank size of race cars
has decreased, resulting in lower vehicle weight and decreased time required to refuel.
The third type of percentage unit in common use is mass–volume percent. This unit,
which is often encountered in hospital and industrial settings, is particularly convenient
to use when working with a solid solute (which is easily weighed) and a liquid sol-
When a percent vent. Concentrations are specified using this unit when dealing with physiological fluids
concentration is given such as blood and urine. Mass–volume percent concentration is the mass of solute (in
without specifying which
of the three types of
grams) divided by the total volume of solution (in milliliters) multiplied by 100.
percent concentration mass of solute (g)
it is (not a desirable mass9volume percent = * 100
situation), it is assumed volume of solution (mL)
to mean percent by mass.
Thus, a 5% NaCl solution
Note that specific mass and volume units are given in the definition of mass–volume per-
is assumed to be a 5% cent. This is necessary because the units do not cancel as was the case with mass percent
(m/m) NaCl solution. and volume percent. The abbreviation for mass–volume percent is % (m/v).
For dilute aqueous solutions, % (m/m) and % (m/v) concentrations are almost the
same because mass in grams of the solution equals the volume in milliliters when the
density is close to 1.00 g/mL, as it is for pure water and for dilute aqueous solutions.
Using Percent Concentrations as Conversion Factors

Preparation of a solution with a specific percent concentration requires knowledge about
the amount of solute needed and/or the final volume of solution needed. Such informa-
tion can be calculated using conversion factors obtained from the desired percent con-
centration value. Table 13.5 shows the relationship between the definitions for the three
types of percent concentrations and the conversion factors that can be derived from them.
Examples 13.4 through 13.6 illustrate how these definition-derived conversion factors are
used in a problem-solving context.
EXAMPLE 13.4 Calculating the Mass of Solute Necessary to Produce a

Solution of a Given Mass Percent Concentration
How many grams of iodine must be added to 25.0 g of ethyl alcohol to prepare a 5.00%
(m/m) ethyl alcohol solution of iodine?
SOLUTION
Often, when a solution concentration is given as part of a problem statement, the concen-
tration information is used in the form of a conversion factor in solving the problem. That
will be the case in this problem.
The given quantity is 25.0 g of ethyl alcohol (grams of solvent), and the desired
quantity is grams of iodine (grams of solute).
25.0g ethyl alcohol = ? g iodine
The conversion factor relating these two quantities (solvent and solute) is obtained
from the given concentration. In this 5.00% (m/m) iodine solution, there are 5.00 g of
iodine for every 95.00 g of ethyl alcohol.
100.00 g solution - 5.00 g iodine = 95.00 g ethyl alcohol
This relationship between grams of solute and grams of solvent (5.00 to 95.00) gives us
the needed conversion factor
5.00 g iodine
95.00 g ethyl alcohol
TABLE 13.5 Conversion Factors Obtained from Percent Concentration Units
Percent
Concentration Meaning in Words Conversion Factors
12%(m/m) NaCl There are 12 g of NaCl in 12 g NaCl 100 g solution

solution 100 g of solution. and
100 g solution 12 g NaCl
8%(v/v) ethanol There are 8 mL of ethanol 8 mL ethanol 100 mL solution
and
solution in 100 mL of solution. 100 mL solution 8 mL ethanol
22%(m/v) sucrose There are 22 g of sucrose 22 g sucrose 100 mL solution
solution in 100 mL of solution. and
100 mL solution 22 g sucrose
Dimensional analysis gives the problem setup, which is solved in the following manner.
5.00 g iodine
25.0 g ethyl alcohol * = 1.3157894 g iodine (calculator answer)
95.00 g ethyl alcohol
= 1.32 g iodine (correct answer)
Answer Double Check: Is the magnitude of the answer reasonable? Yes. A 5.00% (m/m) so-
lution contains 5 g of solute per 95 g of solvent. For 25 g of solvent, approximately one-fourth
of 95 g, the amount of solute present should be about one-fourth of 5 g, which it is (1.32 g).
Chemical Insight: IODINE

Elemental iodine is a violet-black solid that readily sublimes at room temperature
to produce violet I2 vapor. Iodine is naturally found in seawater and seaweed, from
which it can be commercially extracted. An iodine-in-ethyl alcohol solution, tincture of
iodine, has use as an antiseptic for treating minor injuries to the skin.
Iodine is necessary for the proper functioning of the human body; for this rea-
son, table salt is “iodized.” The hormone thyroxine, produced by the thyroid gland, has
a molecular structure that contains four iodine atoms (C15H11I4NO4). The basal meta-
bolic rate of a person increases as the amount of thyroxine produced by the thyroid
gland increases. The clinical manifestation of iodine deficiency in the body is goiter,
characterized by an enlarged thyroid gland.
EXAMPLE 13.5 Calculating the Mass of Solute Present in a Solution of a

Given Mass–Volume Percent Concentration
Vinegar is a 5.0% (m/v) aqueous solution of acetic acid (HC2H3O2). How much acetic
acid, in grams, is present in one teaspoon (5.0 mL) of vinegar?
SOLUTION
The given quantity is 5.0 mL of vinegar, and the desired quantity is grams of acetic acid.
5.0 mL vinegar = ? g acetic acid
The given concentration of 5.0% (m/v), which means 5.0 g acetic acid per 100 mL vinegar,
can be used as a conversion factor to change milliliters of vinegar to grams of acetic acid.
The setup for the conversion is
5.0 g acetic acid

5.0 mL vinegar *
100 mL vinegar
Doing the arithmetic, after cancellation of units, gives
5.0 * 5.0
g acetic acid = 0.25 g acetic acid (calculator and correct answer)
100
Answer Double Check: Using whole numbers, a 5% mass–volume percent denotes 5 g

of solvent per 100 mL of solution. For 10 mL of solution, the grams should be one-tenth
of 5, which is 0.5. For 5 mL of solution, which is the given amount, the grams should be
0.25. This is the answer that was obtained.
Chemical Insight: VINEGAR

Acetic acid, a weak acid, is the main component of vinegar (other than water). Its pres-
ence is what gives vinegar its tartness (sour taste); additional flavoring agents are also
present in vinegar.
Vinegar is produced by fermentation of grapes, apples, and other fruits in the
presence of ample oxygen. Ethyl alcohol is the first fermentation product; further fer-
mentation changes the ethyl alcohol to acetic acid.
The concentration range for acetic acid in vinegar is 4-8% (m/v). Acetic acid solu-
tions with concentrations exceeding 50% (m/v) are corrosive and can damage human
tissue. Concentrated acetic acid spilled on the skin causes no immediate pain; how-
ever, painful blisters begin to form in approximately 30 minutes.
Pure acetic acid is known as glacial acetic acid because it freezes on a mod-
erately cold day (f.p = 62⬚F), producing icy-looking crystals. Glacial acetic acid has
been used as a wart remover with some success.
As was illustrated in Example 13.5, the conversion between mass of solute and
volume of solution is easily accomplished when the solution concentration unit is mass–
volume percent. To do mass–volume conversions, when the concentration is given in mass
percent or volume percent, requires density information in addition to the concentration.
Example 13.6 illustrates how density is involved in such a calculation.
EXAMPLE 13.6 Calculating the Volume of Solution Necessary to Supply

a Given Mass of Solute Using Density and Mass Percent
Concentration
An 18.0% by mass solution of ammonium sulfate [(NH4)2SO4] has a density of 1.10 g/mL.
What volume, in mL, of this solution contains 10.0 g of (NH4)2SO4?
SOLUTION
The given quantity is 10.0 g of (NH4)2SO4 and the desired quantity is milliliters of
(NH4)2SO4 solution.
10.0 g (NH4)2SO4 = ? mL (NH4)2SO4 solution
The pathway needed to solve the problem using dimensional analysis is
g (NH4)2SO4 h g (NH4)2SO4 solution h mL (NH4)2SO4 solution
The given concentration is the conversion factor needed for the first unit change and the
density is the conversion factor needed for the second unit change.
100 g solution 1 mL solution
10.0 g (NH4)2SO4 * *
18.0 g (NH4)2SO4 1.10 g solution
Doing the arithmetic, after cancellation of units, gives
10.0 * 100 * 1
mL solution = 50.505050 mL solution (calculator answer)
18.0 * 1.10
= 50.5 mL solution (correct answer)
Answer Double Check: Using rounded numbers, if the concentration was 20% by mass
(20 g per 100 g), and the density was 1.00 g/mL, 50 mL of solution would supply 10 g
of solute. Since the actual numbers (18.0% by mass, and 1.10 g/mL) are close to these
rounded values, the answer should still be about 50 mL. The actual answer of 50.5 mL is
consistent with this analysis.
13.7 PARTS PER MILLION AND PARTS PER BILLION

CONCENTRATION UNITS
Student Learning Focus: Be able to express solution concentrations in terms of parts per million
and parts per billions and be able to use such concentration units as conversion factors in problem
solving.
The concentration units parts per million (ppm) and parts per billion (ppb) find use when
dealing with extremely dilute solutions. Environmental chemists frequently use such units
in specifying the concentrations of the minute amounts of trace pollutants or toxic chemi-
cals in air and water samples.
Parts per million and parts per billion units are closely related to percentage con-
centration units. Not only are the defining equations very similar, but also various forms
of the units exist. Because amounts of solute and solution present may be stated in terms
of either mass or volume, there are three different forms for each unit: mass–mass (m/m),
volume–volume (v/v), and mass–volume (m/v).
A ppm is the equivalent A part per million concentration (ppm) is one part of solute per million parts of
of 1 second in 11 days solution. In terms of defining equations, we can write
and 14 hours.
mass of solute
ppm (m>m) = * 106
mass of solution
volume of solute
ppm (v>v) = * 106
volume of solution
mass of solute (g)
ppm (m>v) = * 106
volume of solution (mL)
Note that the units of grams and milliliters are specified in the last of the three defining
equations, but that no units are given in the first two equations. For the first two equations,
the only unit restriction is that the units be the same for both numerator and denominator.
A ppb is the equivalent A part per billion concentration (ppb) is one part of solute per billion parts of
of 1 second in 31 years solution. The mathematical defining equations for the three types of part-per-billion units
and 8 months. are identical to those just shown for parts per million except that a multiplicative factor of
109 instead of 106 is used.
The use of parts per million and parts per billion in specifying concentration often
avoids the very small numbers that result when other concentration units are used. For
example, a pollutant in water might be present at a level of 0.0013 g per 100 mL of solu-
tion. In terms of mass–volume percent, this concentration is 0.0013%. In parts per million,
however, the concentration is 13.
0.0013 g
ppm (m>v) = * 106 = 13
100 mL
The only difference in the ways in which percent concentrations and parts per mil-
lion or billion are calculated is in the multiplicative factor used. For percentages it is 102;
for parts per million, 106; and for parts per billion, 109. An alternative name for percentage
concentration units would be parts per hundred.
For very dilute aqueous solutions, because water has a density of 1.00 g/mL, the
following relationships are valid.
1 ppm (m>v) = 1 milligram>liter (mg>L)
1 ppb (m>v) = 1 microgram>liter (mg>L)
EXAMPLE 13.7 Expressing Concentrations in Parts per Million and Parts

per Billion
The concentration of sodium fluoride, NaF, in a town’s fluoridated tap water is found to
be 32.3 mg of NaF per 20.0 kg of tap water. Express this NaF concentration in
a. ppm (m/m). b. ppb (m/m).
SOLUTION
a. The defining equation for ppm (m/m) is
mass of solute
ppm (m>m) = * 106
mass of solution
The two masses in this equation must be in the same units. Let us use grams as our
mass unit. Expressing the given quantities in terms of grams, we have
32.3 mg NaF = 3.23 * 10 - 2 g NaF
20.0 kg tap water = 2.00 * 104 g tap water
Substituting these gram quantities into the defining equation for ppm (m/m) gives
3.23 * 10 - 2 g
ppm (m>m) = * 106
2.00 * 104 g
b. For parts per billion, we have
3.23 * 10 - 2 g
ppb (m>m) = * 109
2.00 * 104 g
= 1615 (calculator answer)
= 1620 (correct answer)
Answer Double Check: Is the relationship between the two answers correct? Yes. Any
time a concentration is expressed in both parts per million and parts per billion, the parts
per billion value will be 1000 times larger than the parts per million value.
Chemical Insight: FLUORIDATION

Fluoridation is a controlled process in which the F - ion is purposely added to drink-
ing water. Many communities fluoridate their drinking water by adding approximately
1 ppm (m/v) fluoride ion. The purpose of fluoridation is to reduce dental caries.
Tooth enamel is a complex calcium phosphate called hydroxyapatite,
Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2. Fluoride ions readily replace the hydroxide ions, OH - , present in
hydroxyapatite, producing fluoroapatite, Ca10(PO4)6F2. Fluorapatite, which is a harder
mineral, is less soluble in acid and less reactive than its predecessor. This decreased
solubility and decreased reactivity afford greater protection against cavities. Studies
indicate a 18–40% reduction in cavities when fluoridated water is in use for both adults
and children who already use fluoridated toothpaste.
There is some opposition to fluoridation of water because several fluorine-
containing compounds (at concentration levels much greater than in fluoridated drinking
water) can cause mild fluorosis effects such as tooth discoloration.
EXAMPLE 13.8 Calculating the Volume of Solute Present Given a Parts

per Million Concentration
The carbon monoxide, CO, content of the tobacco smoke that reaches a smoker’s lungs
can be as high as 375 ppm (v/v). At this concentration, how much CO, in milliliters,
would be present in a sample of air the size of a standard-size basketball (7.5 L)?
SOLUTION
The defining equation for ppm (v/v) is
volume solute
ppm (v>v) = * 106
volume solution
The solute is CO. Rearranging the equation to isolate volume of solute on the left gives
ppm (v>v) * volume solution (mL)
volume solute (mL) =
106
Substituting the known values into the equation, remembering to change 7.5 L to 7500 mL
so that the answer will have the unit of milliliters, gives
375 * 7500
volume CO = mL
106
= 2.8125 mL (calculator answer)
= 2.8 mL (correct answer)

A major source of indoor CO air pollution is cigarette smoking. Cigarette smoke con-
tains a CO concentration greater than 20,000 ppm (v/v), the result of the oxygen-
deficient conditions (smoldering) under which the cigarette burns. During inhalation,
this high CO concentration is diluted to a level of about 300–400 ppm (v/v). This
“diluted” CO concentration is still sufficiently high to produce definite change in the
hemoglobin present in the smoker’s blood.
The extent of the effects of CO on the hemoglobin in blood is measured in terms
of the amount of the blood’s hemoglobin that is converted to carboxyhemoglobin.
Carboxyhemoglobin is hemoglobin that CO has “deactivated.” Headaches, fatigue, and
dizziness can result when 10% of a person’s hemoglobin is tied up as carboxyhemo-
globin. When the percentage increases to 20%, serious consequences can result if a
person is not removed from the CO-polluted atmosphere. In moderate smokers, car-
boxyhemoglobin levels can reach the 5% level.
Studies indicate that nonsmokers present for an extended period of time in an
area where smoking occurs also have elevated levels of carboxyhemoglobin. The el-
evated levels are not as high, however, as those of the smokers themselves. This situ-
ation, often called passive smoking, is significant enough that many legislative bans on
smoking in public places have been enacted.
13.8 MOLARITY CONCENTRATION UNIT

Student Learning Focus: Be able to express solution concentrations in terms of molarity and be
able to use molarity concentration as a conversion factor in problem solving.
Molarity concentration is the number of moles of solute per liter of solution. The defin-
ing equation for molarity is
moles of solute
molarity (M) =
liters of solution
In preparing 100 mL of
A solution containing 1 mole of KBr in 1 L of solution has a molarity of 1 and is said to be a solution of a specific
a 1 M (1 molar) solution. Note that the abbreviation for molarity is a capital M. molarity, enough solvent
When a solution is to be used for a chemical reaction, concentration is almost is added to a weighed
amount of solute to give a
always expressed in units of molarity. A major reason for this is the fact that the amount final volume of 100 mL.
of solute is expressed in moles, a most convenient unit for dealing with stoichiometry in The weighed solute is
chemical reactions. Because chemical reactions occur between molecules and atoms, a not added to a starting
unit that counts particles, as the mole does, is desirable. volume of 100 mL; this
To find the molarity of a solution, we need to know the number of moles of solute would produce a final
volume greater than
present and the solution volume in liters and then take the ratio of the two quantities. An 100 mL, because the
alternative to knowing the number of moles of solute is knowledge about the grams of solute increases the total
solute present and the solute’s molar mass. volume.
EXAMPLE 13.9 Calculating the Molarity of a Solution from Mass/Amount

and Volume Data
Determine the molarities of the following solutions.
a. 1.45 moles of KCl dissolved in enough water to give 875 mL of solution
b. 57.2 g of NH4Br dissolved in enough water to give 2.15 L of solution
SOLUTION
a. The number of moles of solute is given in the problem statement.
moles of solute = 1.45 moles KCl
The volume of the solution is also given in the problem statement, but not in the
right units. Molarity requires liters for volume units. Making the unit change gives
10 - 3 L
875 mL * = 0.875 L (calculator and correct answer)
1 mL
The molarity of the solution is obtained by substituting the known quantities into
the equation
moles of solute
molarity (M) =
L of solution
which gives
1.45 moles of KCl moles KCl
M = = 1.6571428 (calculator answer)
0.875 L solution L solution
moles KCl
L solution
Note that the units of molarity are always moles per liter.
b. This time the volume of solution is given in the right units, liters.
volume of solution = 2.15 L
The moles of solute must be calculated from the grams of solute (given) and the
solute’s molar mass, which is 97.95 grams (calculated from a table of atomic
masses).
1 mole NH4Br
57.2 g NH4Br * = 0.58397141 mole NH4Br (calculator answer)
97.95 g NH4Br
= 0.584 mole NH4Br (correct answer)
Substituting the known quantities into the defining equation for molarity gives
0.584 mole NH4Br mole NH4Br

M = = 0.2716279 (calculator answer)
mole NH4Br
L solution
Answer Double Check: Is the magnitude of the answer in part (a) reasonable? Yes.
If the volume was 1000 mL instead of 875 mL, the molarity would be 1.45, because
1.45 moles of solute are present. With 1.45 moles of solute present in a smaller volume
(875 mL), the molarity will be slightly greater than 1.45. The answer, 1.66 molar, is
consistent with this analysis.
As the previous example indicates, when you perform a molarity calculation that
involves grams of solute, the identity (chemical formula) of the solute is always needed.
You cannot calculate moles of solute from grams of solute without knowing the chemical
formula of the solute. In contrast, when you perform percent concentration calculations
(or parts per million or billion)—Sections 13.6 and 13.7—the chemical formula of the
solute is not used in the calculation. All that is needed is the mass (grams) of the solute;
solute identity (chemical formula) is not required for the calculation.
Using Molarity as a Conversion Factor

The mass of solute present in a known volume of solution is an easily calculable quan-
tity if the molarity of the solution is known. When such is the case, molarity serves as a
conversion factor that relates liters of solution to moles of solute. In a similar manner, the
volume of solution needed to supply a given amount of solute can be calculated using
the solution’s molarity as a conversion factor.
Volume of solution Molarity Moles

(liters) of solute
Examples 13.10 and 13.11 show, respectively, the two previously mentioned uses for mo-
larity as a conversion factor.
EXAMPLE 13.10 Calculating the Amount of Solute Present in a

Given Amount of Solution Using Molarity as a
Conversion Factor
Citric acid, C6H8O7, is the substance that gives lemon juice and other citrus fruit juices a
sour taste. How many grams of citric acid are present in 125 mL of a 0.400 M citric acid
solution?
SOLUTION
The given quantity is 125 mL of solution, and the desired quantity is grams of C6H8O7.
125 mL solution = ? g C6H8O7
The pathway to be used in solving this problem is
mL solution h L solution h moles C6H8O7 h g C6H8O7
The given molarity (0.400 M) will serve as the conversion factor for the second unit
change; the molar mass of citric acid (which must be calculated because it is not given) is
used in accomplishing the third unit change.
The dimensional analysis setup for this pathway is
10 - 3 L solution 0.400 mole C6H8O7 192.14 g C6H8O7

125 mL solution * * *
1 mL solution 1 L solution 1 mole C6H8O7
Cancelling units and doing the arithmetic gives
125 * 10 - 3 * 0.400 * 192.14

g C6 H 8 O7
1 * 1 * 1
= 9.607 g C6H8O7 (calculator answer)
= 9.61 g C6H8O7 (correct answer)
Answer Double Check: Is the magnitude of the numerical answer reasonable? Yes, 125 mL
of solution is one-eighth of a liter. If a liter of solution contains 0.40 of a mole of solute
(the given molarity), then one-eighth of a liter will contain 0.050 mole (0.40/8). The molar
mass is approximately 200 g, and 0.050 times 200 g is 10 g. The calculated answer of 9.61 g
is consistent with this estimated answer of 10 g.
Chemical Insight: CITRIC ACID

The presence of citric acid in citrus fruits is well known. Citric acid’s occurrence
is, however, not limited to just citrus fruits, as is shown by the following citric acid
mass percent concentration values: lemons (4.0–8.0), grapefruit (1.2–2.1), raspberries
(1.0–1.3), tangerines (0.9–1.2), oranges (0.6–1.0), strawberries (0.6–0.8), potatoes
(0.3–0.5), and tomatoes (0.3).
Citric acid’s flavoring and acidity-controlling properties make it ideal for use as a
food additive. The citric-acid concentration of fruit-flavored carbonated beverages falls
in the range of 0.10–0.25 mass percent. Citric acid is used in jams, jellies, and preserves
for tartness and to create the right acidity for optimum gelation. In fresh salads, citric
acid prevents enzymatic browning reactions, and, in frozen fruits, it is used to in-
hibit color and flavor deterioration. Addition of citric acid to seafood retards microbial
growth by increasing acidity.
In the pure state, citric acid is a white crystalline solid that is readily soluble in
water. Citric acid is also a product of animal and human metabolism. Its normal con-
centration in human blood is about 2 mg/100 mL of blood.
EXAMPLE 13.11 Calculating the Amount of Solution Necessary to Supply

a Given Amount of Solute
A typical dose of iron(II) sulfate (FeSO4) used in the treatment of iron-deficiency anemia
is 0.35 g. How many milliliters of a 0.10 M iron(II) sulfate solution would be needed to
supply this dose?
SOLUTION
The given quantity is 0.35 g of FeSO4, and the desired quantity is milliliters of FeSO4 solution.
0.35 g FeSO4 = ? mL FeSO4 solution
The pathway to be used to solve this problem is
g FeSO4 h moles FeSO4 h L FeSO4 solution h mL FeSO4 solution
We accomplish the first unit conversion by using the molar mass of FeSO4 (which must
be calculated) as a conversion factor. The second unit conversion involves the use of the
given molarity as a conversion factor.
1 mole FeSO4 1 L solution 1 mL solution
0.35 g FeSO4 * a b * a b * a b
151.92 g FeSO4 0.10 mole FeSO4 10 - 3 L solution
Cancelling units and doing the arithmetic, we find that
0.35 * 1 * 1 * 1
a b mL solution
151.92 * 0.10 * 10 - 3
= 23.038441 mL solution (calculator answer)
= 23 mL solution (correct answer)
Chemical Insight: IRON

Iron, in the form of Fe2 + and Fe3 + ions, plays a vital role in a number of processes
occurring within the human body. About 70% of the iron in the body is found in
hemoglobin and myoglobin molecules, where it functions in the transport of oxy-
gen. Iron-poor blood has less oxygen-carrying capacity and hence results in a general
weakening of the body (anemia). In addition to oxygen transport, iron is an essential
component of many of the body’s enzymes.
Iron is absorbed by the body as Fe2 + ion; however, most iron in foods is found
as Fe ion. Vitamin C helps change Fe3 + ion to Fe2 + ion. Dietary iron supplements
3+
usually contain Vitamin C.

Cooking utensils are often a good source of dietary iron. The iron content of 100 g
of spaghetti sauce simmered in a glass pan has been measured at 3 mg, but the same
amount of the same type of sauce simmered in an iron skillet contained 87 mg of iron.
The iron content of scrambled eggs is tripled when they are cooked in an iron skillet.
Molarity FIGURE 13.5 “Road-

Percent by mass
(g solute/g solution) (moles solute/L solution) map” diagrams
showing the steps
Take 100 g solution Take 1 L solution involved in converting
from percent by mass
Mass of Mass of Volume of Moles of to molarity, or vice
solution solute solution solute versa.
Density Molar mass Density Molar mass
Volume of Moles of Mass of Mass of

solution solute solution solute
Division Division
× 100
Molarity Percent by mass

(moles solute/L solution) (g solute/g solution)
Molarity and mass percent are probably the two most commonly used concentration
units. The need to convert from one to the other often arises. Such a conversion can eas-
ily be done, provided the density of the solution is known. Figure 13.5 shows schemati-
cally the steps involved in converting one of these concentration units to the other.
EXAMPLE 13.12 Calculating Molarity from Density and Percent by Mass
The Great Salt Lake in Utah is second only to the Dead Sea in salt content. A water sam-
ple from the Great Salt Lake is found to contain 21.2 g of NaCl per 100.0 g of lake water,
which is a 21.2 percent by mass NaCl concentration. Calculate the molarity of NaCl in the
water given that the density of the lake water is 1.160 g/mL.
SOLUTION
Calculate the moles of solute and liters of solution present in a sample of this solution.
Since solution concentration is independent of sample size, any size sample can be the
basis for the calculation. To simplify the math, take a 100.0 g sample of solution.
Step 1 Moles of solute. The given quantity is 100.0 g of solution, and the desired quantity
is moles of NaCl.
100.0 g solution = ? moles NaCl
The known mass percent concentration will be the basis for the conversion factor
that takes us from grams of solution to grams of solute. The pathway to be used
in solving this problem is
g solution h g solute h moles solute
The setup is
21.2 g NaCl 1 mole NaCl

100.0 g solution * *
100 g solution 58.44 g NaCl
= 0.36276523 mole NaCl (calculator answer)
= 0.363 mole NaCl (correct answer)
Step 2 Liters of solution. The density of the solution is used as a conversion factor in
obtaining the volume of solution. The pathway for the calculation is
g solution h mL solution h L solution
The setup is
1 mL solution 10 - 3 L solution
100.0 g solution * *
1.160 g solution 1 mL solution
= 0.086206897 L solution (calculator answer)
= 0.08621 L solution (correct answer)
Step 3 Molarity. With both moles of solute and liters of solution known, the molarity is
obtained by substitution into the defining equation for molarity:
moles NaCl 0.363 mole NaCl

M = =
L solution 0.08621 L solution
moles NaCl
L solution
moles NaCl
L solution
An alternate method for solving this problem, which involves one “continuous
chain” of conversion factors, exists. In this method, the mass percent as a conversion fac-
tor (g solute/g solution) is the starting point for the calculation, and the unit conversions
used produce the units for molarity (moles solute/liter solution). The conversion factor
sequence necessary to produce this change is
21.2 g NaCl 1.160 g solution 1 mL solution 1 mole NaCl

* * *
100 g solution 1 mL solution 10 - 3 L solution 58.44 g NaCl
moles NaCl
L solution
moles NaCl
L solution
Molar concentrations do not give information about the amount of solvent present.
All that is known is that enough solvent is present to give a specific volume of solution.
The amount of solvent present in a solution of a known molarity can be calculated if the
density of the solution is known. Without the density, it cannot be calculated. Example
13.13 illustrates how this is done.
EXAMPLE 13.13 Using Molarity and Density to Calculate the Amount

of Solvent Present in a Solution
Large amounts of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) are used in the production of phosphate fertil-
izers. A 2.324 M H2SO4 solution has a density of 1.142 g/mL. How many grams of solvent
(water) are present in 25.0 mL of this solution?
SOLUTION
To find the grams of solvent present, we must first find the grams of solute (H2SO4) and
the grams of solution. The grams of solvent present is then obtained by subtraction.
g solvent = g solution - g solute
Step 1 Grams of solution. The volume of solution is given. Density, used as a conversion
factor, will enable us to convert this volume to grams of solution.
1.142 g solution
25.0 mL solution * = 28.55 g solution (calculator answer)
1 mL solution
= 28.6 g solution (correct answer)
Step 2 Grams of solute. We will use the molarity of the solution as a conversion factor in
obtaining the grams of solute. The setup for this calculation is similar to that in
Example 13.10.
10 - 3 L solution 2.324 moles H2SO4 98.09 g H2SO4

25.0 mL solution * * *
1 mL solution 1 L solution 1 mole H2SO4
= 5.699029 g H2SO4 (calculator answer)
= 5.70 g H2SO4 (correct answer)
Step 3 Grams of solvent. The grams of solvent will be the difference in mass between
the grams of solution and the grams of solute.
28.6 g solution - 5.70 g solute = 22.9 g solvent (calculator and correct answer)
Answer Double Check: Is the magnitude of the calculated answer reasonable? Yes,
25.0 mL of solution with a density of 1.142 g/mL would have a mass of 28.6 grams
(25.0 * 1.142). The major part of this mass is due to water since the solution is relatively
dilute (2 M). Thus, the mass of water present should be about 20–25 grams. Such is the
case; the calculated answer is 22.9 grams.
Chemical Insight: SULFURIC ACID

Sulfuric acid is one of three extremely important industrial acids. The other two are nitric
acid and hydrochloric acid. Advantages of sulfuric-acid use over the other two acids are
that it is the least expensive to produce and it is the only one of the three that can be
prepared and shipped in an almost pure form; the other two acids are shipped as aque-
ous solutions.
Pure sulfuric acid is a thick and syrupy liquid. At room temperature, it is stable
and nonvolatile. All the reactions of concentrated sulfuric acid solutions are very exo-
thermic; that is, heat is generated. Even diluting sulfuric acid solution with water pro-
duces significant heat energy.
A remarkable property of sulfuric acid is its great affinity for water; that is, its
dehydrating ability. For example, when this acid is mixed with sugar, it dehydrates the
sugar (extracts hydrogen and oxygen atoms to produce water) and leaves behind a
large porous mass of black carbon. Often, sulfuric acid is used as a dehydrating agent
in industrial processes.
13.9 MOLARITY AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTION

Student Learning Focus: Be able to use solution concentrations as conversion factors in problem-
solving situations that involve amounts/volumes of reactants and/or products in chemical reactions.
Section 10.9 introduced a general problem-solving procedure for setting up problems

that involve chemical equations. With this procedure, if information is given about one
reactant or product in a chemical reaction (number of grams, moles, or particles), similar
information can easily be obtained for any other reactant or product.
In Section 12.14 this procedure was refined to allow us to do mass-to-volume or
volume-to-mass calculations for reactions when at least one reactant or product is a gas.
This section further refines our problem-solving procedure to deal efficiently with
reactions that occur in aqueous solution. Of primary importance in this new area of prob-
lem solving will be solution volume. In most situations, solution volume is more conve-
niently determined than solution mass.
When solution concentrations are expressed in terms of molarity, a direct relation-
ship exists between solution volume (in liters) and moles of solute present. The definition
of molarity itself gives the relationship; molarity is the ratio of moles of solute to volume
(in liters) of solution. Thus, molarity is the connection that links volume of solution to the
other common problem-solving parameters, such as moles and grams. Figure 13.6 shows
diagrammatically the place that volume of solution occupies relative to other parameters
in the overall scheme of chemical equation–based problem solving. This diagram is a
simple extension of Figure 12.9; “volume of solution” boxes have been added. It is used
in the same way as Figure 12.9 was.
Examples 13.14 through 13.17 illustrate various ways in which the “volume of so-
lution” boxes in Figure 13.6 enter into problem-solving situations that involve chemical
reactions occurring in solution.
FIGURE 13.6 Volume of Volume Volume Volume of

Conversion factor solution A of gas A of gas B solution B
relationships necessary
to solve problems
involving chemical Molar volume Molar volume
Molarity Molarity
reactions that occur in
aqueous solution. Equation
Particles Avogadro's Moles coefficients Moles Avogadro's Particles
subscripts
Molar Molar
mass mass
Grams Grams
of A of B
EXAMPLE 13.14 Calculating the Volume of a Reactant Given the Volume

and Concentration of Another Reactant
The fizz produced when an Alka-Seltzer tablet is dissolved in water is due to the reaction
between sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3, and citric acid, C6H8O7.
3 NaHCO3(aq) + C6H8O7(aq) h 3 CO2(g) + 3 H2O(l) + Na3C6H5O7(aq)
If this reaction were run in a laboratory, what volume, in liters, of 2.50 M NaHCO3 solu-
tion is needed to react completely with 0.025 L of 3.50 M C6H8O7 solution?
SOLUTION
Step 1 The given quantity is 0.025 L of C6H8O7 solution, and the desired quantity is liters
of NaHCO3 solution.
0.025 L C6H8O7 = ? L NaHCO3
Step 2 This problem is a volume-of-solution-A to volume-of-solution-B problem. The

pathway used in solving it, in terms of Figure 13.6, is
Volume of Molarity Moles Equation Moles Molarity Volume of

solution A of A coefficients of B solution B
Step 3 The dimensional analysis setup for the calculation is
3.50 moles C6H8O7 3 moles NaHCO3 1 L NaHCO3

0.025 L C6H8O7 * * *
1 L C6 H 8 O7 1 mole C6H8O7 2.50 moles NaHCO3
Step 4 Combining all the numerical factors gives
0.025 * 3.50 * 3 * 1
L NaHCO3 = 0.105 L NaHCO3 (calculator answer)
1 * 1 * 2.50
= 0.10 L NaHCO3 (correct answer)
Answer Double Check: Is the magnitude of the numerical answer reasonable? Yes. If
the two solutions were of equal strength (same molarities), three time as much NaHCO3
would be needed as C6H8O7, based on the chemical equation coefficients. Three times
0.025 L is 0.075 L. Since the C6H8O7 is the stronger solution, even more than 0.075 L of
the weaker NaHCO3 solution is needed for the chemical reaction. The calculated answer,
0.10 L, is consistent with this analysis.
EXAMPLE 13.15 Calculating the Volume of a Solution of Known

Concentration Needed to React With a Known
Mass of Another Reactant
How many liters of 1.45 M HBr solution are needed to completely react with 32.00 g of
Zn? The chemical equation for the reaction that occurs is
2HBr(aq) + Zn(s) S ZnBr2(aq) + H2(g)

SOLUTION
Step 1 The given quantiy is 32.00 g of Zn, and the desired quantity is liters of HBr
solution.
32.00 g Zn = ? liters HBr solution
Step 2 The problem is a gram of A to volume-of-solution B problem. The pathway used

in solving it, in terms of Figure 13.6, is
Grams Molar Moles Equation Moles Molarity Volume of

of A mass of A coefficients of B solution B
1 mole Zn 2 moles HBr 1 L HBr

32.00 g Zn * * *
65.38 g Zn 1 mole Zn 1.45 moles HBr
Step 4 Combining all the numerical factors gives
32.00 * 1 * 2 * 1
L HBr = 0.6750983 L HBr (calculator answer)
65.38 * 1 * 1.45
= 0.675 L HBr (correct answer)
Answer Double Check: Is the magnitude of the numerical answer reasonable? Yes. 32.00
grams of Zn (the starting amount) is approximately one-half mole of Zn. One mole of
HBr is needed since HBr and Zn reactant in a 2-to-1 ratio approximately. Two-thirds of
a liter of 1.45 M HBr solution contains approximately one mole of HBr. The calculated
answer, 0.675 L of HBr, is consistent with this analysis.
EXAMPLE 13.16 Calculating a Product Amount Given Two Reactant

Solution Volumes
How many grams of solid copper(II) sulfide (CuS) product can be produced when 1.20 L
of 0.20 M copper nitrate [Cu(NO3)2] solution and 1.50 L of 0.15 M soldium sulfide (Na2S)
solution are mixed? The chemical equation for the reaction that occurs is
Cu(NO3)2(aq) + Na2S(aq) h CuS(s) + 2 NaNO3(aq)
SOLUTION
First, we must determine the limiting reactant since specific volumes of both reactant
solutions are given in the problem statement. This determination involves two volume-
of-solution-A to moles-of-B calculations—one for each reactant. The pathway, in terms of
Figure 13.6, for these parallel calculations is
Volume of Molarity Moles Equation Moles

solution A of A coefficients of B
The dimensional analysis setup for these parallel calculations follows.

For Cu(NO3)2
0.20 mole Cu(NO3)2 1 mole CuS

1.20 L Cu(NO3)2 solution * *
1 L Cu(NO3)2 solution 1 mole Cu(NO3)2
= 0.24 mole CuS (calculator and correct answer)
For Na2S
0.15 mole Na2S 1 mole CuS

1.50 L Na2S solution * *
1 L Na2S solution 1 mole Na2S
= 0.225 mole CuS (calculator answer)
= 0.22 mole CuS (correct answer)
Based on these two calculations, Na2S is the limiting reactant since it produces fewer
moles of CuS.
The overall calculation is a volume-of-solution-A to grams-of-B calculation (see
Figure 13.6).
Volume of Molarity Moles Equation Moles Molar Grams

solution A of A coefficients of B mass of B
In doing the limiting reactant calculation, we obtained moles of B (moles of CuS). Thus,
all that is left to do is to go from moles of B to grams of B, using the limiting reactant
molar amount of CuS and a conversion factor based on molar mass.
95.62 g CuS
0.22 mole CuS * = 21.0364 g CuS (calculator answer)
1 mole CuS
= 21 g Cu (correct answer)
Answer Double Check: In each of the three-dimensional analysis setups used in solv-
ing this problem, do all of the units cancel except for the needed one? Yes, all of the units
cancel correctly. Does the final numerical answer possess the correct number of significant
figures? Yes. This answer is limited to two significant figures because each of the molar con-
centrations given in the problem statement contained only two significant figures.
Example 13.17, the final example problem in this section, involves both volume of
solution and volume of gas. Based on the relationships shown in Figure 13.6, this prob-
lem is no more complicated than the previous examples in this section since both of the
volume quantities are “box locations” in Figure 13.6.
EXAMPLE 13.17 Calculating the Gaseous Volume of a Product from the

Solution Volume of a Reactant
What volume, in liters of nitric oxide gas, NO, measured at STP, can be produced from
1.75 L of 0.550 M nitric acid, HNO3, and an excess of 0.650 M hydrosulfuric acid, H2S,
according to the following reaction?
2 HNO3(aq) + 3 H2S(aq) h 2 NO(g) + 3 S(s) + 4 H2O(l)
SOLUTION
Step 1 The given quantity is 1.75 L of HNO3 solution, and the desired quantity is liters of
NO gas at STP.
1.75 L HNO3 = ? L NO (at STP)
Step 2 This is a volume-of-solution-A to volume-of-gas-B problem. From Figure 13.6 the
pathway for solving the problem is
Volume of Molarity Moles Equation Moles Molar Volume of

solution A of A coefficients of B volume gas B

0.550 mole HNO3 2 moles NO 22.41 L NO
1.75 L HNO3 * * *
1 L HNO3 2 moles HNO3 1mole NO
The last conversion factor is derived from the fact that one mole of any gas
occupies 22.41 L at STP conditions (Sec. 12.13).
Step 4 The result, obtained by combining all the numerical factors, is
1.75 * 0.550 * 2 * 22.41
L NO = 21.569625 L NO (calculator answer)
1 * 2 * 1
= 21.6 L NO (correct answer)
13.10 DILUTION CALCULATIONS

Student Learning Focus: Be able to calculate the concentration of a solution obtained by diluting a
solution of known concentration.
A common procedure encountered when working with solutions in the laboratory is that of
diluting a solution of known concentration to a lower concentration. This occurs because
solutions, for convenience, are usually bought and stored in a concentrated form, which are
then diluted before use to needed concentrations. Dilution is the process in which more
solvent is added to a specific volume of solution to lower its concentration. Dilution always
lowers the concentration of a solution. The same amount of solute is present, but it is now
distributed in a larger amount of solvent (the original solvent plus the added solvent).
Since laboratory solutions are almost always liquids, dilution is normally a volumetric
procedure. Most often, a solution of a specific molarity is prepared by adding solvent to a
solution until a specific total volume is reached.
With molar concentration units, a very simple mathematical relationship exists be-
tween the volumes and molarities of the diluted and concentrated solutions. This relation-
ship is derived from the fact that the same amount of solute is present in both solutions;
only solvent is added in a dilution procedure.
moles soluteconcentrated solution = moles solutediluted solution
The number of moles of solute in both solutions is given by the expression
moles solute = molarity (M ) * liters of solution (V )
(This equation is just a rearrangement of the defining equation for molarity to isolate
moles of solute on the left side.) Substitution of this second expression into the first one
gives the equation
Mi * Vi = Mf * Vf
In this equation, Mi and Vi are the initial molarity and initial volume of the solution being
diluted, and Mf and Vf are the final molarity and final volume of the solution produced by
the dilution. Because volume appears on both sides of the equation, any volume unit, not just
liters, may be used as long as it is the same on both sides of the equation. Again, the validity
of this equation is based on the fact that there is no change in the amount of solute present.
EXAMPLE 13.18 Calculating the Molarity of a Solution After It Has Been

Diluted
What is the molarity of the solution prepared by diluting 65 mL of 0.95 M nitric acid
(HNO3) solution to a final volume of 135 mL through addition of solvent?
SOLUTION
Three of the four variables in the equation
Mi * Vi = Mf * Vf
are known.
Mi = 0.95 M Mf = ? M
Vi = 65 mL Vf = 135 mL
Rearranging the equation to isolate Mf on the left side and substituting the known vari-
ables into it gives
Vi
Mf = Mi *
Vf
65 mL
= 0.95 M * = 0.4574074 M (calculator answer)
135 mL
= 0.46 M (correct answer)
Thus, the diluted solution’s concentration is 0.46 M.
A volume increase by a factor of approximately 2 (65 mL to 135 mL) should produce a
concentration decrease by a factor of approximately 2. Such is the case. The concentration
decreases from 0.95 M to 0.46 M.
Chemical Insight: NITRIC ACID

Nitric acid (HNO3) is one of the “big three” industrial acids, the other two being sul-
furic acid (H2SO4) and hydrochloric acid (HCl). It is a colorless liquid when newly
prepared. Older samples tend to acquire a pale yellow color due to decomposition of
some HNO3 molecules, which produces H2O, O2, and NO2, the latter causing the pale
yellow color that is present.
Nitric acid reacts with proteins to produce yellow nitrated products. When small
amounts of nitric acid come in contact with human skin, a temporary yellow discolor-
ation of the skin occurs which can take several days to disappear.
The main commercial use of nitric acid is in the production of the chemical fer-
tilizer ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3). It can be made by the direct reaction between
ammonia (NH3) and nitric acid. Ammonium nitrate also has some uses as an explosive.
Metal nitrates, prepared by dissolving various metals in nitric acid, are responsible
for many of the colors seen in fireworks displays. At high temperatures, different metal
ions emit different colors as nitrates present undergo decomposition (explode) in air.
EXAMPLE 13.19 Calculating the Amount of Solvent That Must Be Added

to a Solution to Dilute It to a Specified Concentration
How much solvent, in milliliters, must be added to 200.0 mL of a 1.25 M sodium chloride
(NaCl) solution to decrease its concentration to 0.770 M?
SOLUTION
The volume of solvent added is equal to the difference between the final and initial vol-
umes. The initial volume is known. The final volume can be calculated using the equation
Mi * Vi = Mf * Vf
Once the final volume is known, the difference between the two volumes can be obtained.
Substituting the known quantities into the dilution equation, rearranged to isolate Vf
on the left side, gives
Mi
Vf = Vi *
Mf
1.25 M
= 200.0 mL * = 324.67532 mL (calculator answer)
0.770 M
= 325 mL (correct answer)
The solvent added is
Vf - Vi = (325 - 200.0) mL = 125 mL (calculator and correct answer)
concentrations are in an approximate three-to-two ratio (1.20 M and 0.80 M). Thus, the
initial and final volumes should be in an approximately two-to-three ratio, which they
are (200 mL and 300 mL). The change from 200 mL to 300 mL requires adding 100 mL of
solvent. The calculated answer, 125 mL, is consistent with this analysis.
When two “like” solutions—that is, solutions that contain the same solute and the
same solvent—of differing known molarities and volumes are mixed together, the molar-
ity of the newly formed solution can be calculated by using the same principles that apply
in a simple dilution problem.
Again, the key concept involves the amount of solute present; it is constant. The
sum of the amounts of solute present in the individual solutions prior to mixing is the
same as the total amount of solute present in the solution after mixing. No solute is lost
or gained in the mixing process. Thus, we can write
moles of solutefirst solution + moles of solutesecond solution = moles of solutecombined solution
Substituting the expression (M * V) for moles of solute in this equation gives
(M1 * V1) + (M2 * V2) = M3 * V3
where the subscripts 1 and 2 denote the solutions to be mixed and the subscript 3 is the
solution resulting from the mixing. Again, this expression is valid only when the solutions
that are mixed are like solutions.
EXAMPLE 13.20 Calculating Molarity when Two Like Solutions of

Differing Concentration Are Mixed
What is the molarity of the solution obtained by mixing 50.0 mL of 2.25 M hydrochloric
acid (HCl) solution with 160.0 mL of 1.25 M hydrochloric acid solution?
SOLUTION
Five of the six variables in the equation
(M1 * V1) + (M2 * V2) = M3 * V3
are known:
M1 = 2.25 M V1 = 50.0 mL
M2 = 1.25 M V2 = 160.0 mL
M3 = ? M V3 = 210.0 mL
Note that in the mixing process we consider the volumes of the solution to be additive; that is,
V3 = V1 + V2
This is a valid assumption for like solutions.
Solving our equation for M3 and then substituting the known quantities into it gives
(M1 * V1) + (M2 * V2) (2.25 M * 50.0 mL) + (1.25 M * 160.0 mL)
M3 = =
V3 (210.0 mL)
= 1.4880952 M (calculator answer)
= 1.49 M (correct answer)
Answer Double Check: Is the magnitude of the numerical answer reasonable? Yes. It is
reasonable in two aspects. First, the final concentration must be in the range between the
two starting concentrations, which it is. The value 1.49 M is between 1.25 M and 2.25 M.
Second, the final concentration should be closer to the concentration 1.25 M than to the
concentration 2.25 M because a larger volume of the weaker solution is used. Such is the
case; 1.49 M is closer to 1.25 M than to 2.25 M.
Chemical Insight: HYDROCHLORIC ACID

Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is one of the “big three” industrial acids, the other two being
sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3).
Since hydrochloric acid readily attacks most metals, it is stored in glass or plastic
containers. The largest single use for hydrochloric acid involves metal “pickling.” The
pickling process removes oxide coatings from the surface of metals. For example, steel
pickling removes iron oxide (rust) present. Metals are pickled in preparation for plat-
ing or reuse as scrap metal.
Hydrochloric acid readily dissolves limestone (calcium carbonate). It is often injected
into old oil wells to increase production by dissolving some of the subterranean limestone.
Carbon dioxide gas produced as the limestone dissolves helps repressurize the wells.
In the home, hydrochloric acid is found as the active ingredient in toilet bowl
cleaners. The buildup that forms in toilet bowls is mainly calcium carbonate deposited
from hard water, along with discolorations due to iron compounds. Hydrochloric acid,
sold under the name muriatic acid, in home improvement stores, is used to clean
bathtubs and also to clean mortar from brick and stone surfaces.
In the solution of Example 13.20 the given liquid volumes were considered addi-
tive. In Section 13.6, when discussing volume percent, it was stressed that volumes were
not additive. Why the difference? Volumes of different liquids (Sec. 13.6) are not additive;
volumes of the same liquid (Example 13.20) are additive.
13.11 MOLALITY CONCENTRATION UNIT

Student Learning Focus: Be able to express solution concentrations in terms of molality and be able
to use molality concentration as a conversion factor in problem solving.
Molality is a concentration unit based on a fixed amount of solvent and is used in areas
where this is a concern. Despite this unit having a name very similar to molarity, molal-
ity differs distinctly from molarity. Molarity is a unit based on a fixed amount of solution
rather than a fixed amount of solvent. Molality concentration is the number of moles of
solute per kilogram of solvent. The defining equation for molality is
moles of solute
molality (m) =
kilograms of solvent
Note that the abbreviation for molality is an italic lowercase m.
It is important not to confuse molarity with molality.
moles of solute moles of solute
Molality = Molarity =
kilograms of solvent liters of solution
The numerators of the two defining equations are the same. There are, however, major dif-
ferences in the denominators of the defining equations. One involves solvent and the other
involves solution. One involves mass (kilograms) and the other involves volume (liters).
Molality also finds use, in preference to molarity, in experimental situations where
changes in temperature are of concern. Molality is a temperature-independent concen-
tration unit; molarity is a temperature-dependent concentration unit. To be temperature
independent, a concentration unit cannot involve a volume measurement. Volumes of
solutions change (expand or contract) with changes in temperature. A change in temper-
ature thus means a change in concentration, even though the amount of solute remains
constant, if a concentration unit has a volume dependency. Volume changes caused by
temperature change are usually very very small; consequently, temperature independence
or dependence is a factor in only the most accurate experimental measurements.
Careful note should be taken of the fact that the same letter of the alphabet is used
as an abbreviation for both molality and molarity—a lowercase, italic m for molality (m)
and a capitalized M for molarity (M).
In dilute aqueous solutions molarity and molality are practically identical in nu-
merical value. This results because dilute aqueous solutions have a density of 1.0 g/mL.
Molarity and molality have significantly different values when the solvent has a density
that is not equal to unity or when the solution is concentrated.
EXAMPLE 13.21 Calculating the Molality of a Solution
What would be the molality of a solution made by dissolving 3.50 g of sodium chloride
(NaCl) in 225 g of H2O?
SOLUTION
To calculate molality, the number of moles of solute and the solvent mass in kilograms
must be known.
In this problem the solvent mass is given, but in grams rather than kilograms. We
thus need to change the grams unit to kilograms.
1 kg H2O
225 g H2O * = 0.255 kg H2O (calculator and correct answer)
103 g H2O
Information about the solute is given in terms of grams. We can calculate moles of
solute from the given information by using molar mass (which is not given and must be
calculated) as a conversion factor.
1 mole NaCl
3.50 g NaCl * = 0.059890485 mole NaCl (calculator answer)
58.44 g NaCl
= 0.0599 mole NaCl (correct answer)
Substituting moles of solute and kilograms of solvent into the defining equation for molal-
ity gives
moles solute 0.0599 mole NaCl
m = =
kg solvent 0.225 kg H2O
mole NaCl
kg H2O
mole NaCl
= 0.266
kg H2O
= 0.266 m (correct answer)
Answer Double Check: Is the magnitude for the numerical value of the molality reason-
able? Yes. Approximately 0.06 mole of NaCl (3.50/60) is present in approximately one-
fourth of a kilogram (250 g) of solvent. One kilogram of solvent would contain 0.24 mole
of solute (0.06 * 4), and the resulting molality would be 0.24 m. The calculated answer,
0.266 m, is consistent with this rough calculation for the molality.
Chemical Insight: COMMON SALT

The terms salt, common salt, table salt, and sodium chloride are used interchangeably
to denote the same substance—the compound whose chemical formula is NaCl. Salt is
mentioned throughout recorded history, being one of the earliest commodities to be
traded. Roman soldiers were partially paid in salt (sal), from whence comes the word
salary. During the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church controlled European salt mines—
a source of great wealth, as well as power. The French Revolution was caused in part
by unhappiness with “salt taxes.”
The phrases “the salt of the earth” (a positive comment) and “not worth one’s
salt” (a negative comment) reflect the important role of salt in history.
In today’s world, salt (NaCl) is still a key chemical. More NaCl is used in chemical
manufacturing than any other mineral. It is mass-produced by evaporation of seawater
or of brine from salt lakes. Mining of rock salt is also a major activity in certain geo-
graphic regions. World production of NaCl is currently about 250 million tons per year.
Important chemicals obtained from salt include sodium hydroxide (NaOH), chlorine
gas (Cl2), and sodium carbonate (Na2CO3).
Example 13.22 illustrates the use of molality as a conversion factor in obtaining the
amount of solute needed to prepare a solution of specified molality.
EXAMPLE 13.22 Calculating the Amount of Solute Needed to Prepare a

Solution of Specified Molality
Calculate the number of grams of isopropyl alcohol, C3H8O, that must be added to 275 g
of water to prepare a 2.00 m solution of isopropyl alcohol.
SOLUTION
The given quantity is 275 g of H2O, and the desired quantity is grams of C3H8O.
275 g H2O = ? g C3H8O
The pathway to be used in solving this problem is
g solvent h kg solvent h moles solute h g solute
The molality of the solution, which is given, will serve as a conversion factor to effect the
change from kilograms of solvent to moles of solute.
The dimensional analysis setup for the problem is
1 kg H2O 2.00 moles C3H8O 60.11 g C3H8O
275 g H2O * 3 * *
10 g H2O 1 kg H2O 1 mole C3H8O
The second conversion factor involves the numerical value of the molality, and the third
conversion factor is based on the molar mass of C3H8O.
Cancelling units and then doing the arithmetic gives
275 * 1 * 2.00 * 60.11
g C3H8O = 33.0605 g C3H8O (calculator answer)
103 * 1 * 1
= 33.1 g C3H8O (correct answer)
mass of solute present in 1000 g (1 kg) of solvent would be about 120 g, since the molar
mass is 60 g and 2 moles are present. The amount of solvent actually present is about
one-fourth kilogram (275 g). One-fourth of 120 g is 30 g. The calculated answer of 33.1 g
is consistent with this analysis.
Chemical Insight: ISOPROPYL ALCOHOL

Isopropyl alcohol is a colorless liquid with a medicinal odor that we commonly as-
sociate with doctors’ offices. A 70% by volume aqueous solution of isopropyl alcohol
is marketed as rubbing alcohol. Rubbing alcohol’s rapid evaporation rate creates a
dramatic cooling effect when it is applied to the skin, hence its use for alcohol rubs to
combat high body temperature.
Rubbing alcohol is also used as a skin cleaner and disinfectant before draw-
ing blood or giving injections. Interestingly, pure isopropyl alcohol is less effective
as a disinfectant than its 70% (v/v) aqueous solution. The pure alcohol coagulates
bacterial protein surfaces so fast that a barrier to further penetration by the alcohol is
formed. The 70% (v/v) aqueous solution acts more slowly and complete penetration is
achieved before coagulation; complete penetration kills the bacteria.
Interconversion between molarity and molality concentration units requires knowl-

edge of solution density. Example 13.23 is a sample molality-to-molarity interconversion,
and Example 13.24 is the opposite process, a sample molarity-to-molality interconversion
avoid repetition by adjusting the lines.
EXAMPLE 13.23 Calculating Molarity from Molality and Density
Calculate the molarity of an 8.92 m (molal) ethyl alcohol (C2H6O) solution whose density
is 0.927 g/mL.
SOLUTION
The defining equation for molarity involves moles of solute (numerator) and liters of
solution (denominator). The defining equation for molality involves moles of solute (nu-
merator) and kilograms of solvent (denominator). The numerators of the two defining
equations are the same and the denominators are different. The essence of this problem
is, thus, the conversion of kilograms of solvent to liters of solution.
kg solvent h L solution
To convert kilograms of solvent to liters of solution requires three steps, with each
step involving a different type of calculation.
Step 1 kilograms solvent h mass of solute

Step 2 mass of solute h mass of solution
Step 3 mass of solution h liters of solution
The given molality (8.92 m), which has 1 kilogram of solvent as its basis, is the start-
ing point for the calculation. Information associated with this molality is
1 kilogram H2O = 1000 grams H2O = 8.92 moles C2H6O
Step 1 Calculation of mass of solute

The mass of solute needed is that present in 1 kilogram of solvent. It is calculated
using the given molality and the molar mass of the solute.
8.92 moles C2H6O 46.08 g C2H6O
1 kg H2O * *
1 kg H2O 1 mole C2H6O
= 411.0336 g C2H6O (calculator answer)
= 411 g C2H6O (correct answer)
Step 2 Calculation of the mass of solution
The mass of solution is obtained from the mass of solute (calculated in
step 1) and the mass of solvent (our basis amount). This is a simple addition
problem.
1000 g + 411 g = 1411 g (calculator and correct answer)
solvent solute solution
Step 3 Calculation of liters of solution

This calculation requires use of the mass of solution (calculated in step 2) and the
density of the solution (given in the problem statement).
1 mL solution 10 - 3 L solution
1411 g solution * *
0.927 g solution 1 mL solution
= 1.5221143 L solution (calculator answer)
= 1.52 L solution (correct answer)
We are now ready to calculate the molarity of the solution.

moles of solute (given in the basis statement)
molarity =
liters of solution (calculated in step 3)
8.92 moles solute moles solute
= = 5.868421 (calculator answer)
moles solute
L solution
Numerically, the molarity of a solution will always be less that the molality of the same solution.
Such is the case here: 8.92 m and 5.87 M. Comparing the defining equations of molarity and
molality shows that both equations have the same numerator (moles of solute) and that they
differ in their denominators. The molarity denominator involves liters of solution (solute
plus solvent), and the molality denominator involves kilograms of solvent. The former will
always be numerically larger than the latter because it involves both solvent and solute. Divi-
sion by the larger molarity denominator produces the smaller number for the concentration.
EXAMPLE 13.24 Calculating Molality from Molarity and Density
Calculate the molality of an 1.08 M lactose (C12H22O11) solution that has a density of
1.102 g/mL.
SOLUTION
The defining equation for molarity involves moles of solute (numerator) and liters of
solution (denominator). The defining equation for molality involves moles of solute (nu-
merator) and kilograms of solvent (denominator). The numerators of the two defining
equations are the same, and the denominators are different. The essence of this problem
is, thus, the conversion of liters of solution to kilograms of solvent.
L solution h kg solvent
To convert liters of solution to kilograms of solvent requires three steps, with each
step involving a different type of calculation.
Step 1 liters of solution h mass of solute
Step 2 liters of solution h mass of solution
Step 3 mass of solution h kilograms of solvent
The given molarity (1.08 M), which has 1 liter of solution as its basis, is the starting
point for the calculation. Information associated with this molarity is
1 L solution = 1000 mL solution = 1.08 moles C12H22O11
Step 1 Calculation of mass of solute
The mass of solute needed is that present in 1 L of solution. It is calculated using
the given molarity and the molar mass of the solute.
1.08 moles C12H22O11 342.34 g C12H22O11
1 L solution * *
1 L solution 1 mole C12H22O11
= 369.7272 g C12H22O11 (calculator answer)
= 370. g C12H22O11 (correct answer)
Step 2 Calculation of the mass of solution

The mass of solution is obtained using the given density for the solution.
1 mL solution 1.102 g solution
1 L solution * -3 *
10 L solution 1 mL solution
= 1102 g solution (calculator and correct answer)
Step 3 Calculation of kilograms of solvent
This calculation requires the mass of solute (step 1) and the mass of solution
(step 2). The former is subtracted from the latter to give mass of solvent.
1102 g - 370. g = 732 g (calculator and correct answer)
solution solute solvent
1 kg solvent
732 g solvent * = 0.732 kg solvent
103 g solvent
(calculator and correct answer)
We are now ready to calculate the molality of the solution.
moles solute (given in the basis statement)
molality =
kilograms solvent (calculated in step 3)
1.08 moles solute moles solute
= = 14754098 (calculator answer)
0.732 kg solution kg solvent
moles solute
kg solvent
The molarity concentration, 1.08 M, is numerically less than the molality concentration,
1.48 m, as it should be. Molarity and molality values are close to being equal when
a solution is dilute and the solution’s density is about 1.0 g/mL. These conditions are
approached in this problem, so the difference in magnitude between the two concentra-
tions is small (1.48 m and 1.08 M) when compared with values at other conditions, such
as those in Example 13.23 (8.92 m and 5.87 M).
Chemical Insight: LACTOSE

Lactose, also known as milk sugar, is the major carbohydrate found in milk. Its sweet-
ness is 16% of that of sucrose (table sugar). The lactose content of mother’s milk
obtained by nursing infants (7–8% by mass) is almost twice that in cow’s milk (4–5%
by mass). Lactose supplies about 40% of the calories in human milk.
Many adults lack the enzyme lactase, necessary for the digestion of lactose; this
causes lactose intolerance. When lactose molecules remain in the intestine undigested, they
attract water molecules to themselves, causing fullness, discomfort, cramping, nausea, and
diarrhea. The level of lactase in humans varies with age. Most people have sufficient lactase
during childhood years when milk is a needed calcium source. In adulthood, lactase levels
decrease and lactose intolerance develops. This explains changes in milk-drinking habits of
many adults. About one-third of Americans suffer from lactose intolerance.
The level of the enzyme lactase in humans varies widely among ethnic groups
indicating that the trait is genetically determined (inherited). The occurrence of lactose
intolerance is lowest among Scandinavians and other northern Europeans and highest
among native North Americans, Southeast Asians, Africans, and Greeks.
FIGURE 13.7 Mass solute Mass solution

The steps involved density
molar
in converting from subtraction
mass
molality to molarity
concentration units and L solution kg solvent
vice versa are similar
but not identical. given definition
Density is needed in
molarity molality
both cases, as are the Molarity Molality
mass of solute and mass moles moles
of solvent. How the liter kilogram
latter two quantities molarity molality
are calculated and used definition given
differs in the two cases.
L solution kg solvent
molar
density
mass
sum
Mass solution Mass solute
Examples 13.23 and 13.24 illustrate opposite processes: molality to molarity ver-
sus molarity to molality. The similarities and differences in these opposite processes are
contrasted in Figure 13.7. In both cases, the second and third steps involve calculation of
mass of solute and mass of solution, respectively. Note, however, that calculation of these
two quantities is carried out in a different manner for the two processes.
The following paragraph-length summaries of chapter content by section restate the major ideas (concepts) con-
sidered in the chapter. They are a useful study aid for students as they prepare for an upcoming examination or
are reviewing for a final comprehensive examination.
1. Solution Characteristics and Components A that differ in polarity. This conclusion is often ex-
solution is a homogeneous (uniform) mixture. pressed as the simple phrase “like dissolves like.”
The component of a solution that is present in the This generalization is not adequate for predicting
greatest amount is the solvent. A solute is a solu- the solubility of ionic compounds in water. More
tion component that is present in a small amount detailed guidelines are needed for this situation.
relative to the solvent. The composition and prop- 4. Solution Concentration The concentration
erties of a solution are dependent on the ratio of of a solution is the amount of solute present
solutes(s) to solvent. Solutes are present as indi- in a specified amount of solvent or a specified
vidual particles (molecules, atoms, or ions). amount of solution. A number of different con-
2. Solubility The solubility of a solute is the max- centration units are used, with the choice of
imum amount of solute that will dissolve in a units depending on the use to be made of the
given amount of solvent. The extent to which concentration units.
a solute dissolves in a solvent depends on the 5. Percent Concentration Units The concentra-
polarities of solute(s) and solvent, the tempera- tion of a solution in terms of percentage solute
ture, and the pressure. A saturated solution con- can be expressed in three different ways: (1) percent
tains the maximum amount of solute that can by mass (mass–mass percent), (2) percent by
be dissolved under the conditions at which the volume (volume–volume percent), and (3) mass–
solution exists. A supersaturated solution, an un- volume percent. All three types of percentages
stable situation, contains more dissolved solute are in common use.
than that needed for a saturated solution. 6. Parts per Million and Parts per Billion The
3. Solubility Rules Substances of like polarity tend concentration units parts per million and parts
to be more soluble in each other than substances per billion find use when dealing with extremely
dilute solutions. These units are closely related Most dilutions are carried out by adding a predeter-
to percentage concentration units, differing only mined volume of solvent to a specific volume of
in the multiplicative factors used. solution of known concentration.
7. Molarity The molarity concentration unit, abbre- 9. Molality The molality concentration unit, abbre-
viated M, is a ratio giving the number of moles of viated m, is a ratio giving the number of moles
solute per liter of solution. It is the most used con- of solute per kilogram of solvent. Molality finds
centration unit in a chemical laboratory. Molarity use, in preference to molarity, in experimental
finds use as a conversion factor in mass-to-volume situations where changes in temperature are of
calculations that involve solution volume. concern since solution volume is dependent on
8. Dilution Dilution is the process in which more sol- temperature. In dilute solution, molality and mo-
vent is added to a solution to lower its concentration. larity are practically identical in numerical value.
Key Terms Listing

aqueous solution Sec. 13.2 nonaqueous solution Sec. 13.2 saturated solution Sec. 13.2
concentrated solution Sec. 13.2 parts per billion concentration solubility Sec. 13.2
concentration Sec. 13.5 Sec. 13.7 solute Sec. 13.1
dilute solution Sec. 13.2 parts per million concentration solution Sec. 13.1
dilution Sec. 13.10 Sec. 13.7 solvent Sec. 13.1
mass–volume percent percent by mass concentration supersaturated solution Sec. 13.2
concentration Sec. 13.6 Sec. 13.6 unsaturated solution Sec. 13.2
molality concentration Sec. 13.11 percent by volume concentration
molarity concentration Sec. 13.8 Sec. 13.6

the same aspect of a given topic. This matched pair arrangement creates two independent problem sets — an odd-numbered set
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLUTIONS (SEC. 13.1) c. Solutes are present as individual particles
(molecules, atoms, ions) in a solution.
13.1 Indicate whether each of the following statements d. A general characteristic of all solutions is the
about the general properties of solutions is true liquid state.
or false. 13.3 Identify the solute and the solvent in solutions with the
a. A solution may contain more than one solute. following compositions.
b. All solutions are homogeneous mixtures. a. 5.00 g of sodium chloride and 50.0 g of water
c. Every part of a solution has exactly the same b. 4.00 g of sucrose and 1000 g of water
properties as every other part. c. 2.00 mL of water and 20.0 mL of ethyl alcohol
d. The solutes present in a solution will settle out d. 60.0 mL of methyl alcohol and 20.0 mL of ethyl
with time if the solution is left undisturbed. alcohol
13.2 Indicate whether each of the following statements 13.4 Identify the solute and the solvent in solutions with the
about the general properties of solutions is true following compositions.
or false. a. 5.00 g of sodium bromide and 200.0 g of water
a. All solutions have a variable composition. b. 50.0 g of silver nitrate and 1000 g of water
b. For a solution to form, the solute and solvent must c. 50.0 mL of water and 100.0 mL of methyl alcohol
chemically react with each other. d. 50.0 mL of isopropyl alcohol and 20.0 mL of ethyl
alcohol
SOLUBILITY (SEC. 13.2) 13.11 Based on the solubilities in Table 13.2, characterize
each of the following silver sulfate (Ag2SO4) solu-
13.5 Using the solubilities given in Table 13.2, characterize tions as dilute or concentrated.
each of the following solids as insoluble, slightly a. 0.50 g Ag2SO4 in 100 g H2O at 100⬚C
soluble, soluble, or very soluble in water at the indi- b. 0.50 g Ag2SO4 in 100 g H2O at 0⬚C
cated temperature. c. 0.50 g Ag2SO4 in 50 g H2O at 50⬚C
a. lead(II) bromide at 0⬚C d. 0.050 g Ag2SO4 in 10 g H2O at 0⬚C
b. silver sulfate at 50⬚C 13.12 Based on the solubilities in Table 13.2, characterize
c. sodium chloride at 100⬚C each of the following copper(II) sulfate solutions as
d. silver nitrate at 0⬚C dilute or concentrated.
13.6 Using the solubilities given in Table 13.2, character- a. 14.3 g of CuSO4 in 100 g of H2O at 100⬚C
ize each of the following solids as insoluble, slightly b. 14.3 g of CuSO4 in 100 g of H2O at 0⬚C
soluble, soluble, or very soluble in water at the indi- c. 14.3 g of CuSO4 in 50 g of H2O at 50⬚C
cated temperature. d. 1.43 g of CuSO4 in 10 g of H2O at 0⬚C
a. lead(II) bromide at 50⬚C 13.13 For each of the following pairs of solutions,
b. silver sulfate at 0⬚C select the solution for which solute solubility in
c. cesium chloride at 50⬚C water is the greatest at the given temperatures and
d. copper(II) sulfate at 0⬚C pressures.
13.7 Classify the original solution as unsaturated, satu- a. NH3 gas at 90⬚C and 1 atm
rated, or supersaturated based on the following ob- NH3 gas at 50⬚C and 1 atm
servations and/or changes. b. CO2 gas at 75⬚C and 2 atm
a. Agitation of the solution produces a large amount CO2 gas at 75⬚C and 1 atm
of solid crystals. c. table salt at 40⬚C and 1 atm
b. Excess undissolved solute is present at the bot- table salt at 60⬚C and 1 atm
tom of the solution container. d. table sugar at 70⬚C and 2 atm
c. Amount of solute dissolved is less than the maxi- table sugar at 95⬚C and 1 atm
mum amount that could dissolve under the con- 13.14 For each of the following pairs of solutions,
ditions at which the solution exists. select the solution for which solute solubility in
d. Undissolved solute present in the solution dis- water is the greatest at the given temperatures and
solves when the solution is heated. pressures.
13.8 Classify the original solution as unsaturated, satu- a. O2 gas at 45⬚C and 1 atm
rated, or supersaturated based on the following ob- O2 gas at 35⬚C and 1 atm
servations and/or changes. b. N2 gas at 35⬚C and 2 atm
a. Additional solute added rapidly dissolves. N2 gas at 45⬚C and 1 atm
b. Additional solute added falls to the bottom of the c. table sugar at 25⬚C and 1 atm
container where it remains without any decrease table sugar at 65⬚C and 1 atm
in amount. d. table salt at 40⬚C and 2 atm
c. Additional solute falls to the bottom of the con- table salt at 65⬚C and 1 atm
tainer where it decreases in size for several hours 13.15 The solubility of Pb(NO3)2 at 70⬚C is 110 g per 100 g
and thereafter its size remains constant. of water. At 40⬚C the solubility drops to 78 g per 100 g
d. A small amount of added solute causes the of water. A 200 g quantity of Pb(NO3)2 is stirred into
production of a large amount of solid white 200 mL of water.
crystals. a. At 70⬚C how many grams, if any, of crystals of
13.9 Use Table 13.2 to determine whether each of the fol- Pb(NO3)2 will settle out of solution?
lowing CsCl solutions is unsaturated, saturated, or b. After cooling the solution to 40⬚C, how many
supersaturated. grams, if any, of crystals of Pb(NO3)2 will settle
a. 161.4 g CsCl in 100 g H2O at 0⬚C out of solution?
b. 161.4 g CsCl in 100 g H2O at 50⬚C 13.16 The solubility of KNO3 at 60⬚C is 94 g per 100 g of
c. 161.4 g CsCl in 200 g H2O at 0⬚C water. At 20⬚C the solubility drops to 56 g per 100 g of
d. 161.4 g CsCl in 50 g H2O at 100⬚C water. A 150 g quantity of KNO3 is stirred into 200 mL
13.10 Use Table 13.2 to determine whether each of the fol- of water.
lowing NaCl solutions is unsaturated, saturated, or a. At 60⬚C how many grams, if any, of crystals of
supersaturated. KNO3 will settle out of solution?
a. 37.0 g NaCl in 100 g H2O at 0⬚C b. After cooling the solution to 20⬚C, how many
b. 37.0 g NaCl in 100 g H2O at 50⬚C grams, if any, of crystals of KNO3 will settle out
c. 37.0 g NaCl in 100 g H2O at 100⬚C of solution?
d. 37.0 g NaCl in 200 g H2O at 50⬚C
SOLUTION FORMATION (SEC. 13.3) soluble with exceptions, insoluble, and insoluble with
exceptions.
13.17 Match each of the following statements about the a. acetates and nitrates
dissolving of the ionic solid NaCl in water with the b. sulfates and chlorides
term hydrated ion, hydrogen atom, or oxygen atom. c. sodium-ion-containing and ammonium-ion-
a. a Na + ion surrounded with water molecules containing
b. a Cl - ion surrounded with water molecules d. phosphate and hydroxides
c. the portion of a water molecule that is attracted 13.24 Classify each of the following pairs of types of ionic
to an Na + ion compounds into the solubility categories soluble,
d. the portion of a water molecule that is attracted soluble with exceptions, insoluble, and insoluble with
to a Cl - ion exceptions.
13.18 Match each of the following statements about the a. chlorides and iodides
dissolving of the ionic solid KBr in water with the b. sodium-ion-containing and potassium-ion-
term hydrated ion, hydrogen atom, or oxygen atom. containing
a. a K + ion surrounded with water molecules c. carbonates and sulfides
b. a Br - ion surrounded with water molecules d. bromides and sulfates
c. the portion of a water molecule that is attracted 13.25 Indicate which specific solubility rule for ionic com-
to a K + ion pounds (Table 13.4) leads to the conclusion that
d. the portion of a water molecule that is attracted each of the following compounds is soluble in water.
to a Br - ion a. magnesium nitrate b. calcium acetate
13.19 Indicate whether each of the following actions will c. NiCl2 d. Al2(SO4)3
increase or decrease the rate of dissolving of a sugar 13.26 Indicate which specific solubility rule for ionic
cube in water. compounds (Table 13.4) leads to the conclusion
a. cooling the sugar cube–water mixture that each of the following compounds is soluble in
b. stirring the sugar cube–water mixture water.
c. breaking the sugar cube up into smaller chunks a. calcium nitrate b. magnesium acetate
d. crushing the sugar cube to give a granulated c. NiSO4 d. Al(C2H3O2)3
form of sugar 13.27 Indicate which specific solubility rule for ionic com-
13.20 Indicate whether each of the following actions will pounds (Table 13.4) leads to the conclusion that each
increase or decrease the rate of dissolving of table of the following compounds is insoluble in water.
salt in water. a. calcium carbonate b. aluminum sulfide
a. heating the table salt–water mixture c. Cu(OH)2 d. PbSO4
b. agitating the table salt–water mixture 13.28 Indicate which specific solubility rule for ionic com-
c. heating the table salt prior to adding it to the pounds (Table 13.4) leads to the conclusion that each
water of the following compounds is insoluble in water.
d. heating the water prior to adding the table salt to it a. aluminum carbonate
b. magnesium hydroxide
c. NiPO4
SOLUBILITY RULES (SEC. 13.4) d. FeS
13.29 In which of the following pairs of compounds do
13.21 Ethanol is a polar solvent and carbon tetrachloride is both members of the pair have like solubility (both
a nonpolar solvent. In which of these two solvents soluble or both insoluble)?
are each of the following solutes more likely to be a. NH4Cl and NH4Br
soluble? b. KNO3 and Na2SO4
a. NaCl, ionic c. CaCO3 and CaS
b. cooking oil, nonpolar d. Ni(OH)2 and Ni3(PO4)2
c. sucrose, polar 13.30 In which of the following pairs of compounds do
d. LiNO3, ionic both members of the pair have like solubility (both
13.22 Methanol is a polar solvent and benzene is a nonpo- soluble or both insoluble)?
lar solvent. In which of these two solvents are each a. NaNO3 and K3PO4 b. NH4Br and CuBr2
of the following solutes more likely to be soluble? c. Pb(NO3)2 and PbCl2 d. FeCO3 and FeS
a. KCl, ionic 13.31 Indicate whether or not each of the following nega-
b. rubbing alcohol, polar tive ions would react with both Mg2 + and Ca2 + ions
c. gasoline, nonpolar to form water-insoluble compounds.
d. NaNO3, ionic a. sulfate b. carbonate
13.23 Classify each of the following pairs of types of ionic c. NO3- d. OH -
compounds into the solubility categories soluble,
13.32 Indicate whether or not each of the following nega- 13.39 All entries in the following table involve mass rela-
tive ions would react with both Cu2 + and Ba2 + ions tionships among components of a solution. Each row
to form water-insoluble compounds? of the table is a set of data for a different solution.
a. acetate b. sulfide Based on the definition for the mass percent con-
c. Cl - d. PO4 3 - centration unit, fill in the blanks for each row of the
table. The first row is already completed.
MASS PERCENT (SEC. 13.6) Solute Solvent Solution mass %

mass mass mass Solute
13.33 For each of the following aqueous NaCl solutions,
10.0 g 20.0 g 30.0 g 33.3%
the mass of solute and the mass of solvent is given.
Calculate the mass percent of NaCl present in each a. 12.0 g 34.0 g
solution. b. 24.0 g 50.0 g
a. 10.0 g NaCl, 40.0 g H2O
c. 40.0 g 47.4%
b. 5.00 g NaCl, 355 g H2O
c. 20.0 g NaCl, 565.0 g H2O d. 92.0 g 43.5%
d. 529 mg NaCl, 2.00 g H2O
13.34 For each of the following aqueous KCl solutions, 13.40 All entries in the following table involve mass rela-
the mass of solute and the mass of solvent is given. tionships among components of a solution. Each row
Calculate the mass percent of NaCl present in each of the table is a set of data for a different solution.
solution. Based on the definition for the mass percent con-
a. 15.0 g KCl, 27.0 g H2O centration unit, fill in the blanks for each row of the
b. 8.00 g KCl, 433 g H2O table. The first row is already completed.
c. 25.0 g KCl, 137.0 g H2O
d. 729 mg KCl, 3.00 g H2O Solute Solvent Solution mass %
mass mass mass Solute
13.35 For each of the following aqueous NaNO3 solutions,
the mass of solvent and the mass of solution are 15.0 g 30.0 g 45.0 g 33.3%
given. Calculate the mass percent of NaNO3 present a. 40.0 g 60.0 g
in each solution.
b. 25.0 g 45.4%
a. 35.0 g H2O, 38.0 g solution
b. 36.0 g H2O, 52.0 g solution c. 75.0 g 40.0%
c. 45.0 g H2O, 45.9 g solution d. 42.0 g 44.0 g
d. 623 g H2O, 677 g solution
13.36 For each of the following aqueous KNO3 solutions, 13.41 What mass of water, in grams, is needed to pre-
the mass of solvent and the mass of solution are pare each of the following calcium chloride (CaCl2)
given. Calculate the mass percent of KNO3 present in solutions?
each solution. a. 5.75 g of 10.00% (m/m) CaCl2 solution
a. 12.0 g H2O, 14.0 g solution b. 57.5 g of 10.00% (m/m) CaCl2 solution
b. 25.0 g H2O, 35.0 g solution c. 57.5 g of 1.00% (m/m) CaCl2 solution
c. 47.0 g H2O, 48.3 g solution d. 2.3 g of 0.80% (m/m) CaCl2 solution
d. 744 g H2O, 788 g solution 13.42 What mass of water, in grams, is needed to pre-
13.37 For each of the following aqueous Na2SO4 solutions, pare each of the following lithium nitrate (LiNO3)
the grams of solution and the mass percent of solute solutions?
present are given. Calculate how many grams of a. 34.7 g of 5.00% (m>m) LiNO3 solution
solute are present in each solution. b. 3.47 g of 5.00% (m>m) LiNO3 solution
a. 45.0 g solution, 3.00% (m/m) Na2SO4 c. 235 g of 12.75% (m>m) LiNO3 solution
b. 575 g solution, 15.0% (m/m) Na2SO4 d. 1352 g of 0.0032% (m>m) LiNO3 solution
c. 2.00 g solution, 0.100% (m/m) Na2SO4 13.43 How many grams of water must be added to 50.0 g
d. 66.6 g solution, 30.0% (m/m) Na2SO4 of each of the following solutes to prepare a 5.00%
13.38 For each of the following aqueous K2SO4 solutions, (m/m) solution?
the grams of solution and the mass percent of solute a. NaCl b. KCl
present are given. Calculate how many grams of c. Na2SO4 d. LiNO3
solute are present in each solution. 13.44 How many grams of water must be added to 20.0 g
a. 67.0 g solution, 2.00% (m/m) K2SO4 of each of the following solutes to prepare a 2.00%
b. 175 g solution, 12.0% (m/m) K2SO4 (m/m) solution?
c. 9.00 g solution, 0.400% (m/m) K2SO4 a. NaOH b. LiBr
d. 466 g solution, 25.0% (m/m) K2SO4 c. Li2SO4 d. Ca(NO3)2
VOLUME PERCENT (SEC. 13.6) 13.55 For each of the following aqueous NaNO3 solutions,
the mass of solute and the total solution volume are
13.45 For each of the following aqueous ethanol solutions, given. Calculate the mass-volume percent NaNO3 in
the volume of ethanol present and the total solution each of the solutions.
volume are given. Calculate the volume percent etha- a. 0.445 g NaNO3, 575 mL solution
nol present in each solution. b. 11.75 g NaNO3, 20.0 L solution
a. 257 mL ethanol, 325 mL solution c. 83.2 mg NaNO3, 9.75 mL solution
b. 257 mL ethanol, 3.25 L solution d. 0.033 mole NaNO3, 20.00 mL solution
c. 20.0 mL ethanol, 35.0 mL solution 13.56 For each of the following aqueous KNO3 solutions,
d. 75.0 L ethanol, 625 L solution the mass of solute and the total solution volume are
13.46 For each of the following aqueous methanol solu- given. Calculate the mass-volume percent KNO3 in
tions, the volume of methanol present and the total each of the solutions.
solution volume are given. Calculate the volume per- a. 125.5 g KNO3, 2175 mL solution
cent methanol present in each solution. b. 21.75 g KNO3, 20.00 L solution
a. 115 mL methanol, 215 mL solution c. 74.2 mg KNO3, 8.75 mL solution
b. 115 mL methanol, 2.15 L solution d. 0.013 mole KNO3, 11.00 mL solution
c. 10.0 mL methanol, 45.0 mL solution 13.57 How many milliliters of a 6.00% (m/v) sodium chlo-
d. 62.0 L methanol, 305 L solution ride (NaCl) solution is required to supply the follow-
13.47 The final volume of a solution made by adding 360.6 mL ing amounts of solute?
of methyl alcohol to 667.2 mL of water is 1000.0 mL. a. 5.00 g b. 7.00 g
Determine the volume percent of the following: c. 225 g d. 225 mg
a. methyl alcohol in the solution 13.58 How many milliliters of a 9.50% (m/v) potassium
b. water in the solution nitrate (KNO3) solution is required to supply the
13.48 The final volume of a solution made by adding 678.2 mL following amounts of solute?
of methyl alcohol to 358.4 mL of water is 1000.0 mL. a. 7.25 g b. 9.25 g
Determine the volume percent of the following: c. 457 g d. 457 mg
a. methyl alcohol in the solution 13.59 Determine how many grams of sodium phosphate
b. water in the solution (Na3PO4) would be
13.49 How much isopropyl alcohol (C3H8O), in milliliters, a. needed to prepare 455 mL of a 2.50% (m/v)
is needed to prepare 225 mL of a 1.25% (v/v) solu- Na3PO4 solution.
tion of isopropyl alcohol in water? b. present in 50.0 L of a 7.50% (m/v) Na3PO4
13.50 How much ethyl alcohol (C3H8O), in milliliters, is solution.
needed to prepare 125 mL of a 2.25% (v/v) solution 13.60 Determine how many grams of potassium carbonate
of ethyl alcohol in water? (K2CO3) would be
13.51 What volume of water, in gallons, is contained in a. needed to prepare 4.55 mL of a 15.00% (m/v)
4.00 gal of a 35.0% (v/v) solution of water in acetone? K2CO3 solution.
13.52 What volume of water, in quarts, is contained in b. present in 1.06 L of a 0.800% (m/v) K2CO3
3.50 qt of a 2.00% (v/v) solution of water in acetone? solution.
13.61 Calculate the concentration, as mass–volume percent
MASS–VOLUME PERCENT (SEC. 13.6) cesium chloride (CsCl), for a solution prepared by
adding 5.0 g of CsCl to 20.0 g of H2O to give a solu-
13.53 For each of the following aqueous NaNO3 solutions, tion with a density of 1.18 g/mL.
the mass of solute and the total solution volume are 13.62 Calculate the concentration, as mass–volume percent
given. Calculate the mass-volume percent NaNO3 in ammonium sulfate [(NH4)2SO4], for a solution pre-
each of the solutions. pared by adding 3.0 g of (NH4)2SO4 to 17.0 g of H2O
a. 0.325 g NaNO3, 375 mL solution to give a solution with a density of 1.09 g/mL.
b. 1.75 g NaNO3, 20.0 mL solution
c. 83.2 g NaNO3, 975 mL solution
d. 0.033 g NaNO3, 2.00 mL solution PARTS PER MILLION AND PARTS PER BILLION
13.54 For each of the following aqueous KNO3 solutions, (SEC. 13.7)
the mass of solute and the total solution volume are
given. Calculate the mass-volume percent KNO3 in 13.63 What is the concentration of sodium chloride (NaCl),
each of the solutions. in ppm (m/m), in each of the following NaCl solutions?
a. 1.255 g KNO3, 175 mL solution a. 37.5 mg of NaCl in 21.0 kg of water
b. 11.75 g KNO3, 200.00 mL solution b. 2.12 cg of NaCl in 125 g of water
c. 74.2 g KNO3, 875 mL solution c. 1.00 mg of NaCl in 32.0 dg of water
d. 0.013 g KNO3, 1.00 mL solution d. 35.7 mg of NaCl in 15.7 g of water
13.64 What is the concentration of sodium bromide 13.72 Determine how much hydrogen sulfide (H2S), in
(NaBr), in ppm (m/m), in each of the following NaBr grams, must be present in a 625 mL sample of air to
solutions? give the following mass/volume H2S concentrations.
a. 37.5 cg of NaBr in 33.0 kg of water a. 3.5 ppb
b. 2.12 mg of NaBr in 375 dg of water b. 7.2 ppm
c. 3.00 mg of NaBr in 45.0 g of water c. 4.0 pph
d. 125 dg of NaBr in 255 kg of water d. 6.0 mass/volume percent
13.65 What is the concentration of each of the solutions in
Problem 13.63 in parts per billion (m/m)?
13.66 What is the concentration of each of the solutions in MOLARITY (SEC. 13.8)
Problem 13.64 in parts per billion (m/m)?
13.73 For each of the following HCl solutions, the moles or
13.67 A typical concentration of the air pollutant sulfur
grams of solute present and the total solution volume
dioxide (SO2) in urban atmospheres is 0.087 ppm(v/v).
are given. Calculate the molarity of each solution.
At this concentration, how many liters of air would
a. 1.2 moles HCl, 1.27 L solution
be needed to obtain 1.00 mL of SO2?
b. 0.755 mole HCl, 775 mL solution
13.68 A typical concentration of the air pollutant car-
c. 1.2 g HCl, 0.025 L solution
bon monoxide (CO) in urban atmospheres is 2.8
d. 7.5 g HCl, 825 mL solution
ppm(v/v). At this concentration, how many liters of
13.74 For each of the following NaOH solutions, the moles
air would be needed to obtain 1.00 mL of CO?
or grams of solute present and the total solution
13.69 All entries in the following table involve mass/mass
volume are given. Calculate the molarity of each
concentration units. Each row of the table is a set of
solution.
concentration data for a different solution. Based on
a. 2.7 moles NaOH, 1.75 L solution
relationships among the concentration units given,
b. 0.500 mole NaOH, 623 mL solution
fill in the blanks in each row of the table. The first
c. 3.7 g NaOH, 0.075 L solution
row is already completed.
d. 12.0 g NaOH, 925 mL solution
ppm ppb pph %(m/m) 13.75 For each of the following KOH solutions, the volume
of the solution and its molarity are given. Calculate the
3.7 3700 0.00037 0.00037 number of moles of solute present in each solution.
a. 13 0.0013 a. 1.25 L solution, 0.500 M
b. 231,000 0.0231 b. 1.25 mL solution, 0.500 M
c. 62.0 L solution, 2.00 M
c. 0.5 0.00005 d. 743 mL solution, 12.0 M
d. 2.2 13.76 For each of the following HNO3 solutions, the
volume of the solution and its molarity are given.
13.70 All entries in the following table involve mass/mass Calculate the number of moles of solute present in
concentration units. Each row of the table is a set of each solution.
concentration data for a different solution. Based on a. 125 mL solution, 5.00 M
relationships among the concentration units given, b. 1.25 L solution, 5.00 M
fill in the blanks in each row of the table. The first c. 62.0 mL solution, 0.33 M
row is already completed. d. 7.43 L solution, 1.80 M
13.77 For each of the following NaCl solutions, the moles
ppm ppb pph %(m/m) or grams of solute present and the solution molarity
1.62 1620 0.000162 0.000162 are given. Calculate the volume, in milliliters, of each
a. 337,000 0.0337
solution.
a. 10.0 moles NaCl, 0.500 M
b. 73 0.0073 b. 10.0 g NaCl, 0.500 M
c. 1.75 1.75 c. 2.75 moles NaCl, 0.80 M
d. 222 d. 25.0 g NaCl, 2.75 M
13.78 For each of the following KCl solutions, the moles
13.71 Determine how much carbon dioxide (CO2), in or grams of solute present and the solution molarity
grams, must be present in a 523 mL sample of air to are given. Calculate the volume, in milliliters, of each
give the following mass/volume CO2 concentrations. solution.
a. 3.0 ppb a. 1.00 mole KCl, 0.200 M
b. 6.0 ppm b. 1.00 g KCl, 0.200 M
c. 2.5 pph c. 0.75 mole KCl, 0.20 M
d. 5.2 mass/volume percent d. 35.0 g KCl, 1.75 M
13.79 All entries in the following table involve solute-

solvent–concentration relationships for aqueous
solutions of NaOH, where the concentration unit
is molarity. Each row of the table is a set of con-
centration data for a different solution. Based
on molarity considerations, fill in the blanks in
completed.
I II III IV
grams moles liters a. In which of the diagrams is the molarity concen-
solute solute solution molarity tration the greatest?
80.0 2.00 1.75 1.14 b. In which two of the diagrams are the molarity
concentrations the same?
a. 0.343 0.833 13.83 The density of an 88.00% (m/m) methyl alcohol
b. 10.0 1.40 (CH4O) solution is 0.8274 g/mL. What is the molarity
of the solution?
c. 1.30 2.00 13.84 The density of a 60.00% (m/m) ethyl alcohol (C2H6O)
d. 0.100 0.0270 solution is 0.8937 g/mL. What is the molarity of the
solution?
13.80 All entries in the following table involve solute- 13.85 The density of a 2.019 M sodium bromide (NaBr)
solvent–concentration relationships for aqueous solu- solution is 1.157 g/mL. What is the concentration of
tions of HCl, where the concentration unit is molarity. this solution expressed as % (m/m) NaBr?
Each row of the table is a set of concentration data 13.86 The density of a 2.687 M sodium acetate (NaC2H3O2)
for a different solution. Based on molarity consider- solution is 1.104 g/mL. What is the concentration of
ations, fill in the blanks in each row of the table. The this solution expressed as % (m/m) NaC2H3O2?
first row is already completed. 13.87 What is the molarity of a 20.0% (m/v) hydrochloric
acid (HCl) solution?
grams moles liters 13.88 What is the molarity of a 25.0% (m/v) potassium
solute solute solution molarity hydroxide (KOH) solution?
109 3.00 1.15 2.61
a. 1.30 3.50
MOLARITY AND CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
d. 10.0 0.782
(SEC. 13.9)
c. 0.222 0.0323
13.89 What volume, in liters, of 1.00 M Pb(NO3)2 is needed
d. 0.500 1.23
to react completely with 0.500 L of 4.00 M NaCl, ac-
cording to the following equation?
13.81 The following diagrams show varying amounts of the
same solute (the blue spheres) in varying amounts of Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2 NaCl(aq) S PbCl2(s) + 2 NaNO3(aq)
solution.
13.90 What volume, in milliliters, of 0.300 M CaCl2 is needed
to react completely with 40.0 mL of 0.200 M H3PO4
according to the following equation?
3 CaCl2(aq) + 2 H3PO4(aq) S Ca3(PO4)2(s) + 6 HCl(aq)
13.91 How many grams of S can be produced from the
reaction of 30.0 mL of 12.0 M HNO3 with an excess
of 0.035 M H2S solution according to the following
equation?
I II III IV
2 HNO3(aq) + 3 H2S(aq) S 2 NO(g) + 3 S(s) + 4 H2O(l)
a. In which of the diagrams is the molarity concen-
tration the greatest? 13.92 How many grams of Ag3PO4 can be produced from
b. In which two of the diagrams are the molarity the reaction of 2.50 L of 0.200 M AgNO3 with an ex-
concentrations the same? cess of 0.750 M K3PO4 solution according to the fol-
13.82 The following diagrams show varying amounts of the lowing equation?
same solute (the blue spheres) in varying amounts of
3 AgNO3(aq) + K3PO4(aq) S Ag3PO4(s) + 3 KNO3(aq)
solution.
13.93 What volume, in milliliters, of 0.50 M H2SO4 is re- 13.102 What is the molarity of a solution prepared by
quired to react with 18.0 g of nickel, according to diluting 50.0 mL of 0.300 M sodium nitrate (NaNO3)
the following equation? to each of the following volumes?
a. 85.0 mL b. 123 mL
Ni(s) + H2SO4(aq) h NiSO4(aq) + H2(g)
c. 128 mL d. 3.24 L
13.94 What volume, in milliliters, of 1.50 M HNO3 is required 13.103 What is the molarity of the solution prepared by
to react with 100.0 g of tin, according to the following concentrating, by evaporation of solvent, 1353 mL
equation? of 0.500 M ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) solution to
each of the following final volumes?
Sn(s) + 2 HNO3(aq) h Sn(NO3)2(aq) + H2(g) a. 1223 mL b. 1.12 L
13.95 What is the molarity of a 37.5 mL sample of HNO3 c. 853 mL d. 302.5 mL
solution that will completely react with 23.7 mL 13.104 What is the molarity of the solution prepared by
of 0.100 M NaOH, according to the following concentrating, by evaporation of solvent, 2212 mL
equation? of 0.400 M potassium sulfate (K2SO4) solution to
each of the following final volumes?
HNO3(aq) + NaOH(aq) h NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l) a. 2145 mL b. 1.45 L
13.96 What is the molarity of a 50.0 mL sample of H2SO4 c. 977 mL d. 453 mL
solution that will completely react with 40.0 mL 13.105 All entries in the following table involve volume–
of 0.200 M Mg(OH)2 according to the following concentration relationships associated with di-
equation? luting or concentrating a solution. Each row of
the table is a set of data for a separate dilution/
H2SO4(aq) + Mg(OH)2(aq) h MgSO4(aq) + 2 H2O(l) concentration procedure. Fill in the blanks in
13.97 What volume, in liters, of NO gas measured at STP each row of the table. The first row is already
can be produced from 50.0 mL of 6.0 M HNO3 so- completed.
lution and an excess of Cu metal, according to the
following reaction? Initial Initial Final Final
Volume Molarity Volume Molarity
8 HNO3(aq) + 3 Cu(s) h 3 Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2 NO(g)
20.0 mL 1.20 30.0 mL 0.800
+ 4 H2O(l)
a. L 2.10 1.20 L 2.20
13.98 What volume, in liters, of H2 gas measured at STP
can be produced from 50.0 mL of 3.0 M HBr solu- b. 32.5 mL 1.12 L 0.0723
tion and an excess of Zn metal, according to the c. 1.12 L 0.725 L 0.625
following reaction? d. 43.2 mL 11.2 83.2 mL
2 HBr(aq) + Zn(s) h ZnBr2(aq) + H2(g)
13.106 All entries in the following table involve volume–
13.99 What is the molarity of a 1.75 L Ca(OH)2 solution concentration relationships associated with di-
that would completely react with 2.00 L of CO2 luting or concentrating a solution. Each row of
gas measured at STP according to the following the table is a set of data for a separate dilution/
reaction? concentration procedure. Fill in the blanks in
CO2(g) + Ca(OH)2(aq) h CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) each row of the table. The first row is already
completed.
13.100 What is the molarity of a 5.00 L NaOH solution that
would completely react with 4.00 L of CO2 gas mea-
Initial Initial Final Final
sured at STP, according to the following reaction? Volume Molarity Volume Molarity
CO2(g) + 2 NaOH(aq) h Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) 10.0 mL 2.50 16.7 mL 1.50
a. 750.0 mL 1.50 1.25 L
DILUTION (SEC. 13.10) b. 1.23 L 1.67 L 0.333

c. 33.0 mL 0.500 mL 0.777
13.101 What is the molarity of a solution prepared by di-
luting 25.0 mL of 0.400 M potassium hydroxide d. 2.22 1.11 L 2.32
(KOH) to each of the following volumes?
a. 40.0 mL 13.107 The following diagrams show various amounts of
b. 87.0 mL the same solute (blue spheres) in varying amounts
c. 225 mL of solution. If one-half of the solution in diagram
d. 1.45 L I is withdrawn and then diluted by a factor of 4,
which of the other diagrams (II–IV) represents the 13.113 What would be the molarity of a solution ob-
newly formed solution? tained when 275 mL of 6.00 M sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) solution is mixed with each of the
following?
a. 3.254 L of H2O
b. 125 mL of 6.00 M NaOH solution
c. 125 mL of 2.00 M NaOH solution
d. 27 mL of 5.80 M NaOH solution
13.114 What would be the molarity of a solution ob-
tained when 352 mL of 4.00 M sodium bromide
I II III IV (NaBr) solution is mixed with each of the
13.108 The following diagrams show various amounts of following?
the same solute (blue spheres) in varying amounts a. 425 mL of water
of solution. If one-half of the solution in diagram b. 225 mL of 4.00 M NaBr solution
I is withdrawn and then diluted by a factor of 2, c. 225 mL of 2.00 M NaBr solution
which of the other diagrams (II–IV) represents the d. 15 mL of 4.20 M NaBr solution
newly formed solution?
MOLALITY (SEC 13.11)

13.115 For each of the following aqueous HNO3 solutions,
the moles or grams of solute present and the grams
or kilograms of solvent present are given. Calculate
the molarity of each solution.
a. 16.5 g HNO3, 1.35 kg H2O
b. 3.15 moles HNO3, 455 g H2O
I II III IV
c. 0.0756 g of HNO3, 13.0 g H2O
13.109 In each of the following silver nitrate (AgNO3) d. 0.0022 mole HNO3, 0.355 kg H2O
solutions, how many milliliters of water should be 13.116 For each of the following aqueous NaOH solutions,
added to obtain a solution that has a concentration the moles or grams of solute present and the grams
of 0.100 M? or kilograms of solvent present are given. Calculate
a. 20.0 mL of a 2.00 M solution the molality of each solution.
b. 20.0 mL of a 0.250 M solution a. 16.5 g NaOH, 1.35 kg H2O
c. 358 mL of a 0.950 M solution b. 3.15 moles NaOH, 455 g H2O
d. 2.3 L of a 6.00 M solution c. 0.0756 g of NaOH, 13.0 g H2O
13.110 In each of the following sodium nitrate (NaNO3) d. 0.0022 mole NaOH, 0.355 kg H2O
solutions, how many milliliters of water should be 13.117 For each of the following aqueous solutions, the
added to obtain a solution that has a concentration solute identity, the mass of solvent present, and the
of 0.200 M? solution molality are given. Calculate the grams of
a. 30.0 mL of a 4.00 M solution solute present in each solution.
b. 30.0 mL of a 0.400 M solution a. KCl, 264 g H2O, 0.750 m
c. 785 mL of a 0.230 M solution b. NH4NO3, 0.100 kg H2O, 0.333 m
d. 1.25 L of a 1.50 M solution c. K3PO4, 1.20 kg H2O, 1.22 m
13.111 What will be the final concentration of each of the d. NaOH, 23 g H2O, 6.00 m
following solutions if the volume of the solution is 13.118 For each of the following aqueous solutions, the
increased by 20.0 mL by adding water? solute identity, the mass of solvent present, and the
a. 25.0 mL of 6.0 M Na2SO4 solution molality are given. Calculate the grams of
b. 100.0 mL of 3.0 M K2SO4 solute present in each solution.
c. 0.155 L of 10.0 M CsCl a. NaOH, 264 g H2O, 0.750 m
d. 2.00 mL of 0.100 M MgCl2 b. K3PO4, 0.100 kg H2O, 0.333 m
13.112 What will be the final concentration of each of the c. NH4NO3, 1.20 kg H2O, 1.22 m
following solutions if the volume of the solution is d. KCl, 23 g H2O, 6.00 m
increased by 20.0 mL by adding water? 13.119 All entries in the following table involve solute-
a. 50.0 mL of 2.0 M KNO3 solvent-concentration relationships for aqueous
b. 50.0 mL of 3.0 M AgNO3 solutions of NaOH, where the concentration unit
c. 1.0000 L of 1.2131 M NaNO3 is molality. Each row of the table is a set of con-
d. 1.0000 mL of 1.000 M LiNO3 centration data for a different solution. Based on
molality considerations, fill in the blanks in each 13.121 What is the molality for a solution consisting of 75.0
row of table. The row is already completed. mL of cyclohexane (C6H12; density = 0.779 g>mL)
dissolved in 175.0 mL of hexane (C6H14;
moles grams kilograms density = 0.659 g>mL)?
solute solute solvent molality 13.122 What is the molality for a solution consisting of
2.00 80.0 1.20 1.67 60.0 mL of toluene (C7H8; density = 0.867 g>mL)
dissolved in 120.0 mL of benzene (C6H6;
a. 1.33 3.21 density = 0.877 g>mL)?
b. 43.0 0.872 13.123 An aqueous solution of oxalic acid (H2C2O4) is
c. 0.334 2.00 0.568 M and has a density of 1.022 g/mL. What is
the molality of the solution?
d. 0.100 0.142
13.124 An aqueous solution of citric acid (C6H8O7) is 0.655
M and has a density of 1.049 g/mL. What is the mo-
13.120 All entries in the following table involve solute- lality of the solution?
solvent-concentration relationships for aqueous 13.125 An aqueous solution of acetic acid (C2H4O2) is
solutions of KOH, where the concentration unit is 0.796 m and has a density of 1.004 g/mL. What is
molality. Each row of the table is a set of concentra- the molarity of the solution?
tion data for a different solution. Based on molality 13.126 An aqueous solution of tartaric acid (C4H6O6) is
considerations, fill in the blanks in each row of the 0.278 m and has a density of 1.006 g/mL. What is
table. The first row is already completed. the molarity of the solution?
13.127 What is the density, in grams per milliliter, for a hy-
moles grams kilograms drochloric acid (HCl) solution whose concentration
solute solute solvent molality is 15.5 molal and 11.8 molar?
1.01 56.7 0.875 1.15 13.128 What is the density, in grams per milliliter, for a
a. 20.0 1.12
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) solution whose concen-
tration is 12.6 molal and 9.7 molar?
b. 0.500 1.50 13.129 Calculate the molality of a 22.0% by mass citric acid
c. 100.0 2.46 (C6H8O7) solution.
d. 0.800 3.00 13.130 Calculate the molarity of a 27.0% by mass oxalic
acid (H2C2O4) solution.
numbered problems.
13.131 In each of the following sets of ionic compounds, iden- 13.134 The solubility of NaCl in water at 50⬚C is
tify the members of the set that are soluble in water. 37.0 g>100 g H2O. If 300.0 g of an 85% saturated
a. Be3(PO4)2, AlPO4, FePO4, (NH4)3PO4 NaCl solution at 50⬚C is heated to evaporate the
b. Cu(OH)2, Be(OH)2, Ca(OH)2, Zn(OH)2 water completely, how much solid NaCl should be
c. Ag3PO4, AgNO3, AgCl, AgBr recovered?
d. CaS, Ca(NO3)2, CaSO4, Ca(C2H3O2)2 13.135 After all the water is evaporated from 254 mL of a
13.132 In each of the following sets of ionic compounds, iden- AgNO3 solution, 45.2 g of AgNO3 remain. Express
tify the members of the set that are soluble in water. the original concentration of the AgNO3 solution in
a. K2CO3, MgCO3, NiCO3, Al2(CO3)3 each of the following units.
b. MgS, Rb2S, Al2S3, CaS a. mass–volume percent
c. Pb(OH)2, PbCl2, Pb(NO3)2, PbSO4 b. molarity
d. BaS, BaCl2, BaSO4, Ba(OH)2 13.136 After all the water is evaporated from 10.0 mL of a
13.133 The solubility of CuSO4 in water at 50⬚C is CsCl solution, 3.75 g of CsCl remains. Express the
33.3 g>100 g H2O. If 400.0 g of a 75% saturated original concentration of CsCl solution in each of
CuSO4 solution at 50⬚C is heated to evaporate the the following units.
water completely, how much solid CuSO4 should a. mass–volume percent
be recovered? b. molarity
13.137 What mass, in grams, of Na2SO4 would be required 13.147 How many grams of water should you add to a
to prepare 425 mL of a 1.55% (m>m) Na2SO4 solu- 1.23 m NaCl solution containing 1.50 kg H2O to re-
tion whose density is 1.02 g/mL? duce the molality to 1.00 m?
13.138 What mass, in grams, of NaCl would be required 13.148 How many grams of water should you add to a
to prepare 275 mL of a 30.0% (m/m) NaCl solution 0.0883 m NaCl solution containing 0.650 kg H2O to
whose density is 1.18 g/mL? reduce the molality to 0.0100 m?
13.139 A 3.000 M NaNO3 solution has a density of 1.161 g/mL 13.149 Calculate the total mass, in grams, and the total vol-
at 20⬚C. How many grams of solvent are present in ume, in milliliters, of a 2.16 m H3PO4 solution con-
1.375 L of this solution? taining 52.0 g of solute. The density of the solution
13.140 A 0.157 M NaCl solution has a density of 1.09 g/mL is 1.12 g/mL.
at 20⬚C. How many grams of solvent are present in 13.150 Calculate the total mass, in grams, and the total vol-
80.0 mL of this solution? ume, in milliliters, of a 0.710 m C6H8O7 (citric acid)
13.141 A solute concentration is 3.74 ppm (m/m). What solution containing 23.0 g of solute. The density of
would this concentration be in the units of milli- the solution is 1.05 g/mL.
gram of solute per kilogram of solution? 13.151 An aqueous solution having a density of 0.980 g/mL
13.142 A solute concentration is 5.14 ppm (m/m). What is prepared by dissolving 11.3 mL of CH4O (density
would this concentration be in the units of micro- of 0.793 g/mL) in enough water to produce 75.0 mL
gram of solute per milligram of solution? of solution. Express the percent CH4O in this
13.143 A solution is prepared by dissolving 1.00 g of NaCl solution as
in enough water to make 10.00 mL of solution. A a. % (m/v). b. % (m/m).
1.00 mL portion of this solution is then diluted to c. % (v/v).
a final volume of 10.00 mL. What is the molarity of 13.152 An aqueous solution having a density of 0.993 g/mL
the final NaCl solution? is prepared by dissolving 20.0 mL of C2H6O (den-
13.144 A solution is prepared by dissolving 30.0 g of sity of 0.789 g/mL) in enough water to produce
Na2SO4 in enough water to make 750.0 mL of so- 85.0 mL of solution. Express the percent C2H6O in
lution. A 10.00 mL portion of this solution is then this solution as
diluted to a final volume of 100.0 mL. What is the a. % (m/v). b. % (m/m).
molarity of the final Na2SO4 solution? c. % (v/v).
13.145 How many milliliters of 38.0% (m/m) HCl solution 13.153 The concentration of a KCl solution is 0.273 molal
(density of 1.19 g/mL) are needed to make, using a and 0.271 molar. What is the density of the solution
dilution procedure, 1.00 L of 0.100 M HCl? in grams per milliliter?
13.146 How many milliliters of 20.0% (m/m) NaCl solution 13.154 The concentration of a Pb(NO3)2 solution is 0.953
(density of 1.15 g/mL) are needed to make, using a molal and 0.907 molar. What is the density of the
dilution procedure, 3.50 L of 0.150 M NaCl? solution in grams per milliliter?

MC 13.1 Which of the following statements about solutions c. dilute solution.
is correct? d. more than one correct response.
a. A solution is a homogeneous mixture. e. no correct response.
b. The solvent present is always a liquid. MC 13.3 Which of the following is a characteristic of a super-
c. The solute is the substance present in the greatest saturated solution?
amount in the solution. a. Dissolved solute is in equilibrium with undis-
d. more than one correct response solved solute.
e. no correct response b. The solubility limit for the solute has been
MC 13.2 What type of solution is characterized by the rate exceeded.
of crystallization of dissolved solute being equal to the rate c. Solute will rapidly precipitate if a seed crystal is
of dissolution of undissolved solute? added.
a. unsaturated solution. d. more than one correct response
b. saturated solution. e. no correct response
MC 13.4 Which of the following generalizations concerning MC 13.12 For which of the following solutions is the
factors that affect solute solubility is correct? concentration 1.0 molar?
a. The solubility of most solid-state solutes decreases a. 3.0 moles of solute in 3.0 L of solution
as temperature increases. b. 0.50 mole of solute in 500.0 mL of solution
b. The solubility of gaseous-state solutes increases c. 1.0 mole of solution in 0.100 L of solution
with increasing temperature. d. more than one correct response
c. The solubility of gaseous-state solutes decreases e. no correct response
with increasing pressure. MC 13.13 For which of the following unit changes can
d. more than one correct response molarity be directly used as the conversion factor?
e. no correct response a. grams of solute to liters of solvent
MC 13.5 The solubility rule “like dissolves like” is not ad- b. moles of solute to liters of solution
equate for predicting solubilities when the solute is a(n) c. liters of solution to moles of solute
a. nonpolar gas. d. more than one correct response
b. ionic solid. e. no correct response
c. polar liquid. MC 13.14 How many grams of LiF are needed to make
d. more than one correct response 325 mL of a 0.100 M LiF solution?
e. no correct response a. 0.390 g
MC 13.6 Solubility in water is a general characteristic of b. 0.843 g
which of the following types of ionic compounds? c. 2.67 g
a. phosphates d. 8.43 g
b. carbonates e. no correct response
c. nitrates MC 13.15 What is the volume ratio in which the two reac-
d. more than one correct response tants in the chemical reaction
H2CO3(aq) + 2 KOH(aq) h K2CO3(aq) + 2 H2O(l)
MC 13.7 What is the mass percent concentration of a solu-
tion containing 20.0 g NaNO3 and 250.0 g H2O? react if the molarities of the two reactants are the same?
a. 6.76 mass percent a. 2 to 1
b. 7.41 mass percent b. 1 to 2
c. 8.00 mass percent c. cannot be determined without knowing the actual
d. 8.25 mass percent molarities.
MC 13.8 A 2.0% (m/v) NaCl solution contains 2.0 g of e. no correct response
NaCl per MC 13.16 What volume, in liters, of 0.600 M KOH solution
a. 100.0 g of solution. is needed to react completely with 0.100 L of 2.50 M H2SO4
b. 100.0 mL of solution. solution, according to the equation
c. 1.0 L of solution. 2 KOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) h K2SO4(aq) + 2 H2O(l)
d. more than one correct response a. 0.208 L
e. no correct response b. 0.417 L
MC 13.9 What volume, in mL, of an 8.50% (m/v) glucose c. 0.537 L
solution contains 50.0 grams of glucose? d. 0.833 L
a. 135 mL b. 279 mL c. 356 mL e. no correct response
d. 588 mL e. no correct response MC 13.17 If 400.0 mL of 1.00 M NaOH is diluted to 2.00 L,
MC 13.10 In which of the following pairs of concentrations the concentration of the resulting solution is
are the two concentrations equivalent to each other? a. 0.0400 M.
a. 7 ppm (v/v) and 7000 ppb (v/v) b. 0.200 M.
b. 7 pph (v/v) and 7000 ppm (v/v) c. 0.400 M.
c. 7% (v/v) and 70,000 ppm (v/v) d. 0.800 M.
e. no correct response MC 13.18 What is the volume, in mL, of a 2.75 M NaCl
MC 13.11 The defining equation for the molarity concentration solution that must be used to make 1.25 L of a 0.150 M NaCl
unit is solution by dilution?
a. grams solute/liters of solution a. 0.0682 mL
b. moles solute/liters of solution b. 0.682 mL
c. grams solute/grams of solution c. 68.2 mL
d. moles solute/grams of solution d. 682 mL
MC 13.19 Which of the following is the correct defining ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE-CHOICE PRACTICE TEST
equation for the molality concentration unit?
a. moles of solute per liter of solution MC 13.1 a MC 13.8 b MC 13.15 b
b. moles of solute per kilogram of solution MC 13.2 b MC 13.9 d MC 13.16 d
c. moles of solute per liter of solvent MC 13.3 d MC 13.10 d MC 13.17 b
d. moles of solute per kilogram of solvent MC 13.4 e MC 13.11 b MC 13.18 c
e. no correct answer MC 13.5 b MC 13.12 d MC 13.19 d
MC 13.20 What is the molality of a solution made by dis- MC 13.6 c MC 13.13 c MC 13.20 d
solving 16.84 g of NaF in enough water to give 325 g of MC 13.7 b MC 13.14 b
solution?
a. 0.555 m
b. 0.713 m
c. 1.23 m
d. 1.30 m
C H A P T E R
14
Acids, Bases, and Salts
14.1 Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory

14.2 Brønsted–Lowry Acid–Base Theory
14.3 Conjugate Acids and Bases
14.4 Mono-, Di-, and Triprotic Acids
14.5 Strengths of Acids and Bases
14.6 Salts
14.7 Reactions of Acids
14.8 Reactions of Bases
14.9 Reactions of Salts
14.10 Self-Ionization of Water
14.11 The pH Scale
14.12 Hydrolysis of Salts
14.13 Buffers
14.14 Acid–Base Titrations
14.1 ARRHENIUS ACID–BASE THEORY

Student Learning Focus: Be able to define the terms Arrhenius acid and Arrhenius base and
distinguish between the terms ionization and dissociation.
Acids and bases are among the most common and important compounds known. Aqueous
solutions of acids and bases are key materials in both biological systems and chemical
industrial processes.
Historically, as early as the seventeenth century, acids and bases were recognized
as important groups of compounds. Such early recognition was based on what the sub-
stances did, rather than on their chemical composition.
616
Chapter 14 • Acids, Bases, and Salts 617
Early known facts about acids include the following.

1. Acids, when dissolved in water, have a sour taste. (The name acid comes from
the Latin word acidus, which means “sour.”) Note that although taste was once an
acceptable criterion for identifying a chemical, it is not anymore. It is not a wise idea
to taste chemicals when in a chemical laboratory.
2. Acids cause the dye litmus to change from blue to red. (Litmus is a naturally occurring
vegetable dye obtained from lichens.)
3. When certain metals, such as zinc and iron, are placed in acids, they dissolve, liberating
hydrogen gas.
Early known characteristics of bases include the following.
1. Bases, when dissolved in water, have a bitter taste.
2. Bases cause the dye litmus to change from red to blue.
3. When fats are placed in base solutions, they dissolve.
4. Base solutions feel slippery or soapy to the touch. (The bases themselves are not
slippery, but react with fats in the skin to form new slippery or soapy compounds.)
It was not until 1884 that acids and bases were defined in terms of chemical com-
position. In that year, the Swedish chemist Svante August Arrhenius (1859–1927; see “The
Human Side of Chemistry 15”) proposed that acids and bases be defined in terms of
the species they form upon dissolution in water. An Arrhenius acid is a hydrogen-
containing compound that, in water, produces hydrogen ions 1H + 2. The acidic species
in Arrhenius theory is, thus, the hydrogen ion. An Arrhenius base is a hydroxide-ion-
containing compound that, in water, produces hydroxide ions 1OH - 2. The basic species
in Arrhenius theory is, thus, the hydroxide ion.
Two common examples of acids, according to the Arrhenius definition, are the
substances HNO3 and HCl.
H2O
HNO31l2 h H + 1aq2 + NO3 - 1aq2
H2O
HCl1g2 h H + 1aq2 + Cl - 1aq2

Svante August into ions. This theory, which came directly from 1905, the king of Sweden founded the Nobel
Arrhenius his university doctoral work in Stockholm, was Institute for Physical Research at Stockholm
(1859–1927) given a hostile reception by many other chem- and installed Arrhenius as director. This ap-
ists, including his mentors at the University of pointment came as a counteroffer to that of
Svante August Arrhenius, Stockholm. He was awarded his doctoral de- a major professorship in Berlin. Arrhenius
born in 1859 near Uppsala, gree with reluctance and given the lowest pos- remained at the Nobel Institute until shortly
Sweden, is considered one of the founders of sible passing grade. It was the opinion of his before his death.
modern physical chemistry. teachers that his theory was “too farfetched.” Arrhenius made other major contribu-
His roots lie in a Swedish farming family. Completely rebuffed by Swedish sci- tions to chemistry besides those dealing with
An infant prodigy, on his own accord and against entists, he decided to approach the scientific ions, acids, and bases. In 1889, while studying
his parents’ wishes, he taught himself to read world elsewhere. He did find acceptance in how rates of reactions increased with temper-
at age 3. some places and, building on this acceptance, ature, he worked out the concept of activation
In 1884, he proposed his definitions for he further developed and refined his theory. energy (to be discussed in Chapter 16). In later
acids and bases. Simultaneously he shook the Acceptance in his homeland eventu- years he became interested in such diverse
world of chemistry by presenting his theory of ally came. In 1903, Arrhenius was awarded things as serum chemistry and astronomy.
ionic dissociation, which was that ionic sub- the Nobel Prize in chemistry for his “far- He spent considerable time speculating on the
stances, when dissolved in water, dissociate fetched” ideas concerning ions in solution. In origin of life on Earth. ▪
618 Chapter 14 • Acids, Bases, and Salts
FIGURE 14.1 The

Ionization (no ions initally present)
difference between
the aqueous solution
processes of ionization H A H+ + A−
(Arrhenius acids) and
dissociation (Arrhenius Arrhenius acid Hydrogen Negative
bases). Ionization is the (HA molecule) ion ion
production of ions from (acidic species)
a molecular compound
that has been dissolved
in a solvent. Dissociation
is the production of ions
from an ionic compound
Dissociation (ions initally present)
that has been dissolved
in a solvent.
M+ OH− M+ + OH−
Arrhenius base Positive Hydroxide

(MOH formula unit) ion ion
(basic species)
Arrhenius acids in the pure state (not in solution) are covalent compounds; that is, they
do not contain H + ions. The H + ions are produced when the Arrhenius acid interacts
with the water, a process called ionization. Ionization is the process whereby ions are
produced from a molecular compound when it is dissolved in a solvent.
Two common examples of Arrhenius bases are NaOH and KOH.
H2O
NaOH1s2 h Na + 1aq2 + OH - 1aq2
H2O
KOH1s2 h K + 1aq2 + OH - 1aq2
Arrhenius bases are ionic compounds in the pure state, in direct contrast to acids. When such
compounds dissolve in water, the already existent OH - ions are released, a process called
dissociation. Dissociation is the process whereby the already existent ions in an ionic com-
pound separate when the ionic compound is dissolved in a solvent. Figure 14.1 contrasts the
processes of ionization (Arrhenius acids) and dissociation (Arrhenius bases).
14.2 BRØNSTED–LOWRY ACID–BASE THEORY

Student Learning Focus: Be able to define the terms Brønsted-Lowry acid and Brønsted-Lowry base
and know the absolute structural requirements for these two types of substances.
Although widely used, Arrhenius acid–base theory has some shortcomings. Two disad-
vantages are that it is restricted to aqueous solutions and it does not explain why com-
pounds like ammonia 1NH3 2, which do not contain hydroxide ion, produce a basic water
The terms hydrogen ion solution.
and proton are used syn- In 1923, Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted (1879–1947), a Danish chemist, and Thomas
onymously in acid–base Martin Lowry (1874–1936), a British chemist, independently and almost simultaneously
discussions. Why? The
predominant (99.98%)
proposed broadened definitions for acids and bases—definitions that applied in both
hydrogen isotope, 11H, aqueous and nonaqueous solutions and that also explained how some nonhydroxide-
is unique in that no containing substances, when added to water, produce basic solutions.
neutrons are present; it A Brønsted–Lowry acid is any substance that can donate a proton 1H + 2 to some
consists of a proton and other substance. A Brønsted–Lowry base is any substance that can accept a proton
an electron. Thus, the ion
1 + 1H + 2 from some other substance. In simpler terms, a Brønsted–Lowry acid is a proton
1H , a hydrogen atom
that has lost its only elec- donor (or hydrogen ion donor) and a Brønsted–Lowry base is a proton acceptor (or
tron, is simply a proton. hydrogen ion acceptor).
Three important additional concepts associated with Brønsted–Lowry acid–base

theory are as follows:
1. Any chemical reaction involving a Brønsted–Lowry acid must also involve a

Brønsted–Lowry base. You cannot have one without the other. Proton donation
(from an acid) cannot occur unless an acceptor (a base) is present.
2. All the acids and bases included in the Arrhenius theory (Sec. 14.1) are also
acids and bases according to the Brønsted–Lowry theory. However, the converse
is not true; some substances not considered Arrhenius bases are Brønsted–Lowry
bases.
3. The identity of the acidic species in aqueous solution is not the Arrhenius H + ion,
but the H3O + ion. Hydrogen ions in solution react with water. The attraction be-
tween a hydrogen ion and a water molecule is sufficiently strong to bond the hy-
drogen ion to the water molecule to form a hydronium ion 1H3O + 2. The bond
between them is a coordinate covalent bond (Sec. 7.14) because both electrons are
furnished by the oxygen atom.

+
H+ + O — H H O — H
—
—
H H
Hydronium ion
The Brønsted–Lowry acid–base definitions can best be illustrated by example.

Consider the formation reaction for hydrochloric acid, which involves the dissolving of
hydrogen chloride gas in water.

+ −
H Cl + O H H O H + Cl
H H
Acid Base
The HCl behaves as a Brønsted–Lowry acid by donating a proton to a water molecule.

Note that a hydronium ion is formed as a result. The base in this reaction is water because
it has accepted a proton; no hydroxide ions are involved. The Brønsted–Lowry definition
of a base includes all species that accept a proton; hydroxide ions can do this, but so can
many other substances.
It is not necessary that a water molecule be one of the reactants in a Brønsted–
Lowry acid–base reaction or that the reaction take place in the liquid state. An important
application of Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory is to gas-phase reactions. The white
solid haze that often covers glassware in a chemistry laboratory results from the gas-
phase reaction between HCl and NH3.
H H + −
H Cl + N H H N H + Cl
H H
This is a Brønsted–Lowry acid–base reaction, because the HCl molecules donate protons
to the NH3, forming NH4 + and Cl - ions. These ions instantaneously combine to form the
white solid NH4Cl.
Another example of a Brønsted–Lowry acid–base reaction involves the dissolving
of ammonia (a nonhydroxide base) in water. In the following equation, note how a
hydroxide ion is produced as the result of the transfer of a proton from water (written as
HOH) to the ammonia.
NH3(g) + HOH(l) NH4+(aq) + OH−(aq)

Base Acid
Generalizations about Brønsted-Lowry Acids and

Brønsted-Lowry Bases
An absolute structural requirement for a Brønsted-Lowry acid is the presence of a hydro-
gen atom. The generalized notation for a Brønsted-Lowry acid, which is HA, draws atten-
tion to this fact. The A in the HA notation (the rest of the acid’s structure) can be a single
atom (as in HCl or HF) or a group of atoms (as in HNO3 or HCN).
Many Brønsted-Lowry acids are neutral molecules (as in the preceding examples).
Neutrality (no net charge) is, however, not an absolute requirement. Brønsted-Lowry
acids with positive and negative charge also exist. Examples include H3O + , HCO3 - , and
HPO4 2- , all of which can function as proton donors. The equation for HCO3 - functioning
as a Brønsted-Lowry acid is
H CO3−(aq) + H2O(l) CO32−(aq) + H3O+(aq)

Acid Base
A Brønsted-Lowry acid may also contain more than one hydrogen atom. Examples
include H3PO4 and H2PO4 - . The equation for H2PO4- functioning as a Brønsted-Lowry
acid is
H2PO4−(aq) + OH−(aq) HPO42−(aq) + H2O(l)

Acid Base
An absolute structural requirement for a Brønsted-Lowry base is the presence of a

nonbonding pair (lone pair) of electrons. This is the site where the coordinate covalent
bond forms when an incoming proton (from an acid) is accepted by the base. The gen-
eralized notation for a Brønsted-Lowry base is B:; the lone pair of electrons is explicitly
shown. Each of the following species is capable of functioning as a Brønsted–Lowry
base:
− −
H— N — H H— O — H F O—H
—
Common to all of these species is the presence of at least one lone pair of electrons.
Note also, as shown in the later two of the preceding examples, that a Brønsted-Lowry
base can carry a net charge, that is, it can be an ion. Note also that hydrogen atoms may
be initially present in a Brønsted-Lowry base; it then accepts an additional hydrogen
atom.
The proton transfer that occurs between a Brønsted–Lowry acid and Brønsted–
Lowry base, using generalized notation, is written as
HA + B A− + [B H ]+

Acid Base
14.3 CONJUGATE ACIDS AND BASES

Student Learning Focus: Know the relationships between species present in a conjugate acid-base
pair; be able to describe the behavior exhibited by an amphiprotic substance.
For most Brønsted–Lowry acid–base reactions, 100% proton transfer does not occur.
Instead, a state of equilibrium (Sec. 11.13) is reached in which a forward reaction and a
reverse reaction are occurring at an equal rate.
The equilibrium mixture for a Brønsted–Lowry acid–base reaction always has two
acids and two bases present. To illustrate this, consider the acid–base reaction involving
hydrogen fluoride and water:
HF1aq2 + H2O1l2 m H3O + 1aq2 + F - 1aq2
(The double arrows in this equation indicate a state of equilibrium—both a forward and
a reverse reaction are occurring.) For the forward reaction, the HF molecules donate pro-
tons to water molecules. Thus, the HF is functioning as an acid and the H2O is function-
ing as a base.
HF1aq2 + H2O1l2 h H3O + 1aq2 + F - 1aq2
Acid Base
For the reverse reaction, the one going from right to left, a different picture emerges.
Here, H3O + is functioning as an acid (by donating a proton), and F - behaves as a base
(by accepting the proton).
H3O + 1aq2 + F - 1aq2 h HF1aq2 + H2O1l2

Acid Base
The two acids and two bases involved in a Brønsted–Lowry equilibrium situation Conjugate means
can be grouped into two conjugate acid–base pairs. A conjugate acid–base pair is two “coupled” or “joined
together” (as in a pair).
species, one an acid and one a base, that differ from each other through the loss or gain
of a proton (H + ion). The two conjugate acid–base pairs in our example are (HF and F - )
and (H3O + and H2O).
Conjugate pair
HF(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + F−(aq)

Acid Base Acid Base
Conjugate pair
Abbreviated notation for specifying a conjugate acid–base pair is “acid/base.” Using

this notation, the two conjugate acid–base pairs in the preceding example are HF>F - and
H3O + >H2O. The acid is always written first in such notation.
For any given conjugate acid–base pair,
1. the acid in the acid–base pair always has one more H atom and one fewer negative
charge than the base. Note this relationship for the HF>F - conjugate acid–base pair.
2. the base in the acid–base pair always has one fewer H atom and one more negative
charge than the acid. Note this relationship for the HF>F - conjugate acid–base pair.
The acid in a conjugate acid–base pair is called the conjugate acid of the base, and the
base in the conjugate acid–base pair is called the conjugate base of the acid. A conjugate
acid is the species formed when a proton (H + ion) is added to a Brønsted–Lowry base.
The H3O + ion is the conjugate acid of an H2O molecule. A conjugate base is the species
that remains when a proton (H + ion) is removed from a Brønsted–Lowry acid.
The H2O molecule is the conjugate base of the H3O + ion. Every acid has a conjugate
base, and every base has a conjugate acid. In general terms, these relationships can be
diagrammed as follows.
HA + B HB+ + A−

Acid Base Conjugate Conjugate
acid base
EXAMPLE 14.1 Determining the Members of a Conjugate Acid–Base Pair

Identify the conjugate acid–base pairs in the following reaction.
HBr1aq2 + H2O1l2 h H3O + 1aq2 + Br - 1aq2
SOLUTION
To determine the conjugate acid–base pairs, we look for formulas that differ by only one
H + ion. For this reaction, one pair must be HBr and Br - and the other pair must be H3O +
and H2O. In each pair, the acid is the substance with one more hydrogen atom, so the
two acids are HBr and H3O + , and the two bases are Br - and H2O.
Conjugate pair
HBr(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + Br−(aq)

Conjugate pair
Answer Double Check: In a conjugate acid–base pair, the acid always contains one
more hydrogen atom than the base; such is the case here. There is also a definite charge
relationship between the two members of a conjugate acid–base pair. The acid, with its
one more hydrogen, will always have a charge that is one unit greater than the charge
associated with the base; such is the case here. For the HBr>Br - pair, the charges are 0
and -1; for the H3O + >H2O pair, the charges are +1 and 0.
EXAMPLE 14.2 Determining the Formula of One Member of a Conjugate

Acid–Base Pair when Given the Other Member
Write chemical formulas for the following:
a. the conjugate base of HCO3 - b. the conjugate acid of PO4 3-
SOLUTION
a. A conjugate base is formed by removing one H + ion from a given acid. Removing
one H + (both the atom and the charge) from HCO3 - leaves CO3 2- . Thus, CO3 2- is
the conjugate base of HCO3 - .
b. A conjugate acid is formed by adding one H + ion to a given base. Adding one H +
(both the atom and the charge) to PO4 3- produces HPO4 2- . Thus, HPO4 2- is the
conjugate acid of PO4 3- .
Answer Double Check: Are the acid–base interrelationships correct? Yes. The conjugate
base 1CO3 2- 2 contains one fewer hydrogen and has a charge one unit more negative than
its conjugate acid 1HCO3 - 2. The conjugate acid 1HPO4 2- 2 contains one more hydrogen
and has a charge one unit more positive than its conjugate base 1PO4 3- 2.
Amphiprotic Substances
Some molecules or ions are able to function as either an acid or a base, depending on the The term amphiprotic
kind of substance with which they react. Such molecules are said to be amphiprotic. An comes from the Greek
amphoteres, which means
amphiprotic substance is a substance that can either lose or accept a proton (H + ion)
“partly one and partly
and thus can function as either an acid or a base. the other.” Just as an
Water is the most common example of an amphiprotic substance. In the first of the amphibian is an animal
following two reactions, water functions as a base, and in the second, it functions as an acid. that lives partly on land
and partly in the water,
HNO31l2 + H2O1l2 m H3O + 1aq2 + NO3 - 1aq2 an amphiprotic substance
Acid Base is sometimes an acid and
sometimes a base.
NH31g2 + H2O1l2 m NH4 + 1aq2 + OH - 1aq2
Base Acid
Another example of an amphiprotic substance is the hydrogen carbonate ion.
HCO3 - 1aq2 + OH - 1aq2 m CO3 2-1aq2 + H2O1l2
Acid Base
HCO3 1aq2 + H3O + 1aq2 m H2CO31aq2 + H2O1l2
-
Base Acid
14.4 MONO-, DI-, AND TRIPROTIC ACIDS

Student Learning Focus: On the basis of chemical formula, differentiate among mono-, di-, and
triprotic acids, and write chemical equations for the stepwise dissociation of di- and triprotic acids.
Acids can be classified according to the number of hydrogen ions (protons) they can
transfer per molecule during an acid–base reaction. A monoprotic acid is an acid
that can transfer only one H + ion (proton) per molecule during an acid–base reaction.
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) and nitric acid 1HNO3 2 are both monoprotic acids.
A diprotic acid is an acid that can transfer two H + ions (two protons) per molecule
during an acid–base reaction. Sulfuric acid 1H2SO4 2 and carbonic acid 1H2CO3 2 are ex-
amples of diprotic acids. The transfer of protons for a diprotic acid always occurs in steps.
For H2SO4, the two steps are as follows:
H2SO41aq2 + H2O1l2 h H3O + 1aq2 + HSO4 - 1aq2
HSO4 - 1aq2 + H2O1l2 h H3O + 1aq2 + SO4 2-1aq2
A few triprotic acids exist. A triprotic acid is an acid that can transfer three H +
ions (three protons) per molecule during an acid–base reaction. Phosphoric acid, H3PO4,
is the most common triprotic acid. The three proton-transfer steps for this acid are as
follows:
H3PO41aq2 + H2O1l2 h H3O + 1aq2 + H2PO4 - 1aq2
H2PO4 - 1aq2 + H2O1l2 h H3O + 1aq2 + HPO4 2-1aq2
HPO4 2-1aq2 + H2O1l2 h H3O + 1aq2 + PO4 3-1aq2
A polyprotic acid is an acid that can transfer two or more H + ions (protons) per mol-
ecule during an acid–base reaction. Both diprotic acids and triprotic acids are examples
of polyprotic acids.
The number of hydrogen atoms present in one molecule of an acid cannot always be
used to classify the acid as mono-, di-, or triprotic. For example, a molecule of acetic acid
contains four hydrogen atoms, and yet it is a monoprotic acid. Only one of the hydrogen
atoms in acetic acid is acidic. An acidic hydrogen atom is a hydrogen atom in an acid
molecule that can be transferred to a base during an acid–base reaction.
Whether or not a hydrogen atom is acidic is related to its location in a molecule, that
is, to which other atom it is bonded. Let us consider our previously mentioned acetic acid
example in more detail by looking at the structure of this acid. A structural equation for
the acidic behavior of acetic acid is
−
H O H O
— —
— —
H— C — C — O —H + H2O H3O+ + H— C — C — O

H H
Note the structure of the acetic acid molecule (reactant side of the equation): One hydrogen
atom is bonded to an oxygen atom, and the other three hydrogen atoms are each bonded to
a carbon atom. It is only the hydrogen atom bonded to the oxygen atom that is acidic. The
hydrogen atoms bonded to the carbon atom are too tightly held to be removed by reaction
with water molecules. Water has very little effect on a carbon–hydrogen bond because it is es-
sentially nonpolar (Sec. 7.19). On the other hand, the hydrogen bonded to oxygen is involved
in a very polar bond because of oxygen’s large electronegativity (Sec. 7.18). Water, which is a
polar molecule, readily attacks polar bonds but has very little effect on nonpolar bonds.
We now see why the formula for acetic acid is usually written as HC2H3O2 rather
than as C2H4O2. In the situation where some hydrogens are easily removed (acidic) and
others are not (nonacidic), it is accepted procedure to write the acidic hydrogens first,
separated from the other hydrogens in the formula. Citric acid, the principal acid in citrus
fruits, is another example of an acid that contains both acidic and nonacidic hydrogens.
Its formula, H3C6H5O7, indicates that three of the eight hydrogen atoms present in a mol-
ecule are acidic. Table 14.1 gives the formulas, classifications, and common occurrences
TABLE 14.1 Selected Common Mono-, Di-, and Triprotic Acids
Number
of Nonacidic
Name Formula Classification Hydrogen Atoms Common Occurrence
Acetic acid HC2H3O2 monoprotic three vinegar
Lactic acid HC3H5O3 monoprotic five sour milk, cheese; produced during muscle
contraction
Salicylic acid HC7H5O3 monoprotic five present in chemically combined form in
aspirin
Hydrochloric acid HCl monoprotic zero constituent of gastric juice; industrial
cleaning agent
Nitric acid HNO3 monoprotic zero used in urinalysis test for protein; used in
manufacture of dyes and explosives
Tartaric acid H2 C4 H4 O 6 diprotic four grapes
Carbonic acid H2CO3 diprotic zero carbonated beverages; produced in the body
from carbon dioxide
Sulfuric acid H2SO4 diprotic zero storage batteries; manufacture of fertilizer
Citric acid H3 C6 H5 O 7 triprotic five citrus fruits
Phosphoric acid H3PO4 triprotic zero found in dissociated form (HPO4 2-, H2PO4 - )
in intracellular fluid; component of DNA
of selected mono-, di-, and triprotic acids, many of which contain nonacidic hydrogen
atoms.
We have focused our attention on acids in the preceding discussion. It should be
noted that similar concepts can be applied to bases. From an Arrhenius standpoint, bases
can release more than one hydroxide ion; for example, Ca1OH22 is a base that produces
two OH - ions per molecule. From a Brønsted–Lowry viewpoint, bases exist that can
accept more than one proton, in a stepwise manner; for example, the PO4 3- ion is a
Brønsted–Lowry base that can ultimately accept three protons through reaction with three
H3O + ions:
H3O + H3O + H3O +
PO4 3 - h HPO4 2 - h H2PO4 - h H3PO4
14.5 STRENGTHS OF ACIDS AND BASES

Student Learning Focus: Differentiate between strong and weak acids in terms of extent of proton
transfer; be able to list the commonly encountered strong acids and strong bases.
Brønsted–Lowry acids vary in their ability to transfer protons and produce hydronium
ions in aqueous solution. Such acids are classified as strong or weak on the basis of
the extent that proton transfer occurs in an aqueous solution. A strong acid is an
acid that, in an aqueous solution, transfers 100%, or very nearly 100%, of its acidic
hydrogen atoms to water. Thus, if an acid is strong, almost all of the acid molecules
present give up protons to water. This extensive transfer of protons produces many
hydronium ions (the acidic species) within the solution. A weak acid is an acid
that, in an aqueous solution, transfers only a small percentage of its acidic hydrogen
atoms to water. The extent of proton transfer for weak acids is usually less than 5%. It is important not to
The actual percentage of molecules involved in proton transfer to water depends on confuse the terms strong
the molecular structure of the acid; molecular polarity and the strength and polarity and weak with the terms
of individual bonds are important factors in determining whether an acid is strong concentrated and dilute.
or weak. Strong and weak apply
to the extent of proton
A graphical representation of the differences between strong and weak acids, in transfer, not to the con-
terms of species present in solution, is given in Figure 14.2. The formula HA represents centration of acid or base.
the acid, and H3O + and A - are the products from the proton transfer to H2O. Concentrated and dilute
A 0.1 M solution of nitric acid 1HNO3 2 or sulfuric acid 1H2SO4 2, when spilled on are relative concentra-
your clothes and not immediately washed off, will eat holes in your clothing. If 0.1 M tion terms. Stomach acid
(gastric juice) is a dilute
solutions of either acetic acid 1HC2H3O2 2 or carbonic acid 1H2CO3 2 were spilled on your (not weak) solution of a
clothes, the previously noted corrosive effects would not be observed. Why? All four acid strong acid (HCl); it is 5%
solutions are of equal concentration; all are 0.1 M solutions. The difference in behavior by mass hydrochloric acid.
Strong acid (0.1 M) Weak acid (0.1 M) FIGURE 14.2 A

comparison of the
HA H3O+ A− HA
HA number of H3O + ions
(the acidic species)
present in strong
acid and weak acid
H2O H2O solutions of the same
concentration.
H3O+ A−
Before After Before After
proton proton transfer proton proton transfer
transfer at equilibrium transfer at equilibrium
relates to the strength of the acids; nitric and sulfuric acids are strong acids, whereas
acetic and carbonic acids are weak acids. The number of H3O + ions (the active species)
present in the strong acid solutions is many times greater than for the weak acid solutions
even though all the solutions had the same number of acid molecules present (before
reaction with water).
There are very few strong acids; the formulas and structures of the seven most com-
monly encountered strong acids are given in Table 14.2. You should know the identity of
these seven strong acids; you will need such knowledge to write net ionic equations, the
topic of Section 15.3.
The oxyacids
HNO3, HClO4, HClO3,
The vast majority of acids that exist are weak acids. Familiar weak acids include
and H2SO4 are strong acetic acid 1HC2H3O2 2, the acidic component of vinegar, and carbonic acid 1H2CO3 2,
acids. The oxyacids found in carbonated beverages. Weak acids are not all equally weak; proton transfer
HNO2, HClO2, HClO, occurs to a greater extent for some weak acids than for others. Table 14.3 gives percent
H2SO3, H2CO3, and proton-transfer values for selected weak acids. The calculational techniques needed
H3PO4 are weak acids.
A generalization exists
to determine percent proton-transfer values, such as those in Table 14.3, will not be
relative to this situation. considered in this text.
For simple oxyacids For polyprotic acids, the stepwise proton-transfer sequence that occurs (Sec. 14.4)
(H, O, and one other can be used to determine relative acid strengths for the related acidic species. Consider
nonmetal), if the number the two-step proton-transfer process for carbonic acid.
of oxygen atoms present
exceeds the number of H2CO31aq2 + H2O1l2 h H3O + 1aq2 + HCO3 - 1aq2
acid hydrogen atoms
present by two or more, HCO3 - 1aq2 + H2O1l2 h H3O + 1aq2 + CO3 2-1aq2
the acid strength is strong.
The second proton is not as easily removed as the first because it must be pulled
For oxyacids where
the oxygen–hydrogen away from a negatively charged particle, HCO3 - . Accordingly, HCO3 - is a weaker acid than
difference is less than two, H2CO3, In general, each successive step in a stepwise proton-transfer process occurs to a
the acid strength is weak. lesser extent than the previous step. Thus, for triprotic H3PO4, the parent H3PO4 species
TABLE 14.2 Commonly Encountered Strong Acids
Name* Molecular Formula Molecular Structure

Nitric acid HNO3 H O N O
O
Sulfuric acid H2SO4 O
H O S O H
Perchloric acid HClO4 O
H O Cl O
Chloric acid HClO3 H O Cl O
O
Hydrochloric acid HCl H i Cl
Hydrobromic acid HBr H i Br
Hydroiodic acid Hl HiI
*Nomenclature for acids was discussed in Section 8.6.

TABLE 14.3 Percent Proton-Transfer Values for 1.0 M Solutions (at 25ⴗC) of Selected
Weak Acids
Name of Acid Molecular Formula Percent Proton Transfer

Phosphoric acid H3PO4 8.3
Nitrous acid HNO2 2.7
Hydrofluoric acid HF 2.5
Acetic acid HC2H3O2 0.42
Carbonic acid H2CO3 0.065
-
Dihydrogen phosphate ion H2PO4 0.025
Hydrocyanic acid HCN 0.0020
-
Hydrogen carbonate ion HCO3 0.00075
Hydrogen phosphate ion HPO4 2- 0.000047
(first-step reactant) is a stronger acid than H2PO4 - (second-step reactant), which in turn is
a stronger acid than HPO4 2- (third-step reactant). This ordering of the phosphoric acid–
derived species is reflected in the values given in Table 14.3.
Just as there are strong acids and weak acids, there are also strong bases and weak
bases. As with acids, there are only a few strong bases. Strong bases are limited to the
hydroxides of groups IA and IIA of the Periodic Table and are listed in Table 14.4. Of the
strong bases, only NaOH and KOH are commonly used in the chemical laboratory.
The low solubility of the group IIA hydroxides in water limits their use. However, despite
this low solubility, these hydroxides are still considered to be strong bases because
whatever dissolves dissociates into ions 100%.
Only one of the many weak bases that exist is fairly common—aqueous ammonia.
In this solution of ammonia gas 1NH3 2 in water, small amounts of OH - ions are produced
through the reaction of NH3 molecules with water.
NH31g2 + H2O1l2 h NH4 + 1aq2 + OH - 1aq2
A solution of ammonia in water is most properly called aqueous ammonia,
although it is also occasionally called ammonium hydroxide. Aqueous ammonia is the
preferred designation, since most of the NH3 present is in molecular form. Only a
very few NH3 molecules have reacted with the water to give ammonium 1NH4 + 2 and
hydroxide 1OH - 2 ions.
TABLE 14.4 Common Strong Bases
Group IA Hydroxides Group IIA Hydroxides

LiOH
NaOH
KOH Ca1OH22
RbOH Sr1OH22
CsOH Ba1OH22
14.6 SALTS
Student Learning Focus: Distinguish among compounds that are classified as acids, bases,
and salts.
The title of this chapter is “Acids, Bases, and Salts.” In preceding sections, we have
discussed acids and bases, but not salts. What is a salt? To a nonscientist, the word salt
connotes a white granular substance used as a seasoning for food. To the chemist, it has
a much broader meaning. Sodium chloride, or table salt, is only one of thousands of salts
known to a chemist. “Pass the salt” is a very ambiguous request to a chemist.
From a chemical viewpoint, a salt is an ionic compound containing a metal
ion or polyatomic ion as the positive ion and a nonmetal ion or polyatomic ion (except
hydroxide) as the negative ion. (Ionic compounds containing hydroxide ion are bases
rather than salts.)
Many salts occur in nature, and numerous others have been prepared in the labo-
ratory. The wide variety of uses found for salts can be seen from Table 14.5, a listing of
selected salts and their uses.
Much information concerning salts has been presented in previous chapters,
although the term salt was not explicitly used in those discussions. Formula writing and
nomenclature for binary ionic compounds (salts) were covered in Sections 7.7 and 8.3.
Many salts, as shown in Table 14.5, contain polyatomic ions such as nitrate and sulfate.
Such ions were discussed in Sections 7.9 and 8.4. The solubility of ionic compounds
(salts) in water was the topic of Section 13.4.
In solution all common salts are dissociated into ions (Sec. 13.3). Even if a salt is
only slightly soluble, the small amount that does dissolve completely dissociates. Thus,
the terms weak and strong, used to denote qualitatively the percent dissociation of acids
and bases, are not applicable to common salts. We do not use the terms strong salt and
weak salt.
Acids, bases, and salts are related in that a salt is one of the products resulting from
the reaction of an acid with a hydroxide base. This particular type of reaction, called
neutralization, is discussed in Section 14.7.
TABLE 14.5 Some Common Salts and Their Uses
Name Formula Uses

Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3 fertilizer; explosives
Barium sulfate BaSO4 enhancer for X-rays of gastrointestinal tract
Calcium carbonate CaCO3 chalk; limestone
Calcium chloride CaCl2 drying agent for removal of small amounts of water
Iron(II) sulfate FeSO4 treatment for anemia
Potassium chloride KCl salt substitute for low-sodium diets
Sodium chloride NaCl table salt; used as a deicer (to melt ice)
Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3 ingredient in baking powder
Sodium hypochlorite NaClO bleaching agent
Silver bromide AgBr light-sensitive material in photographic film
Tin(II) fluoride SnF2 toothpaste additive
14.7 REACTIONS OF ACIDS

Student Learning Focus: Be able to write chemical equations for the reaction of an acid with (1) an
active metal, (2) a hydroxide base, and (3) a carbonate or bicarbonate.
All acids have some unique properties that adapt them for use in specific situations. In
addition, all acids have certain chemical properties in common, properties related to the
presence of H3O + ions in aqueous solution. In this section we consider three types of
chemical reactions that acids characteristically undergo.
1. Acids react with active metals to produce hydrogen gas and a salt.
2. Acids react with hydroxide bases to produce a salt and water.
3. Acids react with carbonates and bicarbonates to produce carbon dioxide, a salt, and
water.
Reaction with Metals

Acids react with many, but not all, metals. When they do react, the metal dissolves and
hydrogen gas 1H2 2 is liberated. In the reaction, the metal atoms lose electrons and
become, metal ions. The lost electrons are taken up by the hydrogen ions (protons) of the
acid; the hydrogen ions become electrically neutral, combine into molecules, and emerge
from the reaction mixture as hydrogen gas. Illustrative of the reaction of an acid and a
metal is the reaction between zinc and sulfuric acid.
Zn + H2SO4 h ZnSO4 + H2
In terms of the reaction types discussed in Section 10.6, the reaction of an acid with
a metal to produce hydrogen gas is a single-replacement reaction; the metal replaces the
hydrogen from the acid. Recall, from Section 10.6, that a single-replacement reaction has
the general form
X + YZ h Y + XZ
Metals can be arranged in a reactivity order based on their ability to react with
acids. Such an ordering for the more common metals is given in Table 14.6. Any metal
above hydrogen in the activity series will dissolve in an acid solution and form H2. The
closer a metal is to the top of the series, the more rapid the reaction. Those metals below
hydrogen in the series do not dissolve in an acid to form H2.
As noted in Table 14.6, the most active metals (those nearest the top in the activity
series) also react with water. Again, hydrogen gas is produced. In the cases of potassium
and sodium, the reaction is sometimes violent enough to cause explosions, as the result
of H2 ignition. The equation for the reaction of potassium with water, which is also a
single-replacement reaction, is
2 K + 2 H2O h 2 KOH + H2
Note that the resulting solution is basic when a metal reacts with water; hydroxide
ions are produced.
Reaction with Bases

When Arrhenius acids and bases are mixed, they react with each other; their acidic
and basic properties disappear, and we say that they have neutralized each other.
Neutralization is the reaction between an acid and a hydroxide base to form a salt and
water. The hydrogen ions from the acid combine with the hydroxide ions from the base
TABLE 14.6 Activity Series for Common Metals
Metal Symbol Remarks

{
d
Potassium K react violently with cold water
Sodium Na
Calcium Ca reacts slowly with cold water
Magnesium Mg
Increasing tendency to react React with
Aluminum Al
H + ions to react slowly with hot water (steam)
Zinc Zn
liberate
hydrogen gas Chromium Cr
Iron Fe
Nickel Ni
Tin Sn
Lead Pb
Because they do not
react with the acidic Hydrogen H
components of skin
Copper Cu
secretions (sweat, etc.),
gold, platinum, and Do not Mercury Hg
silver are good metals
react with Silver Ag
for jewelry. Jewelry made
with these metals will not H + ions Platinum Pt
tarnish like jewelry made
Gold Au
from other metals.
Hydrochloric acid (HCl), to form water. The salt formed contains the negative ion from the acid and the positive
which is necessary for ion from the base. Neutralization is a double-replacement reaction (Sec. 10.6).
proper digestion of food, is
present in the gastric juices AX + BY h AY + BX
of the human stomach.
Overeating and emo- HCl + KOH h HOH + KCl
tional factors can cause acid base water salt
the stomach to produce
too much hydrochloric Any time an acid is completely reacted with a base, neutralization occurs. It does
acid, a condition called not matter whether the acid and base are strong or weak. Sodium hydroxide (a strong
acid indigestion or heart- base) and nitric acid (a strong acid) react as follows.
burn. Substances known
as antacids provide HNO3 + NaOH h NaNO3 + H2O
symptomatic relief from
this condition. Over-the- The equation for the reaction of potassium hydroxide (a strong base) with hydrocyanic
counter antacids such acid (a weak acid) is
as Maalox, Tums, and
Alka-Seltzer contain one HCN + KOH h KCN + H2O
or more basic substances
[often Mg1OH22] that are
Note that in each case the products are a salt (NaNO3 in the first reaction, KCN in the
capable of neutralizing the second) and water.
excess hydrochloric acid In any acid–base neutralization reaction, the amounts of H + ion and OH - ion that
present. The neutralization react are equal. These two ions always react in a one-to-one ratio to form water.
reaction that occurs when
stomach acid reacts with a H + + OH - h H2O 1HOH2
typical antacid is
2 HCl + Mg1OH22 h This constant reaction ratio between the two ions enables us to balance chemical
MgCl2 + 2 H2O equations for neutralization reactions quickly.
Let us consider the neutralization reaction between H3PO4 and KOH to give a salt
and water.
H3PO4 + KOH h salt + H2O
Because H3PO4 is triprotic and the base KOH contains only one OH - ion, we will need
three times as many base molecules as acid molecules. Thus, we place the coefficient 3 in
front of the formula for KOH in the chemical equation; this gives three H + reacting with
three OH - to produce three H2O molecules.
H3PO4 + 3 KOH h salt + 3 H2O
The salt formed is K3PO4; there are three K + ions and one PO4 3- ion on the left side of
the equation, which combine to give the salt. The balanced equation for the neutraliza-
tion is thus
H3PO4 + 3 KOH h K3PO4 + 3 H2O
Reaction with Carbonates and Bicarbonates

Carbon dioxide gas 1CO2 2, water, and a salt are always the products of the reaction of The reaction equation
acids with carbonates or bicarbonates, as illustrated by the following equations. for the “volcanoes” that
children enjoy making by
2 HCl + Na2CO3 h 2 NaCl + CO2 + H2O mixing vinegar [5% acetic
acid (v/v)] and baking
HCl + NaHCO3 h NaCl + CO2 + H2O soda is
HC2H3O2 + NaHCO3
Baking powder is a mixture of a bicarbonate and an acid-forming solid. The addition
h CO2 + H2O +
of water to this mixture generates the acid that then reacts with the bicarbonate to release NaC2H3O2
carbon dioxide into the batter. It is the generated carbon dioxide that causes the batter The carbon dioxide gas
to rise. Baking soda is pure NaHCO3. To cause it to release carbon dioxide, an acid- makes the foamy volcano.
containing substance, such as buttermilk, sour milk, or fruit juice, must be added to it.
14.8 REACTIONS OF BASES

Student Learning Focus: Be familiar with the reactions of bases with acids (neutralization) and with
some salts to form another base and another salt.
The most important characteristic reaction of bases is their reaction with acids (neutral-
ization), discussed in the preceding section. Another characteristic reaction, that of bases
with certain salts, is discussed in Section 14.9.
Bases react with fats and oils and convert them into smaller, soluble molecules.
For this reason most household cleaning products contain basic substances. Lye (impure
NaOH) is an active ingredient in numerous drain cleaners. Also, many advertisements for
liquid household cleaners emphasize the fact that aqueous ammonia (a weak base) is
present in the product.
In Section 14.1 we noted that one of the general properties of bases is a slippery
or soapy feeling to the touch. The bases themselves are not slippery; the slipperi-
ness results as the bases react with fats and oils in the skin to form slippery or soapy
compounds.
14.9 REACTIONS OF SALTS

Student Learning Focus: Be familiar with the conditions under which salts react with metals, bases,
and other salts.
Dissolved salts will react with metals, acids, bases, and other salts under specific
conditions.
1. Salts react with some metals to convert the metallic ion of the salt to free metal and
the free metal to its salt.
2. Salts react with some acid solutions to form other acids and salts.
3. Salts react with some base solutions to form other bases and salts.
4. Salts react with some solutions of other salts to form new salts.
The tendency for salts to react with metals is related to the relative positions of the two
involved metals in the activity series (Table 14.6). For salts to react with acids, bases, or other
salts, one of the reaction products must be (1) an insoluble salt, (2) a gas that is evolved from
the solution, or (3) an undissociated soluble species, such as a weak acid or a weak base. The
formation of any of these products serves as the driving force to cause the reaction to occur.
Reaction with Metals

If an iron nail is placed in a solution of copper sulfate 1CuSO4 2, metallic copper will be
deposited on the nail and some of the iron will dissolve.
Fe1s2 + CuSO41aq2 h Cu1s2 + FeSO41aq2
One metal has replaced the other: A single-replacement reaction (Sec. 10.6) has
occurred. This type of reaction will occur only if the metal going into solution is above
the replaced metal in the activity series. Iron is above copper in the activity series and
can replace it. If a strip of copper were placed in a solution of FeSO4—just the opposite
situation to what we have been discussing—no reaction would occur because copper is
below iron in the activity series.
Reaction with Acids

For a salt to react with an acid, a new weaker acid, a new insoluble salt, or a gaseous
compound must be one of the products.
An example of a reaction in which the formation of an insoluble salt is the driving
force for the reaction to occur is
AgNO31aq2 + HCl1aq2 h AgCl1s2 + HNO31aq2
This is a double-replacement reaction (Sec. 10.6); the silver and hydrogen have
traded partners.
The conclusion that this reaction will occur comes from a consideration of the pos-
sible recombinations of the reacting species. In a solution made by mixing silver nitrate
1AgNO3 2 and hydrochloric acid (HCl), four kinds of ions are present initially (before
any reaction occurs): Ag + and NO3 - (since AgNO3 is a soluble salt) and H + and Cl -
(since HCl is a strong acid). The question is whether these ions can get together in new
appropriate combinations. The possible new combinations of oppositely charged ions are
H + NO3 - and Ag + Cl - . The first of these combinations would result in the formation of the
strong acid HNO3. Strong acids in solution exist in dissociated form; therefore, these ions
will not combine. The second combination does occur because AgCl is an insoluble salt.
Thus, the overall reaction takes place as a result of the formation of this insoluble salt.
The net result of the reaction is that the original ions exchange partners.
The double-replacement reaction of sodium fluoride (a soluble salt) with hydro-
chloric acid (a strong acid) illustrates the case where formation of a new weaker acid is
the driving force for the reaction.
HCl1aq2 + NaF1aq2 h NaCl1aq2 + HF1aq2
Using an analysis pattern similar to that in the previous example, we find that four
types of ions are present initially: Na + and F - (from the soluble salt) and H + and Cl -
(from the strong acid). Possible new combinations are Na + Cl - and H + F - . Sodium chlo-
ride, the result of the first combination, will not form because this salt is soluble. The
combination of H + ion with F - ion does occur because it yields the weak acid HF. In
solution, weak acids exist predominantly in molecular form. In all reactions of this gen-
eral type, the acid formed in the reaction must be weaker than the reactant acid. If the
reactant acid is strong, as in this example, such a determination is obvious. If both the
reactant and product acids are weak, information such as that given in Table 14.3 would
be needed to predict which of the two acids is the weaker.
Note that a reaction does not always occur when acid and salt solutions are mixed.
Consider the possible reaction of NaCl and HNO3 solutions. Initially, four types of ions
are present: Na + and Cl - (from the soluble salt) and H + and NO3 - (from the strong acid).
The new combinations, if a reaction did occur, would be Na + NO3 - (a soluble salt) and
H + Cl - (a strong acid). Since both the products would exist in dissociated form in solu-
tion, no recombination of ions occurs; hence, no reaction occurs.
The most common type of reaction in which the driving force is the evolution of
a gas involves a carbonate or bicarbonate salt. This type of reaction was discussed in
Section 14.7.
Reaction with Bases

The criteria for the reaction of bases with salts are similar to those for acid–salt reactions,
except that weaker base formation replaces weaker acid formation as one of the three driv-
ing forces. An example of a base–salt reaction involving the formation of an insoluble salt is
Ba1OH221aq2 + Na2SO41aq2 h BaSO41s2 + 2 NaOH1aq2
The most common situation in which gas evolution is the driving force for base–salt
reactions is where ammonium salts are involved. In such cases, ammonia gas is evolved,
as illustrated by the reaction of NH4Cl and KOH.
NH4Cl1aq2 + KOH1aq2 h KCl1aq2 + NH31g2 + H2O1l2
Reaction of Salts with Each Other

Two different salt solutions will react when mixed, in a double-replacement reaction, only
if an insoluble salt can be formed. Consider the following possible reactions:
AgNO31aq2 + NaCl1aq2 h AgCl1s2 + NaNO31aq2
KNO31aq2 + NaCl1aq2 h KCl1aq2 + NaNO31aq2

The first reaction occurs because AgCl is an insoluble salt. The second reaction does
not occur since both of the possible products are soluble salts, which means there is no
driving force for the reaction.
EXAMPLE 14.3 Predicting Whether a Reaction Will Occur and Writing an

Equation for the Reaction If It Does Occur
Write a chemical equation for the chemical reaction that occurs, if any, when 0.1 M solu-
tions of the following substances are mixed.
a. Fe1NO3 22 and K2S
b. CaCl2 and H2SO4
c. HNO3 and NaC2H3O2
SOLUTION
a. Both the reactants are soluble salts. Two different salt solutions will react when
mixed, only if an insoluble salt can be formed.
In a solution made by mixing Fe1NO3 22 and K2S, four kinds of ions are present ini-
tially (before any reaction occurs): Fe2+ and NO3 - [from the Fe1NO3 22] and K + and
S2- (from the K2S). The possible new combinations of oppositely charged ions are
Fe2+ with S2- and K + with NO3- .
Original ion combinations Possible new combinations
Fe2+ K+ Fe2+ K+
NO3−
S2−
NO3− S2−
The first one of these new combinations, the formation of FeS, is the one that will
be the driving force for the reaction to occur. FeS is an insoluble salt. The second
new combination, the formation of KNO3 does not occur because KNO3 is a soluble
salt and soluble salts exist in dissociated form in solution. The equation for the reac-
tion is
Fe1NO3 22 + K2S h FeS + 2 KNO3
b. One of the reactants, CaCl2, is a soluble salt, and the other reactant, H2SO4, is a
strong acid. Both reactants exist in solution in dissociated form; thus, four types of
ions are present in the mixed solution (before any reaction occurs): Ca2+, Cl - , H + ,
and SO4 2- . The conclusion that a reaction will occur comes from a consideration of
the possible new combinations of the reacting species.
Ca2+ H+
Ca2+ H+
Cl− SO42−
Cl− SO42−
The first one of these new combinations, the formation of CaSO4, is the driving
force for the reaction to occur; CaSO4 is an insoluble salt. The other new combina-
tion, the formation of HCl, does not occur because HCl is a strong acid and will
exist in solution in dissociated form. The equation for the reaction is
CaCl2 + H2SO4 h CaSO4 + 2 HCl
c. The reactants are a strong acid 1HNO3 2 and a soluble salt 1NaC2H3O2 2. Both are
dissociated in solution; hence, H + , NO3 - , Na + , and C2H3O2 - ions are present in the
reaction mixture (before any reaction occurs). Possible new combinations of the
reacting species are
H+ Na+ H+ Na+
C2H3O2−
NO3−
NO3− C2H3O2−
Weak acid formation is the driving force for the reaction; acetic acid 1HC2H3O2 2
forms from the combination of H + and C2H3O2 - ions. The Na + and NO3 - will
not combine because a soluble salt would be the product. The equation for the
reaction is
HNO3 + NaC2H3O2 h HC2H3O2 + NaNO3
Answer Double Check: Are the answers reasonable in terms of at least one product
being a weak acid, weak base, insoluble salt, or a gas? Yes. In part (a) the product is
FeS; all sulfides are insoluble except for groups IA and IIA and NH4 + (Table 13.4). The
product in part (b) is CaSO4 ; the insoluble sulfates are those of calcium, strontium,
barium, lead, and silver (Table 13.4). The part (c) product is HC2H3O2 (acetic acid),
which is a weak acid.
14.10 SELF-IONIZATION OF WATER

Student Learning Focus: Be able to describe the concept of self-ionization of water and be able
to use the associated concept of ion product constant for water to calculate the 3H3O + 4 and
3OH - 4 in an aqueous solution; be able to tell whether a solution is acidic, basic, or neutral when
given its 3H3O + 4 or 3OH - 4.
Although we usually think of water as a molecular (covalent) substance, experiments

show that a small percentage of water molecules in pure water interact with one another
to form ions, a process that is called self-ionization. This interaction can be thought of as
a Brønsted–Lowry acid–base reaction (Sec. 14.2) involving the transfer of a proton from
one water molecule to another (see Figure 14.3):
H2O + H2O h H3O + + OH -
or simply as the formation of ions from a single water molecule (Arrhenius theory;
Sec. 14.1):
The amount of H +
H2O 1HOH2 h H + + OH - ion present in water
From either viewpoint, the net result is the formation of equal amounts of hydronium 11.00 * 10-7M2 is a
very small amount. If
(hydrogen) ion and hydroxide ion. one molecule (or ion)
The dissociation of water molecules is part of an equilibrium situation. Individual was removed from a
water molecules are continually dissociating. This process is balanced by hydroxide and liter of water, examined,
hydronium ions recombining to form water at the same rate. At equilibrium, at 24⬚C, the and then returned every
H3O + and OH - ion concentrations are each 1.00 * 10-7 M (0.000000100 M). This very second for an extended
period of time, how often
very small concentration is equivalent to there being one H3O + and one OH - ion present would an H + ion be
for every 550,000,000 undissociated water molecules. Even though the H3O + and OH - encountered? The answer
ion concentrations are very minute, they are important, as we shall shortly see. is once every 17.4 years.
FIGURE 14.3
H H H − Brønsted–Lowry acid–
base reaction between
+ two water molecules to
produce hydronium ion
O + O O H + O
and hydroxide ion.
H H H H
Water Water Hydronium ion Hydroxide ion
H2O H2O H3O+ OH−
Ion Product Constant for Water

Experimentally, it is found that at any given temperature, the product of the concentra-
tions of H3O + ion and OH - ion in water is a constant. We can calculate the value of this
constant at 24⬚C because we know that the concentration of each ion is 1.00 * 10-7 M at
this temperature.
[H3O + ] * [OH - ] = constant
11.00 * 10-7 2 * 11.00 * 10-7 2 = 1.00 * 10-14
Ion product constant for water is the numerical value 11.00 * 10-14 2 associated
with the product of the H3O + ion and OH - ion molar concentrations in water at 248C.
Note that the ion concentrations must be expressed in moles per liter (M) in order to
obtain the value 1.00 * 10-14 for the ion product for water. The general expression for
the ion product constant for water is
[H3O + ] * [OH - ] = ion product constant for water = 1.00 * 10-14
The brackets [ ] specifically denote ion concentration in moles per liter. The symbol Kw,
where K stands for a constant and w stands for water, is used as a designation for the
value 1.00 * 10-14.
Effect of Solutes on Water Self-Ionization

The water self-ionization process occurs not only in pure water but also in any aqueous
solution. The solute(s) present in an aqueous solution can cause the [H3O + ] and [OH - ]
values to not be equal. However, whatever they are, their product will still be equal to Kw.
Solutes do not alter the value of Kw.
If the [H3O + ] is increased by addition of an acidic solute, the [OH - ] must decrease
until the expression
[H3O + ] * [OH - ] = 1.00 * 10-14
is satisfied. Similarly, if OH - ions are added to the water, the [H3O + ] must corre-
spondingly decrease. The extent of the decrease in [H3O + ] or [OH - ] as the result of
the addition of a quantity of the other ion, is easily calculated using the ion product
expression.
If we know the concentration of the other ion, we can calculate the concentration
of either [H3O + ] or [OH - ] present in an aqueous solution by simply rearranging the ion
product expression.
1.00 * 10-14 1.00 * 10-14
[H3O + ] = - or [OH - ] =
[OH ] [H3O + ]
EXAMPLE 14.4 Calculating the Hydroxide Ion Concentration of a Solution

with a Known Hydronium Ion Concentration
Sufficient acidic solute is added to a quantity of water to produce [H3O + ] = 7.50 * 10-5.
What is the [OH - ] in this solution?
SOLUTION
The [OH - ] can be calculated using the ion product constant expression for water. Solving
this expression for [OH - ] gives
1.00 * 10-14
[OH - ] =
[H3O + ]
Substituting into this expression the known [H3O + ] and doing the arithmetic gives
1.00 * 10-14
[OH - ] = = 1.3333333 * 10-10 1calculator answer2
7.50 * 10-5
= 1.33 * 10-10 1correct answer2
Answer Double Check: The product of the [OH - ] and [H3O + ] for any aqueous solu-
tion should be 1.00 * 10-14 M. Is the calculated answer consistent with this generaliza-
tion? Yes. The calculated [OH - ], 1.33 * 10-10 M, times the given [H3O + ], 7.50 * 10-5 M, is
equal to 1.00 * 10-14 M, when rounding errors are taken into account.
The relationship between [H3O + ] and [OH - ] is that of an inverse proportion; Neither [H3O + ] nor
when one increases, the other decreases. If [H3O + ] increases by a factor of 102, the [OH - ] is ever zero in an
[OH - ] decreases by the same factor, 102. A graphical portrayal of this increase–decrease aqueous solution.
relationship for [H3O + ] and [OH - ] is given in Figure 14.4.
Effect of Temperature Change on Water Self-Ionization

Although the value of Kw does not change when a solute is added to water, its value
is temperature-dependent. The Kw value 1.0 * 10-14 used in the preceding discussion
is that for a temperature of 24⬚C. As temperature increases, Kw values increase slightly,
and conversely Kw values decrease slightly with temperature decrease. At 37⬚C, average
human body temperature, the value of Kw is of 2.6 * 10-14. The [H3O + ] and [OH - ] in
pure water at this temperature are 1.6 * 10-7 M rather than 1.0 * 10-7 M 124⬚C2.
[1.6 * 10-7] * [1.6 * 10-7] = 2.6 * 10-14

[H3O + ] [OH - ] Kw
Unless otherwise indicated, we will always assume a temperature of 24⬚C in

problem-solving situations.
[H3O]+ [OH−] [H3O]+ [OH−] [H3O]+ [OH−]

10 −14 10 −14 10 −14 10 −14 10 −14 10 −14
10 −13 10 −13 10 −13 10 −13 10 −13 10 −13
Neutral solution Acidic solution Basic solution
10 −12 10 −12 10 −12 10 −12 10 −12 10 −12
10 −11 10 −11 10 −11 10 −11 10 −11 10 −11
OH− H 3O +
10 −10 10 −10 10 −10 10 −10 10 −10 10 −10
10 −9 10 −9 10 −9 Acid added 10 −9 10 −9 Base added 10 −9
10 −8 H3O+ OH− 10 −8 10 −8 10 −8 10 −8 10 −8
10 −7 10 −7 10 −7 10 −7 10 −7 OH− 10 −7
10 −6 10 −6 10 −6 H 3O + 10 −6 10 −6 10 −6
10 −5 10 −5 10 −5 10 −5 10 −5 10 −5
10 −4 10 −4 10 −4 10 −4 10 −4 10 −4
10 −3 10 −3 10 −3 10 −3 10 −3 10 −3
10 −2 10 −2 10 −2 10 −2 10 −2 10 −2
10 −1 10 −1 10 −1 10 −1 10 −1 10 −1
100 100 100 100 100 100
(a) (b) (c)

In pure water the concentration of If [H3O+] is increased by a factor of If [OH−] is increased by a factor of 105
hydronium ions, [H3O+], and that of 105 (from 10 −7 M to 10 −2 M), then (from 10 −7 M to 10 −2 M), then [H3O+]
hydroxide ions, [OH−], are equal. [OH−] is decreased by a factor of 105 is decreased by a factor of 105 (from
Both are 1.00 × 10 −7 M at 24°C. (from 10 −7 M to 10 −12 M). 10 −7 M to 10 −12 M).
FIGURE 14.4 The relationship between [H3O + ] and [OH - ] in an aqueous solution is an inverse
proportion; when [H3O + ] is increased, [OH - ] decreases, and vice versa.
Acidic, Basic, and Neutral Solutions

Acidic solutions contain Small amounts of both H3O + ion and OH - ion are present in all aqueous solutions. What,
both H3O + and OH - then, determines whether a given solution is acidic or basic? It is the relative amounts
ions. Basic solutions
of these two ions present. An acidic solution is a solution in which the concentration
contain both H3O + and
OH - ions. The acidic of H3O + ion is greater than that of OH - ion. Acids are substances that, when added to
or basic classification is water, increase the concentration of H3O + ion. A basic solution is a solution in which
determined by which the concentration of OH - ion is greater than that of H3O + ion. Bases are substances that,
ion is present in the when added to water, increase the concentration of OH - ion. A neutral solution is a
greater amount. In
solution in which the concentrations of H3O + and OH - ions are equal. Figure 14.5 sum-
acidic solutions, the
concentration of H3O + marizes the relationships between [H3O + ] and [OH - ] that we have just considered.
ion is greater than the
concentration of OH -
ion. In a basic solution 14.11 THE pH SCALE
the opposite is true.
Student Learning Focus: Be able to calculate the pH of a solution given 3H3O + 4 and/or 3OH - 4 or
vice versa, and, based on pH, tell whether a solution is acidic, basic, or neutral.
Hydronium ion concentrations in aqueous solutions range from relatively high values
(10 M) to extremely small ones 110-14 M2. It is inconvenient to work with numbers that
extend over such a wide range; a hydronium ion concentration of 10 M is 1000 trillion
times larger than a hydronium ion concentration of 10-14 M. The pH scale, proposed by
the Danish chemist Sören Peter Lauritz Sörensen (1868–1939) in 1909, is a more practical
way to handle such a wide range of numbers. The pH scale is a scale of small numbers
that is used to specify molar hydronium ion concentration in an aqueous solution.
The calculation of pH scale values involves the use of logarithms. The pH of a
solution is the negative logarithm of the solution’s molar hydronium ion concentration.
Expressed mathematically, the definition of pH is
pH = -log [H3O + ]
Logarithms are simply exponents. The common logarithm, abbreviated log, which
is the type of logarithm used in the definition of pH, is based on powers of 10. For a
number expressed in scientific notation that has a coefficient of 1, the log of that number is
the value of the exponent. For instance, the log of 1 * 10-8 is –8.0, and the log of 1 * 106
is 6.0. Table 14.7 gives more examples of the relationship between powers of 10 and
logarithmic values for numbers in scientific notation whose coefficients are 1. Note from
this table that log values may be either positive or negative depending on the sign of the
exponent. (How we determine significant figures in logarithmic calculations is discussed
later in this section.)
FIGURE 14.5 Relative

molar concentrations of
H3O + and OH - ions at
Greater than
24⬚C in acidic, neutral,
1.0 × 10 −7 M H3O
+
OH−
Concentration
and basic solutions.

H3O+ OH−
1.0 × 10 −7 M
OH− H3O+
Less than
1.0 × 10 −7 M
Acidic Neutral Basic

solution solution solution
TABLE 14.7 Logarithm Values for Selected Numbers
Number Expressed as a
Number Power of 10 Common Logarithm
10,000 1 * 10 4 4.0
1,000 1 * 10 3 3.0
100 1 * 10 2 2.0
10 1 * 101 1.0
1 1 * 100 0.0
0.1 1 * 10-1 -1.0
0.01 1 * 10-2 -2.0
0.001 1 * 10 -3 -3.0
0.0001 1 * 10 -4 -4.0
Integral pH Values
It is easy to calculate the pH value for a solution when the molar hydronium ion
concentration is simply a power of 10, for example, 1 * 10-4. In this situation the pH is
given directly by the negative of the exponent value on the power of 10.
[H3O + ] = 1 * 10-x
pH = x
Thus, if the hydronium ion concentration is 1 * 10-9 the pH will be 9.0.
This simple relationship between pH and power of 10 is obtained from the formal
definition of pH as follows.
pH = -log [H3O + ]
= -log [1 * 10-x ]
= -1-x2
= x
The p in pH comes from
Again, it should be noted that this simple relationship is valid only when the coefficient in the the German word potenz,
exponential expression for the hydronium ion concentration is 1. How the pH is calculated which means “power,” as
when the coefficient is a number other than one will be covered later in this section. in “power of 10.”
EXAMPLE 14.5 Calculating the pH of a Solution when Given Its

Hydronium Ion or Hydroxide Ion Concentration
Calculate the pH of solutions with the following hydronium ion or hydroxide ion
concentrations.
a. [H3O + ] = 1 * 10-3
b. [H3O + ] = 1 * 10-9
c. [OH - ] = 1 * 10-4
SOLUTION
a. Let us use the formal definition of pH in obtaining this first pH value.

pH = -log [H3O + ]
This expression indicates that to obtain a pH, we must first take the logarithm of the
molar hydronium ion concentration and then change the sign of that logarithm.
The logarithm of 1 * 10-3 is –3.0. Thus, we have
pH = -log 11 * 10-3 2
= -1-3.02
= 3.0
b. Let us use the shorter, more direct way for obtaining pH this time, the method based
on the relationship
[H3O + ] = 1 * 10-x
pH = x
Because the power of 10 is -9 in this case, the pH will be 9.0.
c. The given quantity involves hydroxide ion rather than hydronium ion. Thus, we
A formal discussion of must first calculate the hydronium ion concentration, and then the pH.
significant figure rules as
they apply to logarithms 1.00 * 10-14 1.00 * 10-14
[H3O + ] = =
is presented later in this [OH - ] 1 * 10-4
section.
= 1 * 10-10 1calculator and correct answer2

A solution with a hydronium ion concentration of 1 * 10-10 M will have a pH of 10.0.
The pH of a neutral Because pH is simply another way of expressing hydronium ion concentration,
solution at 37⬚C is acidic, neutral, and basic solutions can be identified by their pH values. At 24⬚C, a neutral
6.80 rather than the solution 1[H3O + = 1.0 * 10-7 2 has a pH of 7.00. At 24⬚C, values of pH less than 7.00
7.00 observed at 24⬚C.
This is the result of Kw
correspond to acidic solutions. The lower the pH value, the greater the acidity. At 24⬚C,
values differing at the values of pH greater than 7.00 represent basic solutions. The higher the pH value, the
two temperatures (Sec. greater the basicity. The relationships between [H3O + ], [OH - ], and pH are summarized
14.11). Both solutions in Table 14.8. Note that a change of one unit in pH corresponds to a tenfold increase or
are, however, neutral decrease in [H3O + ]. Also note that lowering the pH always corresponds to increasing the
solutions because in both
solutions the hydronium
H3O + ion concentration.
and hydroxide ion Table 14.9 lists the pH values of a number of common substances. Except for gastric
concentrations are equal. juice, most human body fluids have pH values within a couple of units of neutrality.
Almost all foods are acidic. Tart taste is associated with foods having a low pH.
Nonintegral pH Values
Note that some of the pH values in Table 14.9 are nonintegral, that is, not whole numbers.
Nonintegral pH values result from molar hydronium ion concentrations where the coefficient
in the exponential expression for concentration has a value other than 1. For example, consider
the following matchups between hydronium ion concentration and pH:
[H3O + ] = 6.3 * 10-5 pH = 4.20

[H3O + ] = 4.0 * 10-5 pH = 4.40
[H3O + ] = 2.0 * 10-5 pH = 4.70
Obtaining nonintegral pH values like these from hydronium ion concentrations

requires an electronic calculator that allows for the input of exponential numbers and has
a base 10 logarithm key (log).
TABLE 14.8 The pH Scale
pH [H3O ⴙ ] [OH ⴚ ]
0.0 100 10-14 c
1.0 10-1 10-13

2.0 10-2 10-12
3.0 10-3 10-11 Acidic
4.0 -4 -10
10 10
5.0 10-5 10-9
6.0 10-6 10-8
7.0 10-7 10-7 Neutral
8.0 -8 -6
10 10
-9
9.0 10 10-5
10.0 10-10 10-4
11.0 10-11 10-3 Basic
12.0 10-12 10-2
13.0 10-13 10-1
14.0 10-14 100 c
TABLE 14.9 Approximate pH Values of Some Common Substances
pH
c 0 1 M HCl (0.0)
1 0.1 M HCl (1.0), gastric juice (1.6–1.8), lime juice (1.8–2.0)
2 soft drinks (2.0–4.0), vinegar (2.4–3.4)
Acidic 3 grapefruit (3.0–3.3), peaches (3.4–3.6)
4 tomatoes (4.0–4.4), human urine (4.8–8.4)
5 carrots (4.9–5.3), peas (5.8–6.4)
6 human saliva (6.2–7.4), cow’s milk (6.3–6.6), drinking water (6.5–8.0)
Neutral 7 pure water (7.0), human blood (7.35–7.45), fresh eggs (7.6–8.0)
8 seawater (8.3), soaps, shampoos (8.0–9.0)
9 detergents (9.0–10.0)
10 milk of magnesia (9.9–10.1)
Basic 11 household ammonia (11.5–12.0)
12 liquid bleach (12.0)
13 0.1 M NaOH (13.0)
c 14 1 M NaOH (14.0)
In using an electronic calculator, depending on the model you have, you can obtain
logarithm values simply by pressing the log key after having entered the number whose
log value is desired, or vice versa. For pH, you must remember that after obtaining the
log value, you must change its sign because of the negative sign in the defining equation
for pH.
Significant figure considerations for log values involve a concept not previously
encountered. It can best be illustrated by considering some actual log values. Consider
the following five related numbers and their log values.
Number Logarithm
2.43 * 100 0.38560627
2.43 * 10 2 2.38560627
2.43 * 104 4.38560627
2.43 * 107 7.38560627
2.43 * 1011 11.38560627
This tabulation shows that
1. The number to the left of the decimal point in each logarithm (called the charac-
teristic) is related only to the exponent of 10 in the number whose logarithm was
taken.
2. The number to the right of the decimal point in each logarithm (called the man-
tissa) is related only to the coefficient in the exponential notation form of the num-
ber. Because the coefficient is 2.43 in each case, the mantissas are all the same
(0.38560627).
Combining generalizations (1) and (2) gives us the significant figure rule for
logarithms. In a logarithm, the digits to the left of the decimal point are not counted
as significant figures. These digits relate to the placement of the decimal point in
the number. From our previous significant figure work (Sec. 2.5), they are some-
what analogous to the leading zeros (which are not significant) in a number such as
0.0000243.
Thus, the coefficient of the number whose logarithm has been taken and the man-
tissa of the logarithm should have the same number of digits. Rewriting the previous
tabulation of logarithms to the correct number of significant figures gives
2.43 * 100 0.386

2.43 * 102 2.386
2.43 * 104 4.386
2.43 * 107 7.386
2.43 *
()* 1011 11.386
()*
3 digits 3 digits
Now we can understand the following number–logarithm relationships that were

given, without explanation, earlier in this section.
log 11 * 10-4 2 = -4.0
log 11.0 * 10-9 2 = -9.00
The first exponential number has one significant figure, and the second exponential
number has two significant figures.
EXAMPLE 14.6 Calculating the pH of a Solution Given Its Hydronium Ion

Concentration
Calculate the pH of a solution with [H3O + ] = 3.9 * 10-5.
SOLUTION
With an electronic calculator, we first enter the number 3.9 * 10-5. We then use the log The pH of concentrated
key to obtain the logarithm value, -4.4089353. (With some calculators, the log key is acid solutions can be
pressed before entering the number.) negative. A solution
with a hydronium
pH = -log 13.9 * 10-5 2 ion concentration of
1.0 M 11.0 * 100M2
= -1-4.40893532
has a pH of 0.00, a
= 4.4089353 1calculator answer2 2.0 M solution has a
pH of - 0.30, and a
10.0 M 11.00 * 101M2
The given hydronium ion concentration has two significant figures. Therefore, the loga- acidic solution has
rithm should have two significant figures, as 4.41 does. In a logarithm, only the digits to a pH of - 1.00. Most
pH calculations deal
the right of the decimal place are considered significant. with hydronium ion
concentrations that are
Answer Double Check: Is the magnitude of the numerical answer reasonable? Yes. A smaller than 1.0 M; for
solution with a hydronium ion concentration of 1.0 * 10-5 M would have a pH of 5.00. such solutions, the pH is
The given hydronium ion concentration of 3.9 * 10-5 is slightly larger than this value, always positive.
and thus the pH will have a value that is less than 5.00; as hydronium ion concentration
increases, the pH value decreases. The answer 4.41 is reasonable. All hydronium ion
concentrations where the power of 10 is 10-5 will have pH values between 4.0 and 5.0.
It is frequently necessary to calculate the hydronium ion concentration for a solution

from its pH value. This type of calculation, which is the reverse of that just illustrated, is
shown in Example 14.7.
EXAMPLE 14.7 Calculating the Molar Hydronium Ion Concentration of a

Solution from the Solution’s pH
The pH of a solution is 5.70. What is the molar hydronium ion concentration for this solution?
SOLUTION
Because the pH is between 5.00 and 6.00, we know immediately that [H3O + ] will be be-
tween 10-5 and 10-6 M. From the defining equation for pH, we have
[pH] = -log [H3O + ] = 5.70
log [H3O + ] = -5.70
To find [H3O + ] we need to determine the antilog of –5.70.
How an antilog is obtained using a calculator depends on the type of calculator you
have. Many calculators have an antilog function (sometimes labed INV log) that performs
this operation. If this key is present, then
1. Enter the number -5.70. Note that it is the negative of the pH that is entered into
the calculator.
2. Press the INV log key (or an inverse key and then a log key). The result is the
desired hydronium ion concentration.
log [H3O + ] = -5.70

antilog [H3O + ] = 1.9952623 * 10-6 1calculator answer2
[H3O + ] = 2.0 * 10-6 1correct answer2
(With some calculators, step 2 and step 1 are reversed.) Remember that the original
pH value was a two-significant-figure pH.
Some calculators use a 10x key to perform the antilog operation. Use of this key is
based on the mathematical identity
antilog X = 10x
For our case, this means
antilog -5.70 = 10-5.70
If the 10x key is present, then
1. Enter the number -5.70 (the negative of the pH).
2. Press the function key 10x . The result is the desired hydronium ion concentration.
[H3O + ] = 10-5.70 = 1.9952623 * 10-6 1calculator answer2

-6
For a pH value between 5.00 and 6.00, the hydronim ion concentration will always
be between 1.0 * 10-5 M and 1.0 * 10-6 M. The answer, 2.0 * 10-6 M, falls within
this range.
14.12 HYDROLYSIS OF SALTS

Student Learning Focus: Be able to predict whether or not a given salt will hydrolyze in aqueous
solution and whether an acidic or basic solution is produced if the salt hydrolyzes; be able to write
chemical equations for salt hydrolysis reactions.
The addition of an acid to water produces an acidic solution. The addition of a base to
water produces a basic solution. What type of solution is produced when a salt is added
to water? Since salts are the products of acid–base neutralizations, a logical supposition
would be that salts dissolve in water to produce neutral 1pH = 7.02 solutions. Such is the
case for a few salts. Aqueous solutions of most salts, however, are either acidic or basic,
rather than neutral. Let us consider why this is so.
When a salt is dissolved in water, it completely dissociates; that is, it com-
pletely breaks up into the ions of which it is composed (Sec. 13.3). For many salts,
one or more of the ions so produced is reactive toward water. The ensuing reaction,
which is called hydrolysis, causes the solution to have a nonneutral pH. Hydrolysis
is the reaction of a substance with water to produce hydronium ions or hydroxide
ions or both.
Types of Salt Hydrolysis

Not all salts hydrolyze. Which ones do, and which ones do not? Of those salts that do
hydrolyze, which ones produce acidic solutions and which ones produce basic solutions?
The following guidelines, based on the neutralization “parentage” of a salt, that is, on the
acid and base that will produce the salt through neutralization, can be used to answer
these questions.
1. The salt of a strong acid and a strong base does not hydrolyze, and therefore its
aqueous solution is neutral.
2. The salt of a strong acid and a weak base hydrolyzes to produce an acidic
solution.
3. The salt of a weak acid and a strong base hydrolyzes to produce a basic solution.
4. The salt of a weak acid and a weak base hydrolyzes to produce a slightly acidic,
neutral, or slightly basic solution, depending on the relative weaknesses of the acid
and base.
The first prerequisite for using these guidelines is the ability to classify a salt into
one of the four categories mentioned in the guidelines. This classification is accomplished
by writing the neutralization equation (Sec. 14.7) that produces the salt and then specify-
ing the strength (strong or weak) of the involved acid and base. The “parent” acid and
base for the salt are identified by pairing the negative ion of the salt with H + (to form the
acid) and pairing the positive ion of the salt with OH - (to form the base). The following
two equations illustrate the overall procedure.
NaOH + HCl H2O + NaCl

Strong base Strong acid Strong acid–strong base salt
KOH + HCN H2O + KCN

Strong base Weak acid Weak acid–strong base salt
Note that knowledge of which acids and bases are strong and which are weak (Sec. 14.5)
is a necessary part of the classification process. Once the salt has been classified, the
guideline that is appropriate for the situation is easily selected.
Table 14.10 summarizes the concepts of this section to this point in our discussion.
TABLE 14.10 Neutralization Parentage of Salts and the Nature of the Aqueous
Solutions They Form
Type of Salt Nature of Aqueous Solution Examples

Strong acid–strong base neutral NaCl, KBr
Strong acid–weak base acidic NH4Cl, NH4NO3
Weak acid–strong base basic NaC2H3O2, K2CO3
Weak acid–weak base depends on the salt NH4C2H3O2, NH4NO2
EXAMPLE 14.8 Predicting Whether a Salt’s Aqueous Solution Will Be

Acidic, Basic, or Neutral
Determine the acid–base parentage of each of the following salts, and then use this infor-
mation to predict whether each salt’s aqueous solution is acidic, basic, or neutral.
a. sodium acetate, NaC2H3O2 b. ammonium chloride, NH4Cl
c. potassium chloride, KCl d. ammonium fluoride, NH4F
SOLUTION
a. The ions present are Na + and C2H3O2 - . The “parent” base of Na + is NaOH, a strong
base. The parent acid of C2H3O2 - is HC2H3O2, a weak acid. Thus, the acid–base
neutralization that produces this salt is
NaOH + HC2H3O2 h H2O + NaC2H3O

Strong base Weak acid Weak acid9strong base salt
The solution of a weak acid–strong base salt (guideline 3) produces a basic solution.
b. The ions present are NH4 + and Cl - . The parent base of NH4 + is NH3, a weak base.
The parent acid of Cl - is HCl, a strong acid. This parentage will produce a strong
acid–weak base salt through neutralization. Such a salt gives an acidic solution upon
hydrolysis (guideline 2).
c. The ions present are K + and Cl - . The parent base is KOH (a strong base) and the
parent acid is HCl (a strong acid). The salt produced from neutralization involving
this acid–base pair will be a strong acid–strong base salt. Such salts do not hydro-
lyze. The aqueous solution is neutral (guideline 1).
d. The ions present are NH4 + and F - . Both ions are of weak parentage; NH3 is a weak
base and HF is a weak acid. Thus, NH4F is a weak acid–weak base salt. This is a
guideline 4 situation. In this situation you cannot predict the effect of hydrolysis un-
less you know the relative strengths of the weak acid and weak base, that is, which
is the weaker of the two. Guidelines to determine such information are not given in
this text and thus we cannot predict the final acidity of the solution.
Chemical Equations for Salt Hydrolysis Reactions

Salt hydrolysis reactions are Brønsted–Lowry acid–base (proton transfer) reactions
(Sec. 14.2). Such reactions are of the following two general types:
1. Basic hydrolysis: The reaction of the negative ion from a salt with water to produce
the ion’s conjugate acid and hydroxide ion. Examples of such reactions are
Conjugate acid–base pair
CN− + H2O HCN + OH−

Proton Proton Weak Makes
acceptor donor acid solution basic
F − + H2O HF + OH−
acceptor donor acid solution basic
The only negative ions that undergo hydrolysis are those of “weak acid parentage.”
The driving force for the reaction is the formation of the weak acid.
2. Acidic hydrolysis: The reaction of the positive ion from a salt with water to produce
the ion’s conjugate base and hydronium ion. The most common ion to undergo this
type of reaction is the NH4 + ion.
NH4+ + H2O NH3 + H3O+

donor acceptor base solution acidic
The only positive ions that undergo hydrolysis are those of “weak base parentage.”
The driving force for the reaction is the formation of the weak base.
EXAMPLE 14.9 Writing Chemical Equations for Hydrolysis Reactions
For each of the following salts, identify the ion or ions present that will hydrolyze and
then write Brønsted–Lowry acid-base equations for hydrolysis reactions that occur.
a. sodium fluoride, NaF
b. potassium bromide, KBr
c. ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3
d. ammonium cyanide, NH4CN
SOLUTION
a. The ions produced when NaF dissolves are Na + and F - . The Na + ion will not hy-
drolyze since its parent base, NaOH, is strong. The F - ion will hydrolyze since its
parent acid, HF, is weak. The equation for the hydrolysis reaction is
F - + H2O h HF + OH -
The product OH - causes the solution to be basic.
b. Dissolution of KBr in water produces K + and Br - ions. Neither of these ions will Water functions as
hydrolyze. The parent base of K + is KOH (strong) and the parent acid of Br - is HBr Brønsted–Lowry acid
when a negative ion
(strong).
hydrolyzes. Conversely,
c. This salt ionizes to produce NH4 + and NO3 - ions. The NH4 + ion is associated with water functions as a
the weak base NH3, and the NO3 - ion is associated with the strong acid HNO3. The Brønsted–Lowry base
NH4 + ion will hydrolyze; the NO3 - ions will not. The hydrolysis reaction, which when a positive ion
produces an acidic solution 1H3O + 2, is hydrolyzes.
NH4 + + H2O h NH3 + H3O +

d. Both the NH4 + ion (from the weak base NH3) and the CN - ion (from the weak acid
HCN) will hydrolyze.
NH4 + + H2O h NH3 + H3O +
CN - + H2O h HCN + OH -
The pH of the solution will be determined by the reaction that occurs to the greater
extent. If the first reaction occurs to the greater extent, the solution will be acidic;
conversely, if the second reaction is dominant, a basic solution results. (In this
course you are not expected to be able to make such a determination that involves
comparison of the relative acid and base strengths of HCN and NH3. For the record,
the CN - hydrolysis dominates and the solution is basic.)
TABLE 14.11 pH Values of Selected 0.1 M Aqueous Salt Solutions at 24⬚C

Name of Salt Formula of Salt pH Category of Salt
Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3 5.1 strong acid–weak base
Ammonium nitrite NH4NO2 6.3 weak acid–weak base
Ammonium acetate NH4C2H3O2 7.0 weak acid–weak base
Sodium chloride NaCI 7.0 strong acid–strong base
Sodium fluoride NaF 8.1 weak acid–strong base
Sodium acetate NaC2H3O2 8.9 weak acid–strong base
Ammonium cyanide NH4CN 9.3 weak acid–weak base
Sodium cyanide NaCN 11.1 weak acid–strong base
The pH change that accompanies salt hydrolysis can be significant—differing from

neutrality by 2 to 4 units. Table 14.11 shows the range of pH values encountered for
selected 0.1 M aqueous salt solutions after hydrolysis has occurred.
14.13 BUFFERS
Student Learning Focus: Be able to predict whether a given pair of substances can function as a
buffer and be able to write chemical equations describing buffering action.
A buffer is a solution that resists major changes in pH when small amounts of acid or
base are added to it. Buffers are used in a laboratory setting to maintain optimum pH
conditions for chemical reactions. Many commercial products contain buffers. Examples
include buffered aspirin (Bufferin) and pH-controlled hair shampoos. Naturally occurring
biochemical buffers are a necessary aspect of life processes. Most human body fluids are
buffer solutions. For example, a buffer system maintains blood’s pH at a value close to
7.4, an optimum pH for oxygen transport through the blood.
A less common type of Buffers contain two chemical species: (1) a substance to react with and remove
buffer involves a weak added base, and (2) a substance to react with and remove added acid. Typically, a buffer
base and its conjugate
system is composed of a weak acid and its conjugate base—that is, a conjugate acid–
acid. We will not consider
this type of buffer here. base pair (Section 14.3). Conjugate acid–base pairs commonly used as buffers include
HC2H3O2/C2H3O2 - , H2PO4 - >HPO4 2- , and H2CO3 >HCO3 - .
EXAMPLE 14.10 Recognizing Pairs of Chemical Substances that Can

Function as a Buffer in an Aqueous Solution
Predict whether or not each of the following pairs of substances could function as a
buffer system in an aqueous solution.
a. HCl and NaCl
b. HCN and KCN
c. HCl and HCN
d. NaCN and KCN
SOLUTION
Buffer solutions contain either a weak acid and a salt of that weak acid or a weak base and
a salt of that weak base. The salt supplies the conjugate base of the acid or the conjugate
acid of the base.
a. No. We have an acid and a salt of that acid. However, the acid is a strong acid rather
than a weak acid.
b. Yes. HCN is a weak acid, and KCN is a salt of that weak acid. The conjugate acid–
base pair HCN>CN - is present.
c. No. Both HCl and HCN are acids. No salt is present.
d. No. Both NaCN and KCN are salts. No weak acid is present.
Answer Double Check: Are the answers reasonable? Yes. One of the substances present
in a buffer must be a weak acid or a weak base. None of the four pairs contains a weak
base. Only one of the four pairs contains a weak acid; in part (b) HCN is the weak acid.
Thus, part (b) is the only combination where a buffer is produced. Since the “partner
species” for HCN is KCN, a salt that can be produced from HCN, this combination can
function as a buffer.
Chemical Equations for Buffer Action

As an illustration of buffer action, consider a buffer solution containing approximately
equal concentrations of acetic acid (a weak acid) and sodium acetate (a salt of this weak
acid). This buffer solution resists pH change by the following mechanisms.
1. When a small amount of a strong acid such as HCl is added to this buffer solution,
the newly added H3O + ions react with the acetate ions from the sodium acetate to
give acetic acid.
H3O + + C2H3O2 - h HC2H3O2 + H2O
Most of the added H3O + ions are incorporated into acetic acid molecules, and the
pH changes very little.
2. When a small amount of a strong base such as NaOH is added to this buffer solu-
tion, the newly added OH - ions react with the acetic acid (neutralization) to give
acetate ions and water.
OH - + HC2H3O2 h C2H3O2 - + H2O
Most of the added OH - ions are converted to water, and the pH changes only
slightly.
The reactions that are responsible for the buffering action in the acetic acid/acetate
ion system can be summarized as follows:
H3O +
C2 H 3 O 2 - m-
HC2H3O2
OH
Note that one member of the buffer pair (acetate ion) removes excess H3O + ion and that
the other (acetic acid) removes excess OH - ion. The buffering action always results in the
active species being converted into its partner species.
EXAMPLE 14.11 Writing Equations for Reactions that Occur in a

Buffered Solution
Write a chemical equation for each of the following buffering actions.
a. The response of H2PO4 - >HPO42- buffer to the addition of H3O + ions
b. The response of HCN>CN - buffer to the addition of OH - ions
SOLUTION
a. The base in a conjugate acid–base pair is the species that responds to the addition
of acid. (Recall, from Section 14.3, that the base in a conjugate acid–base pair always
has one fewer hydrogens than the acid.) The base for this reaction is HPO4 2- . The
equation for the buffering action is
H3O + + HPO4 2- h H2PO4 - + H2O
In the buffering response, the base is always converted into its conjugate acid.
b. The acid in a conjugate acid–base pair is the species that responds to the addition
of base. The acid for this reaction is HCN. The equation for the buffering action is
OH - + HCN h CN - + H2O
Water will always be one of the products of the buffering action in an aqueous solution.
Answer Double Check: Are the two equations correct in terms of appropriate reactants?
Yes. In part (a), it is the base of the conjugate acid–base pair 1HPO4 2- 2 that should
respond to the addition of acid. In part (b), it is the acid of the acid–base pair (HCN) that
should respond to the addition of base.
A false notion about buffers is that they will hold the pH of a solution absolutely
constant. The addition of even small amounts of a strong acid or a strong base to any
solution, buffered or not, will lead to a change in pH. The important concept is that the
change in pH will be much less when a buffer is present than in an unbuffered solution
(see Table 14.12).
Buffer systems have their limits. If large amounts of H3O + or OH - ions are added to
a buffer, the buffer capacity can be exceeded; then the buffer system is overwhelmed and
the pH changes. For example, if large amounts of H3O + were added to the acetate/acetic
acid buffer previously discussed, the H3O + ion would react with the acetate ion until the
acetate ion was depleted. Then the pH would begin to decrease rapidly as free H3O + ions
accumulated in the solution.
A common misconception about buffers is that the starting pH of a buffered solu-
tion is always 7.0 (a neutral solution). This is false. Buffer solutions can be made for any
desired pH. A pH 7.4 buffer will hold the pH of the solution near pH 7.4, whereas a pH
9.3 buffer will tend to hold the pH of a solution near pH 9.3. The starting pH of a buffer
is determined by the degree of weakness of the weak acid used and by the concentration
of the acid and its conjugate base.
TABLE 14.12 A Comparison of pH Changes in Buffered and Unbuffered Solutions

Unbuffered solution
1 liter water pH = 7.0
1 liter water + 0.01 mole strong base (NaOH) pH = 12.0
1 liter water + 0.01 mole strong acid (HCl) pH = 2.0
Buffered solution
1 liter buffer* pH = 7.2
1 liter buffer* + 0.01 mole strong base (NaOH) pH = 7.3
1 liter buffer* + 0.01 mole strong acid (HCl) pH = 7.1
-
*Buffer = 0.1 M HPO4 2-
+ 0.1 M H2PO4
14.14 ACID–BASE TITRATIONS

Student Learning Focus: Be able to calculate the molarity of an acid solution or base solution using
titration data.
Determining the concentration of acid or base in a solution is a regular activity in many

laboratories. The concentration of acid or base in a solution and the solution’s pH are two
different entities. The pH of a solution gives information about the concentration of hydro-
gen (hydronium) ions in solution. Only dissociated molecules influence the pH value. The
concentration of an acidic or a basic solution gives information about the total number of
acid or base molecules present; both dissociated and undissociated molecules are counted.
The procedure most frequently used to determine the concentration of an acidic or
basic solution is an acid–base titration. An acid–base titration is a procedure in which
a measured volume of acid or base of known concentration is exactly reacted with a mea-
sured volume of a base or an acid of unknown concentration.
How is the concentration of an acid solution determined by means of titration? First,
a known volume of acid solution is placed into a beaker or flask. Next, a solution of base
of known concentration is slowly added to the beaker or flask by means of a buret (see
Fig. 14.6). Base addition is continued until all of the acid has completely reacted with
the base. The volume of base added to reach the “endpoint” is obtained from the markings
on the buret. Knowing (1) the original volume of acid, (2) the concentration of the base,
and (3) the volume of added base, the concentration of the acid can be calculated in a
manner that will be shown in Example 14.12.
To complete a titration successfully, we must be able to detect when the reaction
between acid and base is complete. One way to do this is to add an indicator to the solu-
tion being titrated. An indicator is a compound that exhibits different colors, depending
on the pH of its surroundings. Typically, an indicator is a weak acid or weak base whose
conjugate base or acid exhibits a different color in a solution. An indicator is selected that
will change color at a pH corresponding as nearly as possible to the pH of the solution
when the titration is complete. This pH can be calculated ahead of time based on the
identities of the acid and base involved in the titration.
FIGURE 14.6 Use of

0
a buret in a titration
5 Buret
procedure.
10
15
20
25
30
Volume is read before and after the titration
35
40 Solution of known concentration

45 Graduated markings
50
Stopcock
Known volume of substance

being titrated
Example 14.12 shows how titration data are used to calculate the molarity of an acid
solution of unknown concentration.
EXAMPLE 14.12 Calculating an Unknown Molarity, Using Acid–Base

Titration Data
In an acid–base titration, 32.7 mL of 0.100 M KOH is required to neutralize completely
50.0 mL of H3PO4. Calculate the molarity of the H3PO4 solution.
SOLUTION
The first thing we must do is write the balanced equation for the neutralization reaction.
Since the acid is triprotic and the base is monobasic, it will take three moles of base to
neutralize one mole of acid. The neutralization equation is
H3PO4 + 3 KOH h K3PO4 + 3 H2O
Next, we calculate the number of moles of H3PO4 that reacted with the KOH. This
is a volume-of-solution-A to moles-of-B problem (Fig. 13.7).
32.7 mL KOH = ? moles H3PO4
The pathway for the calculation, using dimensional analysis, is
mL KOH h L KOH h moles KOH h moles H3PO4
The sequence of conversion factors that effect this series of unit changes is
10-3 L KOH 0.100 mole KOH 1 mole H3 PO4
32.7 mL KOH * * *
1 mL KOH 1 L KOH 3 moles KOH
The first conversion factor comes from the definition of a milliliter, the second conversion
factor derives from the definition of molarity, and the third conversion factor uses the
coefficients in the balanced chemical equation for the titration.
The number of moles of H3PO4 that react is obtained by combining the numbers in
the dimensional analysis setup as indicated.
32.7 * 10-3 * 0.100 * 1
mole H3PO4 = 0.00109 mole H3PO4
1 * 1 * 3
Now that we know how many moles of H3PO4 reacted, we calculate the molarity of
the H3PO4 solution, using the definition for molarity and the volume of acid given in the
problem statement.
moles H3PO4 0.00109 mole H3PO4
Molarity H3PO4 = =
L solution 0.0500 L solution
= 0.0218 M H3PO4
Note that the units in the denominator of the molarity equation must be liters (0.0500)
rather than milliliters (50.0).
Answer Double Check: If the acid and base were of equal molarity, it would take three
times as much base as acid because the acid is triprotic and the base is monobasic. For equal
volumes of acid and base, the acid concentration would be one-third that of the base (0.033 M).
Since the base amount actually required is less than the acid volume, the acid concentration
is even less than 0.033 M. The answer, 0.0218 M acid, is consistent with this analysis.
1. Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory An Arrhenius 7. Reactions of Bases The most characteristic re-
acid is a hydrogen-containing compound that, in action of bases is their reaction with acids (neu-
water, ionizes to produce hydrogen 1H + 2 ions. tralization). They also react with fats and oils and
An Arrhenius base is a hydroxide-ion-containing convert them into smaller, soluble molecules.
compound that, in water, dissociates to release 8. Reactions of Salts Salts react with some met-
hydroxide 1OH - 2 ions. als to convert the metallic ion of the salt to free
2. Brønsted–Lowry Acid–Base Theory A metal and the free metal to its salt. They react
Brønsted–Lowry acid is any substance that with some acid solutions to form other acids and
can donate a proton 1H + 2 to another sub- salts, and with some base solutions to form other
stance. A Brønsted–Lowry base is any sub- bases and salts. Salts react with some solutions of
stance that can accept a proton 1H + 2 from other salts to form new salts.
another substance. Proton donation (from 9. Self-Ionization of Water In pure water, a small
an acid) does not occur unless an acceptor number of water molecules [1.0 * 10-7 M] do-
(a base) is present. nate protons to other water molecules to pro-
3. Conjugate Acids and Conjugate Bases The duce small concentrations [1.0 * 10-7 M] of
conjugate base of an acid is the species that hydronium and hydroxide ions. Ion product
remains when the acid loses a proton. The constant for water is the name given to the
conjugate acid of a base is the species formed numerical value 1.00 * 10-14 associated with the
when the base accepts a proton. A conjugate product of the hydronium and hydroxide ion
acid–base pair is two species that differ by one molar concentrations in pure water.
proton. 10. The pH Scale The pH scale is a scale of small
4. Acid Classifications Acids can be classified, numbers that is used to specify molar hydronium
a ccording to the number of hydrogen ions ion concentration in an aqueous solution. The
(protons) they can transfer per molecule during calculation of pH scale values involves the use of
an acid–base reaction, as monoprotic, diprotic, logarithms. The pH of a solution is the negative
and triprotic. Polyprotic acids are acids that can logarithm of the solution’s molar hydronium ion
transfer two or more hydrogen ions during an concentration.
acid–base reaction. Acids can be classified as 11. Acidic and Basic Solutions An acidic solu-
strong or weak, based on the extent to which tion has a higher hydronium ion concentration
proton transfer occurs in an aqueous solution. than hydroxide ion concentration. Conversely, a
A strong acid completely transfers its protons basic solution has a higher hydroxide ion con-
to water. A weak acid transfers only a small centration than hydronium ion concentration. An
percentage of its protons to water. acidic solution has a pH of less than 7.00. A basic
5. Salts A salt is an ionic compound containing solution has a pH greater than 7.00. A neutral
a metal ion or a polyatomic ion as the positive solution has a pH of 7.00.
ion and a nonmetal ion or a polyatomic ion 12. Hydrolysis of Salts Salt hydrolysis is a reaction
(except hydroxide) as the negative ion. Ionic in which a salt interacts with water to produce
compounds containing hydroxide ion are bases an acidic or a basic solution. Only salts that con-
rather than salts. tain the conjugate base of a weak acid and/or
6. Reactions of Acids Acids react with active met- the conjugate acid of a weak base hydrolyze.
als to produce hydrogen gas and a salt. They 13. Buffers A buffer is a solution that resists major
react with hydroxide bases to produce a salt and changes in pH when small amounts of acid or base
water (neutralization). They react with carbon- are added to the solution. The resistance to pH
ates and bicarbonates to produce carbon diox- change in most buffers is caused by the presence
ide, a salt, and water. of a weak acid and a salt of its conjugate base.
14. Acid–Base Titrations An acid–base titration known concentration is exactly reacted with
is a procedure in which an acid–base neu- a measured volume of a base or an acid of
tralization reaction is used to determine the unknown concentration. An indicator is used
unknown concentration of an acid or base. to detect when the neutralization process is
A measured volume of an acid or a base of complete.
Key Terms Listing

acid–base titration Sec. 14.14 conjugate acid Sec. 14.3 monoprotic acid Sec. 14.4
acidic hydrogen atom Sec. 14.4 conjugate acid–base pair Sec. 14.3 neutralization Sec. 14.7
acidic solution Sec. 14.10 conjugate base Sec. 14.3 neutral solution Sec. 14.10
amphiprotic substance Sec. 14.3 diprotic acid Sec. 14.4 pH Sec. 14.11
Arrhenius acid Sec. 14.1 dissociation Sec. 14.1 pH scale Sec. 14.11
Arrhenius base Sec. 14.1 hydrolysis Sec. 14.12 polyprotic acid Sec. 14.4
basic solution Sec. 14.10 indicator Sec. 14.14 salt Sec. 14.6
Brønsted–Lowry acid Sec. 14.2 ion product constant for water strong acid Sec. 14.5
Brønsted–Lowry base Sec. 14.2 Sec. 14.10 triprotic acid Sec. 14.4
buffer Sec 14.13 ionization Sec. 14.1 weak acid Sec. 14.5

ACID–BASE DEFINITIONS (SECS. 14.1 AND 14.2)

14.1 In Arrhenius acid–base theory: 14.5 Based on Arrhenius acid–base theory, indicate
a. What ion is responsible for the properties of acidic whether each of the following chemical reactions is an
solutions? example of ionization or dissociation.
b. What term is used to describe the formation of a. HNO31aq2 h H + 1aq2 + NO3 - 1aq2
ions, in an aqueous solution, from an ionic b. NaOH1aq2 h Na + 1aq2 + OH - 1aq2
compound? c. RbOH1aq2 h Rb + 1aq2 + OH - 1aq2
14.2 In Arrhenius acid–base theory: d. HCN1aq2 h H + 1aq2 + CN - 1aq2
a. What ion is responsible for the properties of basic 14.6 Based on Arrhenius acid–base theory, indicate
solutions? whether each of the following chemical reactions is an
b. What term is used to describe the formation of example of ionization or dissociation.
ions, in an aqueous solution, from a molecular a. HI1aq2 h H + 1aq2 + I - 1aq2
compound? b. KOH1aq2 h K + 1aq2 + OH - 1aq2
14.3 Classify each of the following properties as that of an c. HC2H3O21aq2 h H + 1aq2 + C2H3O2 - 1aq2
Arrhenius acid or that of an Arrhenius base. d. Ca1OH221aq2 h Ca2+1aq2 + 2 OH - 1aq2
a. has a sour taste 14.7 Write equations for the ionization/dissociation of the
b. changes the color of blue litmus paper to red following Arrhenius acids and bases in water.
14.4 Classify each of the following properties as that of an a. HBr (hydrobromic acid)
Arrhenius acid or that of an Arrhenius base. b. HClO2 (chlorous acid)
a. has a bitter taste c. LiOH (lithium hydroxide)
b. changes the color of red litmus paper to blue d. Ba1OH22 (barium hydroxide)
14.8 Write equations for the ionization/dissociation of the 14.16 Give the chemical formula for each of the following.
following Arrhenius acids and bases in water. a. the conjugate acid of ClO2 -
a. HClO3 (chloric acid) b. the conjugate base of H2S
b. HI (hydroiodic acid) c. the conjugate acid of NH3
c. H2SO4 (sulfuric acid) d. the conjugate base of HPO4 2-
d. CsOH (cesium hydroxide) 14.17 Identify the two conjugate acid–base pairs involved
14.9 Identify the Brønsted–Lowry acid and the Brønsted– in each of the following reactions.
Lowry base in each of the following chemical a. H2C2O4 + ClO - m HC2O4 - + HClO
reactions. b. HSO4 - + H2O m H3O + + SO4 2-
a. HBr + H2O h H3O + + Br - c. HPO4 2- + NH4 + m NH3 + H2PO4 -
b. H2O + N3 - h HN3 + OH - d. HCO3 - + H2O m OH - + H2CO3
c. H2O + H2S h H3O + + HS - 14.18 Identify the two conjugate acid–base pairs involved
d. HS - + H2O h H3O + S2- in each of the following reactions.
14.10 Identify the Brønsted–Lowry acid and the Brønsted– a. SO4 2- + H2O m HSO4 - + OH -
Lowry base in each of the following chemical b. CN - + H2O m HCN + OH -
reactions. c. HSO4 - + HCO3 - m SO4 2- + H2CO3
a. NH3 + H3PO4 h NH4 + + H2PO4 - d. H3PO4 + PO4 3- m H2PO4 - + HPO4 2-
b. H3O + + OH - h H2O + H2O 14.19 Indicate whether or not each of the following pairs
c. HSO4 - + H2O h SO4 2- + H3O + of substances constitute a Brønsted-Lowry conjugate
d. H2O + S2- h HS - + OH - acid-base pair.
14.11 Write chemical equations that show how each of the a. NH4 + >NH3 b. HN3 >N3 -
following chemical species behaves as indicated in c. H3PO4 >PO4 3- d. SO4 2- >SO3 2-
aqueous solution. 14.20 Indicate whether or not each of the following pairs
a. HOCl behaves as a Brønsted-Lowry acid. of substances constitute a Brønsted-Lowry conjugate
b. NH3 behaves as a Brønsted-Lowry base. acid-base pair.
c. H2PO4 - behaves as a Brønsted-Lowry acid. a. H2SO4 >SO4 2- b. NH4 + >NH2 -
d. CO3 2- behaves as a Brønsted-Lowry base. c. HCN/CN - d. NO3 - >NO2 -
14.12 Write chemical equations that show how each of the 14.21 For each of the following amphiprotic substances,
following chemical species behaves as indicated in write the two equations needed to describe its be-
aqueous solution. havior in an aqueous solution.
a. HC2O4 - behaves as a Brønsted-Lowry acid. a. HS - b. HPO4 2- c. HCO3 - d. H2PO3 -
b. F - behaves as a Brønsted-Lowry base. 14.22 For each of the following amphiprotic substances,
c. H2CO3 behaves as a Brønsted-Lowry acid. write the two equations needed to describe its be-
d. NH2 - behaves as a Brønsted-Lowry base. havior in an aqueous solution.
14.13 Write equations to illustrate the acid–base reactions a. H2PO4 - b. HSO3 - c. HC2O4 - d. PH3
that can take place between the following Brønsted–
Lowry acids and bases.
a. acid, HOCl; base, NH3 MONO-, DI-, AND TRIPROTIC ACIDS (SEC. 14.4)
b. acid, H2CO3; base, H2O 14.23 Classify each of the following acids as monoprotic,
c. acid, H2O; base, H2O diprotic, or triprotic.
d. acid, HC2O4 - ; base, H2O a. HClO3 (perchloric acid)
14.14 Write equations to illustrate the acid–base reactions b. HC3H5O4 (glyceric acid)
that can take place between the following Brønsted– c. HC2H3O2 (acetic acid)
Lowry acids and bases. d. H2C4H2O4 (fumaric acid)
a. acid, H3O + ; base, NH3 14.24 Classify each of the following acids as monoprotic,
b. acid, HCO3 - ; base, H2O diprotic, or triprotic.
c. acid, H2O; base, F - a. H2SO4 (sulfuric acid)
d. acid, H2PO4 - ; base, H2O b. H2C5H6O4 (glutaric acid)
c. H3C6H5O7 (citric acid)
d. HC7H5O3 (salicylic acid)
CONJUGATE ACIDS AND BASES (SEC. 14.3)
14.25 How many acidic hydrogen atoms are present in
14.15 Give the chemical formula for each of the following. each of the acids in Problem 14.23?
a. the conjugate acid of HS - 14.26 How many acidic hydrogen atoms are present in
b. the conjugate base of HNO2 each of the acids in Problem 14.24?
c. the conjugate acid of PH3 14.27 How many nonacidic hydrogen atoms are present in
d. the conjugate base of H2PO4 - each of the acids in Problem 14.23?
14.28 How many nonacidic hydrogen atoms are present in c. H3PO4 and HClO3
each of the acids in Problem 14.24? d. H2CO3 and HI
14.29 Write chemical equations for the stepwise proton 14.39 In which of the following acid and base combinations
transfer process that occurs in an aqueous solution are both a strong acid and a strong base present?
for each of the following acids. a. H2SO4 and KOH
a. H2C2O4 (oxalic acid) b. HNO3 and NaOH
b. H2C3H2O4 (malonic acid) c. H3PO4 and LiOH
14.30 Write chemical equations for the stepwise proton d. HF and Ba1OH22
transfer process that occurs in an aqueous solution 14.40 In which of the following acid and base combinations
for each of the following acids. are both a strong acid and a strong base present?
a. H2CO3 (carbonic acid) a. HCl and NaOH
b. H2C4H4O6 (tartaric acid) b. H2CO3 and Ca1OH22
14.31 The chemical formula for lactic acid is preferably c. HC2H3O2 and KOH
written as HC3H5O3 rather than as H6C3O3. Explain d. HClO4 and Sr1OH22
why this is so. 14.41 For each of the following acids, indicate whether or
14.32 The chemical formula for malonic acid is preferably not the percent ionization in aqueous solution would
written as H2C3H2O4 rather than as H4C3O4. Explain most likely be less than 10%.
why this is so. a. HNO3 b. H3PO4 c. HBr d. H2C4H4O6
14.33 Pyruvic acid, which is produced in metabolic reactions 14.42 For each of the following acids, indicate whether or
within the human body, has the following structure: not the percent ionization in aqueous solution would
most likely be less than 10%.
H O O a. H2SO4 b. H2CO3
c. H3C6H5O7 d. HCl
H — C — C — C — O —H
14.43 What is the distinction between the terms weak acid
H and dilute acid?
14.44 What is the distinction between the terms strong acid
How many acidic hydrogen atoms are present in this and concentrated acid?
structure? Give the reasoning for your answer. 14.45 The following four diagrams represent aqueous solu-
14.34 Succinic acid, a biologically important substance, has tions of four different acids with the general formula
the following structure: HA. Which of the four acids is the strongest acid?
O H H O
— —
— —
H— O — C — C — C — C — O —H
H H
How many acidic hydrogen atoms are present in the
structure? Give the reasoning for your answer. I II III IV
14.46 Using the diagrams shown in Problem 14.45, which
of the four acids is the weakest acid?
STRENGTH OF ACIDS AND BASES (SEC. 14.5)
14.35 Classify each of the acids in Problem 14.23 as a
SALTS (SEC. 14.6)
strong acid or a weak acid.
14.36 Classify each of the acids in Problem 14.24 as a 14.47 Characterize the two members of each of the follow-
strong acid or a weak acid. ing pairs of substances as being (1) a salt and an
14.37 For each of the following pairs of acids, indicate acid, (2) a salt and a base, or (3) two salts.
whether the first member of the pair is stronger or a. HCl and KCl
weaker than the second member of the pair. b. NaOH and NaCN
a. H2SO4 or H2SO3 c. KCl and KBr
b. HClO4 and HCN d. NH4Cl and HNO3
c. HF and HBr 14.48 Characterize the two members of each of the follow-
d. HNO2 and HClO3 ing pairs of substances as being (1) a salt and an
14.38 For each of the following pairs of acids, indicate acid, (2) a salt and a base, or (3) two salts.
whether the first member of the pair is stronger or a. NaNO3 and KNO3
weaker than the second member of the pair. b. Mg1OH22 and Mg1CN22
a. HNO3 and HNO2 c. LiF and HF
b. HCl and HClO d. MgCl2 and CaCl2
14.49 What is the name for each of the following salts? 14.61 Indicate whether each of the following reactions is
a. CaSO4 b. Li2CO3 an acid–base neutralization reaction.
c. NaBr d. Al2S3 a. NaCl + AgNO3 h AgCl + NaNO3
14.50 What is the name for each of the following salts? b. HNO3 + KOH h NaNO3 + H2O
a. NH4Cl b. Be1C2H3O2 22 c. HBr + KOH h KBr + H2O
c. AgI d. KNO3 d. H2SO4 + Pb1NO3 22 h PbSO4 + 2 HNO3
14.51 With the help of Table 13.4, indicate whether each of 14.62 Indicate whether each of the following reactions is
the salts in Problem 14.49 is soluble or insoluble. an acid–base neutralization reaction.
14.52 With the help of Table 13.4, indicate whether each of a. H2S + CuSO4 h H2SO4 + CuS
the salts in Problem 14.50 is soluble or insoluble. b. HCN + LiOH h LiCN + H2O
14.53 How many ions are produced, per formula unit, c. H2SO4 + Ba1OH22 h BaSO4 + 2 H2O
when each of the following soluble salts dissolve in d. Ni + 2 HCl h NiCl2 + H2
water? 14.63 Without writing a chemical equation, specify the
a. NaNO3 b. CuCO3 molar ratio in which each of the following acids and
c. BaCl2 d. Al21SO4 23 bases will react in a neutralization reaction.
14.54 How many ions are produced, per formula unit, a. HBr and Sr1OH22
when each of the following soluble salts dissolve in b. HCN and LiOH
water? c. H2SO4 and Mg1OH22
a. Ba1NO3 22 b. K3PO4 d. H3PO4 and KOH
c. NH4CN d. KF 14.64 Without writing a chemical equation, specify the
14.55 Write a balanced chemical equation for the dissocia- molar ratio in which each of the following acids and
tion in water of each of the salts in Problem 14.53. bases will react in a neutralization reaction.
14.56 Write a balanced chemical equation for the dissocia- a. HCl and NaOH
tion in water of each of the salts in Problem 14.54. b. HNO3 and KOH
c. H2S and Ba1OH22
d. H2CO3 and LiOH
REACTIONS OF ACIDS AND BASES 14.65 Complete the following chemical equations for acid-
(SECS. 14.7 AND 14.8) base neutralization reactions by determining the
14.57 Write a chemical equation for the reaction of each chemical formulas of the products.
of the following metals with hydrochloric acid. If no a. HCN + LiOH S +
reaction occurs, indicate that is the case. Assume that b. HCl + NaOH S +
metals going into solution form + 2 ions. c. HNO3 + KOH S +
a. Fe b. Ni c. Ag d. Pt d. HBr + RbOH S +
14.58 Write a chemical equation for the reaction of each 14.66 Complete the following chemical equations for acid-
of the following metals with hydrochloric acid. If no base neutralization reactions by determining the
reaction occurs, indicate that that is the case. Assume chemical formulas of the products.
that metals going into solution form +2 ions. a. HBr + NaOH S +
a. Sn b. Au c. Pb d. Cu b. HNO3 + RbOH S +
14.59 Based on the activity series (Table 14.6), which of c. HCN + KOH S +
the metals in the listing d. HCl + LiOH S +
14.67 Complete the following chemical equations for acid-
Zn Ni Ag Ca Cu base neutralization reactions by determining the
chemical formulas for the acid and base needed to
will react with each of the following:
produce the indicated products.
a. cold water
a. _____ + _____ S NaCl + H2O
b. hot water (steam)
b. _____ + _____ S KNO3 + H2O
c. hydrochloric acid
c. _____ + _____ S Li2SO4 + 2 H2O
d. H + ions to produce H2 gas
d. _____ + _____ S CaBr2 + 2 H2O
14.60 Based on the activity series (Table 14.6), which of
14.68 Complete the following chemical equations for acid-
the metals in the listing
base neutralization reactions by determining the
Mg Sn Fe Na Au chemical formulas for the acid and base needed to
produce the indicated products.
will react with each of the following:
a. _____ + _____ S LiBr + H2O
a. cold water
b. _____ + _____ S NaCN + H2O
b. hot water (steam)
c. _____ + _____ S K2SO4 + 2 H2O
c. hydrochloric acid
d. _____ + _____ S BaCl2 + 2 H2O
d. H + ions to produce H2 gas
14.69 Write a chemical equation for the action of HCl on c. Na2SO4 and HNO3
each of the following. (Zn metal forms a + 2 ion in a d. KNO3 and HC2H3O2
solution.) 14.78 Write a chemical equation for the reaction, if any,
a. Zn b. NaOH between each of the following pairs of aqueous solu-
c. Na2CO3 d. NaHCO3 tions. If no reaction occurs, write “no reaction.”
14.70 Write a chemical equation for the action of HNO3 on a. H2CO3 and KOH
each of the following. (Ni metal forms a +2 ion in a b. K3PO4 and HCl
solution.) c. CaCl2 and HNO3
a. Ni d. Fe1NO3 22 and MgSO4
b. KOH
c. Li2CO3
d. LiHCO3 HYDRONIUM ION AND HYDROXIDE ION
CONCENTRATIONS (SEC. 14.10)
REACTIONS OF SALTS (SEC. 14.9) 14.79 For each of the following aqueous solutions, calcu-
late the 3OH - 4 from 3H3O + 4 or the 3H3O + 4 from
14.71 On the basis of the activity series (Table 14.6), 3OH - 4.
predict whether a reaction occurs when each of a. 3H3O + 4 = 5.7 * 10-4
the following metals is added to a nickel(II) nitrate b. 3OH - 4 = 6.3 * 10-7
solution. c. 3H3O + 4 = 7.70 * 10-10
a. Cu b. Zn c. Au d. Fe d. 3OH - 4 = 7.03 * 10-12
14.72 On the basis of the activity series (Table 14.6), 14.80 For each of the following aqueous solutions, calcu-
predict whether a reaction occurs when each of late the 3OH - 4 from 3H3O + 4 or the 3H3O + 4 from
the following metals is added to an iron(II) nitrate 3OH - 4.
solution. a. 3H3O + 4 = 6.2 * 10-3
a. Ag b. Ni c. Cr d. Pb b. 3OH - 4 = 6.7 * 10-6
14.73 Write a chemical equation for each of the follow- c. 3H3O + 4 = 6.24 * 10-7
ing metal-replacement reactions. Assume that metals d. 3OH - 4 = 3.33 * 10-11
going into solution form +2 ions. 14.81 Based on the given 3H3O + 4 or 3OH - 4 indicate
a. Iron is added to CuSO4 solution. whether each of the following aqueous solutions is
b. Tin is added to AgNO3 solution. acidic, basic, or neutral.
c. Zinc is added to NiCl2 solution. a. 3H3O + 4 = 3.2 * 10-3
d. Chromium is added to Pb1C2H3O2 22 solution. b. 3H3O + 4 = 5.5 * 10-7
14.74 Write a chemical equation for each of the follow- c. 3OH - 4 = 2.0 * 10-3
ing metal-replacement reactions. Assume that metals d. 3OH - 4 = 3.7 * 10-9
going into solution form +2 ions. 14.82 Based on the given 3H3O + 4 or 3OH - 4 indicate
a. Lead is added to Cu2SO4 solution. whether each of the following aqueous solutions is
b. Mercury is added to Au1NO3 23 solution. acidic, basic, or neutral.
c. Chromium is added to FeCl2 solution. a. 3H3O + 4 = 3.2 * 10-6
d. Iron is added to Ni1C2H3O3 22 solution. b. 3H3O + 4 = 5.5 * 10-9
14.75 Indicate the driving force (condition) that causes c. 3OH - 4 = 2.0 * 10-7
each of the following acid–salt reactions to occur. d. 3OH - 4 = 3.7 * 10-10
a. Ba1NO3 22 + H2SO4 h BaSO4 + 2 HNO3 14.83 Selected information about five aqueous solutions,
b. 3 CaCl2 + 2 H3PO4 h Ca31PO4 22 + 6 HCl each at 24⬚C, is given in the following table. Fill in
c. AgC2H3O2 + HCl h AgCl + HC2H3O2 the blanks in each row in the table. The first row is
d. K2CO3 + 2 HNO3 h 2 KNO3 + CO2 + H2O already completed as an example.
14.76 Indicate the driving force (condition) that causes
each of the following acid–salt reactions to occur.
a. NaCN + HCl h NaCl + HCN [H3O + ] [OH - ] Acidic or Basic
b. 3 MgSO4 + 2 H3PO4 h Mg31PO4 22 + 3 H2SO4
c. Li2CO3 + 2 HBr h 2 LiBr + CO2 + H2O 2.2 * 10-2 4.5 * 10-13 acidic
d. Na3PO4 + 3 HCl h 3 NaCl + H3PO4 a. 3.3 * 10-3
14.77 Write a chemical equation for the reaction, if any,
between each of the following pairs of aqueous solu- b. 6.8 * 10-8
tions. If no reaction occurs, write “no reaction.” c. 7.2 * 10-8
a. Al1NO3 23 and 1NH4 22S
b. HCl and Ba1OH22
d. 4.5 * 10-6
14.84 Selected information about five aqueous solutions, 14.93 Calculate, to the correct number of significant fig-
each at 24⬚C, is given in the following table. Fill in ures, the pH of solutions with the following hydro-
the blanks in each row in the table. The first row is nium ion concentrations.
already completed as an example. a. 4 * 10-3 M b. 4.0 * 10-3 M
-3
c. 4.00 * 10 M d. 4.000 * 10-3 M
[H3O + ] [OH - ] Acidic or Basic 14.94 Calculate, to the correct number of significant fig-
ures, the pH of solutions with the following hydro-
1.3 * 10-13 7.7 * 10-2 basic
nium ion concentrations.
a. 6.3 * 10-8 a. 8 * 10-6 M b. 8.0 * 10-6 M
c. 8.00 * 10-6 M d. 8.000 * 10-6 M
b. 4.2 * 10-6
14.95 In which of the following pairs of pH values do
c. 3.3 * 10-10 both values represent acidic solution conditions?
d. 6.6 * 10-5
a. 5.31 and 6.31 b. 6.31 and 7.31
c. 7.31 and 8.31 d. 6.90 and 7.00
14.85 Indicate whether each of the following is a possible or 14.96 In which of the following pairs of pH values do
impossible situation for an aqueous solution at 24⬚C. both values represent basic solution conditions?
a. 3H3O + 4 = 3.51 * 10-4 and a. 5.92 and 6.92 b. 6.92 and 7.92
3OH - 4 = 2.85 * 10-10 c. 7.92 and 8.92 d. 7.01 and 7.10
b. 3H3O + 4 = 4.72 * 10-7 and 14.97 What is the molar hydronium ion concentration
3OH - 4 = 2.12 * 10-8 associated with each of the following pH values?
14.86 Indicate whether each of the following is a possible or a. 4.0 b. 4.2 c. 4.5 d. 4.8
impossible situation for an aqueous solution at 24⬚C. 14.98 What is the molar hydronium ion concentration
a. 3H3O + ] = 3.08 * 10-5 and associated with each of the following pH values?
3OH - 4 = 3.25 * 10-10 a. 6.0 b. 6.3 c. 6.7 d. 6.9
b. 3H3O + ] = 5.75 * 10-8 and 14.99 What is the molar hydronium ion concentration
3OH - 4 = 4.74 * 10-7 associated with each of the following pH values?
14.87 At 37⬚C, which is average human body temperature, a. 2.43 b. 5.72 c. 7.73 d. 8.750
the value of Kw is 2.6 * 10-14. What are the molar 14.100 What is the molar hydronium ion concentration
hydronium ion and molar hydroxide ion concentra- associated with each of the following pH values?
tions in pure water at this temperature? a. 3.57 b. 6.03 c. 8.51 d. 9.555
14.88 At 50⬚C, the value of Kw is 5.5 * 10-14. What are the 14.101 Selected information about five solutions, each
molar hydronium ion and molar hydroxide ion con- at 24⬚C, is given in the following table. Fill in the
centrations in pure water at this temperature? blanks in each row in the table. The first row is
already completed as an example.
THE pH SCALE (SEC. 14.11) [H3O + ] [OH - ] pH Acidic or Basic
14.89 Calculate, to the correct number of significant fig- 6.2 * 10-8 1.6 * 10-7 7.21 basic
ures, the pH of solutions with the following hydro- a. 7.2 * 10-10
a. 1 * 10-4 M b. 1.0 * 10-11 M b. 5.30
c. 0.00001 M d. 0.0000000010 M -10
c. 7.2 * 10
14.90 Calculate, to the correct number of significant fig-
d. 8.23
nium ion concentrations. 14.102 Selected information about five solutions, each
a. 1 * 10-2 M b. 1.0 * 10-9 M at 24⬚C, is given in the following table. Fill in the
c. 0.0001 M d. 0.00000010 M blanks in each row in the table. The first row is
14.91 Calculate, to the correct number of significant fig- already completed as an example.
nium ion concentrations. [H3O + ] [OH - ] pH Acidic or Basic
a. 6.0 * 10-3 M b. 6.0 * 10-4
c. 6.0 * 10 M-5
d. 6.0 * 10-6 M 1.9 * 10-9 5.4 * 10-6 8.73 basic
14.92 Calculate, to the correct number of significant fig- -5
a. 7.2 * 10
ures, the pH of solutions with the following hydro- -3
b. 6.3 * 10
a. 7.0 * 10-5 M b. 7.0 * 10-6 M c. 9.03
c. 7.0 * 10-7 M d. 7.0 * 10-8 M d. 5.77
14.103 Solution A has [OH - ] = 4.3 * 10-4. Solution B has 14.114 Write a chemical equation for the hydrolysis of
[H3O + ] = 7.3 * 10-10. each of the following salts in an aqueous solution.
a. Which solution is more basic? a. MgF2 b. KCN
b. Which solution has the lower pH? c. LiNO2 d. NH4I
14.104 Solution A has [H3O + ] = 2.7 * 10-6 . Solution B
has [OH - ] = 4.5 * 10-8. BUFFERS (SEC. 14.13)
a. Which solution is more acidic?
14.115 Predict whether each of the following pairs of sub-
b. Which solution has the higher pH?
stances could function as a buffer system in an
14.105 A solution has a pH of 4.500. What will be the pH
aqueous solution.
of this solution if the hydronium ion concentra-
a. HNO3 and NaNO3
tion is
b. HF and NaF
a. doubled?
c. KCl and KCN
b. quadrupled?
d. H2CO3 and NaHCO3
c. increased by a factor of 10?
14.116 Predict whether each of the following pairs of sub-
d. increased by a factor of 103?
stances could function as a buffer system in an
14.106 A solution has a pH of 3.699. What will be the pH of
aqueous solution.
this solution if the hydronium ion concentration is
a. HNO3 and HCl
a. tripled?
b. HNO2 and KNO2
b. cut in half?
c. NaC2H3O2 and KC2H3O2
c. increased by a factor of 100?
d. HC2H3O2 and NaNO3
d. decreased by a factor of 104?
14.117 Identify the two “active species” in each of the fol-
14.107 Calculate the pH of each of the following solutions
lowing buffer systems.
of strong acids or strong bases.
a. HCN and KCN
a. 6.3 * 10-3 M HNO3
b. H3PO4 and NaH2PO4
b. 0.20 M HCl
c. H2CO3 and KHCO3
c. 0.000021 M H2SO4
d. NaHCO3 and K2CO3
d. 2.3 * 10-4 M NaOH
14.118 Identify the two “active species” in each of the fol-
14.108 Calculate the pH of each of the following solutions
lowing buffer systems.
of strong acids or strong bases.
a. HF and LiF
a. 4.02 * 10-5 M HCl
b. Na2HPO4 and KH2PO4
b. 4.02 * 10-5 M H2SO4
c. K2CO3 and KHCO3
c. 0.00035 M HNO3
d. NaNO2 and HNO2
d. 5.7 * 10-3 M KOH
14.119 The following four diagrams represent aqueous
solutions containing a weak acid (HA) and/or its
conjugate base 1A - 2. Which of the four solutions
HYDROLYSIS OF SALTS (SEC. 14.12) is a buffer solution? There may be more than one
14.109 Identify the ion (or ions) present, if any, that will correct answer.
undergo hydrolysis in an aqueous solution in each
of the following salts.
a. Na3PO4 b. NaCN c. NH4Cl d. LiCl
14.110 Identify the ion (or ions) present, if any, that will
undergo hydrolysis in an aqueous solution in each
of the following salts.
a. KC2H3O2 b. NH4F c. Ca1CN22 d. NaBr
14.111 Predict whether each of the following aqueous salt
solutions will be acidic, basic, or neutral.
I II III IV
a. Na2SO4 b. LiCN c. NH4Br d. KI
14.112 Predict whether each of the following aqueous salt 14.120 Using the diagrams shown in Problem 14.119,
solutions will be acidic, basic, or neutral. which of the solutions would have the greatest buf-
a. KNO3 b. NaCN fer capacity, that is, the greatest protection against
c. LiC2H3O2 d. 1NH4 22SO4 pH change, when the following occurs?
14.113 Write a chemical equation for the hydrolysis of a. A small amount of strong acid is added to the
each of the following salts in an aqueous solution. solution.
a. NH4Br b. NaC2H3O2 b. A small amount of strong base is added to the
c. KF d. LiCN solution.
14.121 Write an equation for each of the following buffer- c. 0.100 M Ba1OH22
ing actions. d. 0.200 M Ba1OH22
a. the response of an HF>F - buffer to the addition 14.126 What volume, in milliliters, of a 0.200 M HNO3
of OH - ions solution would be needed to neutralize 10.00 mL
b. the response of an HPO4 2- >PO4 3- buffer to the samples of the following bases?
addition of H3O + ions a. 0.100 M KOH
c. the response of an HCO3 - >CO3 2- buffer to the b. 0.200 M KOH
addition of acid c. 0.100 M Sr1OH22
d. the response of an H3PO4 >H2PO4 - buffer to the d. 0.200 M Sr1OH22
addition of base 14.127 What volume, in milliliters, of a 0.200 M KOH solu-
14.122 Write an equation for each of the following buffer- tion would be needed to neutralize each of the fol-
ing actions. lowing acid samples?
a. the response of an HPO4 2- >PO4 3- buffer to the a. 20.00 mL of 0.200 M HCl
addition of OH - ions b. 20.00 mL of 0.200 M H2SO4
b. the response of an H3PO4 >H2PO4 - buffer to the c. 50.00 mL of 0.400 M HNO3
addition of H3O + ions d. 50.00 mL of 0.300 M H2CO3
c. the response of an HCN>CN - buffer to the 14.128 What volume, in milliliters, of a 0.300 M NaOH so-
addition of acid lution would be needed to neutralize each of the
d. the response of an HCO3 - >CO3 2- buffer to the following acid samples?
addition of base a. 10.00 mL of 0.100 M HCl
14.123 A buffer solution has a pH value of 8.2. Which b. 10.00 mL of 0.200 M H2SO4
value in the set of pH values c. 30.00 mL of 0.500 M HNO3
d. 30.00 mL of 0.600 M H2CO3
7.1 8.1 8.2 8.3 9.3
14.129 It requires 34.5 mL of 0.102 M NaOH to neu-
is the most likely value for the buffer solution pH after tralize each of the following acid solution sam-
a. a small amount of strong acid has been added? ples. What is the molarity of each of the acid
b. a small amount of strong base has been added? samples?
14.124 A buffer solution has a pH value of 9.8. Which a. 25.0 mL of H2SO4
value in the set of pH values b. 20.0 mL of HClO
c. 20.0 mL of H3PO4
8.7 9.7 9.8 9.9 10.9
d. 10.0 mL of HNO3
is the most likely value for the buffer solution pH after 14.130 It requires 21.4 mL of 0.198 M NaOH to neu-
a. a small amount of strong acid has been added? tralize each of the following acid solution sam-
b. a small amount of strong base has been added? ples. What is the molarity of each of the acid
samples?
ACID–BASE TITRATIONS (SEC. 14.14) a. 30.0 mL of H2CO3
b. 25.0 mL of H2C2O4
14.125 What volume, in milliliters, of a 0.100 M HCl solu- c. 25.0 mL of HC2H3O2
tion would be needed to neutralize 20.00 mL sam- d. 20.0 mL of HCl
ples of the following bases?
a. 0.100 M NaOH
b. 0.200 M NaOH
"mesh together" (complement each other) in problem-solving situations. Answers are given at the back of the book for the odd-
numbered problems.
14.131 Which of the terms Arrhenius acid, Arrhenius 14.132 Which of the terms Arrhenius acid, Arrhenius
base, Brønsted-Lowry acid, and Brønsted-Lowry base, Brønsted-Lowry acid, and Brønsted-Lowry
base characterize each of the following substances? base characterize each of the following substances?
More than one term may apply in a given situation. More than one term may apply in a given situation.
a. H3PO4 b. NaOH a. H2CO3 b. Cl–
c. HNO3 d. Br – c. KOH d. HCl
14.133 Which of the terms weak, strong, monoprotic, diprotic, 14.144 Indicate whether the first or second solution in
and triprotic characterize each of the following acids? each of the following pairs of solution has the
More than one term may apply in a given situation. higher pH.
a. H3PO4 b. H3PO3 a. 0.1 M solution of a strong acid or 0.2 M solution
c. HBr d. HC2H3O2 of a strong acid
14.134 Which of the terms weak, strong, monoprotic, b. 0.1 M solution of NaOH or 0.1 M solution of
diprotic, and triprotic characterize each of the fol- NaCl
lowing acids? More than one term may apply in a c. solution with [H3O+] = 3.0 * 10-3 or solution
given situation. with [OH-] = 6.0 * 10-6
a. Hc3H3O3 b. HCN d. solution with [OH-] = 3.2 * 10-5 or solution
c. H2SO4 d. H2SO3 with [OH-] = 3.0 * 10-5
14.135 Identify each of the following species as the conju- 14.145 In which of the following pairs of solutions does
gate base of a strong acid or the conjugate base of the first-listed solution have a lower pH than the
a weak acid. second-listed solution?
a. Br - b. CN - a. 0.1 M HCl and 0.2 M HCl
-
c. H2PO4 d. NO3 - b. 0.1 M HCl and 0.1 M H2SO4
14.136 Identify each of the following species as the conju- c. 0.20 M H2SO4 and 0.25 M HNO3
gate base of a strong acid or the conjugate base of d. 0.2 M H2SO4 and 0.2 M H2CO3
a weak acid. 14.146 In which of the following pairs of solutions does
a. C2H3O2 - b. Cl - the first-listed solution have a lower pH than the
-
c. F d. HPO4 2- second-listed solution?
14.137 A solution has a pH of 2.2. Another solution has a a. 0.2 M HNO3 and 0.3 M HNO3
pH of 4.5. How many times greater is the [H3O + ] in b. 0.1 M HNO3 and 0.1 M H2SO4
the first solution than in the second one? c. 0.1 M H2SO4 and 0.12 M HCl
14.138 A solution has a pH of 3.4. Another solution has a d. 0.2 M H2SO4 and 0.2 M H2C2O4
pH of 6.7. How many times greater is the [H3O + ] in 14.147 What would be the pH of a solution that contains
the first solution than in the second one? 0.1 mole of each of the solutes NaCl, HNO3, HCl, and
14.139 What is the pH of an aqueous solution in which NaOH in enough water to give 3.00 L of solution?
there are three times as many hydronium ions as 14.148 What would be the pH of a solution that contains
hydroxide ions? 0.1 mole of each of the solutes NaBr, HBr, KOH, and
14.140 What is the pH of an aqueous solution in which NaOH in enough water to give 5.00 L of solution?
there are three times as many hydroxide ions as 14.149 Arrange the following 0.1 M aqueous solutions in order
hydronium ions? of decreasing pH: NH4Br, Ba1OH22, HClO4, K2SO4,
14.141 Solution A has a pH of 3.20, solution B a pH of and LiCN.
4.20, solution C a pH of 11.20, and solution D a pH 14.150 Arrange the following 0.1 M aqueous solutions in
of 7.20. Arrange the four solutions in order of order of increasing pH: HBr, HC2H3O2, NaC2H3O2,
a. decreasing acidity. KOH, and Ca1NO3 22.
b. increasing [H3O + ]. 14.151 Identify the buffer system(s) [conjugate acid–base
c. decreasing [OH - ]. pair(s)] present in solutions that contain equal
d. increasing basicity. molar amounts of the following.
14.142 Solution A has a pH of 1.25, solution B a pH of a. HCN, KCN, NaCN, and NaCl
12.50, solution C a pH of 7.00, and solution D a pH b. HF, HCl, NaC2H3O2, and NaF
of 4.44. Arrange the four solutions in order of 14.152 Identify the buffer system(s) [conjugate acid–base
a. increasing acidity. pair(s)] present in solutions that contain equal
b. decreasing [H3O + ]. molar amounts of the following.
c. increasing [OH - ]. a. HF, HCN, NaCN, and KF
d. decreasing basicity. b. H2CO3, Na2CO3, KCN, and HCN
14.143 Indicae whether the first or second solution in each 14.153 It is possible to make two completely different buf-
of the following pairs of solution has the higher pH. fers that involve the dihydrogen phosphate ion,
a. 0.1 M solution of a strong acid or 0.1 M solution H2PO4 - . Characterize each of the buffers by speci-
of a weak acid. fying the conjugate acid–base pair that is present.
b. 0.1 M solution of KOH or 0.1 M solution of 14.154 It is possible to make two completely different buf-
HNO3 fers that involve the hydrogen carbonate ion, HCO3 - .
c. solution with [H3O+] = 3.0 * 10-3 or solution Characterize each of the buffers by specifying the
with [H3O+] = 3.0 * 10-4 conjugate acid–base pair that is present.
d. solution with [OH-] = 6.0 * 10-5 or solution 14.155 How many moles of Ca1OH22 would it take to
with [OH-] = 6.0 * 10-6 completely neutralize 0.40 gram of H3PO4?
14.156 How many moles of Sr1OH22 would it take to com- 14.158 If 125 mL of 6.00 M HNO3 is mixed with 125 mL of
pletely neutralize 5.00 grams of HNO3? 5.00 M NaOH, what will be the
14.157 If 125 mL of 5.00 M HNO3 is mixed with 125 mL of a. [H3O + ] for the solution?
6.00 M NaOH, what will be the b. [OH - ] for the solution?
a. [H3O + ] for the solution? c. pH of the solution?
b. [OH - ] for the solution?
c. pH of the solution?

MC 14.1 Which of the following statements concerning MC 14.6 Which of the following is a species formed in the
Arrhenius acid–base theory is correct? second step of the dissociation of H3PO4?
a. Arrhenius acid–base definitions are based on a. H2PO4 -
water as the solvent. b. HPO4 2-
b. In the pure state, Arrhenius acids are ionic c. PO4 3-
compounds. d. more than one correct response
c. In the pure state, Arrhenius bases are molecular e. no correct response
compounds. MC 14.7 In which of the following pairs of acids are both
d. more than one correct response members of the pair strong acids?
e. no correct response a. H2CO3 and H2SO4
MC 14.2 According to Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory, a b. HCN and HCl
base is a c. HClO3 and HNO3
a. proton donor. d. more than one correct response
b. proton acceptor. e. no correct response
c. hydroxide ion donor. MC 14.8 Which of the following statement about weak
d. more than one correct response acids is correct?
e. no correct response a. Weak acids always contain carbon atoms.
MC 14.3 The Brønsted–Lowry acid and Brønsted–Lowry b. The percent dissociation for a weak acid is in the
base for the reaction range 40%–60%.
c. Weak acid molecules have a strong affinity for
N3 - + H2O h HN3 + OH -
acidic hydrogen atoms.
are, respectively, d. more than one correct response
a. N3 - and H2O. b. H2O and N3 - . e. no correct response
-
c. N3 and HN3. d. H2O and OH - . MC 14.9 In which of the following pairs of substance are
e. no correct response both species in the pair salts?
MC 14.4 Which of the following is not a Brønsted–Lowry a. LiOH and LiCN
conjugate acid–base pair? b. NH4F and KF
a. PH4 + >PH3 c. HNO3 and KNO3
b. H2O>OH - d. more than one correct response
c. H2S>S2- e. no correct response
d. more than one correct response MC 14.10 For which of the following pairs of acids do both
e. no correct response members of the pairs contain both acidic and nonacidic
MC 14.5 In which of the following pairs of acids are both hydrogen atoms?
members of the pair polyprotic acids? a. H2SO4 and H2C2O4
a. H3PO4 and HC2H3O2 b. HC2H3O2 and HCHO2
b. H2SO4 and H2C4H4O6 c. H2C3H2O4 and H2CO3
c. HNO3 and HNO2 d. more than one correct response
MC 14.11 Which of the following statements concerning MC 14.17 In which of the following salts would both the
reactions of acids is correct? positive ion and the negative ion hydrolyze when the salt is
a. Acids react with hydroxide ion bases to produce a dissolved in water?
salt and water. a. KNO3
b. Acids react with all metals to produce hydrogen b. NaCN
gas as a product. c. NH4Cl
c. Acids do not react with salts at ordinary conditions. d. more than one correct response
e. no correct response MC 14.18 Which of the following combinations of sub-
MC 14.12 At equilibrium at 24ºC, the molar concentrations stances would produce a buffer?
of H3O+ and OH- ions in pure water are both equal to a. a strong acid and a salt of the strong acid
a. 1.00 * 10-7 M b. a salt of a strong acid and a salt of a weak acid
b. 1.00 * 10-14 M c. a strong acid and a weak acid
c. one-half the ion product for water d. more than one correct response
d. twice the ion product for water e. no correct response
e. no correct response MC 14.19 If a small amount of strong base is added to a
MC 14.13 A solution with [H3O + ] = 1.00 * 10-9 would buffer solution with a pH of 9.2, the most likely pH of the
have [OH - ] equal to new solution is about
a. 1.00 * 10-5. b. 2.00 * 10-5. a. 8.2 b. 9.1 c. 9.3 d. 10.2
-9
c. 1.00 * 10 . d. 2.00 * 10-14. e. no correct response
e. no correct response MC 14.20 In an acid–base titration, 25.8 mL of 0.1000 M
MC 14.14 Which of the following solutions is basic? KOH is required to neutralize completely 50.0 mL of H2SO4.
a. [H3O + ] = 1.00 * 10-5 What is the molarity of the H2SO4 solution?
b. [H3O + ] = 1.00 * 10-7 a. 1.29 * 10-3 M
c. [H3O + ] = 1.00 * 10-9 b. 2.58 * 10-3 M
d. more than one correct response c. 2.58 * 10-2 M
e. no correct response d. 5.16 * 10-2 M
MC 14.15 Which of the following does not describe an e. no correct response
acidic solution?
a. The pH is less than 7.0
b. The [OH - ] is less than the [H3O + ]. ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE CHOICE PRACTICE TEST
c. The hydronium ion concentration is twice the
hydroxide ion concentration. MC 14.1 a MC 14.8 c MC 14.15 d
d. more than one correct response MC 14.2 b MC 14.9 b MC 14.16 c
e. no correct response MC 14.3 b MC 14.10 b MC 14.17 e
MC 14.16 If the pH of a solution is 3.26, the molar hydro- MC 14.4 c MC 14.11 a MC 14.18 e
nium ion concentration for the solution is MC 14.5 b MC 14.12 a MC 14.19 c
a. 2.91 * 10-4. b. 3.26 * 10-4. MC 14.6 b MC 14.13 a MC 14.20 c
c. 5.50 * 10-4. d. 8.71 * 10-4. MC 14.7 c MC 14.14 c
C H A P T E R
15
Chemical Equations: Net Ionic
and Oxidation–Reduction
15.1 Types of Chemical Equations

15.2 Electrolytes
15.3 Ionic and Net Ionic Equations
15.4 Oxidation–Reduction Terminology
15.5 Oxidation Numbers
15.6 Redox and Nonredox Chemical Reactions
15.7 Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Reactions
15.8 Oxidation Number Method for Balancing Redox Equations
15.9 Half-Reaction Method for Balancing Redox Equations
15.10 Disproportionation Reactions
15.11 Stoichiometric Calculations Involving Ions
15.1 TYPES OF CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

Student Learning Focus: Be able to describe net ionic chemical equations and oxidation–reduction
chemical equations in terms of the aspect of chemistry each emphasizes.
Two major chemical-equation-related topics constitute the bulk of the subject matter
for this chapter. These topics are net ionic chemical equations and oxidation–reduction
chemical equations.
Net ionic chemical equations represent a method for writing chemical equations
for reactions that emphasizes that ions are often the reactants in chemical reactions that
occur in an aqueous solution. The chemical equations encountered to this point in the
text have been molecular equations in which the complete chemical formulas for reac-
tants and products have been used. With net ionic equations, the focus is on ionic species
665
666 Chapter 15 • Chemical Equations: Net Ionic and Oxidation–Reduction
present rather than on the substances from which the ions were produced via dissocia-
tion or ionization (Sec. 10.1).
Oxidation–reduction chemical equations represent a method for writing chemical
equations for reactions that emphasizes the electron transfer that occurs from one reac-
tant to another reactant. The equations for such oxidation–reduction processes are often
more difficult to balance than those for non-oxidation–reduction reactions. The equation
balancing procedures previously considered (Sec. 10.3) are often not adequate for balanc-
ing many of these equations. Two systematic methods for balancing oxidation–reduction
equations, both of which focus on the electron–transfer that has occurred, are available
for use with such equations.
Net ionic equations are the subject matter for the early parts of the chapter and dis-
cussion involving oxidation–reduction equations then follows.
15.2 ELECTROLYTES
Student Learning Focus: Be familiar with the meaning of the three terms strong electrolyte, weak
electrolyte, and nonelectrolyte.
Numerous water-soluble compounds form aqueous solutions in which ions,

generated by ionization or dissociation, are present. This situation was encountered
several times in the previous chapter in the discussions about acids, bases, and salts
(Secs. 14.5 and 14.6).
Aqueous solutions in which ions are present conduct electricity. The greater the
number of ions present, the greater the conducting ability of the solution. Since acids,
bases, and water-soluble salts all produce ions in solution, solutions of these substances
conduct electricity. Acids, bases, and water-soluble salts are thus electrolytes. An
electrolyte is a substance whose aqueous solution conducts electricity. It is the presence
of ions (charged particles) that causes a solution to be electrically conductive.
Some water-soluble substances, such as sucrose (table sugar), glucose, and
isopropyl alcohol, do not conduct electricity. These substances are called nonelec-
trolytes. A nonelectrolyte is a substance whose aqueous solution does not conduct
electricity.
Electroloytes can be divided into two groups—strong electrolytes and weak
electrolytes. A strong electrolyte is a substance that ionizes/dissociates to a large ex-
tent (70%–100%) into ions in an aqueous solution. Strong electrolytes produce strongly
conducting solutions. Strong acids (Sec. 14.5), strong bases (Sec. 14.5), and soluble
salts (Sec 13.4) are strong electrolytes. A weak electrolyte is a substance that ionizes/
dissociates to a small extent into ions in an aqueous solution. Weak electrolytes produce
solutions that are intermediate between those containing strong electrolytes and those
containing nonelectrolytes in their ability to conduct an electric current. Weak acids and
weak bases (Sec. 14.5) constitute the weak electrolytes.
Whether a substance is an electrolyte in a solution can be determined by using
a conductivity apparatus that involves a battery, a light bulb, and two metal electrodes
connected as shown in Figure 15.1. If the medium between the electrodes (the
solution) is a conductor of electricity, the light bulb glows. A strong glow indicates a
strong electrolyte, a faint glow indicates a weak electrolyte, and no glow indicates a
nonelectrolyte.
The existence of solutes that in a solution produce many ions (strong electrolytes), a
few ions (weak electrolytes), or no ions (nonelectrolytes) becomes the basis for the writ-
ing of net ionic equations. The focus for such equations is the ions produced by a strong
electrolyte.
Chapter 15 • Chemical Equations: Net Ionic and Oxidation–Reduction 667
FIGURE 15.1 This simple conductivity apparatus can be used to distinguish among strong electrolyes, weak electrolytes, and
nonelectrolytes. The light bulb glows strongly for strong electrolytes (left), weakly for weak electrolytes (center), and not at all for
nonelectrolytes (right).
Richard Megna - Fundamental Photographs
15.3 IONIC AND NET IONIC EQUATIONS

Student Learning Focus: Be familiar with the procedures involved in converting a molecular
equation to a net ionic equation.
Up to this point in the text, most equations we have used have been molecular equa-
tions, equations where the complete formulas of all reactants and products are shown.
Molecular equations are the starting point for deriving ionic equations, which in turn lead
to net ionic equations. An ionic equation is an equation in which the formulas of the
predominant form of each compound in an aqueous solution are used; strong electrolytes
are written in ionic form, and weak electrolytes and nonelectrolytes are written in molecu-
lar form. Net ionic equations are derived from ionic equations. A net ionic equation is
an ionic equation from which nonparticipating (spectator) species have been eliminated.
The differences between molecular, ionic, and net ionic equations can best be illus-
trated by examples. Let us consider the chemical reaction that results when a solution of
potassium chloride (KCl) is mixed with a solution of silver nitrate 1AgNO3 2. An insoluble
salt, silver chloride (AgCl), is produced as a result of the mixing. The molecular equation
for this reaction is
AgNO31aq2 + KCl1aq2 h KNO31aq2 + AgCl1s2
Three of the four substances involved in this reaction—AgNO3, KCl, and KNO3—are A chemical reaction such
soluble salts (strong electrolytes) and thus exist in solution in ionic form. This is shown as the one discussed here
(the reaction of aqueous
by writing the ionic equation for the reaction. solutions of AgNO3 and
KCl) in which a solid
Ag+(aq) + NO3−(aq) + K+(aq) + Cl−(aq) K+(aq) + NO3−(aq) + AgCl(s) product is produced is
AgNO3 in ionic form KCl in ionic form KNO3 in ionic form called a precipitation
reaction. The precipitate
In this equation each of the three soluble salts is shown in dissociated (ionic) form rather is the solid produced in
the chemical reaction.
than in undissociated form. A close look at this ionic equation shows that the potassium ions
The solid is said to have
1K+ 2 and nitrate ions 1NO3- 2 appear on both sides of the equation, indicating that they did precipitated out of the
not undergo any chemical change. In other words, they are spectator ions; they did not par- solution.
ticipate in the reaction. The net ionic equation for this reaction is written by dropping (can-
celling) all spectator ions from the ionic equation. (The spectator ions dropped must occur in
equal numbers on both sides of the equation.) In our case, the net ionic equation becomes
Ag+1aq2 + Cl-1aq2 h AgCl1s2
This net ionic equation indicates that the product AgCl was formed by the reaction
of silver ions 1Ag+ 2 with chloride ions 1Cl- 2. It totally ignores the presence of those ions
that are not taking part in the reaction. Thus, a net ionic equation focuses on only those
species in a solution actually involved in a chemical reaction. It does not give all species
present in the solution.
If you can write equations in molecular form, you will find it a straightforward pro-
cess to convert such equations to net ionic form. Follow these three steps:
1. Check the given molecular equation to make sure that it is balanced.

2. Expand the molecular equation into an ionic equation.
3. Convert the ionic equation into a net ionic equation by eliminating spectator ions.
In expanding a molecular equation into an ionic equation (step 2), you must decide
whether to write each reactant and product in dissociated (ionic) form or undissociated
(molecular) form. The following rules serve as guidelines in making such decisions.
1. Strong electrolytes (Sec 15.2), substances that dissociate/ionize completely or to a

large extent in an aqueous solution, are written in ionic form. They include
a. all soluble salts (see Sec. 13.4 for solubility rules).
b. all strong acids (see Table 14.2).
c. all strong bases (see Table 14.4).
2. Weak electrolytes (Sec 15.2), substances that dissociate/ionize to a small extent
in an aqueous solution are written in molecular form as they exist primarily in a
solution in molecular form: only a few ions are produced. Soluble weak acids and
soluble weak bases are weak electrolytes. The following acids and bases fall into
this “weak” category:
a. All acids not listed in Table 14.2 as strong acids. Common examples are
HNO2, HF, H2S, HC2H3O2, H2CO3, and H3PO4.
b. All bases not listed in Table 14.4 as strong bases. Aqueous ammonia 1NH3 2 is the
most common weak base.
3. All insoluble substances (solids, liquids, and gases), whether ionic or covalent, exist
as molecules or neutral ionic units and are written as such.
4. All soluble covalent substances, for example, carbon dioxide 1CO2 2 or sucrose
1C12H22O11 2, are written in molecular form as they are nonelectrolytes.
5. If water, the solvent, appears in the equation, it is written in molecular form.
Now, we apply these guidelines by writing some net ionic equations.
EXAMPLE 15.1 Converting a Molecular Equation into a Net Ionic

Equation
Write the net ionic equation for the following aqueous solution reaction.
MgCl2 + AgNO3 h Mg1NO3 22 + AgCl 1unbalanced equation2
SOLUTION
Step 1 To balance the given molecular equation, the coefficient 2 must be placed in front
of both AgNO3 and AgCl.
MgCl2 + 2 AgNO3 h Mg1NO3 22 + 2 AgCl

Step 2 A decision must be made whether to write each reactant and product in ionic or
molecular form. Let us consider them one by one.
MgCl2: This is a soluble salt. All chloride salts are soluble except
AgCl, PbCl2, and Hg2Cl2. Thus, MgCl2 will be written in ionic form:
Mg2 + + 2 Cl-. Note that three ions (one Mg2 + ion and two Cl- ions)
are produced from the dissociation of one MgCl2 formula unit.
AgNO3: This is a soluble salt; all nitrates are soluble. Thus, it is written in
ionic form. Each AgNO3 formula unit (there are two) produces one
Ag+ ion and one NO3- ion.
Mg1NO3 22: All nitrate salts are soluble. Thus, Mg1NO3 22 will be written in ionic
form. Three ions are produced upon dissociation of one Mg1NO3 22
formula unit: one Mg2 + ion and two NO3- ions.
AgCl: The solubility rules indicate that this compound is an insoluble salt.
Thus, it will be written in molecular form in the ionic equation.
The ionic equation will have the form
Mg2 + + 2 Cl- + 2 Ag+ + 2 NO3- h Mg2 + + 2 NO3- + 2 AgCl
Note how the coefficient 2 in front of AgNO3 and AgCl in the molecular equation
affects the ionic equation. The dissociation of two AgNO3 formula units produces
two Ag+ ions and two NO3 - ions. Similarly, two AgCl formula units are present.
Step 3 Inspection of the ionic equation shows that the Mg2 + ion and the two NO3- ions
are spectator ions. Cancellation of these ions from the equation will give the net
ionic equation.
Mg2 + + 2 Cl- + 2 Ag+ + 2 NO3 - h Mg2 + + 2 NO3 - + 2 AgCl
2 Ag+ + 2 Cl- h 2 AgCl
The coefficients in the net ionic equation should be the smallest set of numbers
that correctly balance the equation. In this case, all the coefficients are divisible
by two. Dividing by two, we get
Ag+ + Cl- h AgCl
Answer Double Check: Is the net ionic equation a balanced equation? Yes, it is. To be
balanced, it must pass two checks: (1) an atom balance and (2) a charge balance. Atom-
wise, the equation is balanced; there is one atom of Ag and one atom of Cl on each side
of the equation. Charge-wise, the equation is also balanced. On the left side of the equa-
tion, the +1 and -1 charges associated with the ions add up to zero. The charge on the
other side of the equation is zero because no ions are present.
EXAMPLE 15.2 Converting a Molecular Equation into a Net Ionic Equation
H2S + AlI3 h Al2S3 + HI 1unbalanced equation2
SOLUTION
Step 1 Balancing the molecular equation, we get
3 H2S + 2 AlI3 h Al2S3 + 6 HI
Step 2 The expansion of the molecular equation into an ionic equation is accomplished
by the following analysis.
H2S: This is a weak acid. All weak acids are written in molecular form in ionic
equations.
AlI3: This is a soluble salt. All iodide salts are soluble, with three exceptions;
this is not one of the exceptions. Soluble salts are written in ionic form in
ionic equations.
Al2S3: This is an insoluble salt. All sulfides are insoluble except for groups IA
and IIA and NH4 +. Thus, Al2S3 will remain in molecular form in the ionic
equation.
HI: This compound is an acid. It is one of the seven strong acids listed in Table
14.2. Strong acids are written in ionic form.
The ionic equation for the reaction is
3 H2S + 2 Al3 + + 6 I- h Al2S3 + 6 H+ + 6 I-
Note again that the coefficients present in the balanced molecular equation must
be taken into consideration when determining the total number of ions produced
from dissociation. On dissociation, an AlI3 formula unit produces four ions: one
Al3 + ion and three I- ions. This number must be doubled for the ionic equation
because AlI3 carries the coefficient 2 in the balanced molecular equation. Similar
considerations apply to the HI in this equation.
Step 3 Inspection of the ionic equation shows that only I- ions (six of them) are specta-
tor ions. Cancellation of these ions from the equation gives the net ionic equation.
3 H2S + 2 Al3 + + 6 I h Al2S3 + 6 H+ + 6 I
3 H2S + 2 Al3 + h Al2S3 + 6 H+
Answer Double Check: Is the net ionic equation balanced relative to atoms and also
relative to charge? Yes. The atom balance is six hydrogen atoms, three sulfur atoms, and
two aluminum atoms on each side of the equation. The charge balance is a +6 charge on
each side of the equation. The charge balance on each side of the equation can be at any
number; there is no requirement that the charge be zero on each side. Two aluminum
ions 13+2 generate a 6+ charge and six hydrogen ions 11+2 generate a 6+ charge.
EXAMPLE 15.3 Converting a Molecular Equation into a Net Ionic Equation
HNO3 + LiOH h LiNO3 + H2O
SOLUTION
Step 1 All coefficients in this equation are 1; the equation is balanced as written.
HNO3 + LiOH h LiNO3 + H2O
Step 2 The expansion of the molecular equation into an ionic equation is based on the
following analysis.
HNO3: This compound is an acid. It is one of the seven strong acids listed in
Table 14.2. Strong acids are written in ionic form in ionic equations.
LiOH: This compound is a base. It is one of the strong bases listed in Table 14.4.
Strong bases are written in ionic form in ionic equations.
LiNO3: This compound is a soluble salt. All nitrate salts are soluble. Thus, LiNO3
is written in ionic form.
H2O: This compound is a covalent compound; two nonmetals are present.
Covalent compounds are always written in molecular form.
The ionic equation for the reaction, using the above information, is
H+ + NO3- + Li+ + OH- h Li+ + NO3- + H2O
Step 3 Inspection of the ionic equation shows that NO3- ions and Li+ ions are spectator The net ionic equation
ions. Cancellation of these ions from the equation gives the net ionic equation. for the reaction of a
strong acid with a strong
base, independent of
H+ + NO3- + Li+ + OH- h Li+ + NO3- + H2O the identity of the strong
H+ + OH- h H2O acid and the strong
base, will always be
Answer Double Check: Is the net ionic equation balanced relative to atoms and charge? H+ + OH- h H2O.
Yes. Atom-wise, there are two hydrogens and one oxygen on each side of the equation.
Charge-wise, the net charge on each side of the equation is zero; that 1+ and 1- ionic
charges on the left side add up to zero.
15.4 OXIDATION–REDUCTION TERMINOLOGY

Student Learning Focus: Be able to distinguish, using the concept of loss and gain of electrons,
among the terms oxidation, reduction, oxidizing agent, and reducing agent.
Oxidation–reduction reactions are a very important class of chemical reactions. They occur all
around us and even within us. The bulk of the energy needed for the functioning of all living
organisms, including humans, is obtained from food via oxidation–reduction processes. Such
diverse phenomena as the electricity obtained from a battery to start a car, the use of natural
gas to heat a home, iron rusting, and the functioning of antiseptic agents to kill or prevent the
growth of bacteria all involve oxidation–reduction reactions. In short, knowledge of this type
of reaction is fundamental to understanding many biological and technological processes.
The terms oxidation and reduction, like the terms acid and base (Sec. 14.1), have
several definitions. Historically, the word oxidation was first used to describe the reaction
of a substance with oxygen. According to this historical definition, each of the following
reactions involves oxidation.
4 Fe + 3 O2 h 2 Fe2O3
S + O2 h SO2
CH4 + 2 O2 h CO2 + 2 H2O
The substance on the far left in each of these equations is said to have been oxidized.
Originally, the term reduction referred to processes where oxygen was removed
from a compound. A particularly common type of reduction reaction, according to this
original definition, is the removal of oxygen from a metal oxide to produce the free metal.
CuO + H2 h Cu + H2O
2 Fe2O3 + 3 C h 4 Fe + 3 CO2
The word reduction comes from the reduction in mass of the metal-containing species;
the metal has a mass less than that of the metal oxide.
Oxidation involves the Today the words oxidation and reduction are used in a much broader sense. Current
loss of electrons, and re- definitions include the previous examples but also much more. It is now recognized that
duction involves the gain
of electrons. Students
the same changes brought about in a substance from reaction with oxygen can be caused
often have trouble re- by reaction with numerous non-oxygen-containing substances. For example, consider the
membering which is following reactions:
which. Two helpful mne-
monic devices follow. 2 Mg + O2 h 2 MgO
LEO the lion says GER. Mg + S h MgS
Loss of Electrons: Mg + F2 h MgF2
Oxidation.
Gain of Electrons: 3 Mg + N2 h Mg3N2
Reduction.
In each of these reactions, magnesium metal is converted to a magnesium compound
OIL RIG that contains Mg2 + ions. The process is the same—the changing of magnesium atoms,
Oxidation Is Loss (of through the loss of two electrons, to magnesium ions; the only difference is the identity
electrons). of the substance that causes magnesium to undergo the change. All these reactions
Reduction Is Gain (of are considered to involve oxidation by the current definition. Oxidation is the process
electrons).
whereby a substance in a chemical reaction loses one or more electrons. The current
definition for reduction involves the use of similar terminology. Reduction is the process
whereby a substance in a chemical reaction gains one or more electrons.
Oxidation and reduction are complementary processes rather than isolated phe-
nomena. They always occur together; you cannot have one without the other. If elec-
trons are lost by one species, they cannot just disappear; they must be gained by
another species. Electron transfer, then, is the basis for oxidation and reduction. An
oxidation–reduction reaction is a chemical reaction in which transfer of electrons
between reactants occurs. The term oxidation–reduction reaction is often shortened to
the term redox reaction. Redox reaction is abbreviated terminology for an oxidation–
reduction reaction.
The terms oxidizing There are two different ways of looking at the reactants in a redox reaction. First,
agent and reducing agent the reactants can be viewed as being acted upon. From this perspective one reactant
sometimes cause confu-
is oxidized (the one that loses electrons) and one is reduced (the one that gains elec-
sion because the oxidiz-
ing agent is not oxidized trons). Second, the reactants can be looked at as bringing about the reaction. In this
(it is reduced) and the approach the terms oxidizing agent and reducing agent are used. An oxidizing agent
reducing agent is not re- is the reactant in a redox reaction that causes oxidation by accepting electrons from the
duced (it is oxidized). By other reactant. Such acceptance, the gain of electrons, means that the oxidizing agent
simple analogy, a travel
itself is reduced. Similarly, the reducing agent is the reactant in a redox reaction that
agent is not the one who
takes a trip—he or she is causes reduction by providing electrons for the other reactant to accept. As a result of
the one who causes the providing electrons, the reducing agent itself becomes oxidized. Note, then, that the
trip to be taken. reducing agent and substance oxidized are one and the same, as are the oxidizing agent
and substance reduced.
Substance oxidized = reducing agent
Substance reduced = oxiding agent
Table 15.1 summarizes the terms presented in this section.
TABLE 15.1 Oxidation–Reduction Terminology in Terms of Loss and Gain of Electrons
Terms Associated with the Loss of Electrons Terms Associated with the Gain of Electrons
Process of oxidation Process of reduction
Substance oxidized Substance reduced
Reducing agent Oxidizing agent
15.5 OXIDATION NUMBERS

Student Learning Focus: Based on given operational rules, be able to assign oxidation numbers to
elements present in a compound or polyatomic ion.
Oxidation numbers are used to help determine whether oxidation or reduction has
occurred in a reaction and, if such is the case, the identity of the oxidizing or reducing
agents. An oxidation number is the charge that an atom appears to have when the
electrons in each bond it is participating in are assigned to the more electronegative of the
two atoms involved in the bond.*
Consider an HCl molecule, a molecule in which there is one single bond involving
two shared electrons.
H Cl
According to the definition for oxidation number, the electrons in this bond are assigned
to the chlorine atom (the more electronegative atom; Sec. 7.18). This results in the chlo-
rine atom having one more electron than a neutral Cl atom; hence, the oxidation number
of chlorine is -1 (one extra electron). At the same time, the H atom in the HCl molecule
has one fewer electron than a neutral H atom; its electron was given to the chlorine. This
electron deficiency of one results in an oxidation number of +1 for hydrogen.
As a second example, consider the molecule CF4.
F
F CF
F
Fluorine is more electronegative than carbon. Hence, the two shared electrons in each of
the four carbon–fluorine bonds are assigned to the fluorine atom. Each F atom thus gains an
extra electron, resulting in each F atom’s having a -1 oxidation number. The carbon atom
loses a total of four electrons, one to each F atom, as a result of the electron “assignments.”
Hence, its oxidation number is +4, indicating the loss of the four electrons.
As a third example, consider the N2 molecule where like atoms are involved in a
triple bond.
N N
Since the identical atoms are of equal electronegativity, the shared electrons are “divided” 1. If the oxidation state
equally between the two atoms; each N receives three of the bonding electrons to count of an atom in a mol-
as its own. This results in each N atom having five valence electrons (three from the triple ecule is + n, then the
bond and two nonbonding electrons), the same number of valence electrons as in a neu- atom “owns” n fewer
electrons in the mol-
tral N atom. Hence, the oxidation number of N in N2 is zero. ecule than it would as
Before going any further in our discussion of oxidation numbers, it should be noted a free atom.
that calculated oxidation numbers are not actual charges on atoms. This is why the 2. If the oxidation state
phrase “appears to have” is found in the definition of oxidation number given at the start of an atom in a mol-
of this section. In assigning oxidation numbers, we assume when we give the bonding ecule is - n, then the
atom “owns” n more
electrons to the more electronegative element that each bond is ionic (complete transfer electrons in the mol-
of electrons). We know that this is not always the case. Sometimes it is a good approxi- ecule than it would as
mation, sometimes it is not. Why, then, do we do this when we know that it does not a free atom.
*In some textbooks the term oxidation state is used in place of oxidation number. In other textbooks the two
terms are used interchangeably. We will use oxidation number.
always correspond to reality? Oxidation numbers, as we shall see shortly, serve as a very
convenient device for keeping track of electron transfer in redox reactions. Even though
they do not always correspond to physical reality, they are very useful entities.
In principle, the procedures used to determine oxidation numbers for the atoms
in the molecules HCl, CF4, and N2 can be used to determine oxidation numbers in all
compounds. However, the procedures become very laborious for substances that have
complicated Lewis structures. In practice, an alternative, much simpler procedure that
does not require the drawing of Lewis structures is used to obtain oxidation numbers.
This alternative procedure is based on a set of operational rules that are consistent with
and derivable from the general definition for oxidation numbers. The operational rules
are as follows:
Rule 1 The oxidation number of any free element (an element not combined chemi-
cally with another element) is zero.
For example, O in O2, P in P4, and S in S8 all have an oxidation number of zero. This rule
is independent of the molecular complexity of the element.
Rule 2 The oxidation number of any monoatomic ion is equal to the charge on the ion.
For example, the Na+ ion has an oxidation number of +1, and the S2 - ion has an oxida-
tion number of -2.
Rule 3 The oxidation numbers of groups IA and IIA elements in compounds are al-
ways +1 and +2, respectively.
Rule 4 The oxidation number of fluorine in compounds is always -1 and that of the
other group VIIA elements (Cl, Br, and I) is usually -1.
The exception for these latter elements is when they are bonded to more electronegative
elements. In this case they are assigned positive oxidation numbers.
Rule 5 The usual oxidation number for oxygen in compounds is -2.
The exceptions occur when oxygen is bonded to the more electronegative fluorine
(O then is assigned a positive oxidation number) or found in compounds containing
oxygen–oxygen bonds (peroxides). In peroxides the oxidation number -1 is assigned to
oxygen. Peroxides exist for hydrogen 1H2O2 2, group IA elements (Na2O2, etc.), and group
IIA elements (BaO2, etc.).
Rule 6 The usual oxidation number for hydrogen in compounds is +1.
The exception occurs in hydrides, compounds where hydrogen is bonded to a metal
of lower electronegativity. In such compounds hydrogen is assigned an oxidation number
of -1. Examples of hydrides are NaH, CaH2, and LiH.
Rule 7 In binary compounds, the element with the greater electronegativity is as-
signed a negative oxidation number equal to its charge as an anion in its ionic
compounds.
For example, in the compound AlN, N (the more electronegative element) is assigned an
oxidation number of -3, the charge on a nitride ion 1N3 - 2.
Rule 8 The algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers of all atoms in a neutral molecule
must be zero.
Rule 9 The algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers of all atoms in a polyatomic ion is
equal to the charge on the ion.
The use of these rules is illustrated in Example 15.4.
EXAMPLE 15.4 Assigning Oxidation Numbers to Elements in a Compound

or Polyatomic Ion
Assign oxidation numbers to each element in the following chemical species.
a. SO3 b. N2H4 c. KMnO4 d. ClO4-
SOLUTION
a. Oxygen has an oxidation number of -2 (rule 5 or rule 7). The oxidation number
of S can be calculated by rule 8. Letting x equal the oxidation number of S,
we have
S: 1 atom * 1x2 = x
O: 3 atoms * 1-22 = -6
sum = 0 1rule 82
Solving for x algebraically, we get
x + 1-62 = 0
x = +6
Consequently, the oxidation number of sulfur is +6 in the compound SO3.
b. Hydrogen has an oxidation number of +1 (rule 6). Rule 8 will allow us to calculate
the oxidation number of N; the sum of the oxidation numbers must be zero. Letting
x equal the oxidation number of N, we have
H: 4 atoms * 1+12 = +4
N: 2 atoms * 1x2 = 2x
sum = 0 1rule 82
2x + 1+42 = 0
x = -2
Thus, the oxidation number of nitrogen in N2H4 is -2. Note that the oxidation num-
ber of N is not -4 (the calculated charge associated with two N atoms). Oxidation
number is always specified on a per atom basis.
c. Potassium has an oxidation number of +1 (rule 3), and oxygen has an oxidation
number of -2 (rule 5 or rule 7). Letting x equal the oxidation number of manganese
and using rule 8, we get
K: 1 atom * 1+12 = +1
Mn: 1 atom * 1x2 = x
O: 4 atoms * 1-22 = -8
sum = 0 1rule 82
1+12 + x + 1-82 = 0
x = +7
Thus, the oxidation number of manganese in KMnO4 is +7.
d. According to rule 9, the sum of the oxidation numbers must equal -1, the
charge on this polyatomic ion. The oxidation number of oxygen is -2 (rule 5).
Chlorine will have a positive oxidation number because it is bonded to a more
electronegative element (rule 4). Letting x equal the oxidation number of chlorine,
we have
Cl: 1 atom * 1x2 = x
O: 4 atoms * 1-22 = -8
sum = -1 1rule 82
x + 1-82 = -1
x = +7
Thus, chlorine has an oxidation number of +7 in this ion.
Answer Double Check: For each of the chemical species, does the sum of the oxidation num-
bers of all atoms equal the net charge on the species? Yes. In the first three parts, the oxidation
number sum is zero, consistent with these chemical species having zero net charge. In the fourth
part, the oxidation number sum adds to -1, the charge on the ClO4- ion [41-22 + 7 = -1].
Application of oxidation number rules in the manner illustrated in Example 15.4 enables
one to quickly assign oxidation numbers to the elements in a wide variety of compounds.
Many nonmetallic elements display a range of oxidation numbers in their various
compounds. Such oxidation number ranges for the elements nitrogen, sulfur, and chlo-
rine are shown in Figure 15.2.
The maximum and minimum values of the oxidation number range for nonmetallic
elements such as nitrogen, sulfur, and chlorine (Figure 15.2) can be related to periodic table
position for these elements, which, in turn, is related to electron configuration (Section
6.10). The following generalizations apply to the information given in Figure 15.2.
1. The maximum oxidation number is equal to the element’s valence electron count (which
is given by the element’s periodic table group number; Section 7.2). Nitrogen 1+ 52 is in
group VA, sulfur 1 + 62 is in group VIA, and chlorine 1 + 72 is in group VIIA.
2. The minimum oxidation number is equal to the charge on the monoatomic ion
that the element forms (which correlates with the number of electrons that must
be gained for the element to attain a noble gas electron configuration; Section 7.3).
Nitrogen 1 - 32 forms the N3 - nitride ion, sulfur 1- 22 forms the S2 - sulfide ion, and
chlorine 1 - 12 forms the Cl- chloride ion.
FIGURE 15.2 Nitrogen Sulfur Chlorine

Oxidation number
ranges for the elements NO3− +5 SO42− +6 ClO4− +7
nitrogen, sulfur, and
chlorine. N2O4 +4 S2O62− +5 Cl2O6 +6
NO2− +3 SO32− +4 ClO3− +5
NO +2 S2O42− +3 ClO2 +4
N2O +1 S2O32− +2 ClO2− +3
N2 0 S2Cl2 +1 ClO +2
NH2OH −1 S 0 ClO − +1
N2H4 −2 H2S2 −1 Cl2 0
NH3 −3 H2S −2 Cl− −1

TABLE 15.2 Oxidation–Reduction Terminology in Terms of Oxidation Number Change
Terms Associated with an Increase Terms Associated with a Decrease

in Oxidation Number in Oxidation Number
Process of oxidation Process of reduction
Substance oxidized Substance reduced
Reducing agent Oxidizing agent
Although not common, nonintegral oxidation numbers are possible. For example,
the oxidation number of iron in the compound Fe3O4 is +2.67. The oxidation numbers
of the oxygens in the compound add up to -8. Therefore, the iron atoms must have an
oxidation number sum of +8. Dividing +8 by 3 (the number of iron atoms) gives +2.67.
Oxidizing and reducing agents were previously defined in terms of loss and gain of
electrons (Table 15.1). They can also be defined in terms of changes in oxidation num-
bers. An oxidizing agent is the reactant in a redox reaction that contains the element
that shows a decrease in oxidation number. Since the oxidizing agent is the substance
reduced in a reaction, reduction involves a decrease in oxidation number. A reducing
agent is the reactant in a redox reaction that contains the element that shows an increase
in oxidation number. Since the reducing agent is the substance oxidized in a reaction,
oxidation involves an increase in oxidation number.
Table 15.2 summarizes the relationships between oxidation–reduction terminology
and oxidation number changes. A comparison of Table 15.2 with Table 15.1 shows that
the loss of electrons and oxidation number increases are synonymous as are the gain of
electrons and oxidation number decreases. The fact that the oxidation number becomes
more positive (increases) as electrons are lost is consistent with our understanding that
electrons are negatively charged.
EXAMPLE 15.5 Determining Oxidation Numbers and Identifying Oxidizing

Agents and Reducing Agents
Determine oxidation numbers for each atom in the following reactions, and identify the
oxidizing and reducing agents.
a. 2 NO + O2 h 2 NO2 The oxidation number of
b. Zn + 2 HCl h ZnCl2 + H2 an atom is usually written
underneath the atom in
c. Cl2 + 2 I- h I2 + 2 Cl- a chemical formula. This
convention is used to
SOLUTION avoid confusion with the
charge on an ion.
The oxidation numbers are calculated by the methods illustrated in Example 15.4.
a. 2 NO + O2 h 2 NO2
+2 -2 0 +4 -2
rules 5, 8 rule 1 rules 5, 8
The oxidation number of N has increased from +2 to +4. Therefore, the substance
that contains N, NO, has been oxidized and is the reducing agent.
The oxidation number of the O in O2 has decreased from 0 to -2. Therefore,
the O2 has been reduced and is the oxidizing agent.
b. Zn + 2 HCl h ZnCl2 + H2
0 +1 -1 +2 -1 0
rule 1 rules 6, 8 rules 4, 8 rule 1
The oxidation number of Zn has increased from 0 to +2. An increase in oxidation

number is associated with oxidation. Therefore, the element Zn has been oxidized
and is the reducing agent.
The oxidation number of H has decreased from +1 to 0. A decrease in oxidation
number is associated with reduction. Therefore, the HCl, the hydrogen-containing
compound, is the oxidizing agent.
c. Cl2 + 2 I- h I2 + Cl-
0 -1 0 -1
rule 1 rule 2 rule 1 rule 2
The oxidation number of I has increased from -1 to 0. Thus, I-, the iodine-containing
reactant, has been oxidized and is the reducing agent.
The oxidation number of Cl has decreased from 0 to -1. Thus, Cl2, the chlorine-
containing reactant, has been reduced and is the oxidizing agent.
Answer Double Check: Are the answers consistent with the concept that oxidizing
agents contain the element that shows a decrease in oxidation number and reducing
agents contain the element that shows an increase in oxidation number? Yes. In all cases
this is the situation: oxidizing agent—oxidation number decreases, and reducing agent—
oxidation number increases.
15.6 REDOX AND NONREDOX CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Student Learning Focus: Based on change or lack of change in oxidation numbers, be able to
classify a chemical reaction as a redox or nonredox chemical reaction.
Two classification systems for chemical reactions are in common use. We have now en-
countered both of them.
The first system, presented initially in Section 10.6, recognized five types of reactions:
1. Synthesis 1X + Y h XY2
2. Decomposition 1XY h X + Y2
3. Single-replacement 1X + YZ h Y + XZ2
4. Double-replacement 1AX + BY h AY + BX2
5. Combustion (reaction with O2)
The second system involves two reaction types:
1. Oxidation–reduction (or redox)
2. Non-oxidation–reduction (or nonredox)
As we have just learned (Sec. 15.5), reactions in which oxidation numbers change are
called oxidation–reduction reactions. A non-oxidation–reduction reaction is a chemi-
cal reaction in which oxidation numbers do not change.
These two classification systems are not mutually exclusive and are commonly used
together. For example, a particular reaction may be characterized as a single-replacement
redox reaction.
Synthesis reactions with only elements as reactants are always oxidation–reduction
reactions. Oxidation-number changes must occur because all elements (the reactants)
have an oxidation number of zero and all of the constituent elements of a compound
cannot have oxidation numbers of zero. Synthesis reactions in which compounds are the
reactants may or may not be redox reactions.
S + O2 h SO2 1redox synthesis2
K2O + H2O h 2 KOH 1nonredox synthesis2
2 NO + O2 h 2 NO2 1redox synthesis2
Both redox and nonredox decomposition reactions are common. At sufficiently high
temperatures, all compounds can be broken down (decomposed) into their constitu-
ent elements. Such reactions, where only elements are the products, are always redox
reactions. Decomposition reactions where compounds are the products can be redox or
nonredox reactions.
2 CuO h 2 Cu + O2 1redox decomposition2
2 KClO3 h 2 KCl + 3 O2 1redox decomposition2
CaCO3 h CaO + CO2 1nonredox decomposition2
Single-replacement reactions are always redox reactions. By definition, an element
and a compound are reactants and an element and a compound are products. The elements
always undergo oxidation number change. Two of the reaction types studied in Chapter 14
are redox single-replacement reactions—the reaction between an acid and an active metal
(Sec. 14.7) and the reaction between a metal and an aqueous salt solution (Sec. 14.9).
Double-replacement reactions generally involve acids, bases, and salts in an aque-
ous solution. In such reactions ions, which maintain their identity, are generally trading
places. Such reactions will always be nonredox reactions. All acid–base neutralization
reactions (Sec. 14.7) are nonredox double-replacement reactions.
Combustion reactions (Sec. 10.6) are always redox reactions. However, as men-
tioned in Section 10.6, they do not fit any of the four general reaction patterns of synthe-
sis, decomposition, single-replacement, and double-replacement. Features common to all
combustion reactions are the necessity of oxygen 1O2 2 as a reactant and the presence of
one or more oxides among the products.
EXAMPLE 15.6 Classifying Chemical Reactions as Redox or Nonredox

Classify the following chemical reactions as redox or nonredox. Further classify them as
synthesis, decomposition, single-replacement, double-replacement, or combustion.
a. Ni + F2 h NiF2
b. Fe2O3 + 3 C h 2 Fe + 3 CO
c. C4H8 + 6 O2 h 4 CO2 + 4 H2O
d. H2SO4 + 2 NaOH h Na2SO4 + 2 H2O
SOLUTION
The oxidation numbers are calculated by the method illustrated in Example 15.4.
a. Ni + F2 h NiF2
0 0 +2 -1
rule 1 rule 1 rules 4, 8
This is a redox reaction; the oxidation numbers of both Ni and F change. Since one
substance is produced from two substances, it is also a synthesis reaction. We thus
have a redox synthesis reaction.
b. Fe2O3 + 3 C h 2 Fe + 3 CO
+3 -2 0 0 +2 -2
rules 5, 8 rule 1 rule 1 rules 5, 8
This is a redox reaction; carbon is oxidized, iron is reduced. Having an element and
a compound as reactants and an element and compound as products is a charac-
teristic of a single-replacement reaction. That is the type of reaction we have here:
Iron and carbon are exchanging places. We thus have a redox single-replacement
reaction.
c. C4H8 + 6 O2 h 4 CO2 + 4 H2O
-2 +1 0 +4 -2 +1 -2
rules 6, 8 rule 1 rules 5, 7 rules 5, 8
This is a redox reaction; the oxidation numbers of both carbon and oxygen change.
This reaction is also a combustion reaction. We thus have a redox combustion
reaction.
d. H2SO4 + 2 NaOH h Na2SO4 + 2 H2O
+1 +6 -2 +1 -2 +1 +1 +6 -2 +1 -2
rules 5, 6, 8 rules 3, 5, 6 rules 3, 5, 8 rules 5, 6
This is a nonredox reaction; there are no oxidation number changes. The reaction is
also a double-replacement reaction; hydrogen and sodium are changing places, that
is, “swapping partners.” Thus we have a nonredox double-replacement reaction.
15.7 BALANCING OXIDATION–REDUCTION EQUATIONS

Student Learning Focus: Be able to name the two common systematic equation-balancing proce-
dures available for balancing redox equations.
Balancing an equation is not a new topic to us. In Section 10.4 we learned how to bal-
ance equations by the inspection method. With that method, we start with the most com-
plicated compound within the equation and balance one of the elements in it. Then we
balance the atoms of a second element, then a third, and so on until all elements are
balanced. This inspection procedure is a useful method for balancing simple equations
with small coefficients. However, it breaks down when applied to complicated equations.
Equations for redox reactions are often quite complicated and contain numerous
reactants and products and large coefficients. Trying to balance redox equations such as
PH3 + CrO42 - + H2O h P4 + Cr1OH24- + OH-
or
As4O6 + MnO4- + H2O h AsO43 - + H+ + Mn2 +
by inspection is a tedious, time-consuming, frustrating experience. Balancing such equa-
tions is, however, easily accomplished by systematic equation-balancing procedures that
use oxidation numbers and focus on the fact that the numbers of electrons lost and
gained in a redox reaction must be equal.
Two distinctly different approaches for systematically balancing redox equations
are in common use; the oxidation number method and the half-reaction method. Each
method has advantages and disadvantages. We will consider both methods.
15.8 OXIDATION NUMBER METHOD FOR BALANCING

REDOX EQUATIONS
Student Learning Focus: Be able to balance both molecular redox equations and net ionic redox
equations using the oxidation number method for balancing redox equations.
A useful feature of oxidation numbers is that they provide a rather easy method for rec-
ognizing and balancing redox equations. The steps involved in their use in this balancing
process are as follows:
Step 1 Assign oxidation numbers to all atoms in the equation and determine which
atoms are undergoing a change in oxidation number.
Step 2 Determine the magnitude of the change in oxidation number per atom for the
elements undergoing a change in oxidation number.
Draw two brackets—one connecting the substance oxidized to its product and the other
connecting the substance reduced to its product. Then place the oxidation number change
is the middle of the bracket.
Step 3 When more than one atom of an element that changes oxidation number is pres-
ent in a formula unit (of either reactant or product), determine the change in
oxidation number per formula unit.
Indicate this change per formula unit by multiplying the oxidation number change per
atom, already written on the brackets, by an appropriate factor.
Step 4 Determine multiplying factors that make the total increase in oxidation number
equal to the total decrease in oxidation number.
Place them on the bracket also.
Step 5 Place in front of the oxidizing and reducing agents and their products in the
equation coefficients that are consistent with the total number of atoms of the
elements undergoing oxidation number change.
Step 6 Balance all other atoms in the equation except those of hydrogen and oxygen.
In doing this, do not alter the coefficients determined previously.
Step 7 Balance the charge (the sum of all the ionic charges) so that it is the same on both
sides of the equation by adding H+ or OH- ions.
This step is necessary only when dealing with net ionic equations describing aqueous For net ionic redox re-
solution reactions. If the reaction takes place in an acidic solution, add H+ ion to the side actions, two “balances”
must be made: atoms
deficient in positive charge. If the reaction takes place in a basic solution, add OH- ion to
and charge. That is, there
the side deficient in negative charge. must be the same number
of atoms of each element
Step 8 Balance the hydrogen atoms.
in the reactants and prod-
For net ionic equations, H2O must usually be added to an appropriate side of the equa- ucts, and the total charge
on the reactants must
tion to achieve hydrogen balance. Water is, of course, present in all aqueous solutions
equal the total charge on
and can be either a reactant or a product. the products.
Step 9 Balance the oxygen atoms.
The oxygens should automatically be balanced. If oxygens do not balance, there is a mis-
take in a previous step. Check your work.
Now let us consider some examples where these rules are applied. The first ex-
ample involves a molecular equation. The second and third examples involve net ionic
equations. In balancing net ionic equations, any H2O, H+, or OH- present is usually left
out of the unbalanced equation that we start with and then added as needed during the
balancing process.
EXAMPLE 15.7 Balancing a Molecular Redox Equation Using the

Oxidation Number Method
Balance the following molecular redox equation for the reaction involving Cr, O2 and
HBr using the oxidation number method for balancing redox equations.
Cr + O2 + HBr h CrBr3 + H2O
SOLUTION
Step 1 We identify the elements being oxidized and reduced by assigning oxidation
numbers.
Cr + O2 + HBr h CrBr3 + H2O
0 0 +1 -1 +3 -1 +1 -2
Chromium (Cr) and oxygen (O) are the elements that undergo oxidation number
change.
Step 2 The change in oxidation number per atom is shown by drawing brackets con-
necting the oxidizing and reducing agents to their products and indicating the
change at the middle of the bracket.
0 (+3) +3
Change in oxidation
Cr + O2 + HBr CrBr3 + H2O number per atom
0 (−2) −2
Step 3 For Cr the change in oxidation number per formula unit is the same as the change
per atom because both Cr and CrBr3, the two Cr-containing species, contain
only one Cr atom. For O, the change in oxidation number per formula unit will
be double the change per atom since O2 contains two atoms. The change per
formula unit is indicated by multiplying the per-atom change by an appropriate
numerical factor, which is 2 in this case.
(+3)
Change in oxidation number
Cr + O2 + HBr CrBr3 + H2O per formula unit
2(−2)
Step 4 For Cr, the total increase in oxidation number per formula unit is +3. For oxygen,
the total decrease in oxidation number per formula unit is -4. To make the in-
crease equal to the decrease, we must multiply the oxidation number change for
the element oxidized (Cr) by 4 and the oxidation number change for the element
reduced (O) by 3. This will make the increase and decrease both numerically
equal to 12.
4(+3)
Oxidation number increase equals
Cr + O2 + HBr CrBr3 + H2O oxidation number decrease
3[2(−2)]
Step 5 We are now ready to place coefficients in the equation in front of the oxidizing
and reducing agents and their products. The bracket notation indicates that four
Cr atoms undergo an oxidation number change. Place the coefficient 4 in front of
both Cr and CrBr3. The bracket notation also indicates that six O atoms 13 * 22
undergo an oxidation number decrease of two units. Thus, we need six oxygen
atoms on each side. Place the coefficient 3 in front of O2 (six atoms of O), and
the coefficient 6 in front of H2O (six atoms of O).
4 Cr + 3 O2 + HBr h 4 CrBr3 + 6 H2O
The equation is only partially balanced at this point; only Cr and O atoms are
balanced.
Step 6 We next balance the element Br (by inspection). There are 12 Br atoms on the
right side. Thus, to obtain 12 Br atoms on the left side, we place the coefficient
12 in front of HBr.
4 Cr + 3 O2 + 12 HBr h 4 CrBr3 + 6 H2O
Step 7 This step is not needed when the equation is a molecular equation.
Step 8 In this particular equation the H atoms are already balanced. There are 12 hydro-
gen atoms on each side of the equation.
Step 9 If all of the previous procedures (steps) have been carried out correctly, the O
atoms should automatically balance. They do. There are six O atoms on each side
of the equation. The balanced equation is thus
4 Cr + 3 O2 + 12 HBr h 4 CrBr3 + 6 H2O
Answer Double Check: Are there the same number of atoms of each kind on each side of
the equation? Yes. The atom balance is 4 Cr, 6 O, 12 H, and 12 Br on each side of the equation.
EXAMPLE 15.8 Balancing a Net Ionic Redox Equation Using the Oxidation
Number Method
Balance the following net ionic redox equation for the reaction betweeng Cu and NO3- in
acidic solution using the oxidation number method for balancing redox equations.
Cu + NO3- h Cu2 + + NO2
SOLUTION
Step 1 The elements undergoing oxidation and reduction are identified by assigning
oxidation numbers.
Cu + NO3- h Cu2 + + NO2

0 +5-2 +2 +4 -2
The two elements undergoing oxidation number change are Cu and N.

Step 2 The change in oxidation number per atom is determined.
0 (+2) +2
Cu + NO3− Cu2+ + NO2 Change in oxidation

number per atom
+5 (−1) +4
Step 3 For both Cu and N the oxidation number change per formula unit is the same as
per atom. Both Cu and Cu2 + contain only one Cu atom; similarly, both NO3- and
NO2 contain only one N atom.
Step 4 By multiplying the N oxidation number decrease by 2, we make the oxidation
number increase and decrease per formula unit the same—two units.
(+2)
Cu + NO3− Cu2+ + NO2 Oxidation number increase equals

oxidation number decrease
2(−1)
Step 5 The bracket notation indicates that two N atoms and one Cu atom undergo an
oxidation number change. Translating this information into coefficients, we get
1 Cu + 2 NO3- h 1 Cu2 + + 2 NO2
Step 6 The only atoms left to balance are those of O.
Step 7 Since this is a net ionic equation, the charges must balance; that is, the sum of the
ionic charges of all species on each side of the equation must be equal. (They do
not have to add up to zero; they just have to be equal.) In an acidic solution, which
is the case in this example, charge balance is accomplished by adding H+ ion.
As the equation now stands, we have a charge of -2 on the left side (two
nitrate ions each with a -1 charge) and a charge of +2 on the right side (one
copper ion). By adding four H+ ions to the left side, we balance the charge at +2.
-2 + 1+42 = +2
The equation at this point becomes
1 Cu + 2 NO3- + 4 H+ h 1 Cu2 + + 2 NO2
Step 8 The hydrogen atoms are balanced through the addition of H2O molecules. There are
four H atoms on the left side (four H+ ions) and none on the right side. Addition of
two H2O molecules to the right side will balance the H atoms at four per side.
1 Cu + 2 NO3- + 4 H+ h 1 Cu2 + + 2 NO2 + 2 H2O
Step 9 The O atoms automatically balance at six atoms on each side. This is our double-
check that previous steps have been correctly carried out. The balanced net ionic
equation is thus
Cu + 2 NO3- + 4 H+ h Cu2 + + 2 NO2 + 2 H2O
Answer Double Check: Is the final equation balanced relative to the charge associated
with the ions present? Yes. The charge balance is at +2. On the reactant side of the equa-
tion, two -1 ions 1NO3- 2 and four +1 ions 1H+ 2 give a net charge of +2. On the product
side of the equation, the one Cu2 + ion gives a charge of +2.
EXAMPLE 15.9 Balancing a Net Ionic Redox Equation Using the Oxidation
Number Method
Balance the following net ionic redox equation for the reaction between MnO4- and C2O4 2 -
in basic solution using the oxidation number method for balancing redox equations.
MnO4- + C2O42 - h MnO2 + CO32 -
SOLUTION
Step 1 The elements being oxidized and reduced are identified by assigning oxidation
numbers.
MnO4- + C2O42 - h MnO2 + CO32 -

+7 +2 +3 -2 +4 -2 +4 -2
The two elements undergoing oxidation number change are Mn and C.

Step 2 The change in oxidation number per atom is determined.
⫹7 (⫺3) ⫹4
⫺
MnO4 ⫹ C2O4 2⫺
MnO2 ⫹ CO32⫺ Change in oxidation
number per atom
⫹3 (⫹1) ⫹4
Step 3 The carbon oxidation number change is multiplied by 2, since there are two
carbon atoms in the C2O42 - , to obtain the oxidation number change per formula
unit.
(⫺3)
MnO4⫺ ⫹ C2O42⫺ MnO2 ⫹ CO32⫺ Change in oxidation number

per formula unit
2(⫹1)
Step 4 By multiplying the Mn per formula unit oxidation number decrease of -3 by 2

and multiplying the C per formula unit oxidation number increase of +2 by 3, the
oxidation number increase and the oxidation number decrease become equal;
both are at six units.
2(⫺3)
MnO4⫺ ⫹ C2O42⫺ MnO2 ⫹ CO32⫺ Oxidation number increase equals

3[2(⫹1)]
Step 5 The bracket notation indicates that two Mn atoms and six C atoms undergo an
oxidation number change. Translating this information into coefficients produces
the equation
2 MnO4- + 3 C2O42 - h 2 MnO2 + 6 CO32 -
Step 6 The only atoms left to balance are those of O.

Step 7 Since this is a net ionic equation, the ionic charges must balance. In a basic solu-
tion, which is the situation in this example, charge balance is accomplished by
adding OH- ions.
The equation, at present, has a net charge on the reactant side of -8 (two -1
ions and three -2 ions). The charge on the product side of the equation is -12
(six -2 ions). By adding four OH- ions to the reactant side, the charge balances
at -12 on each side of the equation.
The equation, with charge balance included, becomes
2 MnO4⫺ ⫹ 3 C2O42⫺ ⫹ 4 OH⫺ 2 MnO2 ⫹ 6 CO32⫺

⫺12 charge ⫺12 charge
Step 8 H atom balance is achieved by addition of H2O molecules. Two H2O molecules
are added to the product side of the equation to counterbalance the four H atoms
already present on the reactant side of the equation (four OH- ions).
2 MnO4- + 3 C2O42 - + 4 OH- h 2 MnO2 + 6 CO32 - + 2 H2O
Step 9 The oxygen atoms should automatically balance if all of the previous steps have
been carried out correctly. Such is the case. There are 24 O atoms on each side
of the equation.
The final balanced equation is
2 MnO4- + 3 C2O42 - + 4 OH- h 2 MnO2 + 6 CO32 - + 2 H2O
Answer Double Check: Is the equation balanced relative to both atoms and charge? Yes.
12 Mn, 6 C, 4 H, 24 O, -12 charge2 = 12 Mn, 6 C, 4 H, 24 O, -12 charge2
15.9 HALF-REACTION METHOD FOR BALANCING REDOX EQUATIONS

Student Learning Focus: Be able to balance both molecular redox equations and net ionic redox
equations using the half-reaction method for balancing redox equations.
The basis for the half-reaction method for balancing redox equations is the separation
of the unbalanced redox equation into two half-reactions, one for oxidation and one for
reduction. A half-reaction is a chemical equation that describes one of the two parts of
an overall oxidation–reduction reaction, either the oxidation part or the reduction part.
There are always two half-reactions associated with a given redox equation. These half-
reactions, once obtained, are then balanced separately. The two balanced half-reactions
are then added together to generate the overall balanced equation.
The division of the original unbalanced redox equation into two parts (two half-
reactions) is artificial. One half-reaction does not really take place independently of the
other; we cannot have oxidation without reduction. Nevertheless, this method of balanc-
ing redox equations is preferred in certain areas of redox chemistry. In particular, it leads
to an increased understanding of the reactions that take place in electrochemical cells
such as batteries.
As we did with the oxidation number method for balancing redox equations, we
will break the half-reaction balancing process into a series of steps.
Step 1 Using oxidation numbers, determine which atoms are oxidized and which are
reduced. Based on this information, split the redox equation into two skeletal
half-reaction equations:
a. An oxidation half-reaction equation, which involves the formula of the sub-
stance containing the element oxidized, along with other species associated
with it
b. A reduction half-reaction equation, which involves the formula of the sub-
stance containing the element reduced, along with other species associated
with it
Step 2 Balance each of the half-reactions.
a. First, balance the element oxidized or reduced, and then balance any other
elements present in the skeletal equation other than oxygen or hydrogen.
b. Next, show the number of electrons lost or gained in the oxidation or reduc-
tion. Use the change in oxidation number and the number of atoms oxidized
or reduced to determine the number of electrons lost or gained. Electrons
lost (oxidation) are shown on the product side of the equation, and electrons In a half-reaction equation
gained (reduction) on the reactant side of the equation. the electron placement is
c. Balance the ionic charge by adding H+ ions (acidic solution) or OH- ions 1. product side for an
oxidation process
(basic solution) as reactant or product. (Remember that the electrons previ-
(loss of electrons).
ously added must be considered in balancing charge.) 2. reactant side for a
d. Balance the hydrogen atoms by adding H2O molecules as reactant or product. reduction process
e. Verify that the oxygen atoms are balanced. (If they do not balance, a mistake (gain of electrons).
has been made in a previous step.)
Step 3 Multiply each balanced half-reaction by appropriate integers to make the total
number of electrons lost equal the total number of electrons gained.
Step 4 Add the two half-reactions together and cancel identical species, including electrons,
on each side of the equation. See if the coefficients obtained can be simplified.
Examples 15.10 through 15.12 illustrate how the preceding guidelines for balancing
redox equations are applied.
EXAMPLE 15.10 Balancing a Net Ionic Redox Equation Using

the Half-Reaction Method
Balance the following net ionic redox equation for the reaction between S2 - and NO3- in
acidic solution using the half-reaction method for balancing redox equations.
S2 - + NO3- h S + NO
SOLUTION
Step 1 Determine the oxidation and reduction skeletal half-reactions. Assigning oxida-
tion numbers, we get
S2 - + NO3- h S + NO
-2 +5 -2 0 +2 -2
Sulfur is oxidized, increasing in oxidation number from -2 to 0. Nitrogen is

reduced, decreasing in oxidation number from +5 to +2.
The skeletal half-reactions for oxidation and reduction are
Oxidation: S2 - h S
Reduction: NO3- h NO
Step 2 Balance the individual half-reactions.
a. In both half-reactions, the element being oxidized or reduced is already bal-
anced—one atom of S on both sides in the first half-reaction and one atom
of N on both sides in the second half-reaction. There are no other elements
present except oxygen.
Oxidation: S2 - h S
Reduction: NO3- h NO
b. The oxidation number increase for S is +2. This is caused by the loss of two
electrons, which are shown on the product side of the oxidation half-reaction.
Oxidation: S2 - h S + 2 e-
The oxidation number decrease for N is -3. This results from the gain of three
electrons, which are shown on the reactant side of the reduction half-reaction.
Reduction: NO3- + 3 e- h NO
Two different aspects of c. Since this is an acidic solution reaction, charge balance is achieved by adding
a half-reaction equation H+ ions. In the oxidation half-reaction there is a charge of -2 on each side of
must be balanced.
the equation. No H+ ions are needed since the charge is already in balance.
1. Atoms. The same
number of atoms of Oxidation: S2 - h S + 2 e-
each kind must be
present on both sides In the reduction half-reaction there is a charge of -4 on the left side of the
of the equation.
equation (-1 from the NO3- ion and -3 from the three electrons). There is no
2. Charge. The net charge on the right side of the equation. Charge balance is achieved by adding
electrical charge four H+ ions to the left side of the equation. Each side of the equation will now
must be the same
on each side of the
have zero charge.
equation. The net
charge does not Reduction: NO3- + 3 e- + 4 H+ h NO
have to be zero. It
can be any value d. Water molecules are used to achieve hydrogen balance. Since no hydrogen is
as long as it is the present in the oxidation half-reaction, no water molecules are needed.
same on both sides
of the equation (+ 2 Oxidation: S2 - h S + 2 e-
and + 2, or - 4 and
- 4, etc.). In the reduction half-reaction, two water molecules are added to the right
side of the equation. We now have four hydrogen atoms on each side of the
equation.
Reduction: NO3- + 3 e- + 4 H+ h NO + 2 H2O
e. There are no oxygen atoms present in the oxidation half-reaction. In the re-
duction half-reaction, the oxygen balances at three atoms on each side of the
equation. The two balanced half-reactions are
Oxidation: S2 - h S + 2e-
Reduction: NO3- + 3 e- + 4 H+ h NO + 2 H2O
Step 3 Equalize electron loss and electron gain.

Two electrons are produced in the oxidation half-reaction and three electrons are
gained in the reduction half-reaction. To equalize electron loss and electron gain,
we multiply the oxidation half-reaction by three and the reduction half-reaction
by two. We have then an electron loss of 6 and an electron gain of 6.
Oxidation: 31S2 - h S + 2 e- 2
Reduction: 21NO3- + 3 e- + 4 H+ h NO + 2 H2O2
Step 4 Add the half-reactions and cancel identical species.

Adding the two half-reactions together, we get
Oxidation: 3 S2 - h 3 S + 6 e-
Reduction: 2 NO3- + 6 e- + 8 H+ h 2 NO + 4 H2 O
3 S2 - + 2 NO3- + 8 H+ h 3 S + 2 NO + 4 H2O
There are no species to cancel other than the electrons. The electrons must
always cancel. If they do not, we have made a mistake in a previous step.
Answer Double Check: Do the reactant and product sides of the equation have the same
net ionic charge? Yes. There is no charge associated with the product side of the equation
since none of the products is an ion. Thus, the sum of ionic charges on the reactant side
of the equation must add to zero. Such is the case; 31-22 + 21-12 + 81+12 = 0.

Balance the following net ionic redox equation for the reaction between S2 - and Cl2 in
basic solution using the half-reaction method for balancing redox equations.
S2 - + Cl2 h SO42 - + Cl-
SOLUTION
Step 1 Determine the oxidation and reduction skeletal half-reactions.
Assigning oxidation numbers, we get
S2- + Cl2 h SO4 2- + Cl-
-2 0 +6 -2 -1
Sulfur is oxidized, increasing in oxidation number from -2 to +6. Chlorine is
reduced, decreasing in oxidation number from 0 to -1. The skeletal half-reactions
for oxidation and reduction are
Oxidation: S2 - h SO42 -
Reduction: Cl2 h Cl-
a. In the oxidation half-reaction the S is already balanced.
Oxidation: S2 - h SO42 -
To balance the Cl in the reduction half-reaction, the coefficient 2 must be
added on the right side.
Reduction: Cl2 h 2 Cl-
b. The oxidation number increase for S is +8, which corresponds to the loss of
eight electrons.
Oxidation: S2 - h SO42 - + 8 e-
The oxidation number decrease for Cl is -1, which corresponds to a gain of
one electron. Since there are two Cl atoms changing, the total electron gain is
two electrons.
Reduction: Cl2 + 2 e- h 2 Cl-
c. Since this reaction occurs in a basic solution, charge balance is achieved by
adding OH- ions. In the oxidation half-reaction there is a charge of -2 on the
left side and a charge of -10 (one SO42 - ion and eight electrons) on the right
side. The charge is brought into balance, at a -10, by adding eight OH- ions
to the left side of the equation.
Oxidation: S2 - + 8 OH- h SO42 - + 8 e-
In the reduction half-reaction, the charge is already balanced at a -2 on each
side. No OH- ions are needed.
d. Hydrogen balance is achieved in the oxidation half-reaction by adding four
H2O molecules to the right side of the equation.
Oxidation: S2 - + 8 OH- h SO42 - + 8 e- + 4 H2O
Hydrogen balance is not needed in the reduction half-reaction since no hydro-

gen is present.
e. Oxygen balances at eight atoms on each side of the equation in the oxidation
half-reaction. Oxygen is not present in the reduction half-reaction. The two
balanced half-reactions are
Eight electrons are produced in the oxidation half-reaction and two electrons are
gained in the reduction half-reaction. Multiplying the reduction half-reaction by 4
will cause electron loss and electron gain to be equal at eight electrons.
Oxidation: S2 - + 8 OH- h SO42 - + 8 e- + 4 H2 O

Reduction: 41Cl2 + 2e- h 2 Cl- 2
Step 4 Add the half-reactions and cancel identical species.

Reduction: 4 Cl2 + 8 e- h 8 Cl-
S + 8 OH - + 4 Cl2 h SO42 - + 4 H2O + 8 Cl-
2-
There are no species to cancel other than the electrons.
Answer Double Check: Do the product and reactant sides of the equation have the
same net charge? Yes. Both sides of the equation have a net charge of -10.

Balance the following net ionic redox equation for the reaction between H3AsO3 and
MnO4- in acidic solution using the half-reaction method for balancing redox equations.
H3AsO3 + MnO4- h H3AsO4 + Mn2 +
SOLUTION
Assigning oxidation numbers, we get
H3AsO3 + MnO4- h H3AsO4 + Mn2 +

+1 +3 -2 +7 -2 +1 +5 -2 +2
Arsenic is oxidized, increasing in oxidation number from +3 to +5. Manganese

is reduced, decreasing in oxidation number from +7 to +2. The skeletal half-
reactions for oxidation and reduction are
Oxidation: H3AsO3 h H3AsO4

Reduction: MnO4- h Mn2 +

a. In both half-reactions, the element being oxidized or reduced is already
balanced—one atom of As on both sides in the oxidation half-reaction and one
atom of Mn on both sides in the reduction half-reaction.
Oxidation: H3AsO3 h H3AsO4

Reduction: MnO4- h Mn2 +
b. The oxidation number increase for As is +2, which corresponds to the loss of
two electrons.
Oxidation: H3AsO3 h H3AsO4 + 2 e-
The oxidation number decrease for Mn is -5, which corresponds to the gain
of five electrons.
Reduction: MnO4- + 5 e- h Mn2 +
c. Since this reaction occurs in an acidic solution, charge balance is achieved by

adding H+ ions. In the oxidation half-reaction there is a charge of zero on the
left side and a charge of -2 (two electrons) on the right side. Charge balance,
at zero, is achieved by adding two H+ ions to the right side of the equation.
Oxidation: H3AsO3 h H3AsO4 + 2 e- + 2 H+
In the reduction half-reaction there is a charge of -6 on the left side (one MnO4-
ion and five electrons) and a charge of +2 on the right side. Charge balance, at
a +2, is achieved by adding eight H+ ions to the left side of the equation.
Reduction: MnO4- + 5 e- + 8 H+ h Mn2 +
d. Hydrogen balance is obtained in the oxidation half-reaction by adding one

H2O molecule to the left side of the equation.
Oxidation: H3AsO3 + H2O h H3AsO4 + 2 e- + 2 H+
Hydrogen balance is obtained in the reduction half-reaction by adding four

H2O molecules to the right side of the equation.
Reduction: MnO4- + 5 e- + 8 H+ h Mn2 + + 4 H2O
e. Oxygen balances at four atoms on each side in both the oxidation and reduc-
tion half-reactions. The two balanced half-reactions are
Oxidation: H3AsO3 + H2O h H3AsO4 + 2 e- + 2 H+

Reduction: MnO4- + 5 e- + 8 H+ h Mn2 + + 4 H2O

The lowest common multiple for an electron loss of 2 and an electron gain of 5 is
10 electrons. Thus, we multiply the oxidation half-reaction by 5 and the reduction
half-reaction by 2.
Oxidation: 51H3AsO3 + H2O h H3AsO4 + 2 e- + 2 H+ 2

Reduction: 21MnO4- + 5 e- + 8 H+ h Mn2 + + 4 H2O2
Step 4 Add the half-reactions, and cancel identical species.

Oxidation: 5 H3AsO3 + 5 H2O h 5 H3AsO4 + 10 e- + 10 H+
Reduction: 2 MnO4- + 10 e- + 16 H+ h 2 Mn2 + + 8 H2O
5 H3AsO3 + 5 H2O + 2 MnO4- + 16 H+ h 5 H3AsO4 + 10 H+ + 2 Mn2 + + 8 H2O

Both H+ ion and H2O are on both sides of the equation. We can cancel 5 H2O
molecules from each side and 10 H+ ions from each side. The final balanced
equation becomes
5 H3AsO3 + 2 MnO4- + 6 H+ h 5 H3AsO4 + 2 Mn2 + + 3 H2O
Answer Double Check: Were H2O and H+ added to the equation in the appropriate
manner to achieve H and O balance? Yes. There are 21 H atoms on each side of the equa-
tion and 23 O atoms on each side of the equation.
In each of the three examples we have just considered, the oxidation and reduction
half-reactions were simultaneously balanced. This approach was used in the examples to
enable us to make comparisons. In practice, particularly when you are thoroughly famil-
iar with the balancing procedure, one half-reaction is usually completely balanced before
work begins on balancing the other half-reaction. Usually, it is better to work on just one
reaction at a time.
A comparison of the two methods for balancing redox equations is in order. Basic
to each method is being able to recognize the elements involved in the actual oxidation–
reduction process. The oxidation number method works on the principle that the increase
in oxidation number must equal the decrease in oxidation number. The half-reaction
method involves equalizing the number of electrons lost by the substance oxidized with
the number of electrons gained by the substance reduced.
The oxidation number method is usually faster, particularly for simple equations.
This potential speed is considered the major advantage of the oxidation number method.
The half-reaction method’s focus on electron transfer is its major advantage. The feature
becomes particularly important in electrochemistry. In this field it is most useful to discuss
chemical reactions in terms of half-reactions occurring at different locations (electrodes)
in an electrochemical cell.
15.10 DISPROPORTIONATION REACTIONS

Student Learning Focus: Be able to balance equations for redox reactions that involve dispropor-
tionation using (1) the oxidation number method of balancing and (2) the half-reaction method
of balancing.
A disproportionation reaction is a special type of oxidation–reduction reaction. A dispro-

portionation reaction is a redox reaction in which some atoms of a single element in a
reactant are oxidized and others are reduced. For such reactant behavior to be possible,
the reactant must contain an element that is capable of having at least three oxidation
numbers: its original number plus one higher and one lower oxidation number. Note that
any given atom is not both oxidized and reduced. Some atoms are oxidized, and other
atoms of the same element are reduced.
An example of a disproportionation reaction is
3 Br2 + 3 H2O h HBrO3 + 5 HBr
Note that two bromine-containing products have been produced from one bromine-
containing reactant. The reactant bromine atoms have an oxidation number of zero.
Bromine in HBrO3 has a +5 oxidation number (it has been oxidized), and bromine in
HBr has a -1 oxidation number (it has been reduced).
3 Br2 + 3 H2O h HBrO3 + 5 HBr
0 +5 -1
Thus, some of the reactant bromine atoms have been oxidized, while others have been
reduced. A disproportionation reaction has taken place.
Example 15.13 shows how the procedures for balancing redox equations (Sec. 15.8
and 15.9) are slightly modified to balance disproportionation reaction equations.
EXAMPLE 15.13 Balancing a Disproportionation Redox Equation
Balance the following equation for the redox reaction involving the disproportionation of
NO2 in acidic solution using
a. the oxidation number method of balancing redox equations
b. the half-reaction method of balancing redox equation
NO2 h NO3- + NO
SOLUTION
a. Oxidation Number Method
Step 1 In assigning oxidation numbers, we immediately become aware that this is a
disproportionation reaction. Nitrogen is the only element for which an oxidation
number change occurs.
NO2 h NO3- + NO
+4 -2 +5 -2 +2 -2
Step 2 Since the species NO2 is undergoing both oxidation and reduction, for balancing
purposes we will write it twice on the reactant side of the equation. With the NO2
in two places, brackets can then be drawn in the normal manner to connect the
substances involved in oxidation and reduction.
+4 (+1) +5
NO2 + NO2 NO3− + NO Change in oxidation number

per atom
+4 (−2) +2
(The NO2 molecules will be recombined later into one location.)

Step 3 The change in oxidation number per formula unit in both cases is the same as per
atom.
Step 4 By multiplying the oxidation number increase by 2, we equalize the oxidation
number increase and decrease per formula unit.
2(+1)
NO2 + NO2 NO3− + NO Oxidation number increase equals

(−2)
Step 5 The bracket notation indicates that two N atoms undergo an increase in oxidation
number for every one that undergoes a decrease in oxidation number. Translating
this information into equation coefficients gives
2 NO2 + 1 NO2 h 2 NO3- + 1 NO
Now that the equation coefficients for the substance involved in oxidation and
reduction, NO2, have been determined, we can combine the NO2 into one loca-
tion, reversing the process carried out in step 2.
3 NO2 h 2 NO3- + 1 NO
Step 6 The only atoms left to balance are oxygen atoms.
Step 7 Since this is a net ionic equation, charge must be balanced. In an acidic solution,
which is the case here, we balance the charge by adding H+ ion. As the equation
now stands, we have a charge of -2 on the right side (2 NO3- ions). By adding
two H+ ions to the right side of the equation we balance the charge at zero.
3 NO2 h 2 NO3- + 1 NO + 2 H+
Step 8 Hydrogen atom balance is achieved through the addition of H2O molecules. There
are no H atoms on the left side and two H atoms on the right side. Addition of one
H2O molecule to the left side will balance the H atoms at two on each side.
1 H2O + 3 NO2 h 2 NO3- + 1 NO + 2 H+
Step 9 The oxygen atoms should automatically balance. They do, at seven atoms on
each side.
H2O + 3 NO2 h 2 NO3- + NO + 2 H+
b. Half-Reaction Method
Assignment of oxidation numbers is the same as in part (a).
NO2 h NO3- + NO
+4 -2 +5 -2 +2 -2
Nitrogen is undergoing both oxidation and reduction. The skeleton half-reactions

for oxidation and reduction are
Oxidation: NO2 h NO3-
Reduction: NO2 h NO
Note how disproportionation is handled at this point. The substance undergoing
disproportionation appears as a reactant in both the oxidation and reduction
half-reactions.
a. In both half-reactions, the element being oxidized or reduced is already
balanced—one atom of N in both cases.
Oxidation: NO2 h NO3-
Reduction: NO2 h NO
b. The oxidation number increase for the oxidized N is + 1, which corresponds to
the loss of one electron.
Oxidation: NO2 h NO3- + 1 e-
The oxidation number decrease for the reduced N is -2, which corresponds to
the gain of two electrons.
Reduction: NO2 + 2 e- h NO
c. Since this reaction occurs in an acidic solution, charge balance is achieved

by adding H+ ions. In the oxidation half-reaction there is no charge on the
left side of the equation and a charge of -2 on the right side. Adding two H+
ions to the right side of the equation will balance the charge at zero on both
sides.
Oxidation: NO2 h NO3- + 1 e- + 2 H+
In the reduction half-reaction there is a charge of - 2 on the left side of the

equation and no charge on the right side. Charge balance is achieved by add-
ing two H+ ions to the left side of the equation.
Reduction: NO2 + 2 e- + 2 H+ h NO
d. Hydrogen balance is obtained in the oxidation half-reaction by adding one

H2O to the left side of the equation.
Oxidation: NO2 + H2O h NO3- + 1 e- + 2 H+
Hydrogen balance is obtained in the reduction half-reaction by adding one

H2O to the right side of the equation.
Reduction: NO2 + 2 e- + 2 H+ h NO + H2O
e. Oxygen balances at two atoms on each side in both the oxidation and reduc-
tion half-reactions. The two balanced half-reactions are
Oxidation: NO2 + H2O h NO3- + 1 e- + 2 H+


The oxidation half-reaction involves the loss of one electron. The reduction
half-reaction involves the gain of two electrons. Multiplying the oxidation half-
reaction by a factor of 2 will cause electron loss and gain to be equal at two
electrons.
Oxidation: 21NO2 + H2O h NO3- + 1 e- + 2 H+ 2

Step 4 Add the half-reactions, and cancel identical species.

Oxidation: 2 NO2 + 2 H2O h 2 NO3- + 2 e- + 4 H+

Reduction: NO2 +2 e- + 2 H+ h NO + H2O
2 NO2 + 2 H2O + NO2 + 2 H+ h 2 NO3- + 4 H+ + NO + H2O
Both H2O and H+ are on both sides of the equation, and some of each can be
cancelled. Also, NO2 appears in two places on the left side of the equation and
needs to be combined. The final balanced equation is
3 NO2 + H2O h 2 NO3- + NO + 2 H+

Answer Double Check: Have both atom balance and charge balance been achieved for
this chemical equation? Yes. Atom balance is at 3 N, 7 O, and 2 H. Charge balance is at
zero. On the product side of the equation there are two -1 ions and two +1 ions, produc-
ing a net charge of zero.
15.11 STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS INVOLVING IONS

Student Learning Focus: Be able to carry out grams-to-moles-to-particles stoichiometric calcula-
tions using chemical equations that include ions as reactants and/or products.
Grams-to-moles-to-particle stoichiometric calculations were first encountered in the

latter portion of Chapter 10 (Secs. 10.8 through 10.11), then again in Chapter 12
(Sec. 12.14), and then again in Chapter 13 (Sec. 13.9). The chemical equation basis
for these calculations was always a balanced molecular equation. How does the
presence of ions in a chemical equation, either a net ionic redox equation or a net
ionic non-redox equation, affect the stoichiometric calculation process? What modifi-
cations need to be made? The answer to these questions is simple. The calculational
process previously used for molecular-equation-based problems does not need to be
modified.
The lack of need for modification results from the fact that ions have essentially the
same mass as the parent neutral species from which they can be considered derived. For
example, let us formally consider the mass difference between a sodium atom (Na) and a
sodium ion 1Na+ 2. Subatomic-particlewise, these two species differ by one electon. The
mass of an electron, to six decimal places on the amu scale (Sec. 5.8), is 0.000549 amu.
Using this value and the mass of a sodium atom to six decimal places, which is 22.989769
amu (see inside front cover listing), we have for the mass of an Na atom and an Na+ ion,
respectively,
Na atom = 22.989769 amu

Na+ ion = 122.989769 - 0.0005492 amu = 22.989220 amu
The mass difference between the two species lies in the ten-thousandths
place, a difference too small to affect the way standard stoichiometric calculations
are carried out.
The operational rule for use of atomic masses in chemical calculations is to use
values rounded to the hundredths place (Sec. 9.3). Based on this operational rule,
we have
mass of a sodium atom 1Na2 = 22.99 amu

mass of a sodium ion 1Na+ 2 = 22.99 amu
Thus, in general, in chemical-equation-based calculations that involve ions an ion

is always considered to have the same mass as the neutral “parent” species from which it
can be considered to have been derived.
With this concept in place, ion-based stoichiometric calculations proceed in the
same manner as atom-based stoichiometric calculations. The relationships needed are
those between grams, moles, particles, solution volume, and gaseous volume, the same
relationships previously used in Chapter 13 in solving solution-based stoichiometric prob-
lems. These relationships are summarized in Figure 15.3.
Volume of Volume Volume Volume of FIGURE 15.3

solution A of gas A of gas B solution B Conversion-factor
relationships needed
for solving chemical-
Molar volume Molar volume equation-based
Molarity Molarity
problems that involve
Equation ions.
Particles Avogadro’s Moles coefficients Moles Avogadro’s Particles
subscripts
Molar Molar
mass mass
Grams Grams
of A of B
EXAMPLE 15.14 Calculating the Mass of an Ion Present in a Solution
How many grams of Ca2 + ions are present in an aqueous CaCl2 solution that contains
9.7 * 1022 Cl- ions?
SOLUTION
The equation that governs the ions present in an aqueous CaCl2 solution is
CaCl21aq2 h Ca2 + 1aq2 + 2 Cl-1aq2
The extent of this dissociation is 100% as CaCl2 is a strong electrolyte (Sec. 15.2).
Step 1 The given quantity is 9.7 * 1022 Cl- ions and the desired quantity is grams of
Ca2 + ions present.
9.7 * 1022 Cl- ions = ? g Ca2 + ions
Step 2 This is a particles-of-A to grams-of-B problem. The pathway, in terms of Figure 15.3, is
Particles Avogadro’s Moles Equation Moles Molar Grams

of A number of A coefficients of B mass of B

1 mole Cl- 1 mole Ca2 + 40.08 g Ca2 +
9.7 * 1022 Cl- ions * * *
6.022 * 1023 Cl- ions 2 mole Cl- 1 mole Ca2 +
particles A h moles A h moles B h grams B
Note the number 40.08 in the last conversion factor. The molar mass of Ca2 + ions
is the same as the molar mass of Ca atoms, as was explained in the discussion
preceding this worked-out example.
Step 4 The result, obtained by combining the numerical factors is
9.7 * 1022 * 1 * 1 * 40.08
g Ca2+ = 3.2279641 g Ca2 +
6.022 * 1023 * 2 * 1
1calculator answer2
= 3.2 g Ca2 +
1correct answer2
EXAMPLE 15.15 Calculating the Volume of Solution Needed to Supply

a Given Amount of an Ion
What volume, in milliliters, of a 0.300 M Al1NO3 23 solution is needed to supply 0.782
mole of NO3- ion?
SOLUTION
The equation that governs the ions present in an aqueous Al1NO3 23 solution is
Al1NO3 231aq2 h Al3 + 1aq2 + 3 NO3-1aq2
The extent of this dissociation is 100% as Al1NO3 23 is a strong electrolyte (Sec. 15.2).
Step 1 The given quantity is 0.782 mole of NO3- ion and the desired quantity is volume
of Al1NO3 23 solution.
0.782 mole NO3 - ion = ? mL Al1NO3 23 solution
Step 2 This is moles-of-A to volume-of-solution B problem. The pathway, in terms of
Figure 15.3, is
Moles Equation Moles Molarity Volume of

of A coefficients of B solution B
1 mole Al1NO3 23 1000 mL Al1NO3 23

0.782 mole NO3- ion * *
3 moles NO3- ion 0.300 mole Al1NO3 23
moles A h moles B h solution volume B
The numbers in the first conversion factor come from the dissociation equation
and the numbers in the second conversion factor come from the given molarity
of the solution.
Step 4 The result, obtained by combining the numerical factors, is
0.782 * 1 * 1000
mL Al1NO3 23 = 868.8889 mL Al1NO3 23
3 * 0.300
1calculator answer2
= 869 mL Al1NO3 23
1correct answer2
Answer Double Check: Is the magnitude of the answer reasonable? Yes. The 0.300 M
Al1NO3 23 is 0.900 molar in NO3- ion. Thus, 1 liter (1000 mL) of solution would supply
0.900 M of NO3- ion. A volume less than 1000 mL would be needed to supply the needed
0.782 mole of NO3- ion, which is the case here.
EXAMPLE 15.16 Calculating the Volume of Solution Needed for a Reaction

Involving Ions
A solution is 1.20 M in NO3- ion. What volume of this solution, in milliliters, is needed to
react with 10.0 g of Cu in the following redox reaction?
Cu1s2 + 2 NO3-1aq2 + 4 H+1aq2 h Cu2 + 1aq2 + 2 NO21g2 + 2 H2O1l2
SOLUTION
Step 1 The given quantity is 10.0 g of Cu and the desired quantity is milliliters of NO3-
ion solution.
10.0 g Cu = ? mL NO3- solution
Step 2 In terms of Figure 15.3, this is a grams-of-A to volume-of-solution B
Grams Molar Moles Equation Moles Molarity Volume of

of A mass of A coefficients of B solution B
1 mole Cu 2 moles NO3- 1000 mL NO3-

10.0 g Cu * * *
63.55 g Cu 1 mole Cu 1.20 moles NO-3
grams A h moles A h moles B h volume solution B
Step 4 The result, obtained by combining the numerical factors is
10.0 * 1 * 2 * 1000
mL NO3- = 262.26069 mL NO3-
63.55 * 1 * 1.20
1calculator answer2
= 262 mL NO3-
1correct answer2
Answer Double Check: Is the answer reasonable? Yes. If the given amount of Cu is ap-
proximated as 0.20 of a mole the needed amount of NO3- would be 0.40 of a mole. This
NO3- amount would require one-third (333 mL) of 1.20 M NO3 solution. The actual molar
amount of Cu is a little less than 0.20 mole. Thus, the volume of NO3- solution needed
should be less than 333 mL, which it is.
The following concise summaries of chapter content by section restate the major ideas (concepts) considered
in the chapter. They are a useful study aid for students as they prepare for an upcoming examination or are
reviewing for a final comprehensive examination.
1. Electrolytes An electrolyte is a substance whose 2. Ionic and Net Ionic Chemical Equations An
solution conducts electricity. Strong electrolytes, ionic chemical equation is an equation in which
which include strong acids, strong bases, and the chemical formulas of the predominant form
soluble salts, produce strongly conducting of each compound in a solution are used; dis-
solutions as a result of complete or almost com- sociated and ionized compounds are written as
plete dissociation/ionization in a solution. Weak ions, and undissociated and un-ionized com-
electrolytes, which include weak acids and weak pounds are written in molecular form. A net
bases, produce weakly conducting solutions as ionic chemical equation is an ionic equation
a result of dissociation/ionization occurring to from which nonparticipating (spectator) ions
only a small extent. have been eliminated.
3. Oxidation–Reduction Reaction Terminology oxidation numbers change. A nonredox reac-

Oxidation is the loss of electrons by a reactant; tion is a chemical reaction in which there is no
reduction is the gain of electrons by a reactant. change in oxidation numbers.
An oxidizing agent causes oxidation by accept- 6. Methods for Balancing Redox Reactions
ing electrons from another reactant. A reducing Two distinctly different approaches for systemat-
agent causes reduction by providing electrons for ically balancing redox equations are in common
another reactant to accept. An oxidation– use: the oxidation number method and the half-
reduction reaction is any reaction involving reaction method. Each method has advantages
the transfer of electrons between reactants. and disadvantages. The basis for the oxidation
Shortened terminology for an oxidation– number method is that the oxidation number
reduction reaction is redox reaction. increase must equal the oxidation number de-
4. Oxidation Numbers An oxidation number for an crease. In the half-reaction method for balancing
atom is a number that represents the charge that redox equations the unbalanced redox equation
the atom appears to have when the electrons in is separated into two half-reactions, one for oxi-
each bond it is participating in are assigned to the dation and one for reduction.
more electronegative of the two atoms involved in 7. Disproportionation Reactions A disproportion-
the bond. Oxidation numbers are used to identify ation reaction is a redox reaction in which some
the electron transfer that occurs in a redox reaction. atoms of a single element in a reactant are oxi-
In terms of oxidation numbers, oxidation is asso- dized and others are reduced. For such reactant
ciated with an increase in oxidation number and behavior to be possible, the reactant must contain
reduction involves a decrease in oxidation number. an element that is capable of having at least three
5. Redox and Nonredox Chemical Reactions A oxidation numbers: its original number plus one
redox reaction is a chemical reaction in which higher and one lower oxidation number.
Key Terms Listing

disproportionation reaction nonelectrolyte Sec. 15.2 oxidizing agent Secs. 15.4 and 15.5
Sec. 15.10 non-oxidation–reduction reaction redox reaction Sec. 15.4
electrolyte Sec. 15.2 Sec. 15.6 reducing agent Secs. 15.4 and 15.5
half-reaction Sec. 15.9 oxidation Sec 15.4 reduction Sec. 15.4
ionic equation Sec. 15.3 oxidation number Sec. 15.5 strong electrolyte Sec. 15.2
net ionic equation Sec. 15.3 oxidation–reduction reaction Sec. 15.4 weak electrolyte Sec. 15.2

sequence as the chapters textual material. These drill problems occur in matched pairs with the two members of a pair addressing
ELECTROLYTES (SEC. 15.2)
15.1 Classify each of the following acids or bases as a 15.2 Classify each of the following acids or bases as a
strong electrolyte or a weak electrolyte. strong electrolyte or a weak electrolyte.
a. H2CO3 a. H3PO4
b. KOH b. HNO3
c. H2SO4 c. KOH
d. HCN d. H2C2O4
15.3 Indicate whether each of the following substances is 15.12 Indicate whether or not each of the following types
present in a solution in ionic form, molecular form, of substances would be written in ionic form in an
or both. ionic equation.
a. acetic acid, a weak acid a. weak electrolyte b. strong acid
b. sucrose, a nonelectrolyte c. insoluble salt d. an element
c. sodium sulfate, a soluble salt 15.13 Indicate whether or not each of the following com-
d. hydrofluoric acid, a weak acid pounds would be written in ionic form in an ionic
15.4 Indicate whether each of the following substances is equation.
present in solution in ionic form, molecular form, or a. K2SO4 b. AgCl c. HCN d. CO2
both. 15.14 Indicate whether or not each of the following com-
a. hydrochloric acid, a strong acid pounds would be written in ionic form in an ionic
b. sodium nitrate, a soluble salt equation.
c. potassium chloride, a soluble salt a. Na3PO4 b. KCl c. HNO3 d. SO3
d. ethanol, a nonelectrolyte 15.15 Classify the following equations for reactions occur-
15.5 Indicate whether each of the substances in Problem ring in an aqueous solution as molecular, ionic, or
15.3, when dissolved in water, produces (1) a net ionic.
strongly conducting solution, (2) a weakly conduct- a. MgCO3 + 2 HBr h MgBr2 + H2O + CO2
ing solution, or (3) a nonconducting solution. b. 2 OH- + H2CO3 h CO32 - + 2 H2O
15.6 Indicate whether each of the substances in Problem c. K+ + OH- + H+ + I- h K+ + I- + H2O
15.4, when dissolved in water, produces (1) a d. Ag+ + Cl- h AgCl
strongly conducting solution, (2) a weakly conduct- 15.16 Classify the following equations for reactions occur-
ing solution, or (3) a nonconducting solution. ring in an aqueous solution as molecular, ionic, or
15.7 How many ions are produced, per formula unit, net ionic.
when each of the following strong electrolytes are a. CaCO3 + 2 H+ + 2 NO3- h Ca2 + +
dissolved in water? 2 NO3- + H2O + CO2
a. NaCl b. Mg1NO3 22 b. Ni + Cu2 + h Cu + Ni2 +
c. NH4CN d. HClO4 c. NaCl + AgNO3 h NaNO3 + AgCl
15.8 How many ions are produced, per formula unit, d. Ca2 + + 2 OH- h Ca1OH22
when each of the following strong electrolytes are 15.17 Write a balanced net ionic equation for each of the
dissolved in water? following reactions, each of which occurs in an
a. KNO3 b. Na2CO3 aqueous solution.
c. Al1OH23 d. K3N a. 2 NaBr + Pb1NO3 22 h 2 NaNO3 + PbBr2
15.9 Four different substances of the generalized formula b. FeCl3 + 3 NaOH h Fe1OH23 + 3 NaCl
HA were dissolved in water with the results shown in c. Zn + 2 HCl h ZnCl2 + H2
the following diagrams. Which of the diagrams rep- d. H2S + 2 KOH h K2S + 2 H2O
resents the substance that is the strongest electrolyte 15.18 Write a balanced net ionic equation for each of the
of the four substances? following reactions, each of which occurs in an
aqueous solution.
a. CaCl2 + CuSO4 h CaSO4 + CuCl2
b. Ca1NO3 22 + K2CO3 h CaCO3 + 2 KNO3
c. Mg + 2 HBr h MgBr2 + H2
d. H3PO4 + 3 NaOH h Na3PO4 + 3 H2O
15.19 Write a balanced net ionic equation for each of the
following reactions, each of which occurs in an
I II III IV
aqueous solution.
15.10 Which of the diagrams in Problem 15.9 represents a. Pb + 2 AgNO3 h 2 Ag + Pb1NO3 22
the substance that is the weakest electrolyte of the b. Cl2 + 2 NaBr h 2 NaCl + Br2
four substances? c. 2 Al1NO3 23 + 3 Na2S h Al2S3 + 6 NaNO3
d. NaC2H3O2 + NH4Cl h NH4C2H3O2 + NaCl
15.20 Write a balanced net ionic equation for each of the
IONIC AND NET IONIC EQUATIONS (SEC. 15.3)
following reactions, each of which occurs in an
15.11 Indicate whether or not each of the following types aqueous solution.
of substances would be written in ionic form in an a. Ni + Cu1NO3 22 h Ni1NO3 22 + Cu
ionic equation. b. Br2 + 2 NaI h 2 NaBr + I2
a. strong electrolyte b. weak acid c. Hg1NO3 22 + K2S h 2 KNO3 + HgS
c. soluble salt d. nonelectrolyte d. 1NH4 22 SO4 + 2 NaBr h 2 NH4Br + Na2SO4
OXIDATION–REDUCTION TERMINOLOGY 15.33 What is the oxidation number of the metal ion in each
(SECS. 15.4 AND 15.5) of the following sulfate-containing ionic compounds?
a. CuSO4 b. Fe21SO4 23
15.21 Give definitions of oxidation in terms of c. NiSO4 d. Ag2SO4
a. loss or gain of electrons. 15.34 What is the oxidation number of the metal ion in
b. increase or decrease in oxidation number. each of the following carbonate-containing ionic
15.22 Give definitions of reduction in terms of compounds?
a. loss or gain of electrons. a. Na2CO3 b. Au21CO3 23
b. increase or decrease in oxidation number. c. CuCO3 d. Ag2CO3
15.23 Give definitions of oxidizing agent in terms of 15.35 What is the oxidation number of each element in
a. loss or gain of electrons. each of the following compounds?
b. increase or decrease in oxidation number. a. H3PO4 b. BaCr2O7
c. substance oxidized or substance reduced. c. NH4ClO4 d. H4P2O7
15.24 Give definitions of reducing agent in terms of 15.36 What is the oxidation number of each element in
a. loss or gain of electrons. each of the following compounds?
b. increase or decrease in oxidation number. a. H2S2O7 b. KMnO4
c. substance oxidized or substance reduced. c. Na2CrO4 d. Ba1ClO22
15.25 Indicate whether each of the following pairings of 15.37 Indicate whether or not an element with an oxida-
concepts is a correct or an incorrect pairing. tion number of +2 is present in each of the following
a. reducing agent—gain of electrons compounds. If so, specify which element it is.
b. substance oxidized—loss of electrons a. CaCl2 b. H2S
c. oxidizing agent—increase in oxidation number c. OF2 d. MgBr2
d. substance reduced—decrease in oxidation number 15.38 Indicate whether or not an element with an oxida-
15.26 Indicate whether each of the following pairings of tion number of +2 is present in each of the following
concepts is a correct or an incorrect pairing. compound. If so, specify which element it is.
a. reducing agent—decrease in oxidation number a. K2S b. C2Cl4
b. substance oxidized—increase in oxidation number c. N2O4 d. CaO
c. oxidizing agent—gain of electrons 15.39 Determine the oxidation number of the metal in
d. substance reduced—loss of electrons each of the following polyatomic ion–containing
compounds.
a. Rh21CO3 22 b. Cr21SO4 23
OXIDATION NUMBERS (SEC. 15.5)
c. Cu1ClO2 22 d. Co31PO4 22
15.27 What is the oxidation number of oxygen in each of 15.40 Determine the oxidation number of the metal in each of
the following molecules? the following polyatomic ion–containing compounds.
a. O2 b. O3 a. Ni21SO4 23 b. Ru31PO4 22
c. H2O d. CaO c. Fe21CO3 23 d. Al1NO3 23
15.28 What is the oxidation number of sulfur in each of the 15.41 Indicate whether oxygen has a - 2, - 1, or positive
following molecules? oxidation number in each of the following oxygen-
a. S2 b. S8 containing species.
c. H2S d. Na2S a. Na2O b. OF2
15.29 What is the oxidation number of chlorine in each of c. Na2O2 d. BaO
the following chlorine-containing acids? 15.42 Indicate whether oxygen has a - 2, - 1, or positive
a. HClO b. HClO2 oxidation number in each of the following oxygen-
c. HClO3 d. HClO4 containing species.
15.30 What is the oxidation number of chlorine in each of a. O2F2 b. SO3
the following chlorine-containing salts? c. BaO2 d. BeO
a. NaClO b. NaClO2 15.43 Indicate whether hydrogen has a +1 or - 1 oxidation
c. NaClO3 d. NaClO4 number in each of the following hydrogen-containing
15.31 What is the oxidation number of the indicated ele- species.
ment in each of the following ions? a. NaH b. CH4
a. Br in Br- b. I in IO4- c. HCl d. CaH2
2-
c. Be in BeCl4 d. N in NF4+ 15.44 Indicate whether hydrogen has a +1 or - 1 oxidation
15.32 What is the oxidation number of the indicated ele- number in each of the following hydrogen-containing
ment in each of the following ions? species.
a. I in I- b. Cl in ClF4 + a. H2Se b. N2H2
-
c. Br in BrO d. F in BrF4- c. KH d. MgH2
CHARACTERISTICS OF OXIDATION–REDUCTION 15.53 Characterize each of the following reactions, using

REACTIONS (SEC. 15.5) one selection from the choices redox and nonre-
dox combined with one selection from the choices
15.45 Identify which substance is oxidized and which sub- synthesis, decomposition, single-replacement, and
stance is reduced in each of the following redox double-replacement.
reactions. a. H2 + Cl2 h 2 HCl
a. N2 + 3 H2 h 2 NH3 b. 2 HBr + Mg h MgBr2 + H2
b. Cl2 + 2 KI h 2 KCl + I2 c. MgCO3 h MgO + CO2
c. Sb2O3 + 3 Fe h 2 Sb + 3 FeO d. 2 KOH + H2SO4 h K2SO4 + 2 H2O
d. 3 H2SO3 + 2 HNO3 h 2 NO + H2O + 3 H2SO4 15.54 Characterize each of the following reactions, using
15.46 Identify which substance is oxidized and which sub- one selection from the choices redox and nonre-
stance is reduced in each of the following redox dox combined with one selection from the choices
reactions. synthesis, decomposition, single-replacement, and
a. 2 Al + 3 Cl2 h 2 AlCl3 double-replacement.
b. Zn + CuCl2 h ZnCl2 + Cu a. Zn + Cu1NO3 22 h Zn1NO3 22 + Cu
c. 2 NiS + 3 O2 h 2 NiO + 2 SO2 b. 2 SO2 + O2 h 2 SO3
d. 3 H2S + 2 HNO3 h 3 S + 2 NO + 4 H2O c. 2 CuO h 2 Cu + O2
15.47 Identify which substance is the oxidizing agent and d. NaCl + AgNO3 h AgCl + NaNO3
which substance is the reducing agent in each of the 15.55 Characterize each of the following chemical reac-
redox reactions in Problem 15.45 tions as (1) a redox reaction, (2) a nonredox reac-
15.48 Identify which substance is the oxidizing agent and tion, or (3) “can’t classify because of insufficient
which substance is the reducing agent in each of the information.”
redox reactions in Problem 15.46 a. a synthesis reaction in which both reactants are
15.49 Identify the following species for the redox reaction elements
2 HNO3 + SO2 h H2SO4 + 2 NO2 b. a combustion reaction
c. a decomposition reaction in which the products
a. substance that is oxidized
are all compounds
b. oxidizing agent
d. a decomposition reaction in which an element
c. substance that contains the element that decreas-
and a compound are products
es in oxidation number
15.56 Characterize each of the following chemical reac-
d. substance that contains the element that loses
tions as (1) a redox reaction, (2) a nonredox reac-
electrons during the oxidation–reduction reaction
tion, or (3) “can’t classify because of insufficient
15.50 Identify the following species for the redox reaction
information.”
PH3 + 2 NO2 h H3PO4 + N2 a. a synthesis reaction in which one reactant is an
a. substance that is reduced element and the other is a compound
b. reducing agent b. an acid–base neutralization reaction
c. substance that contains the element that increases c. a decomposition reaction in which the products
in oxidation number are all elements
d. substance that contains the element that loses d. a single-replacement reaction involving an active
electrons during the oxidation–reduction reaction metal and an acid
REDOX AND NONREDOX CHEMICAL REACTIONS BALANCING REDOX EQUATIONS: OXIDATION

(SEC. 15.6) NUMBER METHOD (SEC. 15.8)
15.51 Characterize each of the following chemical reac- 15.57 Balance the following equations by the oxidation
tions as a redox or a nonredox reaction. number method.
a. 2 FeBr3 h 2 FeBr2 + Br2 a. Cr + HCl h CrCl3 + H2
b. K2O + H2O h 2 KOH b. Cr2O3 + C h Cr + CO2
c. 2 KClO3 h 2 KCl + 3O2 c. SO2 + NO2 h SO3 + NO
d. CH4 + 2 O2 h CO2 + 2 H2O d. BaSO4 + C h BaS + CO
15.52 Characterize each of the following chemical reac- 15.58 Balance the following equations by the oxidation
tions as a redox reaction or a nonredox reaction. number method.
a. 2 NO + O2 h 2 NO2 a. Fe2O3 + CO h Fe + CO2
b. CO2 + H2O h H2CO3 b. Al + MnO2 h Al2O3 + Mn
c. Zn + 2 AgNO3 h Zn1NO3 22 + 2 Ag c. I2O5 + CO h I2 + CO2
d. HNO3 + NaOH h NaNO3 + H2O d. N2H4 + O2 h N2 + H2O
15.59 Balance the following equations by the oxidation 15.67 What is the unbalanced oxidation half-reaction
number method. associated with each of the following processes?
a. Br2 + H2O + SO2 h HBr + H2SO4 a. Te + NO3- h TeO2 + NO
b. H2S + HNO3 h S + NO + H2O b. H2O2 + Fe2 + h Fe3 + + H2O
c. SnSO4 + FeSO4 h Sn + Fe21SO4 23 c. CN- + ClO2- h CNO- + Cl-
d. Na2TeO3 + NaI + HCl h NaCl + Te + d. ClO- + Cl- h Cl2
H2O + I2 15.68 What is the unbalanced oxidation half-reaction as-
15.60 Balance the following equations by the oxidation sociated with each of the following processes?
number method. a. Zn + NO3- h Zn2 + + NH4+
a. HNO3 + I2 h NO2 + H2O + HIO3 b. I- + MnO4- h I2 + Mn2 +
b. As4O6 + Cl2 + H2O h H3AsO4 + HCl c. ClO- + Br- h Cl- + BrO3-
c. HI + HNO3 h I2 + NO + H2O d. H5IO6 + I- h I2
d. PbO2 + Sb + NaOH h PbO + NaSbO2 + H2O 15.69 Balance the following half-reactions occurring in an
15.61 Balance the following equations by the oxidation acidic solution.
number method. All reactions occur in an acidic a. MnO2 h Mn3 +
solution. b. H3MnO4 h Mn
a. I2 + Cl2 h HIO3 + Cl- c. MnO4- h Mn2 +
b. MnO4- + AsH3 h H3AsO4 + Mn2 + d. MnO4- h MnO2
c. Br- + SO4 2 - h Br2 + SO2 15.70 Balance the following half-reactions occurring in an
d. Au + Cl- + NO3- h AuCl4- + NO2 acidic solution.
15.62 Balance the following equations by the oxidation a. V2 + h VO2+
number method. All reactions occur in an acidic b. V3 + h VO2 +
solution. c. VO2 + h VO2+
a. I- + SO42 - h H2S + I2 d. V h VO2+
b. Mn2 + + BiO3- h MnO4- + Bi3 + 15.71 Balance the following half-reactions occurring in a
c. Fe2 + + ClO3- h Fe3 + + Cl- basic solution.
d. Pt + Cl- + NO3- h PtCl62 - + NO2 a. SeO42 - h Se
15.63 Balance the following equations by the oxida- b. Se2 - h SeO32 -
tion number method. All reactions occur in a basic c. SeO42 - h SeO32 -
solution. d. Se h SeO32 -
a. S2 - + Cl2 h SO42 - + Cl- 15.72 Balance the following half-reactions occurring in a
b. SO32 - + CrO42 - h Cr1OH24- + SO42 - basic solution.
c. MnO4- + IO3- + MnO2 + IO4- a. H3IO62 - h I2
d. I2 + Cl2 h H3IO62 - + Cl- b. IO3- h IO-
15.64 Balance the following equations by the oxida- c. I- h IO-
tion number method. All reactions occur in a basic d. IO- h H3IO62 -
solution. 15.73 Write a balanced half-reaction for each of the follow-
a. Zn + MnO4- h Zn1OH22 + MnO2 ing changes.
b. NO2- + Al h NH3 + AlO2- a. Reduction of Fe3 + ions to Fe2 + ions
c. NO2- + MnO4- h NO3- + MnO2 b. Oxidation of Cr to Cr3 + ions
d. Al + NO3- h Al1OH24- + NH3 c. Oxidation of Zn to Zn1OH22 in basic solution
d. Reduction of S to H2S in acidic solution
15.74 Write a balanced half-reaction for each of the follow-
BALANCING REDOX EQUATIONS: HALF-REACTION
ing changes.
METHOD (SEC. 15.9)
a. Oxidation of Cu to Cu2 + ions
15.65 Classify each of the following unbalanced half-reactions b. Reduction of Sn4 + ions to Sn2 + ions
as either oxidation or reduction. c. Oxidation of SO2 to SO42 - ions in acidic solution
a. NO3- h NO d. Reduction of NO2- ions to NH3 in basic solution
b. Zn h Zn2 + 15.75 Balance each of the following redox reactions by
c. Ti3 + h TiO2 the half-reaction method. Each reaction occurs in an
d. Cr2O72 - h Cr3 + acidic solution.
15.66 Classify each of the following unbalanced half-reactions a. Zn + Cu2 + h Cu + Zn2 +
as either oxidation or reduction. b. Br2 + I- h Br- + I2
a. O2 h OH- b. I- h I2 c. S2O32 - + Cl2 h HSO4- + Cl-
c. Sn2 + h Sn4 + d. H2S h S d. Zn + As2O3 h AsH3 + Zn2 +
15.76 Balance each of the following redox reactions by BALANCING REDOX EQUATIONS:
the half-reaction method. Each reaction occurs in an DISPROPORTIONATION REACTIONS
acidic solution. (SEC. 15.10)
a. Fe + Ag+ h Fe3 + + Ag
b. Cl2 + Br- h Cl- + Br2 15.83 Balance each of the following redox reactions by the
c. S2O32 - + Cu2 + h S4O62 - + Cu oxidation number method.
d. C2O42 - + MnO4- h CO2 + Mn2 + a. HNO2 h NO + NO3- (acidic solution)
15.77 Balance each of the following redox reactions by the b. ClO- + Cl- h Cl2 (acidic solution)
half-reaction method. Each reaction occurs in a basic c. S h S2 - + SO32 - (basic solution)
solution. d. Br2 h BrO3- + Br- (basic solution)
a. NH3 + ClO- h N2H4 + Cl- 15.84 Balance each of the following redox reactions by the
b. Cr1OH22 + BrO- h CrO42 - + Br- oxidation number method.
c. CrO2- + H2O2 h CrO42 - + OH- a. NO + NO3- h N2O4 (acidic solution)
d. Bi1OH23 + Sn1OH23- h Sn1OH262 - + Bi b. H5IO6 + I- h I2 (acidic solution)
15.78 Balance each of the following redox reactions by the c. P4 h HPO32 - + PH3 (basic solution)
half-reaction method. Each reaction occurs in a basic d. HClO2 h ClO2 + Cl- (basic solution)
solution. 15.85 Balance each of the redox reactions in Problem 15.83
a. Cr2O3 + ClO- h CrO42 - + Cl- using the half-reaction method.
b. NO + MnO4- h NO3- + MnO2 15.86 Balance each of the redox reactions in Problem 15.84
c. Al + PO33 - h PH3 + AlO2- using the half-reaction method.
d. Bi1OH23 + SnO22 - h SnO32 - + Bi
15.79 Complete the balancing of the following half-
reactions by adding the appropriate number of STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS INVOLVING
electrons to the equation. IONS (SEC 15.11)
a. Pb + 2 Cl- S PbCl2
b. Sn1OH23- + 3 OH- S Sn1OH26 2 - 15.87 What is the molar mass for each of the following
c. BiO3 + 6 H+ S Bi3 + + 3 H2O atoms or ions?
d. SO42 - + 9 H+ S HS- + 4 H2O a. Na b. Na+ c. SO3 d. SO32 -
15.80 Complete the balancing of the following half-reactions 15.88 What is the molar mass for each of the following
by adding the appropriate number of electrons to the atoms or ions?
equation. a. Al b. Al3 + c. NO2 d. NO2-
2+
a. Au + 4Cl- S AuCl4- 15.89 How many grams of Mg ions are present in the fol-
b. HNO2 + H2O S NO3- + 3H+ lowing solutions?
c. HNO2 + H+ S NO + H2O a. MgCO3 solution that contains 1.00 * 1024 CO32 -
d. PO33 - + 6 H2O S PH3 + 9 OH- ions
15.81 The half-reaction for O2 functioning as an oxidizing b. MgSO4 solution that contains 1.00 * 1024 SO42 -
agent in acidic solution is ions
c. MgCl2 solution that contains 1.00 * 1024 Cl- ions
O2 + 4 H+ + 4 e- S 2 H2O d. Mg1OH22 solution that contains 1.00 * 1024 total
What is the other half-reaction that occurs in the ions
chemical system described by the following redox 15.90 How many grams of K+ ions are present in the
equation in which O2 functions as the oxidizing following solutions?
agent? a. K2CO3 solution that contains 1.00 * 1024 CO32 -
ions
2 PbS + 3 O2 S 2 PbO + 2 SO2 b. K3PO4 solution that contains 1.00 * 1024 PO43 -
ions
15.82 The half-reaction for O2 functioning as an oxidizing
c. KCl solution that contains 1.00 * 1024 Cl- ions
agent in acidic solution is
d. KNO3 solution that contains 1.00 * 1024 total
O2 + 4 H+ + 4 e- S 2 H2O ions
15.91 What volume, in milliliters, of a 0.500 M Ca1CN22
What is the other half-reaction that occurs in the
solution is needed to supply
chemical system described by the following redox
a. 0.634 mole of Ca2 + ion?
equation in which O2 functions as the oxidizing
b. 0.634 mole of CN- ion?
agent?
c. 0.553 mole of Ca2 + ion?
2 MnCO3 + O2 S 2 MnO2 + 2 CO2 d. 1.20 total moles of ions?
15.92 What volume, in milliliters, of a 0.750 M 1NH4 22SO4 15.98 Calculate the total number of ions present in solu-
solution is needed to supply tions in which each of the following solutes are
a. 0.766 mole of NH4+ ion? present in the given amounts.
b. 0.766 mole of SO42 - ion? a. 1.25 g NaOH b. 4.30 g Na2SO4
c. 0.544 mole of NH4+ ion? c. 25.0 g HNO3 d. 32.7 g AlBr3
d. 0.321 total mole of ions? 15.99 Calculate the volume, in milliliters, of
15.93 A solution is 1.35 M in Cu2 + ion. What volume of 0.125 M Na2SO4 solution needed to provide each of
this solution, in milliliters, is needed to react com- the following.
pletely with 20.0 g of Fe in the following redox a. 10.0 g of Na2SO4
reaction? b. 2.5 g of Na+ ion
c. 0.567 mole of Na2SO4
Fe1s2 + Cu2 + 1aq2 h Fe2 + 1aq2 + Cu1s2
d. 0.112 mole of SO42 -
15.94 A solution is 1.35 M in Sn2 + ion. What volume of this 15.100 Calculate the volume, in milliliters, of
solution, in milliliters, is needed to react completely 0.125 M Mg1NO3 22 solution needed to provide
with 25.0 g of Cr in the following redox reaction? each of the following.
a. 15.7 g of Mg1NO3 22
Cr1s2 + Sn2 + 1aq2 h Cr2 + 1aq2 + Sn1s2
b. 3.57 g of Mg2 + ion
15.95 What is the molar concentration of each ion in the c. 1.2 moles of Mg1NO3 22
following solutions? d. 0.57 mole of NO3- ion
a. 0.20 M NaCl b. 0.20 M K2SO4 15.101 A solution is made by mixing 175 mL of 0.100 M
c. 0.20 M Al1NO3 23 d. 0.20 MgCl2 K3PO4 with 27 mL of 0.200 M KCl. Assuming that the
15.96 What is the molar concentration of each ion in the volumes are additive, what are the molar concentra-
following solutions? tions of the following ions in the new solution?
a. 0.36 M CaBr2 b. 0.36 M NaNO3 a. K+ ion b. Cl- ion c. PO43 - ion
c. 0.36 M K3PO4 d. 0.36 M 1NH4 22SO4 15.102 A solution is made by mixing 50.0 mL of 0.300 M
15.97 Calculate the total number of ions present in Na2SO4 with 30.0 mL of 0.900 M K2SO4. Assuming
solutions in which each of the following solutes are that the volumes are additive, what are the molar
present in the given amounts. concentrations of the following ions in the new
a. 8.45 g NaBr b. 3.20 g K2SO4 solution?
c. 30.0 g HCl d. 40.0 g KOH a. Na+ ion b. K+ ion c. SO42 - ion
“mesh together” (complement each other) in problem-solving situations. Answers are given at the back of the book for the
odd-numbered problems.
15.103 Nitrogen forms a number of oxides including 15.106 Possible oxidation numbers for the element N
NO2, N2O3, NO, N2O, and N2O5. Arrange these range from + 5 to - 3. Based on this information,
oxides in order of increasing oxidation number of explain each of the following observations.
nitrogen. a. The N3 - ion functions only as a reducing agent.
15.104 Sulfur forms a number of oxides including b. The NO3- ion functions only as an oxidizing agent.
S2O, S7O2, SO2, SO3, and S6O. Arrange these oxides c. The NO2- molecule can function as either a re-
in order of increasing oxidation number of sulfur. ducing agent or an oxidizing agent.
15.105 Possible oxidation numbers for the element S range d. The NH3 molecule can function as either a re-
from + 6 to - 2. Based on this information, explain ducing agent or an oxidizing agent.
each of the following observations. 15.107 In which of the following pairs of ionic compounds
a. The S2 - ion functions only as a reducing agent. is the oxidation number of the metal the same in
b. The SO42 - ion functions only as an oxidizing agent. both members of the pair?
c. The SO2 molecule can function as either a re- a. CuSO4 and Cu2SO4
ducing agent or an oxidizing agent. b. Fe1NO3 23 and FePO4
d. The SO3 molecule functions only as an oxidizing c. AuCl and AgNO3
agent. d. AlPO4 and GaN
15.108 In which of the following pairs of ionic compounds 15.112 Write balanced equations for all possible redox
is the oxidation number of the metal the same in reactions obtainable by combining the following
both members of the pair? balanced half-reactions in sets of two. The half-
a. CuO and CuCl2 reactions must be used as written; they cannot be
b. Ni2O3 and NiN reversed in direction.
c. PbO2 and SnCl4 1. 4 OH- + ClO2- h ClO4- + 2 H2O + 4 e-
d. Be3N2 and MgO 2. 2 H2O + MnO4- + 3 e- h MnO2 + 4 OH-
15.109 Classify each of the following pairs of balanced 3. 6 H2O + NO3- + 8 e- h NH3 + 9 OH-
half-reactions as (1) two reduction half-reactions, 4. 4 OH- + Al h AlO2- + 2 H2O + 3 e-
(2) two oxidation half-reactions, or (3) one reduc- 15.113 Write the two balanced half-reactions associated
tion and one oxidation half-reaction. with the following redox reaction.
a. Fe3 + + e- h Fe2 + and Fe2 + + 2 e- h Fe
b. Ni3 + + e- h Ni2 + and Ni h Ni2 + + 2 e- 4 Zn + 10 H+ + NO3- h 4 Zn2 + + NH4+ + 3 H2O
c. Cu h Cu+ + e - and Cu h Cu2 + 2 e-
15.114 Write the two balanced half-reactions associated
d. Au h Au3+ + 3 e- and Au3+ + 3 e- h Au
with the following redox reaction.
15.110 Classify each of the following pairs of balanced
half-reactions as (1) two reduction half-reactions, 2 NO3- + 3 Cu2O + 14 H+ h 6 Cu2+ + 2 NO + 7 H2O
(2) two oxidation half-reactions, or (3) one reduc-
15.115 Using the half-reaction method, balance the fol-
tion and one oxidation half-reaction.
lowing redox equation, which occurs in an acidic
a. Sn2+ h Sn4+ + 2 e- and Sn h Sn2+ + 2 e-
solution. Then, using the reactant identities shown
b. Pb2+ h Pb4+ + 2 e- and Pb2+ + 2 e- h Pb
in brackets convert the balanced net ionic redox
c. Co2+ + 2 e- h Co and Co3+ + 3 e- h Co
equation into a balanced molecular redox equation.
d. Ag h Ag+ + e- and Ag+ + e- h Ag
15.111 Write balanced equations for all possible redox MnO4- + C2O42 - h Mn2+ + CO2 [KMnO4, HCl, K2C2O4]
reactions obtainable by combining the following
balanced half-reactions in sets of two. The half- 15.116 Using the half-reaction method, balance the fol-
reactions must be used as written; they cannot be lowing redox equation, which occurs in an acidic
reversed in direction. solution. Then, using the reactant identities shown
in brackets convert the balanced net ionic redox
1. 2 H2O + PH3 h H3PO2 + 4 H+ + 4 e- equation into a balanced molecular redox equation.
2. 3 H2O + As h H3AsO3 + 3 H+ + 3 e-
Zn + NO3- h Zn2 + + NH4+ [Zn, HNO3]
3. MnO4- + 8 H+ + 5 e- h Mn2 + + 4 H2O
4. SO42 - + 4 H+ + 2 e- h SO2 + 2 H2O
Multiple-Choice Practice Test

MC 15.1 Which of the following statements concerning MC 15.3 Which of the following substances would be writ-
strong electrolytes is correct? ten in molecular form in ionic and net ionic equations?
a. All soluble acids are strong electrolytes. a. NaCl
b. All soluble bases are strong electrolytes. b. KOH
c. All soluble salts are strong electrolytes. c. NH4Cl
d. more than one correct response d. more than one correct answer
e. no correct response e. no correct answer
MC 15.2 Which of the following substances is a weak MC 15.4 What are the spectator ions in the reaction
electrolyte? KOH + HNO3 h KNO3 + H2O
a. hydrochloric acid
a. K+ and H+
b. acetic acid
b. H+ and OH-
c. sodium hydroxide
c. K+ and NO3-
MC 15.5 In the following reaction, which species will be c. contains an element that decreases in oxidation
written in molecular form when the equation is converted to number
an ionic equation? d. more than one correct response
Mg1OH221s2 + 2 HCl1aq2 h
MC 15.12 Which of the following reactions is classified as a
MgCl21aq2 + 2 H2O1l2
nonredox reaction?
a. Mg1OH22 a. 2 CuO h 2 Cu + O2
b. HCl b. NaOH + HCl h NaCl + H2O
c. H2O c. CaCO3 h CaO + CO2
MC 15.13 In balancing the following redox equation using
MC 15.6 Which of the following is the net ionic equation
the change in oxidation number method, what are the values
for the reaction
for the “bracket numbers” a and b?
AgNO3 + NaBr h AgBr + NaNO3 b(a)
a. Ag+ + NaBr h AgBr + Na+ Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)

b. AgNO3 + Br- h AgBr + NO3- a. a = 1, b = 1 b. a = 1, b = 2
c. Na+ + NO3- h NaNO3 c. a = 2, b = 1 d. a = 2, b = 2
e. no correct response MC 15.14 Which of the following is a correctly balanced
MC 15.7 The proper assignment of oxidation numbers to oxidation half-reaction?
the elements in the compound Na2SO4 would be a. I2 + 2 e- h 2 I-
a. +1 for Na, + 2 for S, and - 2 for O. b. H2S h S + 2 H+ + 4 e-
b. +2 for Na, +4 for S, and - 2 for O. c. NO + 2 H2O h NO3- + 3 e- + 4 H+
c. + 2 for Na, + 6 for S, and - 8 for O. d. more than one correct response
d. + 1 for Na, + 6 for S, and -2 for O. e. no correct response
e. no correct response MC 15.15 When the half-reaction
MC 15.8 The proper assignment of oxidation numbers to NO3 - h NH3 1basic solution2
the elements in the polyatomic ion PO43 - would be
is correctly balanced, the
a. +3 for P and - 3 for O.
a. OH- and H2O are both on the left side of the
b. + 3 for P and - 2 for O.
equation.
c. + 5 for P and - 8 for O.
b. OH- and H2O are both on the right side of the
d. +5 for P and - 2 for O.
equation.
c. OH- is on the left side and H2O on the right side
MC 15.9 Which substance is oxidized in the following
of the equation.
redox reaction?
d. OH- is on the right side and H2O on the left side
CO + H2O S CO2 + H2 of the equation.
a. CO e. no correct response
b. H2O MC 15.16 The balanced full-equation obtained by adding
c. CO2 the following two balanced half-reactions together is
d. H2 Zn h Zn2 + + 2e-
Ag+ + e- h Ag
MC 15.10 Which substance functions as the reducing agent
in the following redox reaction? a. Zn + Ag+ + e- h Zn2 + + Ag
b. Zn + 2 Ag+ h Zn2 + + 2 Ag + 2 e-
2 HNO2 + 2 HI h 2 NO + I2 + H2O
c. Zn + Ag+ h Zn2 + + Ag
a. HNO2 d. Zn + 2 Ag+ h Zn2 + + 2 Ag
b. HI e. no correct response
c. NO MC 15.17 Which of the following is a disproportionation
d. H2O reaction?
e. no correct response a. H2SO3 h H2O + SO2
MC 15.11 In a redox reaction, the substance that is reduced b. 3 Br2 + 3 H2O h HBrO3 + 5 HBr
always c. Mg + H2SO4 h MgSO4 + H2
a. contains hydrogen d. more than one correct response
b. gains electrons e. no correct response
MC 15.18 In balancing the equation for a disproportion- MC 15.20 The molar concentration of NO3- ion in a
ation reaction using the oxidation number method, the sub- 3.00 M Al1NO3 23 solution is
stance undergoing disproportionation is a. 1.00 M.
a. initially written twice on the reactant side of the b. 3.00 M.
equation. c. 6.00 M.
b. initially written on both the reactant and product d. 9.00 M.
side of the equation. e. no correct response
c. always assigned an oxidation number of zero.
ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE-CHOICE PRACTICE TEST
MC 15.19 In stoichiometric calculations that involve the Mg2+ MC 15.1 c MC 15.8 d MC 15.15 d
ion, the molar mass value for the ion, on the amu scale, is MC 15.2 b MC 15.9 a MC 15.16 d
a. one amu unit less than that of a Mg atom. MC 15.3 e MC 15.10 b MC 15.17 b
b. two amu units less than that of a Mg atom. MC 15.4 c MC 15.11 d MC 15.18 a
c. one amu unit more than that of a Mg atom. MC 15.5 d MC 15.12 d MC 15.19 e
d. more than one correct response MC 15.6 e MC 15.13 c MC 15.20 d
e. no correct response MC 15.7 d MC 15.14 c
C H A P T E R
16
Reaction Rates and Chemical
Equilibrium
16.1 Collision Theory

16.2 Endothermic and Exothermic Chemical Reactions
16.3 Factors that Influence Chemical Reaction Rates
16.4 Chemical Equilibrium
16.5 Equilibrium Mixture Stoichiometry
16.6 Equilibrium Constants
16.7 Equilibrium Position
16.8 Temperature Dependency of Equilibrium Constants
16.9 Le Châtelier’s Principle
16.10 Forcing Chemical Reactions to Completion
16.1 COLLISION THEORY

Student Learning Focus: Discuss, using collision theory concepts, the conditions needed for a
chemical reaction to take place.
In Chapter 10 we learned how to write (and balance) chemical equations to represent

chemical reactions and then use these equations to calculate amounts of products pro-
duced and reactants consumed in such reactions. We now concern ourselves with another
important topic relative to chemical reactions: What causes a chemical reaction to occur?
A set of three generalizations, developed after study of thousands of different reac-
tions, helps answer this question. Collectively, these generalizations are known as collision
theory. Collision theory is a set of statements that gives the conditions that must be met
before a chemical reaction will take place. Central to collision theory are the concepts
710
Chapter 16 • Reaction Rates and Chemical Equilibrium 711
of molecular collisions, activation energy, and collision orientation. The key concepts and
statements of collision theory are the following:
1. Molecular collisions. Reactant particles must interact (that is, collide) with one
another before any reaction can occur.
2. Activation energy. Colliding particles must possess a certain minimum total amount
of energy, called the activation energy, if the collision is to be effective (that is, result
in reaction).
3. Collision orientation. Colliding particles must come together in the proper orienta-
tion unless the particles involved are single atoms or small, symmetrical molecules.
Let us look at these statements in the context of a chemical reaction between two
molecules or ions.
Molecular Collisions
When chemical reactions involve two or more reactants, collision theory assumes that the
reactant molecules, ions, or atoms must come into contact (collide) with each other in
order for a reaction to occur (statement 1 of collision theory). The validity of this assump-
tion is fairly obvious. Reactants cannot react with each other if they are miles apart.
Most chemical reactions are carried out in liquid solution or in the gaseous phase. The
reason for this is simple. In these situations, reacting particles are more free to move about,
and thus it is easier for the reactants to come into contact with each other. Reactions of sol-
ids usually take place only on the solid surface and therefore include only a small fraction
of the total particles present in the solid. As the reaction proceeds and products dissolve,
diffuse, or fall from the surface, fresh solid is exposed. Thus, the reaction eventually con-
sumes all of the solid. The rusting of iron is an example of this type of process.
Activation Energy
Not all collisions between reactant particles result in the formation of reaction products.
Sometimes reactant particles rebound from a collision unchanged. Statement 2 of colli-
sion theory indicates that for a reaction to occur, colliding particles must impact with a
certain minimum energy; that is, the sum of the kinetic energies of the colliding particles
must add to a certain minimum value. Activation energy is the minimum combined
kinetic energy reactant particles must possess in order for their collision to result in a reac-
tion. Each chemical reaction has a different activation energy.
In a slow reaction, the activation energy is far above the average energy content of
the reacting particles. Only a few particles, those with well above average energy, will
undergo collisions that result in a reaction—hence the slowness of the reaction.
It is sometimes possible to start a reaction by providing activation energy and then
have it continue on its own. Once the reaction is started, enough energy is released to ac-
tivate other molecules and keep the reaction going. The striking of a kitchen match is an
example of such a situation. Activation energy is initially provided by rubbing the match
head against a rough surface; heat is generated by friction. Once the reaction is started,
the match continues to burn.
Collision Orientation
Even when activation energy requirements are met, some collisions between reactant par-
ticles still do not result in product formation. How can this be? Statement 3 of collision theory,
which deals with the orientation of colliding particles at the moment of collision, relates to this
situation. For nonspherical molecules and polyatomic ions, their orientation relative to each
other at the moment of collision is a factor in determining whether a collision is effective.
712 Chapter 16 • Reaction Rates and Chemical Equilibrium
N
N
O O C O
+ O C O
Proper O
Orientation
Reaction products
C–O interaction
(a)
N O O
O O O C N O C N C O
Improper No O No O No
Orientation reaction reaction reaction
O–O interaction N–O interaction N–C interaction

(b) (c) (d)
FIGURE 16.1 In the reaction between NO2 and CO to produce NO and CO2, the most favorable collision
orientation is one that puts an O atom from NO2 in close proximity to the C atom in CO.
As an illustration of the importance of proper collision orientation, consider the

chemical reaction between NO2 and CO to produce NO and CO2.
NO2 1g2 + CO1g2 h NO1 g2 + CO2 1g2
In this reaction, an O atom is transferred from an NO2 molecule to a CO molecule.
The collision orientation most favorable for this to occur is one that puts an O atom from
NO2 near a C atom from CO at the moment of collision. Such an orientation is shown
in Figure 16.1a. In Figure 16.1b–d, three undesirable NO2 9CO orientations are shown in
which the likelihood of successful collision is very low. Thus, certain collision orientations
are preferred over others. The undesirable collision orientations of Figure 16.1b–d, how-
ever, could still result in a reaction if the molecules collided with abnormally high energies.
16.2 ENDOTHERMIC AND EXOTHERMIC CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Student Learning Focus: For both exothermic and endothermic chemical reactions, be able to
discuss the relationship between reactant energies and product energies.
In Section 11.8, we used the terms endothermic and exothermic to classify changes of
state. Melting, sublimation, and evaporation are endothermic changes of state, while
freezing, condensation, and deposition are exothermic changes of state. The terms
endothermic and exothermic are also used to classify chemical reactions. An endothermic
chemical reaction is a chemical reaction that requires the continuous input of energy as
Exothermic means energy the reaction occurs. The photosynthesis process that occurs in plants is an example of an
is released; energy is a endothermic reaction. Light is the energy source for photosynthesis. Light energy must be
product of the chemical continuously supplied for photosynthesis to occur; a green plant that is kept in the dark
reaction. Endothermic
means energy is absorbed;
will die. An exothermic chemical reaction is a chemical reaction in which energy is
energy is a reactant in the released as the reaction occurs. The burning of a fuel (reaction of the fuel with oxygen)
reaction. is an exothermic process.
What determines whether a chemical reaction is endothermic or exothermic? The
answer to this question is related to the strength of chemical bonds—that is, the energy
Average
Average energy energy of
of reactants products
Activation Activation
energy energy
Increasing energy
Increasing energy
Energy Average Average
released energy of energy of Energy
products reactants absorbed
Reaction progress Reaction progress

(a) An exothermic reaction (b) An endothermic reaction
FIGURE 16.2 Energy diagram graphs showing the difference between an exothermic and an
endothermic reaction. (a) In an exothermic reaction, the average energy of the reactants is higher
than that of the products, indicating that energy has been released. (b) In an endothermic reaction,
the average energy of the reactants is less than that of the products, indicating that energy has been
absorbed in the reaction.
associated with chemical bonds. Different types of bonds, such as oxygen–hydrogen

bonds and fluorine–nitrogen bonds, have different energies associated with them. In a
chemical reaction, bonds are broken within reactant molecules (which requires energy),
and new bonds are formed within product molecules (which releases energy). The en-
ergy balance between bond breaking and bond forming determines whether there is a
net loss or a net gain of energy.
An endothermic reaction (absorption of energy) occurs when the energy required
to break bonds in the reactants is greater than the energy released through bond for-
mation in the products. The necessary additional energy must be supplied from exter-
nal sources as the reaction proceeds. The opposite situation applies for an exothermic
reaction (release of energy). Less energy is required to break reactant molecule bonds
than is released through bond formation in product molecules. In this situation, the
excess energy is released to the surroundings as the reaction proceeds. Figure 16.2 illustrates
the energy relationships associated with endothermic and exothermic chemical reactions.
Note that both of these diagrams contain a “hill” or “hump.” The height of this hill cor-
responds to the activation energy needed for reaction between molecules to occur. This
activation energy is independent of whether a given reaction is endothermic or exothermic.
16.3 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CHEMICAL REACTION RATES

Student Learning Focus: List four factors that affect chemical reaction rates and explain how each
relates to the concepts embodied in collision theory.
The rate of a chemical reaction is the rate at which reactants are consumed or products
produced in the chemical reaction in a given time period. Natural processes have a wide
range of reaction rates. A fire burns at a much faster reaction rate than the ripening of
fruit, which is faster than the process of rusting, which is much faster than the process of
aging in the human body. In this section we consider four different factors that affect re-
action rates: (1) the physical nature of reactants, (2) reactant concentrations, (3) reaction
temperature, and (4) the presence of catalysts.
Physical Nature of Reactants

The physical nature of reactants refers not only to the physical state of each reactant (solid,
liquid, or gas) but also to the state of subdivision, that is, particle size. In reactions where the
reactants are all in the same physical state, reaction rate is generally faster between liquid
reactants than between solid reactants and faster still between gaseous reactants. Of the three
states of matter, the gaseous state is the one where there is the most freedom of movement;
hence in this state there is a greater frequency of collision (reaction) between reactants.
When two reacting In reactions involving solids and heterogeneous liquid mixtures, reaction occurs at the
liquids do not readily boundary surface between reactants. The greater the amount of boundary surface area, the
mix, stirring the reaction
greater the reaction rate. Subdividing a solid into smaller particles will increase surface area
mixture speeds up the
reaction by increasing the and thus increase reaction rate. For example, large pieces of wood are difficult to ignite,
contact area between the smaller pieces burn more rapidly, and wood shavings ignite instantaneously (see Fig. 16.3).
two liquids. When particle size becomes extremely small, reaction rates can be so fast that an
explosion results. A lump of coal is difficult to ignite; coal dust ignites explosively. The
spontaneous ignition of coal dust is a real threat to underground coal-mining operations.
Grain dust (very finely divided grain particles) is a problem in grain-storage elevators;
explosive ignition of the dust from an accidental spark is always a possibility.
Reactant Concentration
An increase in the concentration of a reactant causes an increase in the rate of the reaction.
Combustible substances burn much more rapidly in pure oxygen than they do in air (21% oxy-
gen). Increasing the concentration of a reactant means that there are more molecules of that
reactant present in the reaction mixture and therefore there is a greater possibility for collisions
between this reactant and other reactant particles. An analogy to the reaction-rate–reactant-
concentration relationship can be drawn from the game of billiards. The more billiard balls
there are on the table, the greater the probability of a moving cue ball striking one of them.
The actual quantitative change in reaction rate as the concentration of reactants is
increased varies with the specific reaction. The rate usually increases, but not to the same
extent in all cases. Simply looking at the balanced equation for a reaction will not enable
you to determine how changes in concentration will affect the reaction rate. This must
be determined by actual experimentation. In some reactions the rate doubles with a dou-
bling of concentration; however, this is not always the case.
Reaction Temperature
The effect of temperature on reaction rates can also be explained by using the molecular-
collision concept. An increase in the temperature of a system results in an increase in the
average kinetic energy of the reacting molecules. The increased molecular speed causes
FIGURE 16.3 Greater Increasing surface area

reactant surface area
results in an increased Increasing contact area between reactants
............
reaction rate. . ...........................
...........................................
. ... . .. ... . .. ...
................. .. .. .. .
.......................................... .............
< < < < ... ..............................................
..
. ... ............ ...... .
Chunk of wood Boards Shingles Shavings Sawdust
Increasing rate of reaction for the combustion reaction

more collisions to take place in a given time. Also, since the average kinetic energy of the
colliding molecules is greater, a larger fraction of the collisions will have sufficient kinetic A rough generalization
energy to equal or exceed the activation energy. for many common
We make use of our knowledge of the effect of temperature on chemical reactions reactions is that the rate
on a regular basis in our daily lives. The chemical reaction of cooking takes place faster of the chemical reaction
doubles for every 10⬚C
in a pressure cooker because of a higher cooking temperature (Sec. 11.15). On the other increase in temperature
hand, foods are cooled or frozen to slow down the chemical reactions that result in the in the temperature range
spoiling of food, the souring of milk, and the ripening of fruit. we normally encounter.
Presence of Catalysts
A catalyst is a substance that, when added to a reaction mixture, increases the rate of
the reaction but is itself unchanged after the reaction is completed. Catalysts can be clas-
sified into two categories: (1) homogeneous catalysts and (2) heterogeneous catalysts.
A homogeneous catalyst is a catalyst that is present in the same phase as the reactants in
a reaction mixture. Homogeneous catalysts are usually dispersed uniformly throughout
the reaction mixture. A heterogenous catalyst is a catalyst that exists in a phase differ-
ent from the reactants in a reaction mixture. Heterogeneous catalysts are usually solids. Catalysts lower the
Catalysts increase reaction rates by providing alternative reaction pathways with activation energy for a
lower activation energies than the original uncatalyzed pathway. This lowering of activa- reaction. Lowered
tion energy effect is illustrated in Figure 16.4. activation energy
In homogeneous catalysis the alternative pathway involves the formation of an in- increases the rate of
the reaction as more
termediate complex that contains the catalyst. This catalyst-containing intermediate then reacting particles have
breaks up to give the final products and regenerate the catalyst. The following equations, the required activation
where C is the catalyst, illustrate this concept. energy.
Uncatalyzed reaction: X + Y h XY
Catalyzed reaction: Step 1: X + C h XC
Step 2: XC + Y h XY + C
Catalysts that are solids are thought to provide a surface to which impacting reactant
molecules are physically attracted and on which they are held with a particular orienta-
tion. Reactants so held are sufficiently close to, and thus favorably oriented toward, each
other to allow the reaction to take place. The products of the reaction then leave the sur-
face and make it available to catalyze other reactants.
Catalysts are used extensively in the chemical industry. Usually, very specific catalysts
are used that accelerate one chemical reaction without influencing other possible competi-
tive reactions. The small amounts of catalysts required, coupled with the fact that they are
FIGURE 16.4 Catalysts

lower the activation
Uncatalyzed energy for chemical
Catalyzed activation reactions. Reactions
activation energy proceed more rapidly
energy with the lowered
Increasing energy
activation energy.
Reaction progress
not used up, make the use of catalysts economically feasible in industrial processes. For ex-
ample, a catalyst often makes it possible to avoid the high temperatures (costly) that would
otherwise be necessary to cause a reaction with high activation energy to proceed.
Catalysts are a key element in the functioning of automobile emission control sys-
tems. In such systems, heterogeneous catalysts speed up reactions that convert air pollut-
FIGURE 16.5 A ants in the exhaust to less harmful products (see Fig. 16.5). For example, carbon monox-
catalytic converter used ide is converted to carbon dioxide through reaction with the oxygen in air.
in the exhaust system Catalysts are of extreme importance for the proper functioning of the human body
of an automobile. and other biological systems. In the human body, catalysts called enzymes, which are
Such converters, which
contain the metals
proteins, cause many reactions to take place rapidly at body temperature and under mild
platinum, palladium, conditions. These same reactions, uncatalyzed, proceed very slowly and then only under
and rhodium as harsher conditions in a laboratory setting.
catalysts, speed up
reactions that convert
air pollutants to less
16.4 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
harmful products.
For example, NO is
Student Learning Focus: Explain what is meant by the term chemical equilibrium and describe the
converted to N2 and CO
is converted to CO2. conditions needed for attainment of this equilibrium state.
Dorling Kindersley
Media Library
Up to this point in our discussions of chemical reactions we have assumed that chemi-
cal reactions go to completion, that is, that reactions continue until one or more of the
Biological catalysts,
called enzymes, mediate
reactants is used up. This is usually not the case. Experiments show that in most chemi-
nearly all the reactions cal reactions the complete conversion of reactants to products does not occur regardless
that occur within a living of the time allowed for the reactions to take place. The reason for this is that product
organism. molecules (provided they are not allowed to escape from the reaction mixture) begin to
react with each other to again re-form the reactants. With time, a steady-state situation re-
sults where the rate of formation of products and the rate of re-formation of reactants are
equal. At this point the concentrations of all reactants and all products remain constant;
the reaction has reached a stage of chemical equilibrium. Chemical equilibrium is the
process wherein two opposing chemical reactions occur simultaneously at the same rate.
We have discussed equilibrium situations in previous chapters—see Sections 11.14 (vapor
pressure), 13.2 (saturated solutions), and 14.3 (conjugate acids and bases). The first two
of these previous equilibrium situations involved physical equilibrium (no chemical reac-
tion) rather than chemical equilibrium. Conjugate acid–base relationships involve chemi-
cal equilibrium, a topic we now consider in detail.
The conditions that exist in a system in a state of chemical equilibrium can best be
visualized by considering an actual chemical reaction. Suppose equal molar amounts of
gaseous H2 and I2 are mixed together in a closed container and allowed to react.
H2 1g2 + I2 1g2 h 2 HI1 g2
Initially, no HI is present, so the only possible reaction that can occur is the one between
H2 and I2. However, with time, as the HI concentration increases, some HI molecules col-
lide with each other in a way that causes the reverse reaction to occur.
2 HI1g2 h H2 1g2 + I2 1 g2
The initial low concentration of HI makes this reverse action slow at first, but as the con-
centration of HI increases, so does the reaction rate. At the same time the reverse reaction
rate is increasing, the forward reaction rate (production of HI) is decreasing as reactants
are used up. Eventually, the concentrations of H2, I2, and HI in the reaction mixture reach
a level at which the rates of the forward and reverse reactions become equal. At this
point, a state of chemical equilibrium has been reached.
Concentration of
product (HI)
Rate of forward reaction
(H2 + I2 → 2 HI)
Point at which equilibrium is Point at which equilibrium is

established—rates of forward established—concentrations
Concentration
Reaction rate
and reverse reactions are equal. remain constant from this
point on.
Concentrations of
reactants (H2 and I2)
Rate of reverse reaction
(2 HI → H2 + I2)
Time Time
(a) (b)
FIGURE 16.6 Graphs showing how reaction rates and reactant concentrations vary with time for the chemical system H2 9I2 9HI.
(a) At equilibrium, rates of reaction are equal. (b) At equilibrium, concentrations of reactants and products remain constant but
are not equal.
Figure 16.6 shows graphically the behavior of reaction rates and reaction concentrations
with time for both the forward and reverse reactions in the H2 9I2 9HI system. Figure 16.6a
shows that the forward and reverse reaction rates become equal as a result of the forward At chemical equilibrium,
reaction rate decreasing (as reactants are used up) and the reverse reaction rate increasing (as forward and reverse
product concentration increases). Figure 16.6b shows the important point that reactant and reaction rates are equal.
Reactant and product
product concentrations are usually not equal at the point at which equilibrium is reached. concentrations, although
Rates are equal, but concentrations are not. For the H2 9I2 9HI system, much more product HI constant, do not have to
is present than reactants H2 and I2 at equilibrium. In Figure 16.6b, note that the point at which be equal.
equilibrium is established is the point where the two curves become straight lines.
The equilibrium involving H2, I2, and HI could have been established just as easily
by starting with pure HI and allowing it to change into H2 and I2 (the reverse reaction).
The final position of equilibrium does not depend on the direction from which equilib-
rium is approached.
Instead of separate equations for the forward and reverse reactions for a system at
equilibrium, it is normal procedure to represent the equilibrium by using a single equa-
tion and half-headed arrows pointing in both directions. Thus, the reactions between H2
and I2 and between two HI, at equilibrium, are written as
H2 1g2 + I2 1g2 m 2 HI1 g2

The term reversible is often used to describe a reaction like the one we have just dis-
cussed. A reversible reaction is a chemical reaction in which the conversion of reactants
to products (the forward reaction) and the conversion of products to reactants (the reverse
reaction) occur simultaneously. When the half-headed double arrow notation is used in a
chemical equation, it means that the chemical reaction is reversible.
16.5 EQUILIBRIUM MIXTURE STOICHIOMETRY

Student Learning Focus: Be able to determine the composition of a reaction mixture at chemical
equilibrium given the starting amounts of reactants and the equilibrium concentration of one of
the substances in the mixture.
Suppose that known amounts of reactants are placed in a reaction vessel and the system is al-
lowed to reach chemical equilibrium (Sec. 16.4). To determine the composition of the resulting
equilibrium mixture we need only to experimentally determine the equilibrium concentration

of one of the substances in the mixture. With this one value and the substance amounts
originally present, the concentrations of all other substances present in the equilibrium
mixture can be calculated. Example 16.1 shows how such a calculation is carried out.
EXAMPLE 16.1 Determining the Composition of an Equilibrium Mixture

in Terms of Moles of Each Substance Present
0.0930 mole of NO and 0.0652 mole of Br2 are placed in a container and allowed to react
until equilibrium is established.
2 NO1g2 + Br2 1g2 m 2 NOBr1g2
At equilibrium, 0.0612 mole of NOBr is present. What is the composition of the equilibrium
mixture in terms of moles of each substance present?
SOLUTION
In solving this problem, we will deal with three quantities for each of the substances in-
volved in the equilibrium: (1) starting amount of each substance, (2) amount that changes
(undergoes reaction), and (3) equilibrium amount of each substance. The following table,
the starting point for our calculation, summarizes the known (given) quantities in terms
of these three parameters.
Start 0.0930 mole 0.0652 mole 0 mole
Change i i i
Equilibrium i i 0.0612 mole
Four of the nine “blanks” in the table have numbers in them. The key observation
is that two of the three blanks for NOBr are known. In a problem of this type, any time
two of the three key items (start, change, and equilibrium) are known for a substance,
the third can be calculated by addition or subtraction. For NOBr, we started with zero
amount and ended up with 0.0612 mole at equilibrium. Obviously, the amount of change
for NOBr is +0.0612 mole, the amount of NOBr formed.
Change i i +0.0612 mole
Once one of the change values is known, all other change quantities can quickly be
calculated. The molar-change values are related to each other in the same manner as the
coefficients in the equation are related to each other. Thus, we know that
1. the molar amount of NO that reacts is the same as the molar amount of NOBr pro-
duced, since these two substances have the same coefficients in the equation, and
2. the molar amount of Br2 that changes (reacts) is one-half the molar amount of NOBr
produced since the Br2 >NOBr coefficient ratio is 1:2.
Placing this information into the table gives
2 NO1g2 + Br21g2 m 2 NOBr1g2
Change -0.0612 mole -0.0306 mole +0.0612 mole
Note the minus signs placed in front of the NO and Br2 change amounts. This is because
these amounts are consumed (used up in the reaction). The plus sign in front of the
NOBr change amount indicates a gain in the amount of this substance.
The last two blanks in the table are now easily determined through subtraction. For
NO, 0.0930 mole 1start2 - 0.0612 mole 1change2 = 0.0318 mole 1equilibrium2. Similarly,
for Br2, we have 0.0652 mole - 0.0306 mole = 0.0346 mole. Our completed table is
2 NO1g2 + Br2 1 g2 m 2 NOBr1g2
Change -0.0612 mole -0.0306 mole +0.0612 mole
Equilibrium 0.0318 mole 0.0346 mole 0.0612 mole
The equilibrium mixture composition, which is the bottom line of the table, is
0.0318 mole NO; 0.0346 mole Br2; 0.0612 mole NOBr
Answer Double Check: Are the magnitudes of the equilibrium molar amounts reason-
able? Yes. On the reactant side of the equation, the equilibrium molar amounts should be
less than the starting amounts because some of the reactants are consumed in the reac-
tion. Such is the case. On the product side of the equation, the equilibrium molar amount
should be greater than the starting amount. Such is the case.
16.6 EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS

Student Learning Focus: For a given chemical reaction, be able to write an equilibrium constant
expression and then be able to evaluate this expression numerically given appropriate concentra-
tion data.
The concentrations of reactants and products are constant (not changing) in a system at
chemical equilibrium (Sec. 16.4). The numerical values of these equilibrium concentra-
tions can be used to calculate an equilibrium constant, a single number that describes
the extent to which the chemical reaction of concern has occurred. An equilibrium con-
stant is a numerical value that characterizes the relationship between the concentrations
of reactants and concentrations of products in a system that is at chemical equilibrium.
The equilibrium constant for a chemical reaction is obtained by writing an equilib-
rium constant expression and then evaluating it numerically. To illustrate the calculation of an
equilibrium constant, let us consider a general gas-phase reaction in which a moles of A
and b moles of B react to produce c moles of C and d moles of D.
aA1g2 + bB1g2 m c C1g2 + d D1g2
The equilibrium constant expression for this reaction is
[C]c [D]d
Keq =
[A]a [B]b
Note the following points about this general equilibrium constant expression:
1. The square brackets refer to molar (moles/liter) concentrations.
2. Product concentrations are always placed in the numerator of the equilibrium
constant expression.
3. Reactant concentrations are always placed in the denominator of the equilibrium
constant expression.
4. The coefficients in the balanced chemical equation for the equilibrium system deter-
mine the powers to which the concentrations are raised.
5. The abbreviation Keq is used to denote an equilibrium constant.
An additional convention in writing equilibrium constant expressions, not apparent
from the preceding equilibrium constant definition, is only concentrations of gases and
The concentrations substances in solution are written in an equilibrium constant expression. The reason for
of pure liquids and this convention is that other substances (pure solids and pure liquids) have constant con-
pure solids, which centrations. These constant concentrations are incorporated into the equilibrium constant
are constants, are
never included in an
itself. For example, pure water in the liquid state has a concentration of 55.5 moles/L.
equilibrium constant It does not matter whether we have 1.00, 50.0, or 750 mL of liquid water, the concentra-
expression. tion will be the same. In the liquid state, pure water is pure water and it has only one
concentration. Similar reasoning applies to other pure liquids and pure solids. All such
substances have constant concentrations.
The only information we need to write an equilibrium constant expression is a bal-
anced chemical equation that includes information about physical state. Using the pre-
ceding generalizations about equilibrium constant expressions, for the reaction
4 NH31g2 + 7 O21g2 m 4 NO21g2 + 6 H2O1g2
we write the equilibrium constant expression as
Coefficient of NO2 -T T- Coefficient of H2O

4 6
[NO2] [H2O]
Keq =
[NH3]4[O2]7
Coefficient of NH3 -c c
- Coefficient of O2
EXAMPLE 16.2 Using Balanced Chemical Equations to Determine

Equilibrium Constant Expressions
Write the equilibrium constant expression for each of the following reactions.
a. 4 NH31g2 + 3 O21g2 m 2 N21g2 + 6 H2O1g2
b. 6 Ca1s2 + 2 NH31g2 m 3 CaH21s2 + Ca3N21s2
c. 2 Ag2CO31s2 m 4 Ag1s2 + 2 CO21g2 + O21g2
d. NaCl1aq2 + AgNO31aq2 m AgCl1s2 + NaNO31aq2
SOLUTION
a. All of the substances involved in this reaction are gases. Therefore, each reactant
and product will appear in the equilibrium constant expression.
The product concentrations, each raised to the power of its coefficient in the
balanced equation, are placed in the numerator.
Equation coefficients
[N2]2[H2O]6
Keq =
−
The reactant concentrations, each raised to the power of its coefficient in the bal-
anced equation, are placed in the denominator.
[N2]2[H2O]6
Keq =
[NH3]4[O2]3
Note that H2O as a gas (water vapor or steam) is included in an equilibrium con-
stant expression. The concentration of a gas can vary. Water, as a liquid, is never
included in equilibrium constant expressions.
b. Three of the four substances involved in this reaction are solids and thus will not
appear in the equilibrium constant expression. Since both products are solids, the
numerator of the equilibrium constant expression is 1. The concentration of NH3
raised to the second power is the only factor in the denominator because the other
reactant is a solid.
1
Keq =
[NH3]2
c. The reactant Ag2CO3 is a solid and thus will not appear in the equilibrium constant
expression. Since Ag2CO3 is the only reactant, this means there will be no denomi-
nator in the equilibrium expression. Two of the three products are gases, and they
appear in the numerator of the equilibrium constant expression.
Keq = [CO2]2[O2]
d. All of the powers in this equilibrium constant expression are 1 because all of the
coefficients in the balanced equation equal 1.
[NaNO3]
Keq =
[NaCl][AgNO3]
AgCl is not included in the equilibrium constant expression because it is a solid.
Answer Double Check: Is the equilibrium constant expression correct in terms of the
power to which the equilibrium concentrations are raised? Yes. In each case, the power
present has the same numerical value as the coefficient for that substance in the chemical
equation the equilibrium constant expression describes.
At a given temperature, the numerical value of the equilibrium constant for a reac-
tion is obtained by substituting the experimentally determined equilibrium concentrations
at that temperature into the equilibrium constant expression for the reaction, as is shown
in Example 16.3.
EXAMPLE 16.3 Using Equilibrium Concentrations to Calculate the Value

of an Equilibrium Constant
At a temperature of 927⬚C, the equilibrium molar concentrations for the reaction
CO1g2 + 3 H21g2 m CH41g2 + H2O1g2
are
[CO] = 0.613, [H2] = 1.839, [CH4] = 0.387, and [H2O] = 0.387
Calculate the value of the equilibrium constant for this reaction at 927⬚C.
SOLUTION
The general expression for the equilibrium constant is
[CH4][H2O]
Keq =
[CO][H2]3
TABLE 16.1 Experimentally Determined Equilibrium Concentrations for the Chemical

Reaction H2(g) ⴙ I2(g) m 2 HI(g) at 448ⴗC
Initial Equilibrium Calculated

Experiment Concentration Concentration Keq at 448ⴗC
[HI]2
[H2] [I2] [HI] [H2] [I2] [HI] [H2][I2]
1 1.000 1.000 0 0.219 0.219 1.562 51
2 1.000 2.000 0 0.065 1.065 1.870 51
3 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.328 0.328 2.344 51
4 0 0 1.000 0.109 0.109 0.782 51
Substituting the known equilibrium concentrations into this expression gives

[0.387][0.387]
Keq =
[0.613][1.839]3
= 0.039284051 1calculator answer2
Answer Double Check: Were the powers to which the concentrations were raised
incorporated into the mathematical calculation? Yes. In this problem the concentration
(1.839 M) needed to be cubed, and it was.
There are many sets of equilibrium concentrations that will satisfy a given equilibrium
constant expression at a given temperature. This is because, at any given temperature, an
equilibrium may be reached from numerous different sets of starting conditions. Illustrative
of this is the data found in Table 16.1. Here, four sets of equilibrium concentrations are
given that satisfy the equilibrium constant expression for the chemical reaction
H21g2 + I21g2 m 2 HI1g2
The different sets of equilibrium concentrations result from different starting mixes of
reactants and/or products that are allowed to reach equilibrium.
16.7 EQUILIBRIUM POSITION

Student Learning Focus: Describe what is meant by the term equilibrium position and be familiar
with the terminology used to indicate equilibrium position.
Equilibrium position is a qualitative indication of the relative amounts of reactants

and products present when a chemical reaction reaches equilibrium. The terms far to the
right, to the right, neither to the right nor the left, to the left, and far to the left are used
in describing equilibrium position. In equilibrium situations where the concentrations
of products are greater than those of reactants, the equilibrium position is said to lie to
the right because products are always listed on the right side of a chemical equation.
Conversely, when reactants dominate at equilibrium, the equilibrium position lies to the
left. The terminology neither to the right nor the left indicates that significant amounts of
both reactants and products are present in an equilibrium mixture.
Equilibrium position can also be indicated by varying the length of the arrows in the
half-headed double-arrow notation for a reversible reaction. The longer arrow indicates the
direction of the predominant reaction. For example, the arrow notation in the equation
CO2 + H2 O m H2 CO3
indicates that the equilibrium position lies to the right.
The magnitude of the equilibrium constant for a reaction gives information about
how far a reaction proceeds toward completion, that is, about where the equilibrium po-
sition lies. A large value of Keq (greater than 103) means that the numerical value of the
numerator is significantly greater than that of the denominator. In terms of reactants and
products, this means that the concentrations of the products are greater than those of the
reactants. The equilibrium position lies to the right.
Conversely, if the equilibrium constant is small (less than 10-3), we have a situation
where reactants will predominate over products in the reaction mixture. The equilibrium
position is said to lie to the left in this situation.
For equilibrium conditions where Keq has a value between 103 and 10-3, appre-
ciable concentrations of both products and reactants are present. The reaction described
in Example 16.3 falls into this category.
16.8 TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCY OF EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS

Student Learning Focus: Be familiar with the concept that equilibrium constant values vary
with temperature and know the general temperature dependency pattern for the equilibrium
constant Kw.
When the numerical value of an equilibrium constant is given, the temperature at which
the numerical value was determined must also be specified. This is because equilibrium
constant values vary with temperature. A change in temperature changes molecular ener-
gies (Sec. 16.1), and molecular energies have a direct effect on the relative amounts of
reactants and products present in an equilibrium mixture.
As an illustration of the effect that temperature has on equilibrium constant values,
let us consider the equilibrium constant for the reaction
2 H2O1l2 Ç H3O+1aq2 + OH-1aq2
The equilibrium constant expression for this reaction is
Keq = [H3O+][OH-]
(The concentration of water does not appear in the equilibrium constant expression as
water is a pure liquid.)
This reaction and its accompanying equilibrium constant expression should seem
familiar, as a detailed discussion about them occurred in Chapter 14 under the topic “Self-
Ionization of Water” (Sec. 14.10). At that time, the terminology “ion product for water”
was used instead of the yet-to-be-discussed terminology “equilibrium constant,” and the
value for the ion product for water expression was determined to be 1.00 * 10-14 at 24⬚C.
The value 1.00 * 10-14, which was designated as Kw, was used to determine hydronium
and hydroxide ion concentrations in aqueous solutions (Sec. 14.10).
The value 1.00 * 10-14 is in reality an equilibrium constant and its value is thus
dependent on temperature. An increase in temperature increases the probability of two
water molecules interacting to produce ions. Hence ion concentrations increase, which
increases the value of the ion product for water. Table 16.2 gives the ion product for
water (equilibrium constant) value at temperatures above and below 24⬚C, the tempera-
ture for which the value 1.00 * 10-14 is valid.
TABLE 16.2 Ion Product for Water Value at Various Temperatures
TemperatureⴗC Keq value

0 1.14 * 10-15
10 2.92 * 10-15
24 1.00 * 10-14
25 1.01 * 10-14
30 1.47 * 10-14
40 2.92 * 10-14
50 5.47 * 10-14
60 9.61 * 10-14
In most acid–base discussions, the temperature dependence of the ion product for
water is usually ignored because the change in value with temperature is relatively small and
because most laboratory acidity measurements are made at room temperature (roughly 24⬚C).
16.9 LE CHÂTELIER’S PRINCIPLE

Student Learning Focus: Use Le Chatelier’s principle to predict the effects that concentration,
temperature, and pressure changes will have on an equilibrium system.
A chemical system in a state of equilibrium remains in that state until it is disturbed

by some change of condition. Disturbing an equilibrium has one of two results: Either
the forward reaction speeds up (to produce additional products) or the reverse reaction
speeds up (to produce additional reactants). Then with time, the forward and reverse
reactions again become equal and a new equilibrium, not identical to the previous one, is
established. If more products have been produced as a result of the disruption, the equi-
librium position is said to have shifted to the right. Similarly, when the disruption causes
more reactants to form, the equilibrium position has shifted to the left.
Qualitative predictions about the direction in which chemical equilibria shift can be
made using a guideline (principle) introduced in 1888 by the French chemist Henri-Louis Le
Châtelier (1850–1936)—see “The Human Side of Chemistry 16.” Le Châtelier’s principle
states that if a stress (change of conditions) is applied to a chemical system in equilib-
rium, the system will readjust (change the position of the equilibrium) in the direction that
best reduces the stress imposed upon the system. We will use this principle in considering
how four types of changes affect equilibrium position. The changes are (1) concentration
changes, (2) temperature changes, (3) pressure changes, and (4) addition of a catalyst.
Concentration Changes
Adding or removing a gaseous reactant or gaseous product from a reaction mixture at
equilibrium will always upset the equilibrium. Le Châtelier’s principle predicts that the re-
action will shift in the direction that will minimize the change in concentration caused by
the addition or removal. If an additional amount of any gaseous reactant or product has
been added to the system, the stress is relieved by shifting the equilibrium in the direction
that consumes (uses up) some of the added reactant or product. Conversely, if a gaseous
reactant or product is removed from an equilibrium system, the equilibrium will shift in a
direction that produces more of the substance that was removed.

Henri-Louis obtained a degree in physical and chemical proposed in 1884; a simplified version was
Le Châtelier science. In 1887 he was appointed profes- presented in 1888. Metallurgy also occupied
(1850–1936) sor of industrial chemistry and metallurgy his attention. In this area he was most con-
in the Écoles des Mines. Later came an cerned with the chemistry and metallurgy of
Henri-Louis Le Châtelier appointment as professor of inorganic iron and steel.
(pronounced le-shot-lee-ay) chemistry and still later an appointment in In later life he was a great national
was born in Paris in 1850. His father was general chemistry. hero in France. His linking of science with
inspector general of mines for France; his grand- Le Châtelier’s interests were amaz- industry (especially during World War I)
father operated limekilns. Henri would visit his ingly diverse. The chemistries of cement, of was very important to France. In 1916, the
grandfather’s kilns during vacations. Contacts ceramics, and of glass occupied his atten- president of the United States (Woodrow
with his father, grandfather, and their associates tion for a time. Studies in combustion with Wilson) engaged him as a consultant when
were a major factor in shaping his career, a career the aim of preventing mine explosions were the United States’ National Research Council
most noteworthy for his constant application of next. These led to studies of heat and its was established. He held positions on many
chemical principles in industrial settings. measurement. From his studies of heat came commissions and boards that advised the
After obtaining a formal education, that for which he is best known, his principle French government on scientific and techni-
he registered as a mining engineer. Later he of “stress and strain.” This principle was first cal questions. ▪
Let us consider the effect that selected concentration changes will have on the gas-
eous equilibrium.
N21g2 + 3H21g2 m 2NH31g2
Suppose some additional H2 is added to the equilibrium mixture. The equilibrium will
shift to the right; that is, the forward reaction rate will increase in order to use up ad-
ditional H2. Eventually a new equilibrium position will be reached. At this new position,
the H2 concentration will still be higher than it was before the addition; that is, not all of
the added H2 is consumed. In addition, the N2 concentration will have decreased (some
N2 had to react with the H2) and the NH3 concentration will have increased as the result
of the H2 and N2 reacting.
Removal of some NH3 from this newly established equilibrium position will cause H2
an additional shift to the right. The concentration of H2 and N2 will decrease as the sys- N2 NH3
tem attempts to replace the NH3 that was removed by producing more of it. Again, not all
7
of the removed NH3 will be replaced. When the new equilibrium position is achieved, the 5 5
NH3 concentration will be less than it was before the NH3 removal.
Figure 16.7 shows graphically the effects that the H2 addition just discussed has on
N 2 + 3 H2 2 NH3
the concentration of all substances present in the N2 9H2 9NH3 equilibrium mixture.
(a) Original equilibrium
Throughout this discussion of the effect of concentration changes on an equilib- conditions.
rium system, we have referred to the effect of adding or removing a gaseous species. If
we add a pure solid or liquid to a gas-phase equilibrium system, there will be no shift
in the equilibrium position; nothing happens. This is because there will be no change in
concentration. The solid or liquid was 100% pure before the addition, and it is still 100%
after the addition.
More specifically, consider the equilibrium system FIGURE 16.7
Concentration changes
CaCO31s2 m CaO1s2 + CO21g2 that result when
H2 is added to an
Adding or removing CaCO3 or CaO from this system will cause no change in the equi-
equilibrium mixture
librium position. In general, adding or removing a species disturbs an equilibrium system involving the system
only if the concentration of that species appears in the expression for the equilibrium con- N21g2 + 3 H21g2 m
stant (Sec. 16.6). 2 NH31g2.
H2 is H2 The concentrations of solids and liquids do not appear in equilibrium-constant

added expressions. The concentrations of gases and species in an aqueous solution do appear in
3
N2 NH3 equilibrium-constant expressions. The changing of the concentration of one of the two
ions in the equilibrium
7
5 5 Pb2 + 1aq2 + 2 Cl-1aq2 m PbCl21s2
would affect the equilibrium position.
(b) Increase in [H2]
upsets equilibrium; Temperature Changes
reaction shifts to
right as N2 reacts Le Châtelier’s principle can be used to predict the influence of temperature changes on
with the additional H2.
an equilibrium, provided it is known whether the reaction of concern is endothermic or
exothermic.
Consider the exothermic reaction
H21g2 + F21g2 m 2 HF1g2 + heat
H2 Heat is produced when the reaction proceeds to the right. Thus, if we increase the tem-
NH3
perature of an exothermic system at equilibrium, the system will shift to the left in an at-
tempt to use up the added heat. When equilibrium is reestablished, the concentrations of
N2
8.32 H2 and F2 will be higher and the concentration of HF will have decreased. Lowering the
6.12 temperature of an exothermic system at equilibrium will cause the reaction to shift to the
4.44
right as the system attempts to replace the lost heat.
N2 + 3 H2 2 NH3
The behavior, with temperature change, of an equilibrium reaction mixture involv-
ing an endothermic reaction such as
(c) Experimentally
determined new heat + 2 CO21g2 m 2 CO1g2 + O21g2
equilibrium conditions.
Compared with the is just the opposite of that of an exothermic reaction, since a shift to the left (rather than
original equilibrium in
to the right) produces heat. Consequently, an increase in temperature will cause the equi-
(a), [N2] has decreased.
[H2] has increased librium system to shift to the right (to use up the added heat), and a decrease in tempera-
because of addition. ture will produce a shift to the left (to generate more heat).
(Note that [H2] is
actually decreased Pressure Changes
from conditions at [b]
because some of it has Pressure changes affect systems at equilibrium only when gaseous substances are part of
reacted with N2 to
the equilibrium, and then only in cases where the chemical reaction is such that a change
form more NH3.)
[NH3] has increased. in the total number of moles of gaseous substances occurs. This latter point can be illus-
trated by considering the following two gas-phase reactions.
FIGURE 16.7
(Continued)
2 H2(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O(g)
Thousands of chemical 3 moles of gas 2 moles of gas
equilibria simultaneously
exist in biological H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2 HCl(g)
systems. Many of them 2 moles of gas 2 moles of gas
are interrelated. When the
concentration of a single In the first reaction the total number of moles of gaseous reactants and products de-
substance changes, many creases as the reaction proceeds to the right, since 3 moles of reactants combine to give
equilibria are affected. only 2 moles of products. In the second reaction there is no change in the total number of
The effect of temperature moles of gaseous substances present as the reaction proceeds, since 2 moles of reactants
change on the position of combine to give 2 moles of products. Thus, a pressure change will affect the position of
an equilibrium depends equilibrium in the first reaction but not in the second reaction.
on whether heat is a
reactant or a product in
Pressure changes are usually brought about through volume changes. A pressure
the chemical reaction of increase results from a volume decrease, and a pressure decrease from a volume increase
concern. (Sec. 12.3). The use of Le Châtelier’s principle correctly predicts the direction of the equi-
librium position shift resulting from a pressure change only when the pressure change is
FIGURE 16.8 A
catalyst decreases
With catalyst added the time required
for equilibrium to be
Rate of forward reaction reached. It does not,
however, change the
Reaction rate
A+B C + D chemical equilibrium
position of equilibrium;
the amount of product
produced remains the
Rate of reverse reaction
same.
Time
due to a volume change. It does not apply to pressure increases caused by the addition
Increasing the pressure
of a nonreactive (inert) gas to the reaction mixture. Such an addition has no effect on the associated with an
equilibrium position. The partial pressure (Sec. 12.15) of each of the gases involved in the equilibrium system by
reaction remains the same. adding an inert gas
According to Le Châtelier’s principle, the stress of increased pressure is relieved by de- (a gas that is not a
reactant or a product in
creasing the number of moles of gaseous substances in the system. This is accomplished by
the reaction) does not
the reaction shifting in the direction of the smaller number of moles, that is, to the side of the affect the position of the
equation that contains the smaller number of moles of gaseous substances. For the reaction equilibrium.
2 NO21g2 + 7 H21g2 m 2 NH31g2 + 4 H2O1g2

an increase in pressure would shift the equilibrium position to the right, because there are
9 moles of gaseous reactants and only 6 moles of gaseous products. A stress of decreased
pressure will result in an equilibrium system reacting in such a way as to produce more
moles of gaseous substances.
Addition of a Catalyst
Catalysts do not change the position of equilibrium. This fact becomes clear when we
remember that a catalyst functions by lowering the activation energy for a reaction (Sec.
16.3). The activation energy for the forward reaction is lowered, but so is the activation
energy for the reverse reaction. Hence, a catalyst speeds up both the forward and reverse
reactions and has no effect on the position of equilibrium. However, the lowered activa-
tion energy allows equilibrium to be established more quickly than if the catalyst were
not present (see Fig. 16.8).
EXAMPLE 16.4 Using Le Châtelier’s Principle to Predict the Effects

of Changes on the Equilibrium Position in an
Equilibrium System
How will the gas-phase equilibrium
PCl31g2 + Cl21g2 m PCl51g2 + heat
be affected by each of the following?
a. removal of PCl51g2
b. addition of Cl21g2
c. temperature decrease
d. an increase in the volume of the container (pressure decrease)
SOLUTION
a. The equilibrium will shift to the right, according to Le Châtelier’s principle, in an at-
tempt to replenish the PCl5 removed.
b. The equilibrium will shift to the right in an attempt to use up the extra Cl2 that has
been placed in the system.
c. Lowering the temperatures means that heat energy has been removed. The position
of equilibrium will shift to the right in order to produce more heat to take the place
of that removed.
d. The system will shift to the left in an attempt to produce more moles of gaseous
reactants; this will increase the pressure. In going to the left the reaction produces
2 moles of gaseous reactants for every 1 mole of gaseous product consumed.
16.10 FORCING CHEMICAL REACTIONS TO COMPLETION

Student Learning Focus: Be able to list several methods available to cause a chemical reaction to
go to completion instead of going to an equilibrium state.
Reactions that would ordinarily reach a state of equilibrium can be forced to completion
by using experimental conditions that place a “continual stress” on the potential equilib-
rium condition. Let us consider a few ways in which this “forcing” is done.
Continuous removal of one or more products of a reaction will force the reaction to
completion. To reach equilibrium, both reactants and products must be present. The re-
moval of a product continually shifts the reaction to the right, that is, toward completion,
according to Le Châtelier’s principle. Eventually, one or more of the reactants is depleted,
the sign of a completed reaction.
Product removal is very easy to arrange in situations that involve gaseous products.
If the reaction is run in an open container, the gaseous products automatically escape to
the atmosphere as fast as they are produced. Such a reaction will never reach equilibrium
and will continue until the limiting reactant is used up.
Sometimes another chemical reaction is used to remove a product. Consider the
situation of a saturated solution of NaCl.
NaCl1s2 m Na+1aq2 + Cl-1aq2
In such a solution, as much NaCl is dissolved as is possible. Adding AgNO3 to the satu-
rated solution will cause more NaCl to dissolve. The Ag+ ions from the AgNO3 react with
the Cl- ions in the saturated solution to form insoluble AgCl.
Ag+1aq2 + Cl-1aq2 m AgCl1s2
This removes Cl- (one of the products in the original equilibrium) from the solution, thus
upsetting the equilibrium. More NaCl will dissolve to compensate for the loss of the chlo-
ride ions (Le Châtelier’s principle). Continued addition of AgNO3 will eventually cause all
of the NaCl to dissolve.
It is also possible to drive a reaction to completion by ensuring that an excess of
one of the reactants is always present. The system will continually shift to the right (Le
Châtelier’s principle) to remove the stress caused by the excess reactant. Eventually other
reactants will be depleted and the reaction will be completed. A procedure such as this is
useful in a situation where one reactant is very expensive and others are much cheaper.
To ensure that none of the expensive reactant goes unreacted, an excess of one of the
less expensive reactants is used.
1. Collision Theory Collision theory is a set of reaction) occur simultaneously at the same rate.
statements that give the conditions that must be A state of chemical equilibrium is indicated in
met before a chemical reaction will take place. chemical equations by placing half-headed ar-
The three basic tenets of collision theory are (1) rows pointing in both directions between reac-
reactant molecules must collide with each other tants and products.
before any reaction can occur; (2) colliding par- 5. Equilibrium Constant An equilibrium con-
ticles must possess a certain minimum energy, stant is a numerical value that characterizes
called the activation energy, if the collision is to the relationship between the concentrations of
result in reaction; and (3) colliding particles must reactants and products in a system at chemical
come together in the proper orientation if the equilibrium. The value of an equilibrium con-
reaction is to occur. stant is obtained by writing an equilibrium con-
2. Endothermic and Exothermic Chemical stant expression and then numerically evaluating
Reactions An endothermic chemical reaction re- it. Equilibrium constant expressions can be ob-
quires an input of energy as the reaction occurs. tained from the balanced chemical equation for a
This is because the energy required to break chemical reaction.
bonds in the reactants is greater than the energy 6. Equilibrium Position The relative amounts of
released through bond formation in the products. reactants and products present in a system at
An exothermic chemical reaction releases energy equilibrium define the equilibrium position. The
as the reaction occurs. Less energy is required to equilibrium position is toward the right when
break reactant molecule bonds than is released large amounts of products are present and is to-
through bond formation in product molecules in ward the left when large amounts of reactants
an exothermic reaction. are present.
3. Factors that Influence Chemical Reaction 7. Le Châtelier’s Principle Le Châtelier’s principle
Rate The rate of a chemical reaction is the rate states that if a stress (change of conditions) is ap-
at which reactants are consumed or products pro- plied to a system in equilibrium, the system will
duced in a given time period. Four factors that af- readjust (change the position of the equilibrium)
fect reaction rates are (1) the physical nature of the in the direction that best reduces the stress im-
reactants, (2) reactant concentrations, (3) reaction posed on it. Stresses known to change equilib-
temperature, and (4) the presence of catalysts. rium position include (1) concentration changes
4. Chemical Equilibrium Chemical equilibrium in reactants and/or products, (2) temperature
is the condition in which two opposing chemi- changes, and (3) pressure changes. Catalysts do
cal reactions (a forward reaction and a reverse not change the position of an equilibrium.
Key Terms Listing

activation energy Sec. 16.1 equilibrium constant Sec. 16.6 homogeneous catalyst Sec. 16.3
catalyst Sec. 16.3 equilibrium position Sec. 16.7 Le Châtelier’s principle
chemical equilibrium Sec. 16.4 exothermic chemical reaction Sec. 16.9
collision theory Sec. 16.1 Sec. 16.2 rate of a chemical reaction
endothermic chemical reaction heterogeneous catalyst Sec. 16.3
Sec. 16.2 Sec. 16.3 reversible reaction Sec. 16.4

COLLISION THEORY (SEC. 16.1)
16.1 Why are reactions between substances in a solu- 16.10 Add heat as a reactant or as a product to each of the
tion usually faster than reactions between solid-state following equations for chemical reactions based on
reactants? the given thermicity of the reaction.
16.2 Why are gas-phase reactions usually faster than solid- a. H2 + Cl2 h 2 HCl (exothermic)
phase reactions? b. 2 H2O h 2 H2 + O2 (exothermic)
16.3 Under similar concentration and temperature condi- c. 4 NO + 6 H2O h 4 NH3 + 5 O2 (endothermic)
tions, substances X and Z both react with O2, with Z d. 2 H2O + 2 Cl2 h 4 HCl + O2 (endothermic)
reacting more rapidly than Y. 16.11 Classify each of the following chemical reactions as
exothermic or endothermic.
X + O2 S XO2
a. H2O2 + heat h H2 + O2
Z + O2 S ZO2
b. 2 CO + O2 h 2 CO2 + heat
Which of these reactions has the larger activation c. 2 C2H6 + 7 O2 h 4 CO2 + 6 H2O + heat
energy? d. Fe3O4 + CO + heat h 3 FeO + CO2
16.4 Under similar concentration and temperature condi- 16.12 Classify each of the following chemical reactions as
tions, substances Q and R both react with O2, with R exothermic or endothermic.
reacting more rapidly than Q. a. N2 + 2 O2 + heat h 2 NO2
b. N2 + 3 H2 h 2 NH3 + heat
2Q + O2 S 2 QO c. 2 Fe + 3 CO2 + heat h Fe2O3 + 3 CO
2R + O2 S 2 RO d. 4 NH3 + 5 O2 h 4 NO + 6 H2O + heat
Which of these reactions has the smaller activation 16.13 For each of the chemical reactions in Problem 16.11
energy? indicate whether the average energy of the reactant
16.5 What two factors determine whether a collision molecules is (1) less than, (2) equal to, or (3) greater
between two reactant molecules will result in a than the average energy of the product molecules.
reaction? 16.14 For each of the chemical reactions in Problem 16.12
16.6 What happens to the reactants in an ineffective mo- indicate whether the average energy of the reactant
lecular collision? molecules is (1) less than, (2) equal to, or (3) greater
16.7 For the reaction than the average energy of the product molecules.
16.15 Draw an energy diagram graph for a hypothetical
H2 + Cl2 h 2 HCl chemical reaction that is exothermic by 35 kJ/mole
draw a sketch of a molecular orientation that is and has an activation energy of 75 kJ/mole. Label the
highly favorable for an effective collision. following on the diagram.
16.8 For the reaction a. average energy of the reactants
b. average energy of the products
H2 + Cl2 h 2 HCl c. activation energy
draw a sketch of a molecular orientation that is d. amount of energy liberated during the reaction
unfavorable for an effective collision. 16.16 Draw an energy diagram graph for a hypothetical
chemical reaction that is endothermic by 35 kJ/mole
and has an activation energy of 75 kJ/mole. Label the
ENDOTHERMIC AND EXOTHERMIC CHEMICAL following on the diagram.
REACTIONS (SEC. 16.2) a. average energy of the reactants
b. average energy of the products
16.9 Add heat as a reactant or as a product to each of the c. activation energy
following equations for chemical reactions based on d. amount of energy absorbed during the reaction
the given thermicity of the reaction. 16.17 Reaction A occurs at room temperature and liber-
a. 2 SO2 + O2 h 2 SO3 (exothermic) ates 200 kJ of energy per mole of reactant. Reaction
b. N2 + O2 h 2 NO (endothermic) B does not occur until a temperature of 150⬚C is
c. CH4 + 2 O2 h CO2 + 2 H2O (exothermic) reached; it also liberates 200 kJ of energy per mole
d. CaCO3 h CaO + CO2 (endothermic) of reactant. Draw an energy diagram graph for each
reaction, and indicate the similarities and differences For each of the following pairs of the preceding reac-
between the two diagrams. tions, indicate which reaction is faster. The rates to
16.18 Reaction C occurs at room temperature and liberates be compared are the rates when the two reactants
200 kJ of energy per mole of reactant. Reaction D are first mixed. Explain each of your answers.
also occurs at room temperature but absorbs 200 kJ a. 1 and 2 b. 1 and 3
of energy per mole of reactant. Draw an energy dia- c. 1 and 4 d. 2 and 3
gram graph for each reaction, and indicate the simi- 16.24 The characteristics of four reactions, each of which
larities and differences between the two diagrams. involves only two reactants, are as follows.
Activation Concentration
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CHEMICAL REACTION Reaction Energy Temperature of Reactants
RATES (SEC. 16.3)
1 high low 1 mole/L of each
16.19 Using collision theory, indicate why each of the follow-
2 high high 1 mole/L of each
ing factors influences the rate of a chemical reaction.
a. temperature of reactants 3 low low 1 mole/L of 1st
b. presence of a catalyst reactant; 4 moles/L of
16.20 Using collision theory, indicate why each of the 2nd reactant
following factors influences the rate of a chemical 4 low low 4 moles/L of each
reaction.
a. physical nature of reactants For each of the following pairs of the preceding reac-
b. reactant concentrations tions, indicate which reaction is faster. The rates to
16.21 The chemical equation for the reaction of iron metal be compared are the rates when the two reactants
with hydrochloric acid is are first mixed. Explain each of your answers.
a. 1 and 2 b. 1 and 3
Fe1s2 + 2 HCl1aq2 S FeCl21aq2 + H21g2
c. 1 and 4 d. 3 and 4
Will the rate of this reaction (1) increase, (2) de- 16.25 Draw an energy graph for an endothermic reaction
crease, or (3) remain the same when each of the fol- where no catalyst is present. Then draw an energy
lowing actions occurs? diagram for the same reaction when a catalyst is
a. The temperature is increased. present. Indicate the similarities and differences be-
b. The solution is stirred. tween the two diagrams.
c. The concentration of the acid is increased. 16.26 Draw an energy graph for an exothermic reaction
d. The iron is ground into a powder. where no catalyst is present. Then draw an energy
16.22 The chemical equation for the reaction of hydrazine diagram for the same reaction when a catalyst is
with hydrogen peroxide is present. Indicate the similarities and differences be-
tween the two diagrams.
N2H41l 2 + 2 H2O21l 2 S N21g2 + H2O1g2
Will the rate of this reaction (1) increase, (2) de- CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM (SEC. 16.4)
crease, or (3) remain the same when each of the fol- 16.27 What condition must be met in order for a system to
lowing actions occurs? be in a state of chemical equilibrium?
a. The temperature is decreased. 16.28 What relationship exists between the rates of the for-
b. The solution is stirred. ward and reverse reactions for a system in a state of
c. The amount of H2O2 present is increased. chemical equilibrium?
d. A catalyst is added. 16.29 Consider the following equilibrium system
16.23 The characteristics of four reactions, each of which
involves only two reactants, are as follows. CO1g2 + H2O1g2 m CO21g2 + H21g2
a. Write the chemical equation for the forward
Activation Concentration reaction.
Reaction Energy Temperature of Reactants b. Write the chemical equation for the reverse
1 low low 1 mole/L of each reaction.
16.30 Consider the following equilibrium system:
2 high low 1 mole/L of each
3 low high 1 mole/L of each CO1g2 + 3 H21g2 m CH41g2 + H2O1g2
4 low low 1 mole/L of a. Write the chemical equation for the forward reaction.
1st reactant; 4 moles/L b. Write the chemical equation for the reverse
of 2nd reactant reaction.
16.31 The following series of diagrams represent the reac- Which of the diagrams II through IV is a possible
tion X m Y followed over a period of time. The X equilibrium state for the reaction system? There may
molecules are light-colored and the Y molecules are be more than one correct answer.
dark-colored.
Increasing time
I II III IV
I II III IV
16.35 Sketch a graph showing how the concentration of
At the end of the time period depicted, has the reac- reactant and product for a general reversible reaction
tion system reached equilibrium? Justify your answer involving one reactant and one product varies with
with a one-sentence explanation. time until equilibrium is reached. Assume that more
16.32 The following series of diagrams represent the reac- product than reactant is present at equilibrium.
tion X m Y followed over a period of time. The X 16.36 Sketch a graph showing how the rates of the forward
molecules are light-colored and the Y molecules are and reverse reactions for a typical reversible chemi-
dark-colored. cal reaction vary with time.
Increasing time
EQUILIBRIUM MIXTURE STOICHIOMETRY (SEC. 16.5)
16.37 A 0.0200 mole sample of SO3 is placed in a reaction
container and allowed to decompose until equilib-
rium is established.
2 SO31g2 m 2 SO21g2 + O21g2
At equilibrium, 0.0029 mole of O2 is present. What is
I II III IV the composition of the equilibrium mixture in terms
of moles of each substance present?
At the end of the time period depicted, has the reac- 16.38 A mixture of 0.100 mole of SO2 and 0.100 mole of O2
tion system reached equilibrium? Justify your answer is placed in a reaction container and allowed to react
with a one-sentence explanation. until equilibrium is established.
16.33 For the reaction A2 + 2 B h 2 AB, diagram I de-
picts an initial reaction mixture where A2 molecules 2 SO21g2 + O21g2 m 2 SO31g2
are dark-colored and B atoms are light-colored. At equilibrium, 0.0916 mole of SO3 is present. What
Which of the diagrams II through IV is a possible is the composition of the equilibrium mixture in
equilibrium state for the reaction system? There may terms of moles of each substance present?
be more than one correct answer. 16.39 A mixture of 0.296 mole of NH3, 0.170 mole of N2,
and 0.095 mole of H2 is allowed to reach equilibrium.
2 NH31g2 m N21g2 + 3 H21g2
At equilibrium, it is found that 0.268 mole of NH3 is
present. What is the composition of the equilibrium
16.40 A mixture of 0.520 mole of NOCl, 0.010 mole of NO,
and 0.053 mole of Cl2 is allowed to reach equilibrium.
I II III IV
2 NOCl1g2 m 2 NO1g2 + Cl21g2
16.34 For the reaction A2 + B2 h 2 AB, diagram I de- At equilibrium, it is found that 0.022 mole of NO is
picts an initial reaction mixture where A2 molecules present. What is the composition of the equilibrium
are dark-colored and B2 molecules are light-colored. mixture in terms of moles of each substance present?
16.41 A 0.100 mole sample of CO and a 0.200 mole sample 16.48 At a particular temperature, a hypothetical chemi-
of O2 are placed in a reaction container and allowed cal system has the following equilibrium molar
to react until equilibrium is established. concentrations: A = 2.00, B = 4.00, and C = 3.00.
Calculate the value of the equilibrium constant for
2 CO1g2 + O21g2 m 2 CO21g2
the system if the reaction occurring were each of the
At equilibrium, it is found that 0.006 mole of CO following.
has reacted. What is the composition of the equilib- a. A1g2 + 2 B1g2 m C1g2
rium mixture in terms of moles of each substance b. A1g2 m B1g2 + 3 C1g2
present? c. 2 C1g2 + B1g2 m 2 A1g2
16.42 A 0.200 mole sample of N2 and a 0.300 mole sample d. 3 A1g2 + 2 B1g2 m 4 C1g2
of O2 are placed in a reaction container and allowed 16.49 The following four diagrams represent gaseous equi-
to react until equilibrium is established. librium mixtures for the chemical reaction
N21g2 + 2 O21g2 m 2 NO21g2 A21g2 + B21g2 m 2 AB1g2
At equilibrium, it is found that 0.010 mole of N2 has

reacted. What is the composition of the equilibrium
EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS (SEC. 16.6)

16.43 Write the equilibrium constant expression for each of
the following chemical reactions.
a. H21g2 + CO21g2 m H2O1g2 + CO1g2 I II III IV
b. H21g2 + Cl21g2 m 2 HCl1g2
c. 4 NO1g2 + 6 H2O1g2 m 4 NH31g2 + 5 O21g2 at four different temperatures. For which of the dia-
d. CH41g2 + 2 O21g2 m CO21g2 + 2 H2O1g2 grams is the numerical value of the equilibrium con-
16.44 Write the equilibrium constant expression for each of stant the largest? (A atoms are light-colored and B
the following chemical reactions. atoms are dark-colored.)
a. 2 N2O1g2 + O21g2 m 4 NO1g2 16.50 Based on the diagrams, chemical reaction, and reac-
b. C2H61g2 + H21g2 m 2 CH41g2 tion conditions given in Problem 16.49, for which of
c. Br21g2 + 5 F21g2 m 2 BrF51g2 the diagrams is the numerical value of the equilib-
d. 3 Cl21g2 + NH31g2 m NCl31g2 + 3 HCl1g2 rium constant the smallest?
16.45 Write the equilibrium constant expression for each of 16.51 The following four diagrams represent gaseous reac-
the following chemical reactions. tion mixtures for the chemical reaction
a. 4 Al1s2 + 3 O21g2 m 2 Al2O31s2
b. CaCO31s2 m CaO1s2 + CO21g2 A21g2 + B21g2 m 2 AB1g2
c. NaCl1aq2 + AgNO31aq2 m AgCl1s2 +
NaNO31aq2 If the numerical value of the equilibrium constant for
d. 3 CuO1s2 + 2 NH31g2 m 3 Cu1s2 + N21g2 + the chemical reaction is 64, which of the diagrams
3 H2O1g2 represents the equilibrium mixture? (A atoms are
16.46 Write the equilibrium constant expression for each of light-colored and B atoms are dark-colored).
the following chemical reactions.
a. NH4NO31s2 m N2O1g2 + 2 H2O1g2
b. 2 FeBr31s2 m 2 FeBr21s2 + Br21g2
c. PbCO31s2 m PbO1s2 + CO21g2
d. 2 H2SO41aq2 + Cu1s2 m SO21g2 + 2 H2O1l 2
+ CuSO41aq2
16.47 At a particular temperature, a hypothetical chemical
system has the following equilibrium molar concen-
trations: A = 3.00, B = 2.00, and C = 5.00. Calculate
the value of the equilibrium constant for the system I II III IV
if the reaction occurring were each of the following.
a. A1g2 m 2 B1g2 + C1g2 16.52 Based on the diagrams, chemical reaction, and reac-
b. A1g2 + 3 B1g2 m 2 C1g2 tion conditions given in Problem 16.51, which of the
c. 2 B1g2 m A1g2 + C1g2 diagrams represents the equilibrium mixture if the
d. 4 C1g2 + B1g2 m 3 A1g2 value of the equilibrium constant is 9.0?
16.53 The equilibrium constant for the reaction a. concentration of A is increased

CS21g2 + 4 H21g2 m CH41g2 + 2 H2S1g2 b. concentration of B is decreased
c. concentration of C is increased
is 0.0280 at a particular temperature. The system d. concentration of C is decreased
at equilibrium has [H2S] = 1.43, [H2] = 1.00, and 16.62 For the chemical reaction
[CH4] = 0.00100. What is [CS2]?
16.54 The equilibrium constant for the reaction A1g2 + B1g2 m C1g2 + D1g2
CH41g2 + 2 H2S1g2 m CS21g2 + 4 H21g2 determine whether the concentration of A in an equilib-

rium mixture will (1) increase, (2) decrease, or (3) not
is 3.30 * 104 at a particular temperature. The system change when each of the following changes is effected?
at equilibrium has [CH4] = 0.709, [H2S] = 0.0100, a. concentration of B is increased
and [H2] = 2.34. What is [CS2]? b. concentration of C is decreased
16.55 A 6.00 L vessel contains 0.0222 mole of PCl3, 0.0189 c. concentration of D is increased
mole of PCl5, and 0.1044 mole of Cl2 at 230⬚C in an d. concentration of D is decreased
equilibrium mixture. Calculate the value of Keq for 16.63 For the reaction
the reaction
2 C2H21g2 + 5 O21g2 m 4 CO21g2 + 2 H2O1g2 + heat
PCl31g2 + Cl21g2 m PCl51g2
determine the direction that the equilibrium will be
16.56 An 8.00 L vessel contains 0.650 mole of H2, 0.275 mole shifted by each of the following changes.
of I2, and 2.86 moles of HI at 491⬚C in an equilibrium a. increasing the concentration of C2H2
mixture. Calculate the value of Keq for the reaction b. decreasing the concentration of O2
2 HI1g2 m H21g2 + I21g2 c. increasing the temperature
d. increasing the pressure by decreasing the volume
16.57 At a certain temperature, the equilibrium constant for
of the container.
the reaction
16.64 For the reaction
2 A1g2 m 2 B1g2 + C1g2
C3H81g2 + 5 O21g2 m 3 CO21g2 + 4 H2O1g2 + heat
has the value 2.4 * 10-3. If, at equilibrium, it is found
that the molar concentration of B is twice that of A, determine the direction that the equilibrium will be
what is the molar concentration of C? shifted by each of the following changes.
16.58 At a certain temperature, the equilibrium constant for a. increasing the concentration of CO2
the reaction b. decreasing the concentration of C3H8
c. decreasing the temperature
2 A1g2 + B1g2 m 2 C1g2 d. increasing the pressure by decreasing the volume
has the value 2.1 * 103. If, at equilibrium, it is found of the container
that the molar concentration of A is twice that of C, 16.65 Consider the following chemical system at
what is the molar concentration of B? equilibrium.
16.59 For reactions with each of the following equilibrium
2 H2O1g2 + 2 Cl21g2 + heat m 4 HCl1g2 + O21g2
constants, describe the position of equilibrium as (1)
mostly products, (2) mostly reactants, or (3) signifi- For each of the following adjustments of conditions,
cant amounts of both reactants and products. indicate the effect on the position of equilibrium:
a. 10-10 at 25⬚C b. 1030 at 25⬚C shifts left, shifts right, no effect.
9
c. 10 at 127⬚C d. 102 at 327⬚C a. heating the equilibrium mixture
16.60 For reactions with each of the following equilibrium b. adding O2 to the mixture
constants, describe the position of equilibrium as (1) c. increasing the pressure on the equilibrium mix-
mostly products, (2) mostly reactants, or (3) signifi- ture by adding an inert gas
cant amounts of both reactants and products. d. increasing the size of the reaction container
a. 1025 at 25⬚C b. 10-19 at 25⬚C 16.66 Consider the following chemical system at equilibrium.
c. 10-11 at 235⬚C d. 10-1 at 1235⬚C
2 N21g2 + 6 H2O1g2 + heat m 4 NH31g2 + O21g2
LE CHÂTELIER’S PRINCIPLE (SEC. 16.9) For each of the following adjustments of conditions,
16.61 For the chemical reaction indicate the effect on the position of equilibrium:
shifts left, shifts right, no effect.
A1g2 + B1g2 m C1g2 + D1g2 a. adding N2 to the mixture
determine whether the concentration of D in an b. decreasing the size of the container holding the
equilibrium mixture will (1) increase, (2) decrease, or mixture
(3) not change when each of the following changes c. adding a catalyst to the mixture
is effected? d. refrigerating the warm equilibrium mixture
16.67 For which of the following reactions is product for- 16.70 The following two diagrams represent the compo-
mation favored by high temperature? sition of an equilibrium mixture for the chemical
a. N21g2 + O21g2 m 2 NO1g2 + heat reaction
b. N21g2 + 3 H21g2 m 2 NH31g2 + heat
c. CO1g2 + 3 H21g2 + heat m CH41g2 + H2O1g2 A21g2 + B21g2 m 2 AB1g2
d. 2 H2O1g2 m 2 H21g2 + O21g2 + heat
at two different temperatures. Based on the diagrams,
16.68 For which of the reactions in Problem 16.67 is prod-
is the chemical reaction endothermic or exothermic?
uct formation favored by high pressure?
Explain your answer using Le Châtelier’s principle.
16.69 The following two diagrams represent the composition
(A atoms are light-colored and B atoms are dark-col-
of an equilibrium mixture for the chemical reaction
ored in the diagrams.)
A21g2 + B21g2 m 2 AB1g2
at two different temperatures. Based on the diagrams,
is the chemical reaction endothermic or exothermic?
Explain your answer using Le Châtelier’s principle.
(A atoms are light-colored and B atoms are dark-
colored in the diagrams.)
T = 250°C T = 400°C
T = 150°C T = 200°C
numbered problems.
16.71 The following reaction at a certain temperature has c. [HI] = 0.076, [H2] = 0.012, [I2] = 0.012
an equilibrium-constant value of 25.9. d. [HI] = 0.140, [H2] = 0.031, [I2] = 0.010
16.73 At a given temperature, the equilibrium constant for
2 CO21g2 m 2 CO1g2 + O21g2
the reaction
For each of the following compositions, decide whether
the reaction mixture is at equilibrium. If it is not, decide 2 NO1g2 + Br21g2 m 2 NOBr1g2
which direction the reaction shifts to reach equilibrium.
a. [CO2] = 0.0300, [CO] = 0.350, [O2] = 0.190 is 2 * 103. What is the equilibrium constant, at the
b. [CO2] = 0.0600, [CO] = 0.700, [O2] = 0.380 same temperature, for the following reaction?
c. [CO2] = 0.0280, [CO] = 0.356, [O2] = 0.160
d. [CO2] = 0.0100, [CO] = 0.330, [O2] = 0.180 2 NOBr1g2 m 2 NO1g2 + Br21g2
16.72 The following reaction at a certain temperature has
an equilibrium-constant value of 0.016. 16.74 At a given temperature, the equilibrium constant for
the reaction
2 HI1g2 m H21g2 + I21g2
CO1g2 + H2O1g2 m CO21g2 + H21g2
For each of the following compositions, decide
whether the reaction mixture is at equilibrium. If it is 0.034. What is the equilibrium constant, at the
is not, decide which direction the reaction shifts to same temperature, for the following reaction?
reach equilibrium.
a. [HI] = 0.080, [H2] = 0.010, [I2] = 0.010 CO21g2 + H21g2 m CO1g2 + H2O1g2
b. [HI] = 0.084, [H2] = 0.012, [I2] = 0.012
16.75 Which of the following changes would change the 16.79 Consider the following equilibrium mixture situa-
value of a system’s equilibrium constant? tions for the chemical reaction
a. addition of a reactant or product A1g2 + B1g2 m C1g2 + D1g2
b. increase in the total pressure
c. decrease in the temperature 1. Initial concentrations are [A] = 1.2 and [B] = 0.8
d. addition of an inert gas 2. Initial concentrations are [A] = 1.2, [B] = 0.8,
16.76 Which of the following changes would change the and [C] = 0.5
value of a system’s equilibrium constant? 3. Initial concentrations are [A] = 2.2 and [B] = 0.8
a. removal of a reactant or product 4. Initial concentrations are [A] = 2.2 and [B] = 1.8
b. decrease in the total pressure a. For which of these situations is [D] the least at
c. increase in the temperature equilibrium?
d. addition of a catalyst b. For which of these situations is [D] the greatest at
16.77 Predict the direction in which each of the following equilibrium?
equilibria will shift if the pressure on the system is 16.80 Consider the following equilibrium mixture situa-
decreased by expansion. tions for the chemical reaction
a. N2O1g2 + NO21g2 h 3 NO1g2 A1g2 + B1g2 m C1g2 + D1g2
b. 2 HBr1g2 h H21g2 + Br21g2
1. Initial concentrations are [C] = 1.2 and [D] = 0.8
c. SO21g2 + Cl21g2 h SO2Cl21g2
d. C1s2 + CO21g2 h 2 CO1g2 2. Initial concentrations are [C] = 1.2, [D] = 0.8,
16.78 Predict the direction in which each of the following and [B] = 0.5
equilibria will shift if the pressure on the system is 3. Initial concentrations are [C] = 1.4 and [D] = 0.8
increased by compression. 4. Initial concentrations are [C] = 1.4 and [D] = 1.0
a. PCl51g2 h PCl31g2 + Cl21g2 a. For which of these situations is [A] the least at
b. 2 NO1g2 + Cl21g2 h 2 NOCl1g2 equilibrium?
c. CS21g2 + 4 H21g2 h CH41g2 + 2 H2S1g2 b. For which of these situations is [A] the greatest at
d. Ni1s2 + 4 CO1g2 h Ni1CO241g2 equilibrium?

MC 16.1 Most chemical reactions are carried out in liquid c. It is low for reactions that take place rapidly.
solution or in the gaseous phase because in such situations d. more than one correct response
a. activation energies are higher. e. no correct response
b. products are less likely to decompose. MC 16.4 Whether a chemical reaction is exothermic or
c. reactant collisions can occur more frequently. endothermic is determined by
d. more than one correct response a. the magnitude of the activation energy.
e. no correct response b. the physical state of the reactants.
MC 16.2 For a collision between molecules to result in a c. whether a catalyst is present.
reaction, the molecules must possess a certain minimum d. more than one correct response
energy and e. no correct response
a. exchange electrons. MC 16.5 Which of the following chemical reactions is
b. interact with a catalyst for at least 1 second. endothermic?
c. have a favorable orientation relative to each other a. NH3 + HBr h NH4Br + heat
when they collide. b. 2 NO2 h N2 + 2 O2 + heat
d. more than one correct response c. PCl3 + Cl2 h PCl5 + heat
MC 16.3 Which of the following statements about activa- e. no correct response
tion energy is correct? MC 16.6 Which of the following factors would most likely
a. It is the same at a given temperature for all chemi- decrease the rate of a chemical reaction?
cal reactions. a. increase the state of subdivision of a reactant
b. It is the energy given off when two molecules b. decrease the concentration of a reactant
collide. c. decrease the activation energy for the reaction
d. more than one correct response MC 16.13 At a certain temperature, equilibrium concen-
e. no correct response trations for the reaction 3 C m A + 2 B are found to be
MC 16.7 Increasing the temperature at which a chemical [A] = 3.0, [B] = 2.0 and [C] = 1.0. What is the value of the
reaction occurs will equilibrium constant for this reaction at the given temperature?
a. lower the activation energy, thus increasing the a. 0.083
reaction rate. b. 0.17
b. increase collision frequency among reactants, thus c. 6.0
increasing the reaction rate. d. 12
c. reduce collision energies, thus increasing reaction e. no correct response
rate. MC 16.14 When the position of an equilibrium is described
d. more than one correct response as being “far to the left” it means that
e. no correct response a. very few reactant molecules are present in the
MC 16.8 Which of the following statements concerning equilibrium mixture.
catalysts is correct? b. the rate of the reverse reaction is greater than that
a. They can be either solids, liquids, or gases. of the forward reaction.
b. They lower the activation energy for reactions. c. many product molecules are present in the equi-
c. They do not actively participate in the reaction. librium mixture.
MC 16.9 Which of the following statements about equilib- MC 16.15 If, at equilibrium, nearly all of the reactants
rium mixtures is always true? have been consumed, the equilibrium constant would be
a. reactant concentrations are equal to product expected to have a
concentrations a. very small numerical value.
b. complete conversion of reactants to products occurs b. very large numerical value.
c. rates of the forward and reverse reactions become c. numerical value slightly greater than 1.0.
zero d. numerical value slightly less than 1.0.
e. no correct response MC 16.16 Le Châtelier’s principle states that
MC 16.10 A mixture of 2.00 moles of A and 2.00 moles of a. only exothermic reactions can reach equilibrium.
B is allowed to reach equilibrium, at which time 1.60 moles b. only reactions in which a catalyst is present can
of A are present. How many moles of B are present at equi- reach equilibrium.
librium if the reaction equations is c. if a chemical reaction is disturbed, the temperature
of the system will always increase.
2 A1g2 + 3 B1g2 m 4 C1g2 d. more than one correct response
a. 0.40 mole B MC 16.17 Le Châtelier’s principle can be used to predict the
b. 1.40 moles B a. effect of a catalyst on the rate of a chemical
c. 1.60 moles B reaction.
d. 1.80 moles B b. effect of a concentration change on equilibrium
e. no correct response position.
MC 16.11 Which of the following statements is correct for c. temperature at which equilibrium will be
an equilibrium constant expression? established.
a. Product concentrations are always placed in the d. more than one correct response
numerator. e. no correct response
b. Solid and liquid concentrations are always placed MC 16.18 For a chemical reaction at equilibrium, which of
in the denominator. the following would always decrease the concentrations of
c. Concentrations for gaseous reactants and products the products?
are always squared. a. an increase in the temperature
d. more than one correct response b. a decrease in the pressure
e. no correct response c. a decrease in a reactant concentration
MC 16.12 The value of an equilibrium constant is depen- c. more than one correct response
dent on which of the following? d. no correct response
a. the initial concentration of reactants and products MC 16.19 According to Le Châtelier’s principle, which of
b. the final concentration of reactants and products these effects will occur if NH3 is removed from an equilib-
c. the temperature of the equilibrium system rium mixture governed by the chemical equation
e. no correct response N21g2 + 3 H21g2 + heat m 2 NH31g2?
a. Concentration of N2 will increase. ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE-CHOICE PRACTICE TEST

b. Heat energy will be consumed.
c. Concentration of H2 will remain the same. MC 16.1 c MC 16.8 d MC 16.15 b
d. more than one correct response MC 16.2 c MC 16.9 e MC 16.16 e
e. no correct response MC 16.3 c MC 16.10 b MC 16.17 b
MC 16.20 For which of the following equilibrium systems MC 16.4 e MC 16.11 a MC 16.18 c
will the equilibrium position shift to the left when the pres- MC 16.5 e MC 16.12 d MC 16.19 b
sure on the system is increased? MC 16.6 b MC 16.13 d MC 16.20 c
a. H21g2 + Cl21g2 m 2 HCl1g2 MC 16.7 b MC 16.14 e
b. 2 SO21g2 + O21g2 m 2 SO31g2
c. 2 NH31g2 m 3 H21g2 + N21g2
GLOSSARY
accuracy An indicator of how close a measurement (or the atomic theory of matter A set of five statements
average of multiple measurements) comes to a true or ac- that summarizes modern-day scientific thought about
cepted value (2.3) atoms (5.1)
acid A hydrogen-containing molecular compound whose aufbau diagram A listing of electron subshells arranged in
molecules yield hydrogen ions (H+ ) when dissolved in the order in which electrons occupy them (6.7)
water (8.7) aufbau principle Electrons normally occupy electron sub-
acid–base titration A procedure in which a measured shells in order of increasing subshell energy (6.7)
volume of acid or base of known concentration is exactly Avogadro’s law Equal volumes of different gases, mea-
reacted with a measured volume of a base or an acid of sured at the same temperature and pressure, contain equal
unknown concentration (14.14) numbers of molecules (12.7); the volume of a gas is directly
acidic hydrogen atom A hydrogen atom in an acid mol- proportional to the number of moles of gas present if the
ecule that can be transferred to a base during an acid–base temperature and pressure are kept constant (12.7)
reaction (14.4) Avogadro’s number The name given to the numeri-
acidic solution A solution in which the concentration of cal value 6.022 * 1023, the number of particles in a
H3O+ ion is greater than that of OH- ion (14.10) mole (9.5)
activation energy The minimum combined kinetic energy balanced chemical equation A chemical equation that has
that reactant particles must possess in order for their colli- the same number of atoms of each element involved in a
sion to result in a reaction (16.1) reaction on each side of the equation (10.3)
actual yield The amount of product actually produced barometer A device used for measuring atmospheric
from a chemical reaction (10.11) pressure (12.2)
alkali metal A general name for any element in group IA basic scientific research Research whose major focus
of the periodic table, excluding hydrogen (6.2) is the discovery of new fundamental information about
humans and other living organisms and the universe in
alkaline earth metal A general name for any element in
which they live (1.2)
group IIA of the periodic table (6.2)
basic solution A solution in which the concentration of
amphiprotic substance A substance that can either lose or
OH- ion is greater than that of H3O+ ion (14.10)
accept protons and thus can function as either an acid or a
base (14.3) binary compound A compound in which only two ele-
ments are present (8.2)
anion A negatively charged ion (7.4)
binary ionic compound An ionic compound in which one
applied scientific research Research whose major focus
element present is a metal and the other element present is
is the discovery of useful products and processes that can be
a nonmetal (8.2)
used to benefit humankind (1.2)
binary molecular compound A molecular compound in
aqueous solution A solution in which water is the
which only two nonmetallic elements are present (8.6)
solvent (13.2)
boiling A special form of evaporation in which conversion
area A measure of the extent of a surface (3.4)
from the liquid to the vapor state occurs within the body of
Arrhenius acid A hydrogen-containing compound that in a liquid through bubble formation (11.15)
water produces hydrogen ions (H+ ) (14.1)
boiling point The temperature of a liquid at which the
Arrhenius base A hydroxide-ion-containing compound vapor pressure of the liquid becomes equal to the external
that in water produces hydroxide ions (OH- ) (14.1) (atmospheric) pressure exerted on the liquid (11.15)
atom The smallest particle of an element that can exist and bond length The distance between the nuclei of covalently
still have the properties of the element (5.1) bonded atoms (7.15)
atomic mass The relative mass of an average atom of bond polarity A measure of the degree of inequality in the
an element on a scale using the 126C atom as the refer- sharing of electrons in a chemical bond (7.19)
ence (5.8) bond strength A measure of the energy it takes to break
atomic number The number of protons in the nucleus of a bond, that is, to separate bonded atoms to give neutral
an atom (5.6) particles (7.15)
739
740 Glossary
bonding electrons Pairs of valence electrons that are chemical symbol A one- or two-letter designation for an
shared between atoms in a covalent bond (7.11) element derived from the element’s name (4.9)
Boyle’s law The volume of a fixed mass of gas is inversely chemistry The scientific discipline concerned with the char-
proportional to the pressure applied to the gas if the tem- acteristics, composition, and transformations of matter (4.1)
perature is kept constant (12.3) collision theory A set of statements that gives the condi-
Brønsted–Lowry acid Any substance that can donate a tions that must be met before a chemical reaction will take
proton (H+ ) to some other substance (14.2) place (16.1)
Brønsted–Lowry base Any substance that can accept a combined gas law The product of the pressure and vol-
proton (H+ ) from some other substance (14.2) ume of a fixed amount of gas is directly proportional to its
buffer A solution that resists major changes in pH when Kelvin temperature (12.6)
small amounts of acid or base are added to it (14.13) combustion analysis A method used to measure the amounts
catalyst A substance that when added to a reaction mixture of carbon and hydrogen present in a combustible compound
increases the rate of the reaction, but is itself unchanged that contains these two elements (and perhaps other elements)
after the reaction is completed (16.3) when the compound is burned in pure O2 (9.13)
cation A positively charged ion (7.4) combustion reaction A chemical reaction in which a sub-
stance reacts with oxygen (usually from air) that proceeds
change of state A process in which a substance is trans- with evolution of heat and usually also a flame (10.6)
formed from one physical state to another physical state (11.8)
common name A name for a compound not based on
Charles’s law The volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly
IUPAC rules that does not convey information about the
proportional to its Kelvin temperature if the pressure is kept
composition of the compound (8.6)
constant (12.4)
compound A pure substance that can be broken down into
chemical bond The attractive force that holds two atoms
two or more simpler pure substances by chemical means (4.7)
together in a more complex unit (7.1)
compressibility A measure of the change in volume result-
chemical change A process in which a substance under-
ing from a pressure change (11.2)
goes a change in chemical composition (4.4)
concentrated solution A solution that contains a large
chemical equation A representation for a chemical
amount of solute relative to the amount that could dis-
reaction that uses chemical symbols and chemical formulas,
solve (13.2)
instead of words, to describe the changes that occur in the
chemical reaction (10.2) concentration The amount of solute present in a specified
amount of solvent or a specified amount of solution (13.5)
chemical equilibrium A process wherein two oppos-
ing chemical reactions occur simultaneously at the same condensed electron configuration An electron configu-
rate (16.4) ration in which the chemical symbol of the nearest noble
gas element of lower atomic number is used to represent the
chemical formula A notation made up of the chemical
electrons in the configuration up to that of the noble gas,
symbols of the elements present in a compound and numer-
and the remaining additional electrons are then appended to
ical subscripts (located to the right of each chemical symbol)
the chemical symbol of the noble gas (6.7)
that indicate the number of atoms of each element present
in a structural unit of the compound (5.4) conjugate acid The species formed when a proton
(H+ ion) is added to a Brønsted–Lowry base (14.3)
chemical nomenclature The system of names used to dis-
tinguish compounds from each other and the rules needed conjugate acid–base pair Two species, one an acid and
to devise these names (8.1) one a base, that differ from each other through the loss or
gain of a proton (H+ ion) (14.3)
chemical periodicity The variation in properties of
elements as a function of their positions in the periodic conjugate base The species that remains when a proton
table (6.12) (H+ ion) is removed from a Brønsted–Lowry acid (14.3)
chemical property A characteristic of a substance that de- conversion factor A ratio that specifies how one unit of
scribes the way the substance undergoes or resists change to measurement is related to another unit of measurement (3.6)
form a new substance (4.3) coordinate covalent bond A covalent bond in which both
chemical reaction A process in which at least one new electrons of a shared electron pair come from one of the two
substance is produced as a result of chemical change (4.4) atoms involved in the bond (7.14)
chemical stoichiometry The study of the quantitative rela- core electrons The inner-shell electrons of an atom that
tionships among reactants and products in a chemical reac- are not normally involved in determining the chemical prop-
tion (10.9) erties of the atom (6.7)
Glossary 741
covalent bond A chemical bond formed through the shar- electron orbital A region of space within an electron sub-
ing of one or more pairs of electrons between two atoms shell where an electron with a specific energy is most likely
(7.1); a chemical bond resulting from two nuclei attracting to be found (6.6)
the same shared electrons (7.10) electron shell A region of space about a nucleus that con-
cubic meter The SI system base unit of volume (3.4) tains electrons that have approximately the same energy and
Dalton’s law of partial pressures The total pressure ex- that spend most of their time approximately the same dis-
erted by a mixture of gases is the sum of the partial pres- tance from the nucleus (6.4)
sures of the individual gases (12.16) electron spin A property of an electron associated
with the concept that an electron is spinning on its own
decomposition reaction A chemical reaction in which a
axis (6.6)
single reactant is converted into two or more simpler sub-
stances (10.6) electron subshell A region of space within an electron
shell that contains electrons that have the same energy (6.5)
density A ratio of the mass of an object to the volume
occupied by the object (3.8) electronegativity A measure of the relative attraction that
an atom has for the shared electrons in a bond (7.18)
diamagnetic atom An atom that has an electron arrange-
ment containing one or more unpaired electrons (6.8) electrostatic force An attractive force or repulsive force
that occurs between charged particles (11.3)
diatomic molecule A molecule that contains two
atoms (5.2) element A pure substance that cannot be broken down into
simpler pure substances by ordinary chemical means (4.7).
dilute solution A solution that contains a small amount of
A pure substance in which all atoms present have the same
solute relative to the amount that could dissolve (13.2)
atomic number; that is, all atoms have the same number of
dilution The process in which more solvent is added to a protons (5.6)
solution in order to lower its concentration (13.10)
empirical formula A chemical formula that gives the small-
dimensional analysis A general problem-solving method est whole-number ratio of atoms present in a formula unit of
that uses the units associated with numbers as a guide in a compound (9.12)
setting up the calculation (3.7)
endothermic change of state A change of state that
dipole–dipole interaction An intermolecular force of requires the input (absorption) of heat energy (11.8)
attraction that occurs between polar molecules (11.16)
endothermic chemical reaction A chemical reaction that
diprotic acid An acid that can transfer two H+ ions requires the continuous input of energy as the reaction
(two protons) per molecule during an acid–base occurs (16.2)
reaction (14.4)
equality conversion factor A ratio that converts one
disproportionation reaction A redox reaction in which unit of a given measure to another unit of the same
some atoms of a single element in a reactant are oxidized measure (3.8)
and others are reduced (15.10)
equation coefficient A number placed to the left of a
dissociation The process whereby the already-existent ions chemical formula in a chemical equation that changes the
in an ionic compound separate when the ionic compound is amount, but not the identity, of a substance (10.3)
dissolved in a solvent (14.1) equilibrium constant A numerical value that characterizes
distinguishing electron The last electron added to an ele- the relationship between the concentrations of reactants and
ment’s electron configuration when the configuration is writ- concentrations of products in a system that is in chemical
ten following the aufbau principle (6.10) equilibrium (16.6)
double covalent bond A covalent bond in which two equilibrium position A qualitative indication of the rela-
atoms share two pairs of valence electrons (7.12) tive amounts of reactants and products present when a
double-replacement reaction A chemical reaction in chemical reaction reaches equilibrium (16.7)
which two compounds exchange parts with each other and equilibrium state A situation in which two opposite pro-
form two new compounds (10.6) cesses take place at equal rates (11.13)
electrolyte A substance whose aqueous solution conducts equivalence conversion factor A ratio that converts one
electricity (15.2) type of measure to a different type of measure (3.8)
electron A subatomic particle that possesses a negative evaporation A process in which molecules escape from a
electrical charge (5.5) liquid phase to a gaseous phase (11.13)
electron configuration A statement of how many elec- exact number A number that has a value with no uncer-
trons an atom has in each of its subshells (6.7) tainty in it; that is, it is known exactly (2.2)
742 Glossary
exothermic change of state A change of state that re- heat of solidification Amount of heat energy evolved in
quires heat energy to be given up (released) (11.8) the conversion of 1 gram of a liquid to a solid at the liquid’s
exothermic chemical reaction A chemical reaction in freezing point (11.11)
which energy is released as the reaction occurs (16.2) heat of vaporization Amount of heat energy absorbed in
experiment A well-defined, controlled procedure for ob- the conversion of 1 gram of a liquid to a gas at the liquid’s
taining information about a system under study (1.4) boiling point (11.11)
exponent A number written as a superscript following an- heteroatomic molecule A molecule in which two or more
other number that indicates how many times the first num- different kinds of atoms are present (5.2)
ber is to be multiplied by itself (2.7) heterogeneous catalyst A catalyst that exists in a phase
extensive property A property that depends on the different from the reactants in a reaction mixture (16.3)
amount of substance present (4.3) heterogeneous mixture A mixture that contains two or
fixed-charge metal A metal that forms only one type of posi- more visually distinguishable phases (parts), each of which
tive ion, which always has the same charge magnitude (8.2) has different properties (4.6)
formula mass The sum of the atomic masses of all atoms homoatomic molecule A molecule in which all atoms
present in one formula unit of a substance, expressed in present are of the same kind (5.2)
atomic mass units (9.2) homogeneous catalyst A catalyst that is present in the
formula unit The smallest whole-number repeating ratio same phase as the reactants in a reaction mixture (16.3)
of ions present in an ionic compound that results in charge homogeneous mixture A mixture that contains only one
neutrality (7.8) visually distinguishable phase (part), which has uniform
gas The physical state characterized by both an indefinite properties throughout (4.6)
shape and an indefinite volume (4.2); the physical state char- Hund’s rule When electrons are placed in a set of orbitals
acterized by a complete dominance of kinetic energy (disrup- of equal energy (the orbitals of a subshell), the order of filling
tive forces) over potential energy (cohesive forces) (11.6) for the orbitals is such that each orbital of the subshell receives
gas laws Generalizations that summarize in mathematical an electron with the same spin before any orbital receives a
terms experimental observations about the relationships second electron (of opposite spin) (6.8)
among the amount, pressure, temperature, and volume of hydrogen bond An extra strong dipole–dipole interaction
a gas (12.2) involving a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a small,
Gay-Lussac’s law The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is very electronegative atom (F, O, or N) and an unshared pair
directly proportional to its Kelvin temperature if the volume of electrons on another small, very electronegative atom
is kept constant (12.5) (F, O, or N) (11.16)
Gay-Lussac’s law of combining volumes The volumes hydrolysis The reaction of a substance with water to pro-
of gases that participate in a chemical reaction, measured duce an H3O+ ion or OH- ion or both (14.12)
at the same temperature and pressure, are in the same ratio ideal gas A gas that would obey gas laws exactly over all
as the coefficients for these gases in the balanced equation for temperatures and pressures (12.8)
the reaction (12.11)
ideal gas law A gas law that describes the relationships
group A vertical column of elements in the periodic among the four variables pressure, volume, molar amount,
table (6.2) and temperature for a gaseous substance at a given set of
half-reaction A chemical equation that describes one of the conditions (12.9)
two parts of an overall oxidation–reduction reaction, either
indicator A compound that exhibits different colors, de-
the oxidation part or the reduction part (15.9)
pending on the pH of its surroundings (14.14)
halogen A general name for any element in group VIIA of
inexact number A number that has a value with a degree
the periodic table (6.2)
of uncertainty in it (2.2)
heat capacity The amount of heat energy needed to raise
inner-transition element An element found in the f area
the temperature of a given quantity of a substance in a spe-
of the periodic table (6.11)
cific physical state by 1⬚C (11.9)
intensive property A property that is independent of the
heat of condensation Amount of heat energy evolved in
amount of substance present (4.3)
the conversion of 1 gram of a gas to a liquid at the liquid’s
boiling point (11.11) intermolecular force An attractive force that acts between
a molecule and another molecule (11.16)
heat of fusion Amount of heat energy absorbed in the con-
version of 1 gram of a solid to a liquid at the solid’s melting ion An atom (or group of atoms) that is electrically charged
point (11.11) as the result of the loss or gain of electrons (7.4)
Glossary 743
ion–dipole interaction An intermolecular attractive force liquid The physical state characterized by both an indefi-
between an ion and a polar molecule (11.16) nite shape and a definite volume (4.2); the physical state
ion–ion interaction An intermolecular attractive force be- characterized by potential energy (cohesive forces) and
tween oppositely charged ions present in liquid state (mol- kinetic energy (disruptive forces) of about the same magni-
ten) ionic compounds (11.16) tude (11.5)
ion product constant for water The numerical value liter A volume equal to that of a cube whose sides are 1 dm,
(1.00 * 10-14 ) associated with the product of the H3O+ ion or 10 cm (1 dm = 10 cm), in length (3.4)
and OH- ion molar concentrations in water (14.10) London force A weak temporary dipole–dipole interaction
ionic bond A chemical bond formed through the transfer that occurs between an atom or molecule (polar or nonpolar)
of one or more electrons from one atom or group of atoms and another atom or molecule (polar or nonpolar) (11.16)
to another (7.1); the chemical bond resulting from the attrac- manometer A device used to measure gas pressure in a
tion of positive and negative ions for each other (7.4) laboratory (12.2)
ionic equation An equation in which the formulas of the mass A measure of the total quantity of matter in an
predominant form of each compound in an aqueous solu- object (3.3)
tion are used; dissociated/ionized compounds are written as
mass number The sum of the number of protons and the
ions, and undissociated compounds are written in molecular
number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom (5.6)
form (15.3)
mass–volume percent concentration The mass of solute
ionization The process whereby ions are produced from a
(in grams) divided by the total volume of solution (in
molecular compound when it is dissolved in a solvent (14.1)
milliliters) multiplied by 100 (13.6)
isobars Atoms that have the same mass number but differ-
matter Anything that has mass and occupies space (4.1)
ent atomic numbers (5.7)
isoelectronic species Ions, or an atom and an ion, having measurement The determination of the dimensions, capac-
the same number and configuration of electrons (7.5) ity, quantity, or extent of something (2.1)
isotopes Atoms of an element that have the same number of metal An element that has the characteristic properties
protons and electrons but different numbers of neutrons (5.7) of luster, thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity, and
malleability (6.11)
joule The base unit for energy in the metric system (11.9)
metalloid An element with properties intermediate be-
kilogram The SI system base unit of mass (3.3) tween those of metals and nonmetals (6.12)
kinetic energy The energy that matter possesses because meter The SI system base unit of length (3.2)
of particle motion (11.3)
mixture A physical combination of two or more pure sub-
kinetic molecular theory of matter A set of five state- stances in which each substance retains its own chemical
ments used to explain the physical behavior of the three identity (4.5)
states of matter (11.3)
molality concentration A solution concentration unit
law of conservation of mass Mass is neither created nor
that gives the number of moles of solute per kilogram of
destroyed in any ordinary chemical reaction (10.1)
solvent (13.9)
law of definite proportions In a pure compound the ele-
molar mass A mass, in grams, of one mole of atoms, mol-
ments are always present in the same definite proportion by
ecules, or formula units of a substance (9.6)
mass (9.1)
molar mass of a compound A mass, in grams, numerically
Le Châtelier’s principle If a stress (change of conditions)
equal to the formula mass of the compound (9.6)
is applied to a chemical system in equilibrium, the system
will readjust (change the position of the equilibrium) in the molar mass of an element A mass, in grams, numerically
direction that best reduces the stress imposed on the system equal to the atomic mass of the element, when the element
(16.9) is present in atomic form (9.6)
Lewis structure A grouping of Lewis symbols that shows molar volume of a gas The volume occupied by one mole
either the transfer of electrons or the sharing of electrons in of a gas at a specified temperature and pressure (12.13)
chemical bonds (7.6) molarity concentration A solution concentration unit
Lewis symbol The chemical symbol of an element sur- that gives the number of moles of solute per liter of solu-
rounded by dots equal in number to the number of valence tion (13.8)
electrons present in atoms of the element (7.2) mole A counting unit based on the number 6.022 * 1023
limiting reactant The reactant in a chemical reaction (9.5); the amount of substance that contains as many par-
that is entirely consumed when the reaction goes to com- ticles (atoms, molecules, or formula units) as there are 12
Ê6C
pletion (10.10) atoms in 12.000000 grams of 12
Ê6C, which is 6.022 * 1023
(9.7)
744 Glossary
mole fraction A dimensionless quantity that gives the ratio normal boiling point The temperature of a liquid at
of the number of moles of a component in a mixture to the which the liquid boils under a pressure of 760 mm Hg
number of moles of all components present (12.16) (11.15)
molecular formula A chemical formula that gives the ac- nucleon Any subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an
tual number of atoms present in a formula unit of a com- atom (5.5)
pound (9.12) nucleus The small, dense, positively charged center of an
molecular geometry A description of the three-dimensional atom that contains an atom’s protons and neutrons (5.5)
arrangement of atoms within a molecule (7.17) observation A statement that describes something we see,
molecular polarity A measure of the degree of inequality hear, smell, taste, or feel (1.4)
in the attraction of bonding electrons to various locations octet rule In forming compounds, atoms of elements lose,
within a molecule (7.20) gain, or share electrons in such a way as to produce a
molecule A group of two or more atoms that functions as a noble gas electron configuration for each of the atoms in-
unit because the atoms are tightly bound together (5.2) volved (7.3)
monoatomic ion An ion formed from a single atom orbital diagram A diagram that shows how many elec-
through loss or gain of electrons (7.9) trons an atom has in each of its occupied electron orbit-
als (6.8)
monoprotic acid An acid that can transfer only one
H+ ion (proton) per molecule during an acid–base reac- order of magnitude A single exponential value of the
tion (14.4) number 10 (2.7)
net ionic equation An ionic equation from which nonpar- outer electrons The electrons in a condensed electron
ticipating (spectator) species have been eliminated (15.3) configuration given after the noble-gas core electrons (6.7)
neutral solution A solution in which the concentrations of oxidation The process whereby a substance in a chemical
H3O+ and OH- ions are equal (14.10) reaction loses one or more electrons (15.4)
neutralization The reaction between an acid and a hy- oxidation number The charge that an atom appears to
droxide base to form a salt and water (14.7) have when the electrons in each bond it is participating in
are assigned to the more electronegative of the two atoms
neutron A subatomic particle that is neutral, that is, has no
involved in the bond (15.5)
charge (5.5)
oxidation–reduction reaction A chemical reaction in
noble gas A general name given to any element in group
which transfer of electrons between reactants occurs (15.4)
VIIIA of the periodic table (6.2)
oxidizing agent The reactant in a redox reaction that
noble gas element An element located in the far right col-
causes oxidation by accepting electrons from the other reac-
umn of the p area of the periodic table (6.11)
tant (15.4); the reactant in a redox reaction that contains the
nonaqueous solution A solution in which a substance element that shows a decrease in oxidation number (15.5)
other than water is the solvent (13.2)
oxyacid A molecular compound composed of hydrogen,
nonbonding electrons Pairs of valence electrons about an oxygen, and one or more other elements that produce
atom that are not involved in electron sharing (7.11) H+ ions in an aqueous solution (8.7)
nonelectrolyte A substance whose aqueous solution does paired electrons Two electrons of opposite spin present in
not conduct electricity (15.2) the same orbital (6.8)
nonmetal An element characterized by the absence of the paramagnetic atom An atom that has an electron arrange-
properties of luster, thermal conductivity, electrical conduc- ment containing one or more unpaired electrons (6.8)
tivity, and malleability (6.11)
part per billion concentration Concentration unit defined
non-oxidation–reduction reaction A chemical reaction in as number of parts of solute per billion parts of solution
which oxidation numbers do not change (15.6) (13.7)
nonoxyacid A molecular compound composed of hydro- part per million concentration Concentration unit de-
gen and one or more nonmetals other than oxygen that pro- fined as number of parts of solute per million parts of solu-
duces H+ ions in an aqueous solution (8.7) tion (13.7)
nonpolar covalent bond A covalent bond in which partial pressure The pressure that a gas in a mixture
there is equal sharing of bonding electrons between two would exert if it were present alone under the same condi-
atoms (7.19) tions (12.16)
nonpolar molecule A molecule in which there is a sym- percent The number of items of a specified type in a group
metrical distribution of electronic charge (7.20) of 100 total items (3.10)
Glossary 745
percent abundance The percent of atoms in a natural sam- polyatomic ion An ion formed from a group of atoms
ple of a pure element that are a particular isotope of the (held together by covalent bonds) through loss or gain of
element (5.7) electrons (7.9)
percent by mass concentration The mass of solute divided polyprotic acid An acid that can transfer two or more
by the total mass of solution multiplied by 100 (13.6) H+ ions (protons) per molecule during an acid–base re-
action (14.4)
percent by mass of an element in a compound The
number of grams of the element present in 100 grams of the potential energy Stored energy that matter possesses as a
compound (9.4) result of its position, condition, and/or composition (11.3)
percent by volume concentration The volume of solute precision An indicator of how close a series of measure-
divided by the total volume of solution multiplied by 100 ments of the same object are to each other (2.3)
(13.6) pressure The force applied per unit area, that is, the total
percent composition of a compound The percent by force on a surface divided by the area of that surface (12.2)
mass of each element present in a compound (9.4) products Substances produced as a result of a chemical re-
percent error The ratio of the difference between a mea- action (10.1)
sured value and the accepted value for the measurement properties The distinguishing characteristics of a substance,
and the accepted value itself all multiplied by 100 (3.10) which are used in its identification and description (4.3)
percent ionic character of a bond A measure of how proton A subatomic particle that possesses a positive elec-
the actual charge separation (partial charge) in a bond that trical charge (5.1)
is due to electronegativity difference of the bonded atoms
pure substance A single kind of matter that cannot
compares to the complete charge separation associated with
be separated into other kinds of matter using physical
ions (7.19)
means (4.5)
percent purity The percent by mass of a specified sub-
qualitative data Non-numerical data consisting of general
stance in an impure sample of the substance (9.11)
observations about a system under study (1.4)
percent yield The ratio of the actual yield of a product in quantitative data Numerical data obtained by various
a chemical reaction to its theoretical yield multiplied by 100 measurements on a system under study (1.4)
(10.11)
quantized property A property that can have only certain
period A horizontal row of elements in the periodic table (6.2) values; that is, not all values are allowed (6.3)
periodic law When elements are arranged in order of in- random error An error caused by uncontrollable variables
creasing atomic number, elements with similar chemical be- in an experiment (2.3)
havior occur at periodic (regularly recurring) intervals (6.1)
rate of a chemical reaction The rate at which reactants
periodic table A tabular arrangement of the elements in are consumed or products produced in a given time period
order of increasing atomic number such that elements hav- in a chemical reaction (16.3)
ing similar chemical behavior are grouped in vertical col-
umns (6.2) reactants The starting substances that undergo change in a
chemical reaction (10.1)
pH The negative logarithm of the molar hydronium ion
redox reaction A shortened designation for an oxidation–
concentration (14.11)
reduction reaction (15.4)
pH scale A scale of small numbers that is used to specify
reducing agent The reactant in a redox reaction that
molar hydronium ion concentration in an aqueous solu-
causes reduction by providing electrons for the other reac-
tion (14.11)
tant to accept (15.4); the reactant in a redox reaction that
physical change A process in which a substance changes contains the element that shows a decrease in oxidation
its physical appearance but not its chemical composition number (15.5)
(4.4)
reduction The process whereby a substance in a chemical
physical property A characteristic of a substance that can reaction gains one or more electrons (15.4)
be observed without changing the substance into another
representative element An element located in the s
substance (4.3)
area or the first five columns of the p area of the periodic
polar covalent bond A covalent bond in which there table (6.11)
is unequal sharing of bonding electrons between two resonance structures Two or more Lewis structures for a
atoms (7.19) molecule or polyatomic ion that have the same arrangement
polar molecule A molecule in which there is an unsym- of atoms, contain the same number of electrons, and differ
metrical distribution of electron charge (7.20) only in the location of the electrons (7.15)
746 Glossary
reversible reaction A chemical reaction in which the con- single-replacement reaction A chemical reaction in which
version of reactants to products (the forward reaction) and one element within a compound is replaced by another ele-
the conversion of products to reactants (the reverse reaction) ment (10.6)
occur simultaneously (16.4) solid The physical state characterized by both a definite
rounding off Process of deleting unwanted (nonsignifi- shape and a definite volume (4.2); the physical state charac-
cant) digits from a calculated number (2.6) terized by a dominance of potential energy (cohesive forces)
salt An ionic compound containing a metal ion or poly- or kinetic energy (disruptive forces) (11.4)
atomic ion as the positive ion and a nonmetal ion or solubility The maximum amount of solute that will dis-
polyatomic ion (except hydroxide) as the negative ion (14.6) solve in a given amount of solvent under a fixed set of con-
saturated solution A solution that contains the maximum ditions (13.2)
amount of solute that can be dissolved under the conditions solute A component of a solution present in a small amount
at which the solution exists (13.2) relative to that of the solvent (13.1)
science The study in which humans attempt to organize solution A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances,
and explain, in a systematic and logical manner, knowledge with each substance retaining its chemical identity (13.1)
about themselves and their surroundings (1.1) solvent The component of a solution present in the great-
scientific discipline A branch of scientific knowledge lim- est amount (13.1)
ited in size and scope to make it more manageable (1.1) specific heat The amount of heat energy needed to raise
scientific fact A reproducible piece of data about some the temperature of 1 gram of a substance in a specific physi-
phenomenon that is obtained from experimentation (1.4) cal state by 1⬚C (11.9)
scientific hypothesis A model or statement that can be standard molar volume of a gas The volume occupied
tested by experiment and offers an explanation for a scien- by one mole of a gas, at STP conditions, that is 22.414
tific law (1.4) liters (12.13)
scientific law A generalization that summarizes scientific standard pressure for gases A pressure of 1 atm (760 mm
facts about a natural phenomenon (1.4) Hg) (12.13)
scientific method A set of procedures for acquiring knowl- standard temperature for gases A temperature of 0⬚C
edge and explaining phenomena (1.4) (273 K) (12.13)
scientific notation A numerical system in which numbers STP conditions for gases The conditions of standard tem-
are expressed in the form A * 10n, where A is a number perature and standard pressure (12.13)
with a single nonzero digit to the left of the decimal point strong acid An acid that, in an aqueous solution, transfers
and n is a whole number (2.7) 100% or very nearly 100% of its acidic hydrogen atoms to
scientific research The process of methodical investiga- water (14.5)
tion into a subject in order to discover new information strong electrolyte A substance that ionizes/dissociates
about the subject (1.2) to a large extent (70%–100%) into ions in an aqueous solu-
scientific theory A scientific hypothesis that has been test- tion (15.2)
ed and validated over a long period of time (1.4) subatomic particle A particle smaller than an atom that is
semiconductor An element that does not conduct electri- a building block from which the atom is made (5.5)
cal current at room temperature but does so at higher tem- surface tension A measure of the inward force on the
peratures (6.12) surface of a liquid caused by unbalanced intermolecular
SI base unit One of seven SI units of measurement from forces (11.17)
which all other SI measurement units can be derived (3.1) supersaturated solution A solution that contains more
SI-derived unit An SI unit derived by combining two or dissolved solute than that needed for a saturated solu-
more SI base units (3.1) tion (13.2)
SI system of units A particular choice of metric units that synthesis reaction A chemical reaction in which a single
was adopted in 1960 as a standard for making metric system product is produced from two (or more) reactants (10.6)
measurements (3.1) systematic error An “constant” error associated with an
significant figures Digits in any measurement that are experimental system itself (2.3)
known with certainty plus one digit that is uncertain (2.5) systematic name A name for a compound, based on
single covalent bond A covalent bond in which two atoms IUPAC rules, that conveys information about the composi-
share one pair of valence electrons (7.12) tion of the compound (8.6)
Glossary 747
technology The application of applied chemical research valence electron An electron in the outermost electron
to the production of new products to improve human sur- shell of a representative element or noble gas element (7.2)
vival, comfort, and quality of life (1.2)
vapor The gaseous state of a substance at a temperature
temperature A measure of the hotness or coldness of an and pressure at which the substance is normally a liquid or
object (3.11) solid (11.13)
ternary compound A compound containing three different vapor pressure The pressure exerted by a vapor above
elements (8.5) a liquid when the liquid and vapor are in equilibrium
ternary ionic compound An ionic compound in which (11.14)
three elements are present, one element in a monoatomic variable-charge metal A metal that forms more than one
ion and two other elements in a polyatomic ion (8.5) type of positive ion, with the ion types differing in charge
ternary molecular compound A molecular compound magnitude (8.2)
that contains three different nonmetallic elements (8.7) volatile substance A substance that readily evaporates
theoretical yield The maximum amount of a product that at room temperature because of a high vapor pressure
can be obtained from given amounts of reactants in a chemical (11.14)
reaction if no losses or inefficiencies of any kind occur (10.11) volume A measure of the amount of space occupied by an
thermal expansion A measure of the volume change re- object (3.4)
sulting from a temperature change (11.2)
VSEPR electron group A group of valence electrons pres-
transition element An element located in the d area of the ent in a localized region about an atom in a molecule (7.17)
periodic table (6.11)
VSEPR theory A set of procedures for predicting the ge-
triatomic molecule A molecule that contains three ometry of a molecule from the information contained in the
atoms (5.2) molecule’s Lewis structure (7.17)
triple covalent bond A covalent bond in which two atoms weak acid An acid that, in an aqueous solution, transfers
share three pairs of valence electrons (7.12) only a small percentage of its acidic hydrogen atoms to
triprotic acid An acid that can transfer three H+ ions water (14.5)
(protons) per molecule during an acid–base reaction (14.4) weak electrolyte A substance that ionizes/dissociates to a
unpaired electron A single electron in an orbital (6.8) small extent into ions in an aqueous solution (15.2)
unsaturated solution A solution that contains less solute weight A measure of the force exerted on an object by
than the maximum amount that could dissolve (13.2) gravitational forces (3.3)
ANSWERS TO ODD-NUMBERED PRACTICE PROBLEMS
Chapter 1 (b) 1, the two, {0.001 (c) 3, the five, {10 (d) 2, the one,
1.1. (a) true (b) false (c) false (d) true 1.3. (a) false {100 2.35. (a) yes (b) no (c) yes (d) yes 2.37. (a) yes
(b) false (c) true (d) false 1.5. (a) basic research (b) no (c) yes (d) no 2.39. (a) 23,000 (b) 23,000
(b) applied research (c) basic research (d) applied re- (c) 23,000.0 (d) 23,000.000 2.41. (a) 3 (b) 4 (c) 2 (d) 5
search 1.7. c, b, e, a, and d 1.9. (a) scientific hypoth- 2.43. (a) 0.0123 (b) 0.126 (c) 6.24 (d) 24.9 2.45. (a) 42.6
esis (b) nonscientific hypothesis (c) scientific hypothesis (b) 42.6 (c) 42.8 (d) 42.8 2.47. (a) 42,300 (b) 42,400
(d) nonscientific hypothesis 1.11. (a) scientific law (c) 42,500 (d) 42,600 2.49. (a) 1.775, 1.8 (b) 23,510,
(b) scientific hypothesis (c) scientific fact (d) scientific 24,000 (c) 0.7087, 0.71 (d) 4.350, 4.4 2.51. (a) 0.351
hypothesis 1.13. (a) correct (b) incorrect (c) correct (b) 653.9 (c) 22.556 (d) 0.2777 2.53. (a) 2 (b) 1 (c) 3
(d) incorrect 1.15. While a theory may not be an abso- (d) 3 2.55. (a) 3 (b) 2 (c) 4 or more (d) 4 or more
lute answer, it is the best answer available. It may be sup- 2.57. (a) 0.0299 (b) 140,000 (c) 1280 (d) 0.988
planted only if repeated experimental evidence conclusively 2.59. (a) 3.9 (b) 4.84 (c) 63 (d) 1 2.61. (a) tenths, {0.1
disproves it and a new theory is developed. 1.17. (a) 4 (b) tenths, {0.1 (c) units, {1 (d) hundreds, {100
is eliminated (b) 1 is eliminated (c) 1 and 4 are elimi- 2.63. (a) 162 (b) 9.3 (c) 1261 (d) 20.0 2.65. (a) 957.0
nated (d) 1 and 2 are eliminated 1.19. (a) qualitative (b) 343 (c) 1200 (d) 132 2.67. (a) 2.7 (b) 2.9 (c) 0.2
(b) qualitative (c) quantitative (d) quantitative 1.21. The (d) 46.4 2.69. (a) 267.3 (b) 260,000 (c) 201.3 (d) 3.8
product of the pressure times the volume is a constant; 2.71. (a) 24.3 (b) 24.31 2.73. (a) negative (b) positive
or the pressure of the gas is inversely proportional to its (c) zero (d) positive 2.75. (a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 3 (d) 1
volume; P1V1 = P2V2. 1.23. Scientific laws are discov- 2.77. (a) 4 (b) 5 (c) 4 (d) 6 2.79. (a) 2 (b) 5 (c) 2 (d) 7
ered by research. Researchers have no control over what 2.81. (a) 3.25 * 10-2 (b) 3.4500 * 102 (c) 3.2 * 104
the laws turn out to be. Societal laws are arbitrary con- (d) 9.70003 * 107 2.83. (a) 6.67 * 103 (b) 3.75 * 101
ventions that can be and are changed by society when (c) 3.46 * 10-1 (d) 1.30 * 100 2.85. (a) 7 * 104
necessary. 1.25. Publishing scientific data provides access (b) 6.70 * 104 (c) 6.7000 * 104 (d) 6.700000 * 104
to that data, enabling scientists to develop new theories 2.87. (a) 0.00230 (b) 4350 (c) 0.066500 (d) 111,000,000
based on a wide range of knowledge relating to a particu- 2.89. (a) 0.633, three, three (b) 3.3 * 104, two,
lar field. 1.27. Conditions under which an experiment is two (c) 1.140 * 10-1, four, four (d) 63,300, three,
conducted often affect the results of the experiment. If the three 2.91. (a) 3.42 * 106 (b) 2.36 * 10-3
experimental conditions are uncontrolled, the data from the (c) 3.2 * 102 (d) 1.2 * 10-4 2.93. (a) smaller
experiment is not validated. 1.29. A qualitative obser- (b) smaller (c) larger (d) larger 2.95. (a) 101 (b) 103
vation involves general nonnumerical information, and a (c) 103 (d) 10-3 2.97. (a) 3.65 * 105 (b) 3.6500 * 105
quantitative observation involves numerical measurements. (c) 3.650000 * 105 (d) 3.65000000 * 105 2.99. (a) less
than (b) the same (c) the same (d) greater than
2.101. (a) {100 (b) 2.7 * 103 (c) 2.735000 * 103
Chapter 2 (d) 3 * 103 2.103. (a) 6.770 * 10-1, {10-4, {10-4
2.1. (a) exact (b) exact (c) inexact (d) exact 2.3. The (b) 3.3003 * 104, {100, {100 (c) 635.0, {10-1, {10-1
first 60 is an exact (defined) number, and the second 60 is a (d) 0.06350, {10-5, {10-5 2.105. (a) 108 (b) 10-8
measured (inexact) number. 2.5. Student A: low preci- (c) 102 (d) 10-2 2.107. (a) 2.992 * 108 (b) 9.1 * 102
sion, low accuracy; Student B: high precision, high accu- (c) 2.7 * 10-9 (d) 2.7 * 1011 2.109. (a) 102 (b) 108
racy; Student C: high precision, low accuracy 2.7. (a) IV (c) 10-8 (d) 10-2 2.111. (a) 2.86 * 101 (b) 8.999 * 1017
(b) I (c) II (d) III 2.9. (a) 0.1 (b) 0.01 2.11. (a) 27 (c) 3.49 * 10-2 (d) 1.111 * 10-18 2.113. (a) 101 (b) 10-1
(b) 27.0 2.13. (a) ruler 4 (b) rulers 1 or 4 (c) ruler 2 (c) 1020 (d) 102 2.115. (a) 1.5 * 100 (b) 6.7 * 10-1
(d) ruler 3 2.15. (a) {0.01 (b) {0.01 (c) {0.001 (c) 8.51 * 10-19 (d) 8 * 1015 2.117. (a) 4.42 * 103
(d) {0.0001 2.17. The uncertainty in the first reading is (b) 9.30 * 10-2 (c) 9.683 * 105 (d) 1.919 * 104
{0.1 second, and the uncertainty in the second reading is 2.119. (a) 7.713 * 107 (b) 8.253 * 107 (c) 8.307 * 107
{0.01 second. 2.19. (a) 40,000–60,000 (b) 49,000–51,000 (d) 8.313 * 107 2.121. (a) 4.42 * 103 (b) 9.30 * 10-2
(c) 49,900–50,100 (d) 49,990–50,010 2.21. (a) 4 (b) 4 (c) 6 (c) 9.683 * 105 (d) 1.919 * 104 2.123. (a) 7.713 * 107
(d) 1 2.23. (a) 3 (b) 6 (c) 3 (d) 6 2.25. (a) 6 (b) 6 (c) 3 (b) 8.253 * 107 (c) 8.307 * 107 (d) 8.313 * 107
(d) 2 2.27. (a) 2, 0, 1, 0 (b) 2, 2, 2, 0 (c) 1, 0, 0, 2 2.125. (a) same (b) not the same (c) same (d) not
(d) 0, 0, 0, 6 2.29. (a) the last 0 (b) the last 0 (c) the the same 2.127. (a) 3 (b) 4 (c) 4 (d) 4 2.129. (a) no
last 4 (d) the last 3 2.31. (a) {0.01 (b) {0.00000001 (b) yes (c) yes (d) yes 2.131. (a) yes (b) no (c) no
(c) {100 (d) {1,000,000 2.33. (a) 4, the zero, {0.001 (d) no 2.133. (a) 2 (b) 4 or more (c) 3 (d) 3
748
2.135. An exact number is a whole number; it 3.55. (a) 5.2 cm2 (b) 0.81 in.2 3.57. (a) 1.4 * 106 cm3
cannot possess decimal digits. 2.137. (a) 3.7 * 102 (b) 51 ft3 3.59. (a) 2.0 * 105 L/hr (b) 5.5 * 10-2
(b) 3.8 * 102 (c) 0.408 (d) 4.18 kL/sec (c) 3.3 * 104 dL/min (d) 4.8 * 109 mL/day
2.139. (a) 2.07 * 102, 243, 1.03 * 103 3.61. (a) 5.7 mg>L (b) 5.7 * 10-9 g/mL
(b) 2.11 * 10-3, 0.0023, 3.04 * 10-2 (c) 5.7 * 10-9 mg>mL (d) 5.7 * 10-6 kg/kL
(c) 23,000, 9.67 * 104, 2.30 * 105 3.63. (a) 1.57 g/mL (b) 3.0 g/mL (c) 1.55 g/mL (d) 5.3 g/mL
(d) 0.000014, 0.00013, 1.5 * 10-4 3.65. (a) 37.7 g (b) 495 g (c) 59.5 g (d) 104 g
3.67. (a) 17.1 mL (b) 0.912 mL (c) 13,600 mL (d) 17.5 mL
Chapter 3 3.69. 1.039 g/mL 3.71. 61 lb 3.73. 266 g
3.1. (a) volume (b) mass (c) length (d) mass 3.75. (a) float, less dense than water (b) sink, more
3.3. (a) nano- (b) mega- (c) milli- (d) deci- 3.5. (a) mg dense than water 3.77. (a) equivalence (b) equality
(b) dm (c) cL (d) pg 3.7. (a) T, 1012 (b) nano-, 10-9 (c) equality (d) equivalence 3.79. (a) 510 mg
(c) G, 109 (d) micro-, m 3.9. (a) mass, kg (b) 120 kg 3.81. (a) 5.29 * 10-6 g (b) 5.29 * 10-9 g
(b) megameter, length (c) mass, ng (d) milliliter, (c) 5.01 * 10-6 g (d) 1.56 * 10-7 g 3.83. (a) 1.3 min
volume 3.11. (a) deci- (b) pico- (c) centi- (d) mega- (b) 0.27 min (c) 0.15 min (d) 0.12 min 3.85. (a) 109
3.13. (a) length (b) area (c) volume (d) volume bushels (b) $414.00 3.87. (a) 95.05% copper (b) 4.95%
3.15. (a) milligram (b) centimeter (c) millimeter (d) liter zinc 3.89. 22.3 g water 3.91. 66.9 g salt 3.93. 345 g
3.17. (a) 1 inch (b) 1 meter (c) 1 pound (d) 1 gallon 3.95. three 3.97. student 1 = -0.6%; student 2 = - 0.8%;
3.19. (a) 20.4 cm2 (b) 32 m2 (c) 65.88 mm2 student 3 = 1.5% 3.99. (a) 32⬚F (b) 0⬚C (c) 273 K
(d) 8.2 mm2 3.21. (a) 9.5 cm3 (b) 1.4 * 102 cm3 3.101. 36⬚F 3.103. (a) 2466⬚F (b) 99.7⬚F (c) 733⬚C
(c) 2.8 * 106 mm3 (d) 3.7 * 102 cm3 3.23. (a) equal (d) 3.1⬚C 3.105. (a) 548 K (b) 548.4 K (c) 548.88 K
(b) not equal (c) not equal (d) equal (d) 2⬚C 3.107. (a) 38⬚C (b) - 361.1⬚F (c) 1077 K
1 day 24 hr (d) - 321⬚F 3.109. (a) 223⬚C (b) 100⬚C (c) -15⬚C (d) they
3.25. (a) 24 hr = 1 day; ; are equal 3.111. (a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 5 (d) 4 3.113. 198 cm
24 hr 1 day
3.115. (a) 0.00372 m (b) 0.003720 m (c) 0.0000372 m
60 sec 1 min (d) 0.000037200 m 3.117. 290,131,200 beats 3.119. 497 g
(b) 60 sec = 1 min; ;
1 min 60 sec 3.121. 661 mL 3.123. (a) 500 mg/dL, yes, a life-threatening
1 century 10 decades situation (b) 0.50 mg/dL, no, not a life-threatening situation
(c) 10 decades = 1 century; ; 3.125. 1.7 * 10-2 mm 3.127. -160⬚H
10 decades 1 century
1 yr 365.25 days Chapter 4
(d) 365.25 days = 1 yr; ;
365.25 days 1 yr
4.1. (a) shape (indefinite vs. definite) (b) indefinite
3.27. (a) 2 pints = 1 quart (b) 3 feet = 1 yard shape 4.3. (a) does not take shape of container;
(c) 2000 pounds = 1 ton (d) 36 inches = 1 yard definite volume (b) takes shape of container; does not
1 kL 103 L 1 mg 10-3 g have a definite volume (c) does not take shape of con-
3.29. (a) ; (b) ; tainer; definite volume (d) takes shape of container;
103 L 1 kL 10-3 g 1 mg
definite volume 4.5. (a) solid (b) liquid (c) liquid
1 cm 10-2 m 1 msec 10-6 sec (d) gas 4.7. (a) physical (b) chemical (c) physical
(c) -2 ; (d) -6 ;
10 m 1 cm 10 sec 1 msec (d) chemical 4.9. (a) chemical (b) physical (c) physi-
3.31. (a) 103 (b) 10-6 (c) 453.6 (d) 2.540 3.33. (a) four cal (d) physical 4.11. (a) extensive (b) intensive (c) in-
significant figures (b) exact (c) four significant figures tensive (d) intensive 4.13. (a) intensive (b) intensive
(d) exact 3.35. (a) exact (b) inexact (c) exact (d) exact (c) intensive (d) intensive 4.15. (a) physical (b) chemical
3.37. (a) 3.70 * 102 dL (b) 3.70 * 10-2 m (c) 3.7 * 10-13 g (c) physical (d) physical 4.17. (a) chemical (b) physical
(d) 3.7 * 105 L 3.39. (a) 4.7 * 1010 mg (c) chemical (d) physical 4.19. (a) physical (b) physical
(b) 5.00 * 10-7 cL (c) 6 * 10-7 dm (d) 3.7 * 10-14 km (c) chemical (d) chemical 4.21. (a) physical (b) physical
3.41. (a) 3.65 * 10-4 km2 (b) 3.65 * 106 cm2 (c) chemical (d) physical 4.23. (a) freezing (b) conden-
(c) 3.65 * 104 dm2 (d) 3.65 * 10-10 Mm2 sation (c) sublimation (d) evaporation 4.25. (a) het-
3.43. (a) 3.5 * 1010 mm3 (b) 3.5 * 1037 pm3 erogeneous mixture, homogeneous mixture (b) homoge-
(c) 3.5 * 10-26 Gm3 (d) 3.5 * 1019 mm3 neous mixture, pure substance 4.27. (a) false (b) true
3.45. (a) 6.7 * 10-14 km3 (b) 6.7 * 104 mm3 (c) false (d) true 4.29. (a) heterogeneous mixture
(c) 6.7 * 10-2 dm3 (d) 6.7 * 10-23 Mm3 3.47. (a) 91.44 m (b) homogeneous mixture (c) homogeneous mixture
(b) 9144 cm (c) 0.09144 km (d) 3.600 * 103 in. (d) heterogeneous mixture 4.31. (a) homogeneous
3.49. (a) 0.079 qt (b) 0.020 gal (c) 2.5 fl oz (d) 75 cm3 mixture, 1 phase (b) homogeneous mixture, 1 phase
3.51. (a) 6.0 * 1027 g (b) 6.0 * 1024 kg (c) 6.0 * 1036 ng (c) heterogeneous mixture, 2 phases (d) heterogeneous
(d) 2.1 * 1026 oz 3.53. (a) 2.2 * 10-3 ft3 mixture, 2 phases 4.33. (a) chemically homogeneous,
(b) 8.0 * 10-5 yd3 (c) 3.7 in.3 (d) 1.5 * 10-14 mi3 physically homogeneous (b) chemically heterogeneous,
750 Answers to Odd-Numbered Practice Problems
physically homogeneous (c) chemically heterogeneous, (b) false (c) false (d) true 5.33. 1837 5.35. (a) calcium
physically heterogeneous (d) chemically heteroge- (b) carbon (c) sulfur (d) copper 5.37. (a) 24, 53 (b) 44,
neous, physically heterogeneous 4.35. (a) compound 103 (c) 101, 256 (d) 16, 34 5.39. (a) 42 (b) 40 (c) 39
(b) compound (c) no classification possible (d) no clas- (d) 41 5.41. (a) 34 (b) 35 (c) 33 (d) 36 5.43. (a) 5 (b) 8
sification possible 4.37. (a) true (b) false (c) false (c) 13 (d) 18 5.45. (a) 11 (b) 16 (c) 27 (d) 40
(d) false 4.39. (a) A (no classification possible), B (no 5.47. (a) 11 (b) 16 (c) 27 (d) 40 5.49. (a) +5 (b) +8
classification possible), C (compound) (b) D (compound), (c) +13 (d) +18 5.51. (a) 115B (b) 168O (c) 27 13Al
E (no classification possible), F (no classification pos- (d) 40
18Ar 5.53. (a) atomic number (b) atomic number
sible), G (no classification possible) 4.41. First box, and mass number (c) mass number (d) atomic number
mixture; second box, compound 4.43. (a) applies and mass number 5.55. (a) nitrogen (N) (b) aluminum
(b) applies (c) applies (d) does not apply 4.45. (a) false (Al) (c) barium (Ba) (d) gold (Au) 5.57. (a) 60 28Ni, 28, 32
(b) true (c) false (d) true 4.47. (a) true (b) true (c) false (b) 37 90
18Ar, 18, 19 (c) 38Sr, 38, 38 (d) 92, 235, 92, 143
(d) true 4.49. (a) more abundant (b) less abundant 5.59. (a) 27 protons, 27 electrons, 32 neutrons (b) 45
(c) less abundant (d) more abundant 4.51. boron, carbon, protons, 45 electrons, 58 neutrons (c) 69 protons, 69 elec-
fluorine, hydrogen, iodine, potassium, nitrogen, oxygen, trons, 100 neutrons (d) 9 protons, 9 electrons, 10 neu-
phosphorus, sulfur, uranium, vanadium, tungsten, yttrium trons 5.61. (a) 34 (b) 23 (c) 23 (d) +11 5.63. (a) 31 15P
4.53. (a) Ag (b) Fe (c) Hg (d) K 4.55. (a) argon (b) 188O (c) 54 197
24Cr (d) 79Au 5.65. (a) 24 (b) 13
(b) calcium (c) titanium (d) radium 4.57. (a) incorrect (c) 25 (d) 12 5.67. (a) same total number of sub-
(b) incorrect (c) incorrect (d) incorrect 4.59. (a) potas- atomic particles, 60 (b) same number of neutrons,
sium (b) hydrogen (c) tungsten (d) iodine 4.61. (a) O, 16 (c) same number of neutrons, 12 (d) same num-
Si, Al H, Ca, Mg 4.63. (a) Re-Be-C-Ca (b) Na-N-C-Y ber of electrons, 3 5.69. (a) 80 14 23
35Br (b) 6C (c) 11Na
(c) S-H-Ar-O-N (d) Al-l-Ce 4.65. (a) colorless gas, odor- (d) 120
50 Sn 5.71. 96
40Zr, 94
40 Zr, 92
40Zr, 91
40Zr, 90
40Zr 5.73. (a) 13
less gas, colorless liquid, boils at 43⬚C (b) toxic to humans, (b) 36 (c) 59 (d) 104 5.75. (a) 54, 56, 57, and 58
Ni reacts with CO 4.67. (a) compound (b) mixture (b) 2.19% 5.77. (a) not isotopes (b) not isotopes (c) not
(c) compound (d) mixture 4.69. (a) homogeneous isotopes 5.79. (a) not the same (b) same (c) not the same
mixture (b) element (c) heterogeneous mixture (d) same 5.81. (a) isotopes (b) isobars (c) neither (d) iso-
(d) homogeneous mixture 4.71. (a) heterogeneous topes 5.83. (a) isotopes (b) isobars (c) neither (d) iso-
mixture (b) heterogeneous mixture (c) homogeneous topes 5.85. 40 40 40
18Ar, 19K, 20Ca 5.87. (a) nitrogen (b) gold
mixture (d) heterogeneous mixture 4.73. (a) and (c) uranium (d) tellurium 5.89. (a) 37 (b) 26 (c) 41
(c) 4.75. alphabetized: Bh, Bi, Bk, Cf, Co, Cs, Cu, Hf, Ho, (d) 9 5.91. Values on this hypothetical relative mass scale
Hs, In, Nb, Ni, No, Np, Os, Pb, Po, Pu, Sb, Sc, Si, Sn, Yb are Q = 8.00 bebs, X = 4.00 bebs, and Z = 2.00 bebs.
5.93. (a) Z = 9 amu, X = 27 amu, Q = 108 amu (b) Z
Chapter 5 is Be, X is Al, Q is Ag 5.95. 224.8 lb 5.97. 35.46
amu 5.99. 47.88 amu 5.101. (a) 14N (b) 51V (c) 121Sb
5.1. (a) consistent (b) consistent (c) not consistent (d) con-
(d) 193Ir 5.103. (a) possible (b) possible (c) pos-
sistent 5.3. (a) heteroatomic (b) heteroatomic (c) ho-
sible (d) impossible 5.105. (a) 75%, 25% (b) 49 amu,
moatomic (d) heteroatomic 5.5. (a) tetraatomic (b) tet-
75% (c) 80%, 20% (d) 49 amu, 20% 5.107. (a) 1.15
raatomic (c) triatomic (d) hexatomic 5.7. (a) compound
(b) 1.63 (c) 1.94 (d) 1.87 5.109. The number 12.0000
(b) compound (c) element (d) compound 5.9. (a) false,
amu applies only to 12C isotope. The number 12.011
molecules must contain two or more atoms (b) true
amu applies to naturally occurring carbon, a mixture
(c) false, the structural unit for some compounds is mol-
of 12C,13C, and 14C. 5.111. (a) true (b) false (c) false
ecules and for others ions (d) false, the diameter is ap-
(d) false 5.113. (a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 3 (d) 6 5.115. (a) 4
proximately 10-10 meters 5.11. (a) element (b) mixture
(b) 2 (c) 4 (d) 54 5.117. (a) false (b) false (c) true
(c) mixture (d) mixture 5.13. (a) AB2 (b) BC2 (c) B2C2
(d) true 5.119. (a) 37 39 42 44
18Ar, 19K, 20Ca, 21Sc, 22Ti
43
(d) A3B2C 5.15. (a) compound (b) compound (c) ele-
(b) 21Sc, 20Ca, 22Ti, 19K, 18Ar (c) 18Ar, 19K, 42
44 42 43 39 37 37 39 44 43
20Ca, 21Sc, 22Ti
ment (d) element 5.17. (a) C20H30 (b) H2SO4 (c) HCN
(d) 44
21 Sc, 43
22Ti, 42
20Ca, 39
19 K, 37
18Ar 5.121. (a) 8
5B (b) 12
5B
(d) KMnO4 5.19. (a) NH4NO3 (b) K3PO4 (c) Al1ClO23
(c) 125B (d) 165B 5.123. (a) 29 and 29 (b) 29 and 29
(d) Ca1ClO4 22 5.21. (a) NH4NO3 (b) K3PO4 (c) AlPO4
(c) 34 and 36 5.125. (a) 13 (b) 27 (c) 14 (d) 27.0 amu
(d) Ca1ClO4 22 5.23. (a) NO is a compound contain-
5.127. (a) chromium (b) thorium (c) chromium
ing N and O; No is an element. (b) Cs2 is a diatomic
(d) zirconium 5.129. (a) 36.756 new amu
molecule of the element Cs; CS2 is a compound contain-
(b) 67.117 new amu
ing C and S. (c) CoBr2 is a compound containing Co and
Br; COBr2 is a compound containing C, O, and Br. (d) H
is an atom of the element H; H2 is a diatomic molecule Chapter 6
of the element H. 5.25. (a) H3PO4 (b) SiCl4 (c) NO2 6.1. (a) period 2, group IA (b) period 3, group VIA
(d) H2O2 5.27. (a) HCN (b) H2SO4 5.29. (a) electron (c) period 5, group IB (d) period 6, group VA 6.3. (a) Al
(b) proton (c) proton, neutron (d) neutron 5.31. (a) false (b) Be (c) Sn (d) K 6.5. (a) 19K, 37Rb (b) 15P, 33As
(c) 9F, 53I (d) 11Na, 55Cs 6.7. (a) group (b) periodic law 6.57. (a) (b) (c)
(c) periodic law (d) period 6.9. (a) bromine (b) lithium
(c) argon (d) strontium 6.11. (a) fluorine (b) beryl- (d)
lium (c) neon (d) lithium 6.13. (a) 3 (b) 1 (c) 2
(d) 2 6.15. (a) 2 (b) 10 (c) 6 (d) 14 6.17. (a) 2 (b) 2 6.59. (a) Li (b) N (c) S (d) Ga 6.61. (a) paramagnetic
(c) 2 (d) 2 6.19. (a) 1 (b) 1 (c) 5 (d) 3 6.21. (a) 5 (b) paramagnetic (c) paramagnetic (d) paramagnetic
(b) 5s, 5p (c) 50 (d) 25 6.23. (a) true (b) false (c) true 6.63. (a) no (b) yes (c) no (d) yes 6.65. (a) p
(d) true (e) false 6.25. (a) spherical (b) dumbbell area (b) d area (c) d area (d) s area 6.67. (a) p
(c) cloverleaf (d) spherical 6.27. (a) allowed (b) allowed subshell (b) d subshell (c) d subshell (d) s sub-
(c) not allowed (d) not allowed 6.29. (a) 3p (b) 5s (c) 4d shell 6.69. (a) 3p subshell (b) 3d subshell (c) 4d
(d) 4p 6.31. (a) 3s (b) 3p (c) 4f (d) 3d 6.33. (a) 1s, 2s, subshell (d) 6s subshell 6.71. (a) 3 (b) 3 (c) 2
3s, 4s, (b) 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f (c) 2p, 6s, 4f, 5d (d) 3p, 4s, 3d, 5p (d) 2 6.73. (a) Al (b) Li (c) La (d) Sc 6.75. (a) Kr
6.35. (a) 1s22s22p63s23p1 (b) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6 (b) Li (c) K (d) Lu 6.77. (a) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p3
(c) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p5 (b) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p3
(d) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s24f 145d106p67s2 (c) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s1
6.37. (a) 10Ne (b) 19K (c) 22Ti (d) 30Zn 6.39. (a) P (b) 6 (d) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d10 6.79. (a) 1s22s22p63s2
(c) 9 (d) 0 6.41. (a) [Ne]3s23p1 (b) [Ar]4s1 (c) [Ar]4s23d10 (b) 1s22s22p63s23p64s2 (c) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d10
(d) [Kr]5s24d105p2 6.43. (a) [He]2s22p4 (b) [Ne]3s2 (d) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p2 6.81. (a) 2
(c) [Ar]4s2 (d) [Ar]4s23d104p5 6.45. (a) magnesium (b) 8 (c) 10 (d) 10 6.83. (a) 4 (b) 9 (c) 1 (d) 0
(b) chlorine (c) tellurium (d) barium 6.47. (a) 10 6.85. (a) metallic (b) nonmetallic (c) metallic (d) nonme-
(b) 10 (c) 36 (d) 54 6.49. (a) 2 (b) 7 (c) 16 (d) 2 tallic 6.87. metals - Li, Be; nonmetals - B, C, N, O, F, Ne
6.51. (a) (b) 6.89. nonmetals - N, P, As; metals - Sb, Bi, 115
6.91. (a) K (b) B (c) Be (d) N 6.93. (a) metal (b) non-
1s 2s 1s 2s 2p metal (c) good conductor (d) good conductor
6.95. (a) Zn, W (b) Kr (c) Se, Sr (d) Ce 6.97. (a) K
(c)
(b) Sc (c) K (d) As 6.99. (a) 4 (b) 7 (c) 6 (d) 1
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 6.101. (a) 1 (b) 1 (c) 3 (d) 2 6.103. (a) false (b) true
(c) false 6.105. metals - Li, Be; metalloid - B; non-
(d)
metals - C, N, O, F, Ne 6.107. (a) Rb (b) Ti (c) Se
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p (d) Ba 6.109. (a) F (b) P (c) Zn (d) Cl 6.111. (a) Bi
(b) Be (c) K (d) Ne 6.113. (a) B (b) Ga (c) K
(d) Rb 6.115. (a) N (b) Ra (c) Kr (d) Li 6.117. (a) The
2s subshell can hold a maximum of two electrons.
4s 3d (b) The 2p subshell must be completely filled (six elec-
6.53. (a) trons) before the 3s is filled. (c) The 2p subshell is filled
after the 2s subshell. (d) The 3p and 4s subshells fill after
1s 2s 2p the 3s. 6.119. (a) period 3, group IA (b) period 3,
(b) group IIIA (c) period 4, group IIIB (d) period 4, group
VIIA 6.121. (a) 1 (b) 1 (c) 1 (d) 1 6.123. (a) paramag-
1s 2s 2p netic (b) paramagnetic (c) paramagnetic (d) paramagnetic
6.125. (a) [Ne]3s2 and [Kr]5s2 (b) [Ar]4s23d 3 and
(c)
[Xe]6s 24f 145d 3 (c) [He]2s22p5 and [Ar]4s23d104p5
(d) [Ar]4s23d104p1 and [Xe]6s24f 145d 106p1
1s 2s 2p 3s
6.127. (a) 1s22s22p63s23p2 (b) 1s22s22p2 (c) 1s22s22p3
(d) (d) 1s22s22p3 6.129. (a) Be (b) Be (c) Ne
(d) Ar 6.131. (a) IVA, VIA (b) VB, middle column of
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p VIIIB (c) IVB, last column of VIIIB (d) IA 6.133. (a) Po
6.55. (a) [Ne] (b) Cr (c) elements 88–118 (d) elements 12–18
6.135. (a) F (b) Ag 6.137. (a) radium (b) arsenic
3s 3p (c) astatine (d) hydrogen
(b) [Ar] (c) [Kr]
Chapter 7
4s 3d 5s
7.1. (a) 5 (b) 2 (c) 2 (d) 6 7.3. (a) 4 (b) 3 (c) 6
(d) [Ne] (d) 2 7.5. (a) 1 (b) 5 (c) 7 (d) 3 7.7. (a) 1 (b) 1 (c) 2
(d) 1 7.9. (a) IA, 1 (b) VIIIA, 8 (c) IIA, 2 (d) VIIA, 7
3s 3p 7.11. (a) C (b) F (c) Mg (d) P 7.13. (a) C (b) Si
(c) Cl (d) Ba 7.15. (a) B (b) C (c) F (d) Li 7.17. (a) in- (b) Ca2+ (c) Mg2+ (d) Al3+ 7.65. (a) yes (b) yes
correct (b) correct (c) incorrect (d) correct 7.19. (a) Be (c) yes (d) no 7.67. (a) X2Z (b) XZ3 (c) X3Z
(b) Mg (c) S (d) Ge 7.21. (a) Li+ (b) P3- (c) Br- (d) ZX2 7.69. (a) Be3N2 (b) NaBr (c) SrF2
(d) Ba2+ 7.23. (a) Be, 2e (b) I, I- (c) Al3+, 13p (d) S, 18e, (d) Al2S3 7.71. (a) polyatomic (b) monoatomic
16p 7.25. (a) neutral (b) positively charged (c) posi- (c) not an ion (d) polyatomic 7.73. (a) Al21CO3 23
tively charged (d) negatively charged 7.27. (a) Mg (b) 5 (c) 3 (d) 2 7.75. (a) KOH, KCN, KNO3, K2SO4
(b) Ca (c) P (d) F 7.29. (a) Be2+ (b) O2- (c) N3- (b) Mg1OH22, Mg1CN22, Mg1NO3 22, MgSO4
(d) C4- 7.31. (a) anion (b) cation (c) not an ion (c) Al1OH23, Al1CN23, Al1NO3 23, Al21SO4 23
(d) anion 7.33. (a) negative ion (b) positive ion (c) posi- (d) NH4OH, NH4CN, NH4NO3, 1NH4 22SO4 7.77. (a) I I
tive ion (d) negative ion 7.35. (a) anion (b) cation (b) Cl F (c) H S H (d) F P F 7.79. (a) H Br
(c) cation (d) anion 7.37. (a) 3e gained (b) 2e lost F
(c) 2e lost (d) 1e gained 7.39. (a) loss (b) loss (c) loss
(d) gain 7.41. (a) 8 (b) 8 (c) 8 (d) 2 7.43. (a) Ca2+ (b) F O F (c) Cl N Cl (d) I 7.81. (a) H2S
(b) Be2+ (c) Mg2+ (d) Sr2+ 7.45. (a) Cl- (b) F- (c) F- Cl I Si I
(d) Cl- 7.47. (a) 4 (b) 3 (c) 1 (d) 2 7.49. (a) IA I
(b) VIA (c) VA (d) IVA 7.51. (a) Na+ (b) F- (c) O2- (b) CBr4 (c) NCl3 (d) OF2 7.83. (a) three bonding pairs,
(d) Mg2+ 7.53. (a) yes (b) no (c) yes (d) no two nonbonding pairs (b) six bonding pairs, zero nonbond-
ing pairs (c) four bonding pairs, four nonbonding pairs
7.55. (a) −
Br Br (d) seven bonding pairs, two nonbonding pairs
Ca Ca2+ 7.85. (a) one triple (b) four single, one double (c) two
−
Br Br double (d) two triple, one single 7.87. (a) yes (b) yes
2− (c) no, C has to form four bonds (d) yes 7.89. a bond
(b) Mg S Mg2+ S in which both electrons of the shared pair come from
one of the two atoms 7.91. (a) the N i O bond
3−
(c) Be N Be2+ N (b) none (c) the O i Cl bond (d) the two O i Br bonds
Be Be2+ 7.93. Resonance structures are two or more Lewis struc-
3− tures for a molecule or ion that have the same arrangement
Be N Be2+ N of atoms, contain the same number of electrons, and differ
only in the location of the electrons.
(d) Na Na+
−
Na P Na+ P
3− 7.95. ⎤ O N O⎤ ⎤ O N O ⎤−
⎥ ⎥ ⎥ ⎥
Na Na+ ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ ⎥
O O
7.57. (a) Lithium has one valence electron (lose one);
⎦ ⎦ ⎦ ⎦
nitrogen has five valence electrons (gain three). 7.97. (a) 24 (b) 26 (c) 24 (d) 32 7.99. (a) 24
Li Li+ (b) 26 (c) 24 (d) 32 7.101. (a) 1b, 3nb (b) 3b, 2nb
3− (c) 1b, 6nb (d) 1b, 3nb
Li N Li+ N
7.103. (a) H H (b) H N N H
Li Li+
(b) Mg has two valence electrons (lose two); O has six H C C H H H
valence electrons (gain two).
H H
2−
Mg O Mg2+ O (c) H (d) H Cl
(c) Cl has seven valence electrons (gain one); barium has F C F H C C Cl
two valence electrons (lose two).
− H H Cl
Cl Cl
+ 2−
Ba Ba2+ 7.105. (a) H (b) H
−
Cl Cl
H N H H Be H
(d) F has seven valence electrons (gain one); K has one
valence electron (lose one). H H
−
K F K+ F − −
(c) O Cl O (d) O
7.59. (a) CaCl2 (b) BeO (c) AlN
(d) K2 S 7.61. (a) CaF2, CaO, Ca3N2, Ca2C O O I O
(b) AlF3, Al2O3, AlN, Al4C3 (c) AgF, Ag2O, Ag3N, Ag4C
O
(d) ZnF2, ZnO, Zn3N2, Zn2C 7.63. (a) K+
7.107. (a) (b) H location. This arrangement produces a trigonal pyramidal

geometry. (d) The electron arrangement about the central
Cl C C H H C C N atom involves three bonding locations and one nonbond-
ing location. This arrangement produces a trigonal pyra-
Cl H H
midal geometry. 7.121. (a) Each central atom has three
(c) H (d) F N N F bonding locations and one nonbonding location, giving
a trigonal pyramid for each center. The centers are joined
H C C C H by one axis of each trigonal pyramid. (b) The C has four
bonding locations and zero nonbonding locations; tetrahe-
H
dral. The O has two bonding locations and two nonbond-
7.109. Follow the steps used in Problems 7.103–7.108.
ing locations; angular. 7.123. increases across a period;
(a) H H decreases down a group 7.125. (a) O (b) Be (c) C
H C N O H C N O (d) Ca 7.127. (a) N (b) C (c) B (d) F 7.129. (a) Br,
N, Cl, O, F (b) Na, Rb, K, Cs, Fr, Ba, Ra (c) F, O, N,
H O H O Cl (d) 0.5 unit 7.131. (a) true (b) false (c) false
d- d+ d- d+ d+ d-
(b) N N O N N O N N O (d) false 7.133. (a) N ¬S (b) N ¬Br (c) N ¬O
d+ d-
2− 2− 2− (d) N ¬F 7.135. (a) P i O (b) C i S (c) P i O
(c) O C O O C O O C O (d) P i O 7.137. (a) polar covalent (b) polar covalent
O O O (c) ionic (d) polar covalent 7.139. (a) S, S, nonpolar
covalent (b) O, O, polar covalent (c) Br, Br, nonpolar cova-
− − −
(d) S C N S C N S C N lent (d) F, F, polar covalent 7.141. (a) nonpolar covalent
(b) polar covalent (c) could be polar covalent or ionic
7.111. Total electrons in structure 5 32; (d) ionic 7.143. (a) more covalent character (b) more
total valence electrons 5 4(6) 1 7 5 31; covalent character (c) more ionic character (d) more ionic
31 2 32 5 2 1; n 5 1. 7.113. (a) angular (b) linear character 7.145. (a) nonpolar (b) polar (c) polar (d) polar
(c) angular (d) linear (diatomic molecule) 7.115. (a) The 7.147. (a) nonpolar (b) polar (c) polar (d) nonpolar
electron arrangement about the central atom involves 7.149. (b and c). In (b) both are polar molecules. In
two bonding locations and two nonbonding locations. (c) both are nonpolar molecules. In (a) and (b) one is polar
This arrangement produces an angular geometry. (b) The and the other is nonpolar. 7.151. (a) 0, 4 (b) 2, 0 (c) 2, 0
electron arrangement about the central atom involves two (d) 0, 2 7.153. (a) Mg: 1s22s22p63s2; Mg2+: 1s22s22p6
bonding locations and zero nonbonding locations. This (b) F: 1s22s22p5; F-: 1s22s22p6 (c) N: 1s22s22p3; N3-: 1s22s22p6
arrangement produces a linear geometry. (c) The electron (d) Ca2+: 1s22s22p63s23p6; S2-: 1s22s22p63s23p6
arrangement about the central atom involves two bonding 7.155. (a) nonisoelectronic cations (b) nonisoelectronic
locations and zero nonbonding locations. This arrangement anions (c) isoelectronic cations (d) nonisoelectronic anions
produces a linear geometry. (d) The electron arrangement 7.157. (a) ionic (b) molecular (c) ionic (d) molecular
about the central atom involves two bonding locations and 7.159. (a) molecule (b) formula unit (c) formula unit
one nonbonding location. This arrangement produces an (d) molecule 7.161. (a) yes (b) yes (c) no (d) no
angular geometry. 7.117. (a) The electron arrangement 7.163. (a) O (b) N (c) O (d) F 7.165. Ionic compounds
about the central atom involves three bonding locations must contain both positive and negative ions.
and one nonbonding location. This arrangement produces 7.167. (a) correct number of electron dots, but improperly
a trigonal pyramidal geometry. (b) The electron arrange- placed (b) not enough electron dots (c) correct number of
ment about the central atom involves two bonding loca- electron dots, but improperly placed (d) correct number
tions and zero nonbonding locations. This arrangement of electron dots, but improperly placed 7.169. (a) BA,
produces a linear geometry. (c) The electron arrangement CA, DB, DA (b) BA, CA, DB, DA 7.171. (a) same,
about the central atom involves two bonding locations both single (b) different, single and triple (c) different,
and one nonbonding location. This arrangement produces triple and double (d) different, triple and double
an angular geometry. (d) The electron arrangement about 7.173. (a) x = Cl (b) x = Cl
the central atom involves four bonding locations and zero
nonbonding locations. This arrangement produces a tetra- 7.175. ⎤ O ⎤ 2− ⎤ H ⎤+ ⎤ ⎤−
⎥ ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ O — N— O ⎥
—
hedral geometry. 7.119. (a) The electron arrangement ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ — — ⎥ ⎥ ⎥

about the central atom involves four bonding locations and Ca2+ ⎥ O — S — O ⎥; ⎥H N H ⎥ ⎥ ⎥
—
zero nonbonding locations. This arrangement produces a ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ O ⎥

⎦ O ⎦ ⎦ H ⎦ ⎦ ⎦
tetrahedral geometry. (b) The electron arrangement about
the central atom involves two bonding locations and zero Note that other resonance structures are possible
nonbonding locations. This arrangement produces a linear for the NO3- ion.
geometry. (c) The electron arrangement about the central 7.177. (a) 4, tetrahedral (b) 4, linear (c) 4, angular (d) 3,
atom involves three bonding locations and one nonbonding angular 7.179. (a) 109.5⬚ because the electron-group
arrangement about the oxygen atom is tetrahedral (b) 120⬚
because the electron-group arrangement about the carbon (c) sulfur trioxide (d) sulfur difluoride 8.83. (a) hydrogen
atom is trigonal planar sulfide (b) hydrogen fluoride (c) ammonia (d) methane
8.85. (a) N2O (b) HBr (c) C2H6 (d) H2Te 8.87. (a) no
Chapter 8 (b) yes (c) yes (d) no 8.89. (a) NO3- (b) I- (c) ClO-
8.1. (a) molecular (b) ionic (c) ionic (d) molecular (d) PO33- 8.91. (a) HCN (b) H2SO4 (c) HNO2 (d) H3BO3
8.3. (a) ionic (b) ionic (c) ionic (d) ionic 8.5. (a) yes 8.93. (a) nitric acid (b) hydroiodic acid (c) hypochlorous
(b) yes (c) no, both molecular (d) no, both ionic acid (d) phosphorous acid 8.95. (a) hydrocyanic acid
8.7. (a) binary (b) not binary (c) binary (d) binary (b) sulfuric acid (c) nitrous acid (d) boric acid
8.9. (a) not ionic (b) ionic (c) ionic (d) not ionic 8.97. (a) HCl (b) H2CO3 (c) HClO3 (d) H2SO4
8.11. (a) not binary ionic (b) not binary ionic (c) binary 8.99. (a) H+, HNO2, nitrous acid (b) H+, PO43-,
ionic (d) not binary ionic 8.13. (a) fixed charge phosphoric acid (c) CN-, HCN (d) H+, ClO-, HClO
(b) variable charge (c) fixed charge (d) variable charge 8.101. (a) arsenous acid (b) periodic acid (c) hypophospho-
8.15. (a) and (d) 8.17. (a) variable charge (b) variable rous acid (d) bromous acid 8.103. (a) hydrogen
charge (c) fixed charge (d) fixed charge 8.19. (a) no bromide (b) hydrocyanic acid (c) hydrogen sulfide
(b) yes (c) yes (d) no 8.21. (a) beryllium ion (d) hydroiodic acid 8.105. (a) HNO2 (b) H2SO3
(b) lead(II) ion (c) gold(I) ion (d) lithium ion (c) hydrocyanic acid (d) phosphoric acid 8.107. (a) mo-
8.23. (a) no (b) no (c) no (d) no 8.25. (a) bromide lecular acid (b) polyatomic-ion-containing ionic (c) mo-
ion (b) phosphide ion (c) sulfide ion (d) iodide ion lecular nonacid (d) binary ionic 8.109. (a) nitric acid
8.27. (a) calcium ion (b) hydrogen ion (c) iron(III) ion (b) sodium sulfate (c) sulfur trioxide (d) barium chlo-
(d) arsenide ion 8.29. (a) Zn2+ (b) Pb2+ (c) Ca2+ ride 8.111. (a) calcium iodide (b) hydrochloric acid
(d) N3- 8.31. (a) fixed-charge (b) variable-charge (c) copper(I) sulfate (d) nitrous oxide 8.113. (a) calcium
(c) fixed-charge (d) variable-charge 8.33. (a) not nitride (b) calcium nitrate (c) calcium nitrite (d) calcium
needed (b) needed (c) not needed (d) needed cyanide 8.115. (a) hydrogen fluoride (b) magnesium
8.35. (a) aluminum chloride (b) nickel(III) chloride sulfide (c) lithium nitride (d) sulfur dibromide
(c) zinc oxide (d) cobalt(II) oxide 8.37. (a) aluminum 8.117. (a) no (b) no (c) yes (d) no 8.119. (a) yes
oxide (b) cobalt(III) fluoride (c) silver nitride (d) barium (b) no (c) no (d) yes 8.121. (a) Fe1OH22 (b) AgBr
sulfide 8.39. (a) iron(II) bromide, iron(III) bromide (c) NF3 (d) HClO2 8.123. (a) K3P (b) K3PO4 (c) K2HPO4
(b) copper(I) sulfide, copper(II) sulfide (c) tin(II) sulfide, (d) KH2PO4 8.125. (a) Cl2O, CO2 (b) NO2, SO2
tin(IV) sulfide (d) nickel(II) oxide, nickel(III) oxide (c) SF2, SCl2 (d) N2O3 8.127. (a) CaCO3, HNO2
8.41. (a) Na2O (b) CuS (c) aluminum chloride (d) gold(III) (b) NaClO4, NaClO3 (c) HClO2, HClO (d) Li2CO3, Li3PO4
chloride 8.43. (a) plumbic oxide (b) auric chloride 8.129. (a) copper(I) sulfate (b) magnesium chloride
(c) iron(III) iodide (d) tin(II) bromide 8.45. In b and c (c) carbon monoxide (d) dinitrogen pentoxide
both names denote the same compound 8.47. (a) Li2S 8.131. (a) 4 (b) 2 (c) 0 (d) 2 8.133. (a) SeBr2
(b) ZnS (c) Al2S3 (d) Ag2S 8.49. (a) CuS (b) Cu3N2 8.135. (a) sodium nitrate (b) aluminum sulfide, mag-
(c) SnO (d) SnO2 8.51. (a) Al2O3, aluminum nesium nitride, beryllium phosphide (c) iron(III) oxide
oxide (b) Pb2+, Br-, lead(II) bromide (c) Fe2+, FeS (d) gold(I) chlorate 8.137. (a) Ni21SO4 23 (b) Ni2O3
(d) Zn2+, Br-, ZnBr2 8.53. (a) OH- (b) NH4+ (c) NO3- (c) Ni21C2O4 23 (d) Ni1NO3 23 8.139. The superoxide ion
(d) ClO4- 8.55. (a) peroxide (b) thiosulfate (c) oxalate is O2-. The nitronium ion is NO2+. The formula of nitronium
(d) chlorate 8.57. (a) SO42-, SO32- (b) PO43-, HPO42- superoxide is NO2O2.
(c) OH-, O22- (d) CrO42-, Cr2O72- 8.59. (a) + 1 (b) +2
(c) +2 (d) +1 8.61. (a) fixed-charge (b) fixed-charge Chapter 9
(c) variable-charge (d) variable-charge 8.63. (a) zinc 9.1. 42.9% C, 57.1% O 9.3. According to the law of
sulfate (b) barium hydroxide (c) iron(III) nitrate definite proportions, the percentage A in each sample
(d) copper(II) carbonate 8.65. (a) iron(III) carbonate, should be the same and the percentage D should also
iron(II) carbonate (b) gold(I) sulfate, gold(III) sulfate be the same. Sample I: % A = 57.81%, % D = 42.2%
(c) tin(II) hydroxide, tin(IV) hydroxide (d) chromium(III) Sample II: % A = 57.81%, % D = 42.2% 9.5. The mass
acetate, chromium(II) acetate 8.67. (a) Ag2CO3 ratio between X and Q present in the sample will be the
(b) AuNO3 (c) Fe21SO4 23 (d) CuCN 8.69. (a) Na2SO4 same for samples of the same compound. Experiments
(b) Cu1NO3 22 (c) calcium carbonate (d) gold(III) phos- 1 and 3 produced the same compound. 9.7. 100.0 g
phate 8.71. (a) Al21SO4 23, aluminum sulfate SO2 9.9. (a) 52.46 amu (b) 84.46 amu (c) 98.08 amu
(b) Cu2+, CN-, copper(II) cyanide (c) Fe2+, Fe1OH22 (d) 82.08 amu 9.11. (a) 44.01 amu (b) 44.02 amu (c) 44.07
(d) Zn2+, N3-, Zn1N3 22 8.73. The less electronega- amu (d) 44.11 amu 9.13. (a) 514.68 amu (b) 577.67 amu
tive element is written first. (a) CO (b) Cl2O (c) N2O (c) 906.81 amu (d) 1096.12 amu 9.15. (a) 379.31 amu
(d) HI 8.75. (a) 7 (b) 5 (c) 3 (d) 10 8.77. (a) tetraphos- (b) 407.54 amu 9.17. (a) 62.08 amu (b) 90.09 amu
phorus decoxide (b) sulfur tetrafluoride (c) carbon tetrabro- 9.19. y = 4 9.21. 44.1 amu 9.23. N2O
mide (d) nitrogen dioxide 8.79. (a) SO (b) S2O (c) SO2 9.25. (a) 1.93% H, 67.58% Cl, 30.50% O (b) 1.48% H,
(d) S7O2 8.81. (a) CO2 (b) dinitrogen pentaoxide 51.78% Cl, 46.74% O (c) 1.20% H, 41.97% Cl, 56.83% O
(d) 1.01% H, 35.29% Cl, 63.71% O 9.27. (a) 2.06% H (c) 2.544 g O (d) 4.787 * 1022 molecules C21H30O2
(b) 8.58% Be (c) 15.77% Al (d) 21.20% N 9.29. (a) 73.92% 9.95. (a) 310 g Fe2S3 (b) 15 g impurities 9.97. 99.29%
C, 8.138% H, 2.720% Mg, 6.271% N, 8.952% O 9.99. 20.0 g sample 9.101. 3.063 * 1023 atoms Cu
9.31. They match. 9.33. C2H2 = 92.24% C, 7.76% H; 9.103. 10.9 g Cr 9.105. (a) correct (b) incorrect
C6H6 = 92.24% C, 7.76% H. Both compounds have the (c) correct (d) incorrect 9.107. (a) NO2 and N2O4
same ratio of carbon to hydrogen. Thus, the %C and (b) C2H4, C3H6 9.109. (a) no (b) yes (c) yes
%H will be the same in each. 9.35. 363 g N (d) no 9.111. (a) C6H8O7, C6H8O7 (b) C6H12O6, CH2O
9.37. (a) 6.02 * 1023 Ag atoms (b) 6.02 * 1023 H2O 9.113. (a) Na2S (b) KMnO4 (c) H2SO4 (d) C2H3O5N
molecules (c) 6.02 * 1023 NaNO3 formula units 9.115. (a) 3 to 5 (b) 2 to 5 (c) 6 to 7 (d) 4 to 7 to 6
(d) 6.02 * 1023 SO42- ions 9.39. (a) 1.93 * 1024 Si atoms 9.117. (a) P2O5 (b) Mg3N2 (c) Na2S2O3 (d) Mg2P2O7
(b) 2.2 * 1023 Si atoms (c) 7.29 * 1023 Si atoms 9.119. C2 H6 S 9.121. BeO 9.123. (a) CH4 (b) CH
(d) 1.01 * 1025 Si atoms 9.41. (a) 1.93 * 1024 (c) C2H5 (d) CH3 9.125. CH2 9.127. C5H6O
(b) 2.2 * 1023 (c) 7.29 * 1023 (d) 1.01 * 1025 9.129. (a) C3H6 (b) Na2S4O6 (c) C3H6O2 (d) C5H5N5
9.43. (a) 9.03 * 1023 molecules CO2 (b) 3.01 * 1023 mol- 9.131. (a) 28.06 g/mole (b) 42.09 g/mole (c) 70.15 g/
ecules NH3 (c) 1.40 * 1024 molecules PF3 (d) 6.715 * 1023 mole (d) 112.24 g/mole 9.133. (a) no (b) yes (c) yes
molecules N2H4 9.45. (a) 40.08 g (b) 28.09 g (c) 58.93 g (d) no 9.135. (a) C4H8 (b) CH2 (c) CH2, 42.09 g/mole
(d) 107.9 g 9.47. (a) 40.08 g/mole (b) 28.09 g/mole (d) 26.04 g/mole 9.137. (a) X3Y9 (b) XY3 (c) X2Y6
(c) 58.93 g/mole (d) 107.87 g/mole 9.49. (a) 44.01 g (d) XY3 9.139. (a) C4H6O2 (b) C6H9O3 (c) C12H18O6
(b) 64.06 g (c) 46.01 g (d) 32.06 g 9.51. (a) 44.01 g/mole (d) C4H6O2 9.141. (a) C8H8O2 (b) C8H8O2
(b) 64.06 g/mole (c) 46.01 g/mole (d) 32.06 g/mole 9.143. (a) C3H6O3 (b) C3H6O3 9.145. (a) gold (b) sulfur
9.53. (a) 180.5 g (b) 233.6 g (c) 434.0 g (c) Cl2 molecules (d) Ne 9.147. (a) P4 (b) 1.00 mole Na
(d) 753.9 g 9.55. (a) 2.00 moles Cu (b) 1.00 mole Br (c) Cu (d) Be 9.149. 2.837 g K and 1.163 g S
(c) 1.50 moles N2O (d) 4.87 moles B2H6 9.151. 37.8 g B 9.153. 288 g O 9.155. (a) 8.37% H
9.57. (a) 18.02 g>mole (b) 39.41 g>mole (c) 149.6 g>mole (b) 64.3% H (c) 64.3% H 9.157. (a) Na3AlF6 (b) SO2
(d) 79.81 g>mole 9.59. compound A (c) BaCO3 (d) HClO 9.159. 2.43 * 1023 atoms C
9.61. (a) 3.155 * 10-23 g (b) 8.635 * 10-23 g 9.161. 5.013 g sample burned 9.163. (a) CH4S
(c) 1.971 * 10-23 g (d) 3.271 * 10-22 g 9.63. The ele- (b) 7.221 g 9.165. 40.0% NaF, 40.0% NaNO3, and 20.0%
ment with an atomic mass of 30.97 amu is phosphorus. Na2SO4 9.167. 1.364% C, 6.365% N, 9.53% H, 82.74% O
9.65. 6.022 * 1023 atoms Al 9.67. 3 moles Na/1 mole 9.169. x = 3 9.171. 40.08 g/mole
Na3PO4; 1 mole P/1 mole Na3PO4; 4 moles O/1 mole
Na3PO4; 3 moles Na/1 mole P; 3 moles Na/4 moles O; Chapter 10
1 mole P/4 moles O 9.69. (a) 4 moles N/1 mole S4N4Cl2 10.1. (a) not consistent with (b) consistent with
(b) 2 moles Cl/1 mole S4N4Cl2 (c) 10 moles atoms/1 mole 10.3. 44.01 10.5. 2.2 g CO2 10.7. diagram III
S4N4Cl2 (d) 2 moles Cl/4 moles S 9.71. (a) Both com- 10.9. (a) 2, 2 (b) 2, 3 (c) 1, 2 (d) 2, 1 10.11. (a) ap-
pounds contain the same moles of S. (b) They contain propriate (b) appropriate (c) appropriate (d) not appro-
different moles of S. (c) Both compounds contain priate 10.13. (a) solid, liquid, aqueous, gas (b) solid,
the same moles of S. (d) Both compounds contain aqueous, solid, gas, liquid 10.15. (a) balanced (b) not
the same moles of S. 9.73. (a) 1.54 * 1024 atoms balanced (c) balanced (d) not balanced 10.17. (a) 1 Xe,
(b) 5.70 * 1023 atoms (c) 3.46 * 1023 atoms (d) 1.58 * 1023 4 F (b) 2 Sb, 6 Cl (c) 2 K, 1 S, 4 O, 1 Ba, 2 Cl (d) 4 N,
atoms 9.75. (a) 5.02 * 1023 molecules (b) 3.42 * 1023 12 O, 4 H 10.19. (a) 4 Fe + 3 O2 h 2 Fe2O3
molecules (c) 1.98 * 1023 molecules (d) 1.39 * 1023 (b) 2 Al + 6 HCl h 2 AlCl3 + 3 H2
molecules 9.77. (a) 17.14 g P (b) 18.82 g PH3 (c) SiH4 + 4 F2 h SiF4 + 4 HF
(c) 1.250 * 10-19 g P (d) 1.373 * 10-19 g PH3 (d) 2 NaOH + H2S h Na2S + 2 H2O
9.79. (a) 3.818 * 10-23 g Na (b) 4.037 * 10-23 g Mg 10.21. (a) 3 PbO + 2 NH3 h 3 Pb + N2 + 3 H2O
(c) 9.655 * 10-23 g C4H10 (d) 1.297 * 10-22 g C6H6 (b) 2 NaHCO3 + H2SO4 h Na2SO4 + 2 CO2 + 2 H2O
9.81. (a) 60.66 g Cl (b) 903.5 g Cl (c) 9.72 g Cl (d) 17.0 g Cl (c) TiO2 + C + 2 Cl2 h TiCl4 + CO2
9.83. (a) 1.71 * 1023 atoms P (b) 3.38 * 1023 atoms P (d) 2 NBr3 + 3 NaOH h N2 + 3 NaBr + 3 HBrO
(c) 9.82 * 1022 atoms P (d) 1.23 * 1023 atoms P 10.23. (a) C5H12 + 13 O2 h 5 CO2 + 6 H2O
9.85. (a) 370 g O (b) 13.04 g O (c) 29 g O (d) 215 g O (b) 2 C5H10 + 15 O2 h 10 CO2 + 10 H2O
9.87. (a) 0.5500, 3.312 * 1023 (b) 17.21, 3.841 * 1023 (c) C5H8 + 7 O2 h 5 CO2 + 4 H2O
(c) 27.00, 1.001 (d) 37.34, 8.334 * 1023 (d) C5H10O + 7 O2 h 5 CO2 + 5 H2O
9.89. (a) 0.3686, 2.219 * 1023, 6.658 * 1023 10.25. (a) Ca1OH22 + 2 HNO3 h Ca1NO3 22 + 2 H2O
(b) 24.45, 3.345 * 1023, 1.004 * 1024 (b) BaCl2 + 1NH4 22SO4 h BaSO4 + 2 NH4Cl
(c) 29.23, 0.6642, , 1.200 * 1024 (c) 2 Fe1OH23 + 3 H2SO4 h Fe21SO4 23 + 6 H2O
(d) 609.0, 13.84, 8.333 * 1024 9.91. (a) 7.64 g NH3 (d) Na3 PO4 + 3 AgNO3 h 3 NaNO3 + Ag3PO4
(b) 2.55 g NH3 (c) 1.91 g NH3 (d) 7.64 g NH3 10.27. (a) AgNO3 + KCl h AgCl + KNO3
9.93. (a) 4.213 moles atoms (b) 1.005 * 1024 atoms C (b) CS2 + 3 O2 h CO2 + 2 SO2
(c) 2 H2 + O2 h 2 H2O 10.81. 26.6 g Al 10.83. 284 bolts 10.85. (a) NH3

(d) 2 Ag2 CO3 h 4 Ag + 2 CO2 + O2 10.29. The (b) Be (c) NH3 (d) Be 10.87. (a) O2 (b) H2 (c) KOH
chemical formula for the product was changed, which (d) HNO3 10.89. (a) 3.6 g NH3 (b) 36.5 g NH3 (c) 45.0 g
is not allowed. 10.31. (a) 6 A2 + 2 B2 h 4 A3B NH3 (d) 67 g NH3 10.91. (a) 4.4 g H2 (b) 3.5 g H2
(b) 3 A2 + 3 B2 h 6 AB 10.33. diagram III (c) 13.0 g N2 (d) 1 g N2 10.93. (a) A2 (b) A2
10.35. (a) synthesis (b) synthesis (c) double- 10.95. 0 g Fe3O4, 9.6 g O2 10.97. 2.57 g SF4, 3.21 g S2Cl2,
replacement (d) single-replacement 5.56 g NaCl 10.99. (a) 172.2 g (b) 125.6 g (c) 72.94%
10.37. (a) Zn + Cu1NO3 22 h Zn1NO3 22 + Cu 10.101. diagram III 10.103. 96.6% 10.105. 131 g
(b) 2 Ca + O2 h 2 CaO 10.107. 31.8 g CO2 10.109. 34% 10.111. 83.3%
(c) K2SO4 + Ba1NO3 22 h BaSO4 + 2 KNO3 10.113. 54.6 g SO2 10.115. 293 g O2
(d) 2 Ag2O h 4 Ag + O2 10.117. (a) 4.00 moles NaClO3 (b) 22.2 g NaClO3
10.39. (a) Rb2CO3 h Rb2O + CO2 10.119. (a) 4.00 moles HNO3 (b) 9.00 g HNO3
(b) SrCO3 h SrO + CO2 10.121. 6.69 g AgNO3 10.123. 0.44 mole
(c) Al21CO3 23 h Al2O3 + 3 CO2 10.125. 2 N2 + 2 H2O + 5 O2 h 4 HNO3
(d) Cu2CO3 h Cu2O + CO2 10.127. (a) yes (b) no (c) no (d) yes
10.41. (a) 2 C4H10 + 13 O2 h 8 CO2 + 10 H2O 10.129. 8.34 g N2, 21.4 g H2O, 45.2 g Cr2O3
(b) C7H12 + 10 O2 h 7 CO2 + 6 H2O 10.131. 41.53 g H2S 10.133. 80.1 g NO
(c) 2 CH4O + 3 O2 h 2 CO2 + 4 H2O 10.135. 44.4% 10.137. 75.4% 10.139. 38.3%
(d) C3H8O2 + 4 O2 h 3 CO2 + 4 H2O
10.43. (a) 10 to 10 (1 to 1) (b) 16 to 10 (8 to 5) Chapter 11
(c) 2 to 3 (d) 12 to 14 (6 to 7) 11.1. (a) true (b) true (c) false (d) false 11.3. (a) both
10.45. (a) 4 C2H7 N + 19 O2 h 8 CO2 + 14 H2O + 4 NO2 gases (b) liquid and solid (c) both gases (d) both solids
(b) CH4S + 3 O2 h CO2 + 2 H2O + SO2 11.5. (a) 3 (b) 2 11.7. (a) potential (b) kinetic
10.47. (a) synthesis, single-replacement, combustion (c) potential (d) potential 11.9. (a) Average velocity
(b) decomposition, single-replacement (c) synthesis, increases with increased temperature, and vice versa.
decomposition, single-replacement, double-replacement, (b) potential (attractive) (c) direct; higher temperature,
combustion (d) synthesis, decomposition, single- higher disruptive forces (d) all three 11.11. (a) solid
replacement, double-replacement, combustion (b) liquid (c) solid (d) solid or liquid 11.13. (a) true
10.49. 2 moles NH3 >3 moles H2, 2 moles NH3 >1 mole N2, (b) true (c) true (d) true 11.15. (a) liquid, solid (b) solid
3 moles H2 >1 mole N2, 3 moles H2 >2 moles NH3, (c) gas (d) gas 11.17. (a) different (b) different (c) same
1 mole N2 >2 moles NH3, 1 mole N2 >3 moles H2 (d) same 11.19. (a) different (b) different (c) different
10.51. (a) 3 moles H2O>6 moles ClO2 (d) same 11.21. (a) not opposite (b) not opposite
(b) 1 mole HCl>5 moles HClO3 (c) 1 mole HCl>3 moles H2O (c) not opposite (d) not opposite 11.23. (a) 345,000
(d) 6 moles ClO2 >5 moles HClO3 10.53. (a) 2.00 moles joules (b) 82.5 kilocalories (c) 82,500 calories (d) 82.5
NaN3 (b) 9.00 moles CO (c) 6.00 moles NH2Cl Calories 11.25. (a) 2.0 calories (b) 1.0 kilocalorie (c) 100
(d) 2.00 moles C3H5O9N3 10.55. (a) 1.42 moles H2O2 Calories (d) 1000 kilocalories 11.27. (a) 153 J (b) 178 J
(b) 0.473 mole CS2 (c) 0.710 mole Mg (d) 4.26 moles HCl (c) 4.0 * 102 J (d) 968 J 11.29. (a) 63.9⬚C (b) 22.5⬚C
10.57. (a) 6.12 moles products (b) 4.38 moles products (c) 89.5⬚C (d) -31.6⬚C 11.31. (a) 11 g (b) 13 g
(c) 2.62 moles products (d) 4.81 moles products (c) 2.4 g (d) 2.0 g 11.33. (a) less heat energy
10.59. (a) 3.0 moles Ag2CO3 (b) 8.0 moles Ag2CO3 (b) more heat energy 11.35. J>g⬚C 11.37. metal
(c) 4.8 moles Ag2CO3 (d) 4.29 moles Ag2CO3 Z 11.39. (a) 0.33 J>g⬚C (b) 0.39 J>g⬚C (c) 0.48 J>g⬚C
10.61. (a) 5.67 g C (b) 3.26 g B (d) 0.62 J>g⬚C 11.41. 175 g 11.43. 80.0 g cop-
10.63. (a) 452.23 g reactants = 452.23 g products per 11.45. 0.382 J>g⬚C 11.47. (a) heat of solidification
(b) 173.01 g reactants = 173.01 g products (b) heat of condensation (c) heat of fusion (d) heat of
(c) 166.06 g reactants = 166.06 g products vaporization 11.49. (a) - 1.96 * 104 J (b) - 1.13 * 105 J
(d) 1230.71 g reactants = 1230.71 g products (c) - 1.02 * 104 J (d) - 1.13 * 105 J 11.51. 3075 J
10.65. (a) 4.02 moles (b) 1.34 moles (c) 1.34 moles released 11.53. 5.125 times as much 11.55. copper
(d) 0.670 mole 10.67. (a) 0.417 mole (b) 0.625 mole 11.57. 7.30 * 102 J
(c) 1.67 moles (d) 2.50 moles 10.69. (a) 5.25 moles 11.59.
(b) 5.25 moles (c) 1.75 moles (d) 2.62 moles
100˚C
10.71. (a) 126 g HNO3 (b) 126 g HNO3 (c) 31.5 g HNO3
(d) 2.10 * 102 g HNO3 10.73. (a) 3.983 g HNO3 77˚C
Boiling
(b) 0.6134 g H2O (c) 1.054 g NaOH (d) 7.580 g
AgC2H3O2 10.75. (a) 30.0 g SiO2 (b) 76.7 g –23˚C
Melting Liquid
CO (c) 66.8 g SiC (d) 20.7 g C 10.77. (a) 216 g
LiOH (b) 239 g LiOH (c) 26.6 g LiOH (d) 6.48 g –100˚C Solid Gas
LiOH 10.79. (a) 0.2977 mole Na2SiO3 (b) 79.95 g HF
(c) 9.867 * 1021 molecules H2 SiF6 (d) 65.57 g HF Heat added
11.61. (a) 80⬚C (b) liquid (c) liquid-gas mixture (c) decrease (d) increase 12.17. (a) 127⬚C (b) 4.05 L
(d) remains liquid 11.63. (a) 1600 J (b) 27,400 J (c) 33⬚C (d) 0.974 L 12.19. (a) 12.0 L (b) 4.50 L (c) 0.15 L
(c) 41,100 J (d) 1.61 * 105 J 11.65. (a) 8690 J (b) 9080 J (d) 0.15 L 12.21. diagram II 12.23. (a) decrease
(c) 1.510 * 104 J (d) 32,200 J 11.67. 2.15 * 104 J (b) increase (c) decrease (d) increase 12.25. (a) 12⬚C
11.69. (a) boiling point (b) vapor pressure (c) boiling (b) 0.929 atm (c) 387⬚C (d) 2.13 atm 12.27. (a) 2.25 atm
(d) boiling point 11.71. (a) Increasing the tempera- (b) 1.13 atm (c) 0.14 atm (d) 0.14 atm 12.29. 3.1 atm
ture increases the average kinetic energy of the particles, P2 V2 V2 V1 T2
enabling more particles to evaporate. (b) The boiling 12.31. (a) T2 = T1 * * (b) = *
P1 V1 P1 P2 T1
point is lower; reactions occur more slowly at lower 12.33. (a) 0.871 mL (b) 0.483 mL (c) 0.231 mL
temperatures. (c) The boiling point is higher; reactions (d) 0.112 mL 12.35. (a) 5.90 L (b) 3.70 * 103 mL
occur more rapidly at higher temperatures. (d) The par- (c) 2.11 atm (d) - 171⬚C 12.37. (a) 235 mm Hg
ticles leaving have higher than average kinetic energy, (b) 727⬚C 12.39. (a) 2.48 * 103 ⬚C (b) - 196.7⬚C (c) 186⬚C
reducing the average energy of particles of the liquid (d) 33⬚C 12.41. (a) 48.0 L (b) 55.7 L (c) 1.30 * 102 L
that remain. 11.73. (a) increase (b) no change (c) in- (d) 12.0 L 12.43. (a) 4.01 L (b) 1.69 moles (c) 3.64 moles
crease (d) no change 11.75. (a) no change (b) decrease (d) 1.13 L 12.45. diagram III 12.47. (a) 31.0 L (b) 38.0 L
(c) no change (d) no change 11.77. (a) increase (b) no (c) 24.0 L (d) 17.0 L 12.49. (a) 0.677 L (b) 0.785 L
change (c) no change (d) no change 11.79. B must (c) 1.83 L (d) 0.169 L 12.51. (a) 10.9 L (b) 10.9 L (c) 10.9 L
have lower cohesive forces between particles than A to (d) 10.9 L 12.53. 2.6 L 12.55. (a) 26.9 L (b) 22.1 L
make B evaporate faster. 11.81. (a) false (b) true (c) true (c) 5.24 L (d) 24.5 L 12.57. (a) 11.2 atm (b) 12.3 L
(d) false 11.83. The stronger the intermolecular forces, (c) 0.733 mole (d) 282⬚C 12.59. (a) 1.2 atm (b) 4.89 atm
the higher the boiling point. 11.85. (a) London (c) 0.044 atm (d) 0.175 atm 12.61. 0.0824 atm L/mole K
forces (b) London forces, hydrogen bonds (c) London 12.63. 36.1 L 12.65. 44 g Cl2 added 12.67. 28.0 g
forces, dipole-dipole interactions (d) London forces 12.69. CO gas 12.71. (a) 4.00 atm (b) 12.9 L (c) 114 g/
11.87. (a) London force (b) hydrogen bond (c) dipole- mole (d) 98⬚C 12.73. (a) 1.24 g/L (b) 1.68 g/L (c) 0.840
dipole interaction (d) London force 11.89. (a) no g/L (d) 0.996 g/L 12.75. (a) 0.937 atm (b) 0.200 atm
(b) yes (c) yes (d) no 11.91. four 11.93. Ion-ion (c) 0.482 atm (d) 0.597 atm 12.77. CO gas
interactions 1NiCl3 2 are stronger than dipole-dipole 12.79. 25.01 g>mole 12.81. 78⬚C
interactions 1NF3 2. 11.95. (a) F2, larger mass (b) HF, 12.83. 4 NH31g2 + 5 O21g2 h 4 NO1g2 + 6 H2O1g2
hydrogen bonding (c) CO, greater polarity (d) O2, 12.85. (a) 0.433 L C3H8
larger mass 11.97. (a) SiH4 (b) SiCl4 (c) GeBr4 (b) 0.325 L C3H8 12.87. 0.11 L C3H8
(d) C2H4 11.99. The water must be heated to a higher 12.89. (a) O2 (b) O2 (c) O2 (d) H2S
temperature before the effects of hydrogen bonding are 12.91. (a) 22.5 L CO2, 90.0 L H2 (b) 33.0 L CO2, 132 L H2
overcome. 11.101. At 4⬚C, the distance between water (c) 64.0 L CO2, 256 L H2 (d) 16.0 L CO2, 64.0 L H2
molecules maximizes because of “balance” between ran- 12.93. (a) 20.9 L (b) 21.7 L (c) 32.5 L (d) 16.2 L
dom motion and hydrogen-bonding effects. Below this tem- 12.95. (a) 12.1 L (b) 12.1 L (c) 12.1 L (d) 12.1 L
perature, random motion decreases and hydrogen-bonding 12.97. (a) 22.41 L (b) 22.41 L (c) 22.41 L (d) 22.41 L
causes the molecules to move farther apart, causing a den- 12.99. (a) 10.9 L (b) 4.00 atm (c) 227⬚C (d) 22.4 L
sity decrease. 11.103. Hydrogen bonding between water 12.101. (a) 0.9901 g>L (b) 0.7604 g>L (c) 0.7301 g>L
molecules causes ice to have an “open” structure that is less (d) 0.4869 g>L 12.103. (a) 2.16 g>L (b) 1.47 g>L
dense than liquid water. 11.105. Hydrogen bonding (c) 0.7162 g>L (d) 1.342 g>L 12.105. (a) O3 (b) PH3
causes water to have higher than normal heats of vaporiza- (c) CO2 (d) F2 12.107. (a) 44.1 g>mole (b) 28.0 g>mole
tion and condensation. Thus larger amounts of heat are (c) 16.0 g>mole (d) 71.0 g>mole 12.109. The Ne flask
absorbed during evaporation and released during conden- will be heavier than the He flask since Ne has the greater
sation, which produces a temperature-moderating molar mass. 12.111. (a) 42.2 g (b) 46.6 g (c) 84.7 g
effect. 11.107. A measure of the inward force on (d) 36.0 g 12.113. (a) 41.9 g (b) 46.2 g (c) 84.0 g
the surface of a liquid caused by unbalanced intermolecular (d) 35.7 g 12.115. (a) 28.0 L (b) 28.0 L (c) 28.0 L
forces. 11.109. (a) SnCl4 (b) SnI4 (c) SnI4 (d) SnI4 (d) 28.0 L 12.117. (a) 18.9 L (b) 18.9 L (c) 18.9 L
11.111. 9.52 g 11.113. 38.3⬚C 11.115. 0.421 J>g⬚C (d) 18.9 L 12.119. (a) 18.7 L NO2 (b) 8.97 L NO2
11.117. 1.4 * 103 J>g 12.121. 61.1 g NO 12.123. 12.2 L 12.125. 259 L
12.127. 78.0 L 12.129. 0.891 L CO2 12.131. 7.39 L
Chapter 12 12.133. (a) 5.51 L (b) 6.11 L (c) 76.8 L (d) 197 L
12.1. (a) 889 mm Hg (b) 978 mm Hg (c) 787 mm Hg 12.135. (a) 8.01 atm (b) 0.295 atm 12.137. 9.0 atm for
(d) 746 mm Hg 12.3. (a) smaller than (b) smaller than He, 5.0 atm for Ne, 15.0 atm for Ar 12.139. (a) 167 mm
(c) equal to (d) greater than 12.5. 999 mm Hg Hg (b) 354 mm Hg (c) 235 mm Hg (d) 86 mm Hg
12.7. (a) increase (b) increase (c) decrease (d) increase 12.141. (a) 0.018 atm (b) 0.030 atm (c) 0.012 atm
12.9. (a) 3.03 atm (b) 1.73 L (c) 1.79 L (d) 7.29 atm 12.143. (a) 0.407 mole fraction CO, 0.259 mole fraction
12.11. (a) 4.00 L (b) 18.0 L (c) 0.46 L (d) 0.55 L CO2, 0.334 mole fraction H2S (b) 0.700 atm PCO, 0.445 atm
12.13. diagram II 12.15. (a) decrease (b) increase PCO2, 0.574 atm PH2S 12.145. (a) 28.8 g (b) 7.00 g,
0.750 (c) 0.0943, 0.906 (d) 21.8 g, 7.14 g, 0.777 (v/v) (d) 12.0% (v/v) 13.47. (a) 36.06% methyl
12.147. (a) 1.00 atm, 1.00 atm, 1.00 atm (b) 1.80 atm, alcohol (b) 66.72% H2O 13.49. 2.81 mL
0.600 atm, 0.600 atm (c) 0.857 atm, 1.29 atm, 0.857 atm 13.51. 1.40 gal H2O 13.53. (a) 0.0867% (m/v)
(d) 0.600 atm, 1.20 atm, 1.20 atm 12.149. 5.2 atm (b) 8.75% (m/v) (c) 8.53% (m/v) (d) 1.65% (m/v)
12.151. (a) 5.10 atm (b) 10.3 atm 12.153. 0.455 atm 13.55. (a) 0.0774% (m/v) (b) 0.0588% (m/v) (c) 0.853%
for He, 0.227 atm for Ar, 0.318 atm for Xe (m/v) (d) 14% (m/v) 13.57. (a) 83.3 mL (b) 117 mL
12.155. (a) 4.20 atm (b) 0.300, 0.700 (c) 3.07 atm, 2.93 atm (c) 3750 mL (d) 3.75 mL 13.59. (a) 11.4 g Na3PO4
(d) 3.30 atm, 0.450, 0.550 12.157. 1.28 atm (b) 3.75 * 103 g Na3PO4 13.61. 24% 13.63. (a) 1.79
12.159. PN2 = 213 mm Hg, PH2 = 639 mm Hg ppm (b) 170 ppm (c) 0.312 ppm (d) 2270 ppm
12.161. (a) 726 mm Hg (b) 617 mm Hg (c) 722 mm Hg 13.65. (a) 1790 ppb (b) 170,000 ppb (c) 312 ppb
(d) 690 mm Hg 12.163. (a) 0.0909 (b) 72.7% Ar (d) 2,270,000 ppb 13.67. 11,000 L air 13.69. (a) 13,000
(c) 18.2% Ne (d) 9.09% He 12.165. (a) 25% O2 (b) 37% Ar ppb, 0.0013 pph (b) 231 ppm, 0.0231% (m/m) (c) 500 ppb,
(c) 37% Ne (d) 0.25 atm 12.167. F2, CO2, NO2, SO2, Cl2 0.00005 pph (d) 22,000 ppm, 22,000,000 ppb,
12.169. all have the same molar volume (22.41 L) 2.2% (m/m) 13.71. (a) 1.6 * 10-6 g (b) 3.1 * 10-3 g
12.171. 2.69 * 1022 molecules CO2 12.173. 3.48 L NH3 (c) 13 g (d) 27 g 13.73. (a) 0.95 M (b) 0.974 M
12.175. 0.14 g O2 12.177. 43.8 mL 12.179. 25% (c) 1.3 M (d) 0.25 M 13.75. (a) 0.625 mole
12.181. (a) 1.14:1 (b) 1.14:1 12.183. 1.3 atm (b) 0.000625 mole (c) 124 moles (d) 8.92 moles
12.185. 2.5 atm 12.187. 1240 mm Hg 13.77. (a) 2.00 * 104 mL (b) 342 mL (c) 3400 mL
(d) 156 mL 13.79. (a) 13.7 g, 0.412 M (b) 0.250 mole,
Chapter 13 0.179 L (c) 104 g, 2.60 moles (d) 0.00250 mole, 0.0926 M
13.81. (a) diagram IV (b) diagrams I and III
13.1. (a) true (b) true (c) true (d) false 13.3. (a) solute 13.83. 22.72 M 13.85. 17.96% 13.87. 5.49 M
(sodium chloride), solvent (water) (b) solute (sucrose), sol- 13.89. 1.00 L 13.91. 17.3 g S 13.93. 610 mL
vent (water) (c) solute (water), solvent (ethyl alcohol) 13.95. 0.0632 M 13.97. 1.7 L NO 13.99. 0.0510 M
(d) solute (ethyl alcohol), solvent (methyl alcohol) 13.101. (a) 0.250 M (b) 0.115 M (c) 0.0444 M (d) 0.00690 M
13.5. (a) slightly soluble (b) soluble (c) very soluble 13.103. (a) 0.553 M (b) 0.604 M (c) 0.793 M (d) 2.24 M
(d) very soluble 13.7. (a) supersaturated (b) saturated 13.105. (a) 1.26 L (b) 2.49 M (c) 1.30 L (d) 5.82 M
(c) unsaturated (d) saturated 13.9. (a) saturated 13.107. diagram III 13.109. (a) 380 mL H2O
(b) unsaturated (c) unsaturated (d) supersaturated (b) 30.0 mL H2O (c) 3040 mL H2O (d) 1.4 * 105 mL H2O
13.11. (a) dilute (b) concentrated (c) concentrated 13.111. (a) 3.3 M (b) 2.5 M (c) 8.86 M (d) 0.00909 M
(d) concentrated 13.13. (a) second (b) first (c) second 13.113. (a) 0.468 M (b) 6.00 M (c) 4.75 M (d) 5.99 M
(d) second 13.15. (a) none (b) 44 g 13.17. (a) hydrated 13.115. (a) 0.194 m (b) 6.92 m (c) 0.0923 m (d) 0.0062 m
ion (b) hydrated ion (c) oxygen atom (d) hydrogen atom 13.117. (a) 14.8 g (b) 2.67 g (c) 311 g (d) 5.5 g
13.19. (a) decrease (b) increase (c) increase (d) increase 13.119. (a) 4.27 moles, 171 g (b) 1.08 moles, 1.24 m
13.21. (a) ethanol (b) carbon tetrachloride (c) ethanol (c) 13.4 g, 0.167 m (d) 4.00 g, 0.704 kg 13.121. 6.3 m
(d) ethanol 13.23. (a) soluble (b) soluble with exceptions 13.123. 0.584 m 13.125. 0.762 M 13.127. 1.191 g>mL
(c) soluble (d) insoluble with exceptions 13.25. (a) all 13.129. 1.47 m 13.131. (a) 1NH4 23PO4 (b) Ca1OH22
nitrates are soluble (b) all acetates are soluble (c) all chlo- (c) AgNO3 (d) CaS, Ca1NO3 22, Ca1C2H3O2 22
rides are soluble except silver, lead, and mercury (d) all 13.133. 80 g 13.135. (a) 17.8% (m/v) (b) 1.05 M
sulfates are soluble except calcium, strontium, barium, 13.137. 6.72 g Na2SO4 13.139. 1245 g H2O
lead, and silver 13.27. (a) all carbonates are insoluble 13.141. 3.74 mg solute/kg solution 13.143. 0.171 M
except ammonium and IA (b) all sulfides are insoluble 13.145. 8.06 mL 13.147. 340 g H2O 13.149. 298 g
except ammonium, IA, calcium, strontium, and barium solution, 266 mL solution 13.151. (a) 11.9% (m/v)
(c) all hydroxides are insoluble except IA, calcium, (b) 12.2% (m/m) (c) 15.1% (v/v) 13.153. 1.01 g/mL
strontium, and barium (d) all sulfates are soluble except
calcium, strontium, barium, lead, and silver 13.29. (a) like
(b) like (c) unlike (d) like 13.31. (a) no (b) yes (c) no
Chapter 14
(d) no 13.33. (a) 20.0% (m/m) (b) 1.39% (m/m) 14.1. (a) H+ ion (b) dissociation 14.3. (a) Arrhenius
(c) 3.42% (m/m) (d) 20.9% (m/m) 13.35. (a) 7.9% (m/m) acid (b) Arrhenius acid 14.5. (a) ionization
(b) 30.8% (m/m) (c) 2% (m/m) (d) 8.0% (m/m) (b) dissociation (c) dissociation (d) ionization
13.37. (a) 1.35 g (b) 86.2 g (c) 0.00200 g (d) 20.0 g 14.7. (a) HBr h H+ + Br- (b) HClO2 h H+ + ClO2-
13.39. (a) 22.0 g, 35.3% (m/m) (b) 74.0 g, 32.4% (m/m) (c) LiOH h Li+ + OH- (d) Ba1OH22 h Ba2+ + 2 OH-
(c) 36.0 g, 76.0 g (d) 40.0 g, 52.0 g 13.41. (a) 5.18 g H2O 14.9. (a) acid: HBr, base: H2O (b) acid: H2O, base: N-3
(b) 51.8 g H2O (c) 56.9 g H2O (d) 2.3 g H2O (c) acid: H2S, base: H2O (d) acid: HS-, base: H2O
13.43. (a) 9.50 * 102 g H2O (b) 9.50 * 102 g H2O 14.11. (a) HOCl + H2O h H3O+ + OCl-
(c) 9.50 * 102 g H2O (d) 9.50 * 102 g H2O (b) NH3 + H2O h NH4+ + OH-
13.45. (a) 79.1% (v/v) (b) 7.91% (v/v) (c) 57.1% (c) H2PO4- + H2O h H3O+ + HPO42-
(d) CO32- + H2O h HCO 3- + OH- (c) Zn + NiCl2 h ZnCl2 + Ni

14.13. (a) HOCl + NH3 h NH4 + + OCl- (d) Cr + Pb1C2H3O2 22 h Cr1C2H3O2 22 + Pb
(b) H2CO3 + H2O h H3O+ + HCO3- 14.75. (a) An insoluble salt is formed. (b) An insoluble
(c) H2O + H2O h H3O+ + OH- salt is formed. (c) An insoluble salt is formed; a
(d) HC2O4- + H2O h H3O+ + C2O42- 14.15. (a) H2S weak acid is formed. (d) A gas is evolved.
(b) NO2- (c) PH4+ (d) HPO42- 14.17. (a) H2C2O4 and 14.77. (a) 2 Al1NO3 23 + 3 1NH4 22S h 6 NH4NO3 + Al2S3
HC2O4-; HClO and ClO- (b) HSO4- and SO42-; H3O+ and (b) 2 HCl + Ba1OH22 h BaCl2 + 2 H2O (c) no reaction
H2O (c) H2PO4- and HPO42-; NH4+ and NH3 (d) H2CO3 (d) no reaction 14.79. (a) 1.8 * 10-11 M (b) 1.6 * 10-8 M
and HCO3-; H2O and OH- 14.19. (a) yes (b) yes (c) no (c) 1.30 * 10-5 M (d) 1.42 * 10-3 M 14.81. (a) acidic
(d) no 14.21. (a) (1) HS- + H3O+ h H2S + H2O (b) basic (c) basic (d) acidic 14.83. (a) 3.0 * 10-12 M,
(2) HS- + OH- h H2O + S2- basic (b) 1.5 * 10-7 M, basic (c) 1.4 * 10-7 M, acidic
(b) (1) HPO42- + H3O+ h H2PO4- + H2O (d) 2.2 * 10-9 M, acidic 14.85. (a) impossible
(2) HPO42- + OH- h H2O + PO43- (b) possible 14.87. 1.6 * 10-7 M 14.89. (a) 4.0
(c) (1) HCO3- + H3O+ h H2CO3 + H2O (b) 11.00 (c) 5.0 (d) 9.00 14.91. (a) 2.22 (b) 3.22
(2) HCO3- + OH- h H2O + CO32- (c) 4.22 (d) 5.22 14.93. (a) 2.4 (b) 2.40 (c) 2.398
(d) (1) H2PO3- + H3O+ h H3PO3 + H2O (d) 2.3979 14.95. (a) both acidic (b) acidic, basic
(2) H2PO3- + OH- h H2O + HPO32- (c) both basic (d) acidic, neutral 14.97. (a) 1 * 10-4 M
14.23. (a) monoprotic (b) monoprotic (c) monoprotic (b) 6 * 10-5 M (c) 3 * 10-5 M (d) 2 * 10-5 M
(d) diprotic 14.25. (a) 1 (b) 1 (c) 1 (d) 2 14.99. (a) 3.7 * 10-3 M (b) 1.9 * 10-6 M (c) 1.9 * 10-8 M
14.27. (a) 0 (b) 5 (c) 3 (d) 2 (d) 1.78 * 10-9 M 14.101. (a) 1.4 * 10-5 M, 9.14, basic
14.29. (a) H2C2O4 + H2O h H3O+ + HC2O4- (b) 5.0 * 10-6 M, 2.0 * 10-9 M, acidic (c) 1.4 * 10-5 M,
HC2O4- + H2O h H3O+ + C2O42- 4.85, acidic (d) 5.9 * 10-9 M, 1.7 * 10-6 M, basic
(b) H2C3H2O4 + H2O h H3O+ + HC3H2O4- 14.103. (a) Solution A (b) Solution B 14.105. (a) 4.199
HC3H2O4- + H2O h H3O+ + C3H2O42- (b) 3.900 (c) 3.500 (d) 1.500 14.107. (a) 2.20 (b) 0.70
14.31. to indicate that only one of the six H atoms are (c) 4.38 (d) 10.37 14.109. (a) PO43- (b) CN- (c) NH4+
acidic 14.33. Monoprotic. Hydrogens attached to carbon (d) none 14.111. (a) neutral (b) basic (c) acidic
atoms are not acidic. 14.35. (a) strong (b) weak (c) weak (d) neutral 14.113. (a) NH4+ + H2O h H3O+ + NH3
(d) weak 14.37. (a) stronger (b) stronger (c) weaker (b) C2H3O2- + H2O h OH- + HC2H3O2
(d) weaker 14.39. (a) strong, strong (b) strong, strong (c) F- + H2O h OH- + HF
(c) weak, strong (d) weak, strong 14.41. (a) no (d) CN- + H2O h OH- + HCN
(b) yes (c) no (d) yes 14.43. Weak acid pertains 14.115. (a) no (b) yes (c) no (d) yes
to extent of dissociation and dilute acid pertains to 14.117. (a) HCN>CN- (b) H3PO4 >H2 PO4-
concentration. 14.45. acid IV 14.47. (a) salt (c) H2CO3 >HCO3- (d) HCO3- >CO32- 14.119. All four
and acid (b) salt and base (c) two salts (d) salt represent buffers. 14.121. (a) HF + OH- h F- + H2O
and acid 14.49. (a) calcium sulfate (b) lithium (b) PO43- + H3O+ h HPO42- + H2O
carbonate (c) sodium bromide (d) aluminum sulfide (c) CO32- + H3O+ h HCO3- + H2O
14.51. (a) insoluble (b) soluble (c) soluble (d) H3PO4 + OH- h H2PO4- + H2O 14.123. (a) 8.1
(d) insoluble 14.53. (a) 2 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 5 (b) 8.3 14.125. (a) 20.0 mL (b) 40.0 mL (c) 40.0 mL
14.55. (a) NaNO3 h Na+ + NO-3 (d) 80.0 mL 14.127. (a) 20.0 mL (b) 40.0 mL
(b) CuCO3 h Cu2+ + CO3 2- (c) BaCl2 h Ba2+ + 2 Cl- (c) 1.00 * 102 mL (d) 1.50 * 102 mL 14.129. (a) 0.0705 M
(d) Al21SO4 23 h 2 Al3+ + 3 SO4 2- (b) 0.176 M (c) 0.0587 M (d) 0.352 M 14.131. (a) Ar-
14.57. (a) Fe + 2 HCl h FeCl2 + H2 rhenius acid, Bronsted-Lowry acid (b) Arrhenius base,
(b) Ni + 2 HCl h NiCl2 + H2 (c) no reaction Bronsted-Lowry base (c) Arrhenius acid, Bronsted-Lowry
(d) no reaction 14.59. (a) Ca (b) Ca, Zn (c) Ca, acid (d) Bronsted-Lowry base 14.133. (a) weak, triprotic
Zn, Ni (d) Ca, Zn, Ni 14.61. (a) no (b) yes (c) yes (b) weak, triprotic (c) strong, monoprotic (d) weak
(d) no 14.63. (a) 2 to 1 (b) 1 to 1 (c) 1 to 1 (d) 1 to 3 monoprotic 14.135. (a) strong (b) weak (c) weak
14.65. (a) LiCN, H2O (b) NaCl, H2O (c) KNO3, H2O (d) strong 14.137. 200 14.139. 6.76
(d) RbBr, H2O 14.67. (a) HCl, NaOH (b) HNO3, KOH 14.141. (a) A 7 B 7 D 7 C (b) C 6 D 6 B 6 A
(c) H2SO4, LiOH (d) HBr, Ca1OH22 (c) C 7 D 7 B 7 A (d) A 6 B 6 D 6 C
14.69. (a) Zn + 2 HCl h ZnCl2 + H2 14.143. (a) second (b) first (c) second (d) first
(b) HCl + NaOH h NaCl + H2O 14.145. (a) no, higher pH (b) no, higher pH (c) yes
(c) 2 HCl + Na2 CO3 h 2 NaCl + CO2 + H2O (d) yes 14.147. pH = 1.5
(d) HCl + NaHCO3 h NaCl + CO2 + H2O 14.149. Ba1OH22, LiCN, K2SO4, NH4Br, HClO4
14.71. (a) no (b) yes (c) no (d) yes 14.151. (a) HCN>CN- (b) HF>F- 14.153. H3PO4 >H2 PO4-
14.73. (a) Fe + CuSO4 h FeSO4 + Cu and H2PO4- >HPO42- 14.155. 0.0061 mole Ca1OH22
(b) Sn + 2 AgNO3 h Sn1NO3 22 + 2 Ag (a) 2.00 * 10-14 M (b) 0.500 M (c) 13.699
Chapter 15 (b) 8 MnO4- + 5 AsH3 + 24 H+ h

15.1. (a) weak electrolyte (b) strong electrolyte 5 H3AsO4 + 8 Mn2+ + 12 H2O
(c) strong electrolyte (d) weak electrolyte (c) 2 Br- + SO42- + 4 H+ h Br2 + SO2 + 2 H2O
15.3. (a) both (b) molecular form (c) ionic form (d) Au + 4 Cl- + 3 NO3- + 6 H+ h
(d) both 15.5. (a) weakly conducting solution AuCl4 - + 3 NO2 + 3 H2O
(b) nonconducting solution (c) strongly conducting 15.63. (a) 8 OH- + S2- + 4 Cl2 h SO42- + 8 Cl- + 4 H2O
solution (d) weakly conducting solution 15.7. (a) 2 (b) 3 SO32- + 2 CrO42- + 5 H2O h
(b) 3 (c) 2 (d) 2 15.9. diagram III 15.11. (a) yes 2 Cr1OH24- + 3 SO42- + 2 OH-
(b) no (c) yes (d) no 15.13. (a) yes (b) no (c) no (c) 2 MnO4- + 3 IO3- + H2 O h 2 MnO2 + 3 IO4 - + 2 OH-
(d) no 15.15. (a) molecular (b) net ionic (c) ionic (d) I2 + 7 Cl2 + 18 OH- h 2 H3IO62- + 14 Cl- + 6 H2O
(d) net ionic 15.17. (a) Pb2+ + 2 Br- h PbBr2 15.65. (a) reduction (b) oxidation (c) oxidation
(b) Fe3+ + 3 OH- h Fe1OH23 (d) reduction 15.67. (a) Te h TeO2
(c) Zn + 2 H+ h Zn2+ + H2 (b) Fe2+ h Fe3+ (c) CN- h CNO- (d) Cl- h Cl2
(d) H2S + 2 OH- h S2- + 2H2O 15.69. (a) MnO2 + 4 H+ + e- h Mn3+ + 2 H2O
15.19. (a) 2 Ag+ + Pb h 2 Ag + Pb2+ (b) H3 MnO4 + 5 H+ + 5 e- h Mn + 4 H2O
(b) Cl2 + 2 Br- h 2 Cl- + Br2 (c) MnO4- + 8 H+ + 5 e- h Mn2+ + 4 H2O
(c) 2 Al3+ + 3 S2- h Al2S3 (d) everything cancels (d) MnO4- + 4 H+ + 3 e- h MnO2 + 2 H2O
15.21. (a) loss of electrons (b) increase in oxidation 15.71. (a) SeO42- + 4 H2O + 6 e- h Se + 8 OH-
number 15.23. (a) An oxidizing agent gains electrons (b) Se2- + 6 OH- h SeO32- + 3 H2O + 6 e-
from another substance. (b) An oxidizing agent contains (c) SeO42- + H2O + 2 e- h SeO32- + 2 OH-
the atom that shows an oxidation number decrease. (c) An (d) Se + 6 OH- h SeO2- 3 + 3 H2O + 4 e
-
oxidizing agent is itself reduced. 15.25. (a) incorrect 15.73. (a) Fe + e h Fe (b) Cr h Cr3+ + 3e-
3+ - 2+
(b) correct (c) incorrect (d) correct 15.27. (a) zero (c) Zn + 2 OH- h Zn1OH22 + 2 e-
(b) zero (c) - 2 (d) - 2 15.29. (a) + 1 (d) S + 2H+ + 2e- h H2S
(b) + 3 (c) + 5 (d) +7 15.31. (a) - 1 (b) +7 15.75. (a) Zn + Cu2+ h Cu + Zn2+
(c) +2 (d) + 5 15.33. (a) + 2 (b) + 3 (c) +2 (b) Br2 + 2 I- h 2 Br- + I2
(d) + 1 15.35. (a) + 1 for H, + 5 for P, - 2 for O (c) S2O32- + 4 Cl2 + 5 H2O h 2 HSO4- + 8 Cl- + 8 H+
(b) + 2 for Ba, + 6 for Cr, - 2 for O (d) 6 Zn + As2O3 + 12 H+ h 2 AsH3 + 6 Zn2+ + 3 H2O
(c) -3 for N, + 1 for H, + 7 for Cl, - 2 for O 15.77. (a) 2 NH3 + ClO- h N2H4 + Cl- + H2O
(d) + 1 for H, + 5 for P, - 2 for O 15.37. (a) yes (b) no (b)
(c) yes (d) yes 15.39. (a) + 2 (b) + 3 (c) + 2 (d) + 2 r1OH22 + 2 BrO- + 2 OH- h CrO42- + 2 Br- + 2 H2O
C
15.41. (a) - 2 (b) + 2 (c) -1 (d) - 2 15.43. (a) - 1 (c) 2 CrO2- + 3 H2O2 + 2 OH- h 2 CrO42- + 4 H2O
(b) +1 (c) + 1 (d) - 1 15.45. (a) H2 oxidized, (d)
N2 reduced (b) I- oxidized, Cl2 reduced (c) Fe oxidized, 2 Bi1OH23 + 3 Sn1OH23- + 3 OH- h 3 Sn1OH262- + 2 Bi
Sb reduced (d) S oxidized, N reduced 15.47. (a) N2 15.79. (a) Pb + 2 Cl- h PbCl2 + 2e-
is oxidizing agent, H2 is reducing agent. (b) Cl2 is (b) Sn1OH23- + 3 OH- h Sn1OH262- + 2e-
oxidizing agent, I- is reducing agent. (c) Sb2O3 is oxidizing (c) BiO3 + 6 H+ + 3e- h Bi3+ + 3 H2O
agent, Fe is reducing agent. (d) HNO3 is oxidizing agent, (d) SO42- + 9 H+ h HS- + 4 H2O + 8 e-
H2SO3 is reducing agent. 15.49. (a) SO2 (b) HNO3 15.81. PbS + 3 H2O h PbO + SO2 + 6 H+ + 6 e-
(c) HNO3 (d) SO2 15.51. (a) redox (b) nonredox 15.83. (a) 3 HNO2 h 2 NO + NO3- + H+ + H2O
(c) redox (d) redox 15.53. (a) redox, synthesis (b) ClO- + Cl- + 2 H+ h Cl2 + H2O
(b) redox, single-replacement (c) non-redox, (c) 3 S + 6 OH- h 2 S2- + SO32- + 3 H2O
decomposition (d) non-redox, double-replace- (d) 3 Br2 + 6 OH- h BrO-3 + 5 Br- + 3 H2O
ment 15.55. (a) redox (b) redox (c) can’t classify 15.85. (a) 3 HNO2 h 2 NO + NO-3 + H+ + H2O
(d) redox (b) ClO- + Cl- + 2 H+ h Cl2 + H2O
15.57. (a) 2 Cr + 6 HCl h 2 CrCl3 + 3 H2 (c) 3 S + 6 OH- h 2 S2- + SO32- + 3 H2O
(b) 2 Cr2O3 + 3 C h 4 Cr + 3 CO2 (d) 3 Br2 + 6 OH- h BrO3- + 5 Br- + 3 H2O
(c) SO2 + NO2 h SO3 + NO 15.87. (a) 22.99 g/mole (b) 22.99 g/mole (c) 80.06 g/mole
(d) BaSO4 + 4 C h BaS + 4 CO (d) 80.06 g/mole 15.89. (a) 40.4 g (b) 40.4 g
15.59. (a) Br2 + 2 H2O + SO2 h 2 HBr + H2SO4 (c) 20.2 g (d) 13.5 g 15.91. (a) 1270 mL (b) 634 mL
(b) 3 H2S + 2 HNO3 h 3 S + 2 NO + 4 H2O (c) 1110 mL (d) 8.00 * 102 mL 15.93. 265 mL
(c) SnSO4 + 2 FeSO4 h Sn + Fe21SO4 23 15.95. (a) 0.20 M Na+, 0.20 M Cl-
(d) Na2TeO3 + 4 NaI + 6 HCl h (b) 0.40 M K+, 0.20 M SO42- (c) 0.20 M Al3+, 0.60 M NO3-
6 NaCl + Te + 3 H2O + 2 I2 (d) 0.20 M Mg2+, 0.40 M Cl- 15.97. (a) 9.89 * 1022 ions
15.61. (a) I2 + 5 Cl2 + 6 H2 O h 2 HIO3 + 10 Cl- + 10 H+ (b) 3.32 * 1022 ions (c) 9.91 * 1023 ions
(d) 8.59 * 1023 ions 15.99. (a) 563 mL (b) 430 mL 16.17. Reaction A Reaction B

(c) 4540 mL (d) 896 mL 15.101. (a) 0.287 M
(b) 0.0267 M (c) 0.0866 M 15.103. N2O, NO,
N2O3, NO2, N2O5 15.105. (a) The oxidation number is C
C
Energy
Energy
already at its minimum value and cannot go any lower. A A
(b) The oxidation number is already at its maximum value
200 Kcal 200 Kcal
and cannot go any higher. (c) The oxidation number B B
is at an intermediate value and can be either increased
or decreased. (d) The oxidation number is already at its Reaction progress Reaction progress
maximum value and cannot go any higher.
The reactions are exothermic to the same extent, and
15.107. (a) + 2, + 1 (b) + 3 in both (c) +1 in both
the energy difference between reactants and products
(d) + 3 in both 15.109. (a) two reduction half-reactions
is the same. The reactions differ in activation energy (C).
(b) one reduction and one oxidation half-reaction
16.19. (a) With increased temperature, molecules move
(c) two oxidation half-reactions (d) one reduction and
faster and collide more often. (b) A catalyst allows for
one oxidation half-reaction
an alternate pathway, which requires less activation
15.111. 4 MnO4- + 5 PH3 + 12 H+ h
energy. 16.21. (a) increase (b) increase (c) increase
5 H3PO2 + 4 Mn2+ + 6 H2O;
(d) increase 16.23. (a) 1 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 3
2 SO42- + PH3 + 4 H+ h H3PO2 + 2 SO2 + 2 H2O;
3 MnO4- + 5 As + 3 H2 O + 9 H+ h 5 H3AsO3 + 3 Mn2+; 16.25. Without catalyst With catalyst
3 SO4 2- + 2 As + 6 H+ h 2 H3AsO3 + 3 SO2

15.113. Zn h Zn2+ + 2 e-; NO-3 + 10 H+ + 8 e- h C
NH4+ + 3 H2O C
Energy
Energy
15.115. 2 KMnO4 + 5 K2C2O4 + 16 HCl h A A
2 MnCl2 + 10 CO2 + 8 H2O + 12 KCl D D
B B
Chapter 16
Reaction progress Reaction progress
16.1. Contact between molecules occurs with more
ease in a solution. 16.3. first equation 16.5. molecular The energy difference between reactants and
orientation at time of collision and molecular energy products (D) is the same. The activation energy
16.7. (C) differs. 16.27. The forward and reverse
H Cl reaction rates must be equal.
16.29. (a) CO1g2 + H2O1g2 h CO21g2 + H21g2
Cl
(b) CO21g2 + H21g2 h CO1g2 + H2O1g2
H
16.31. yes, diagrams III and IV have the same composition
16.9. (a) 2 SO2 + O2 h 2 SO3 + heat 16.33. diagrams II and IV
(b) N2 + O2 + heat h 2 NO 16.35.
Concentration
(c) CH4 + 2 O2 h CO2 + 2 H2O + heat Products

(d) CaCO3 + heat h CaO + CO2
16.11. (a) endothermic (b) exothermic (c) exothermic Reactants
(d) endothermic 16.13. (a) less than (b) greater than
(c) greater than (d) less than
Time
16.15.
16.37.
SO3 = 0.0142 mole, SO2 = 0.0058 mole, O2 = 0.0029 mole
C
16.39.
A NH3 = 0.268 mole, N2 = 0.184 mole, H2 = 0.137 mole
Energy 16.41. 0.094 mole CO, 0.197 mole O2, 0.006
D mole CO2 16.43. (a) 3H2O 4 3CO 4 > 3H2 4 3CO2 4
B
(b) 3HCl 4 2 > 3H2 4 3Cl2 4 (c) 3NH3 4 4 3O2 4 5 > 3NO 4 4 3H2O 4 6
(d) 3CO2 4 3H2O 4 2 > 3CH4 4 3O2 4 2 16.45. (a) 1> 3O2 4 3
Reaction progress (b) 3CO2 4 (c) 3NaNO3 4 > 3NaCl 4 3AgNO3 4
(a) The average energy of the reactants is shown as A. (d) 3N2 4 3H2O 4 3 > 3NH3 4 2 16.47. (a) 6.67
(b) The average energy of the products is shown as B. (b) 1.04 (c) 3.75 (d) 0.0216 16.49. diagram IV
(c) The activation energy is shown as C. (d) The energy 16.51. diagram I 16.53. 0.0730 M 16.55. 48.9
liberated in the reaction is shown as D, or A - B. 16.57. 6.0 * 10-4 M 16.59. (a) mostly reactants
(b) mostly products (c) mostly products (d) significant (c) yes (d) no 16.69. endothermic; reaction shifts to the
amounts of both reactants and products 16.61. (a) in- right (more AB) 16.71. (a) at equilibrium (b) shifts to the
crease (b) decrease (c) decrease (d) increase left (c) at equilibrium (d) shifts to the left 16.73. 0.0005
16.63. (a) to the right (b) to the left (c) to the left 16.75. (a) no (b) no (c) yes (d) no 16.77. (a) right
(d) to the right 16.65. (a) shifts right (b) shifts left (b) does not shift (c) left (d) does not shift 16.79. (a) situ-
(c) no effect (d) shifts right 16.67. (a) no (b) no ation 2 (b) situation 4
CREDITS
01-02 Alexander Raths / Fotolia
02-04 Texas Instruments Incorporated
03-01 (left) JessieEldora / iStockphoto
03-01 (right) Pearson Education / Eric Schrader
03-02a Getty Images-PhotoDisc
03-02b Getty Images-PhotoDisc
03-02c Pearson Education / Eric Schrader
03-03 NASA
03-08 SoopySue / iStockcphoto
04-02 Eric Lundberg / Shutterstock
04-03 Tobias Stinner / Fotolia
04-05 Pearson Education
04-07 Tim Mainiero/Shutterstock
05-01 H. Stephen Stoker
08-02 H. Stephen Stoker
11-03 George Stringham / US Army Corp of Engineers
11-25 Pearson Science / Eric Schrader
12-07a Richard Megna / Fundamental Photographs
12-07b Richard Megna / Fundamental Photographs
15-01 (left) Richard Megna / Fundamental Photographs
15-01 (center) Richard Megna / Fundamental Photographs
15-01 (right) Richard Megna / Fundamental Photographs
16-05 Dorling Kindersley
CO (all) Denis Vrublevski / Shutterstock
Cover Shilova Ekaterina / Shutterstock
763
INDEX
(A boldfaced term is defined on the indicated page.)
A Air
composition of, table, 544
values of, table of, inside front cover
values of, uncertainty associated with, 165
Accuracy, 18
contrasted with precision, 18–20 Alkali metal(s), 186 weighted average concept and, 162–64
Acetaminophen location of, within periodic table, 186 Atomic mass unit
chemical insight about, 336 Alkaline earth metal(s), 186 relationship to grams unit, 347–48
Acetone location of, within periodic table, 186 relative scale for, 161
chemical insight about, 370 Aluminum Atomic number(s), 153
Acetylene chemical insight about, 91, 417 electrons and, 153–54
chemical insight about, 524 Aluminum oxide for elements, listing of, inside front cover
Acid(s), 310 chemical insight about, 241 general symbol for, 153
Arrhenius, 616–18 Ammonia identifying characteristic for elements, 153
Bronsted–Lowry, 618–20 chemical insight about, 330, 523 informational value of, 153–54
characteristics of, early known, 616–17 Amphiprotic substance(s), 623 protons and, 153
classification of, based on negative ion examples of, 623 use of, with elemental symbols, 154
formed, 310–11 Anion(s), 234 Atomic radii
diprotic, 623–24 Applied scientific research, 3 values, listing of, 216
ionization of, 618 role of, 3 values, periodic trends in, 215–16
monoprotic, 623–24 Aqueous solution(s), 568 Atomic theory of matter, 141
net ionic equations and, 669 Area, 65 concepts associated with, 141
neutralization of, 629–31 formulas for calculation of, 66 formulation of, 141
nomenclature of, 309–14 units for, 65 isotopes and, 157
nonoxy, 312 Arrhenius, Svante August law of conservation of mass and, 389
oxy, 312–13 Human Side of Chemistry feature law of definite proportions and, 330–31
polyprotic, 623–24 about, 617 Aufbau diagram, 196
reaction with bases, 629–30 Arrhenius acid, 617 electron configurations and, 195–99
reaction with carbonates and generalizations about, 618 Aufbau principle, 195
bicarbonates, 631 ionization of, 617–18 electron configurations and, 195–99
reaction with metals, 629 Arrhenius base, 617 Automobile air bags
reaction with salts, 632–33 dissociation of, 618 chemical insight about, 411
strengths of, 625–27 generalizations about, 618 Avogadro, Lorenzo Romano Amedeo Carlo
strong, 625–27 Atom(s), 141 Human Side of Chemistry feature
titration of, 651–52 atomic numbers for, 153–55 about, 339
triprotic, 623–24 building blocks for matter, 141 Avogadro’s law, 507
weak, 625–27 charge neutrality and, 151 combined with the combined gas
Acid–base neutralization, 629–31 diamagnetic, 204 law, 510
Acid–base theory electron configurations for, 195–201 mathematical statement of, 508
Arrhenius, concepts of, 617–18 electron orbital diagrams for, 201–04 use of, in calculations, 509–10
Bronsted–Lowry, amphoteric substances ion formation from, 233–36 Avogadro’s number, 338
and, 623 Lewis symbols for, 231–32 examples illustrating magnitude of, 341
Bronsted–Lowry, concepts of, 618–20 limit of chemical subdivision and, 145 relationship to the mole, 338–41
Bronsted–Lowry, conjugate pairs and, mass numbers for, 153–55 significant figures for, 347
621–22 mass of, 142 use of, as a conversion factor, 352
Acid–base titration(s), 651 nuclear and extranuclear regions of, use of, in calculations, 339–40
concentration determination and, 652 150–51
equipment needed for, 651 nucleus of, 150–51, 168–70 B
indicator use in, 651 paramagnetic, 204 Baking soda
Acid rain radii for, 215–16 chemical insight about, 410
chemical insight about, 258 relative mass scale for, 161 Balanced chemical equation, 390
Acidic hydrogen atom(s), 624 size of, 142 characteristics of, 391
molecular structure and, 624 size relationships among component molecular view of, 396–97
Acidic solution(s), 638 parts of, 151–52 Barometer, 490
defined in terms of hydronium ion subatomic particles, arrangement within, Base(s)
concentration, 638 150–51 Arrhenius, 616–18
defined in terms of pH value, 640 Atomic mass(es), 159 Bronsted–Lowry, 618–20
Activation energy, 711 calculation of, procedure for, 161 characteristics of, early known, 616–17
energy diagrams showing, 713 informational value of, 164 dissociation of, 618
Actual yield, 418 irregularities in sequence of, 187–88 net ionic equations and, 668
calculations involving concept of, 418–21 relative mass scale concept and, 159–61 neutralization of, 629–31
Adrenaline units for, 161 reaction with acids, 629–31
chemical insight about, 337 values of, changes in, 164–65 reaction with salts, 633
values of, synthetic elements and, 165 strengths of, 627
764
Index 765
strong, 627
titration of, 651–52
C Chemical change(s), 117
characteristics of, 117–18
Caffeine
weak, 627 chemical insight about, 357 Chemical equation(s), 389
Basic scientific research, 3 Calcium balanced, law of conservation of mass
role of, 3 chemical insight about, 208 and, 390, 406–07
Basic solution, 638 Calculators balanced, molecular view of, 396–97
defined in terms of hydronium ion logarithms and, 640, 642–43 coefficients in, 390–92
concentration, 638 scientific notation and, 43–44 conventions used in writing, 390
defined in terms of pH value, 640 Calorie gas–law–based calculations involving,
Beryllium unit conversions involving, 447–48 533–37
chemical insight about, 450 Canal rays Gay–Lussac’s law of combining volumes
Berzelius, Jons Jakob discharge tube experiments and, 167–68 and, 520–23
Human Side of Chemistry feature about, relationship of, to protons, 167–68 half–reactions, 686
128 Carbon dioxide ionic, characteristics of, 667
Binary compound(s), 293 chemical insight about, 83 ionic, conversion to net ionic, 667–71
ionic, nomenclature for, 294–301 Carbon monoxide macroscopic level interpretation of, 403
ionic, types of, 292–94 chemical insight about, 406, 514, 580 microscopic level interpretation of, 403
molecular, nomenclature for, 306–09 Catalyst(s), 715 molar interpretation of coefficients in,
Binary ionic compound(s), 293 activation energy and, 715 403–06
fixed–charge, 295–96 equilibrium position and, 727 molarity–based calculations involving,
–ic, –ous system for naming, 299–300 heterogeneous, 715 588–92
nomenclature for, 294–301 homogeneous, 715 molecular, characteristics of, 667
types of, 292–94 Le Chatelier’s principle and, 727 molecular, conversion to net ionic,
variable–charge metals and, 294–301 reaction rates and, 715 667–71
Binary molecular compound(s), 306 types of, 715 net ionic, 665–71
formulas of, symbol order within, 306 Cathode rays net ionic, guidelines for writing,
nomenclature, numerical prefixes for, discharge tube experiments and, 167 667–68
307 relationship of, to electrons, 167 oxidation–reduction, 665–66, 678–92
nomenclature rules for, 306–09 Cation(s), 234 procedures for balancing, 392–97
Boiling, 465 Celsius, Anders, 97 special symbols used in, 397–98
bubble formation and, 465 Celsius temperature scale types of, 665–66
Boiling point(s), 466 characteristics of, 96–97 volume interpretation of coefficients in,
factors affecting magnitude of, 466–67 Chadwick, James, 149 520–23
normal, 466–67 Change(s) Chemical equilibrium, 716
water, variation of with elevation, 466 chemical, 117–18 conditions necessary for, 716–17
Bond length, 254 in matter, classification of, 116–18 equilibrium constants and, 719–22
resonance structures and, 254–55 physical, 116–17 Le Chatelier’s principle and, 724–28
Bond polarity, 271 Change(s) of state, 446 position of, 722–23
electronegativity differences and, 271–73 endothermic, 446 reaction stoichiometry and, 717–19
notations used in denoting, 271 energy changes accompanying, 454–61 reversible reactions and, 717
percent ionic character and, 271–72 exothermic, 446 Chemical formula(s), 147
types of chemical bonds and, 271–73 heating curves and, 453–54 empirical, determination of, 362–70
Bond strength, 254 terminology for, 116 empirical, from combustion analysis
exothermic and endothermic reactions Charles, Jacques Alexandre Cesar data, 366–70
and, 712–13 Human Side of Chemistry feature about, empirical, from mass data, 364–65
types of chemical bonds and, 254–55 499 empirical, from percent composition
Bonding electron(s), 248 Charles’s law, 498 data, 363–64
Lewis structures and, 248–50 kinetic molecular theory and, 501–02 interpreting, in terms of atoms present,
VSEPR theory and, 261–67 mathematical statement of, 499–500 147–48
Boyle, Robert origin of Kelvin temperature scale and, interpreting, in terms of elements
Human Side of Chemistry feature about, 501 present, 147–48
494 use of, in calculations, 500 ionic, determination of, 239–41
Boyle’s law, 494 Chemical macroscopic level interpretation of,
kinetic molecular theory and, 497–98 use of the term, 118 348–49
mathematical statement of, 494–95 Chemical bond(s), 229 meaning of, for ionic compounds, 147
use of, in calculations, 496–97 coordinate covalent, 253–54 meaning of, for molecular compounds,
Bronsted, Johannes Nicolaus, 618 covalent, 246–55 147
Bronsted–Lowry acid(s), 618 covalent bond model for, 246–47 microscopic level interpretation
conjugate bases of, 621–22 double covalent, 250–51 of, 348
generalizations about, 618 ionic bond model for, 233–36 molar interpretation of, 348–51
Bronsted–Lowry base(s), 618 length of, 254–55 molecular, determination of, 370–74
conjugate acids of, 621–22 octet rule and, 233 parenthesis use within, 148
generalizations about, 620 polarity of, 270–73 relationship of matter classifications to,
Buffer(s), 648 resonance structures and, 254–55 148–49
chemical composition of, 648–49 single covalent, 248–50 Chemical nomenclature, 291
chemical equations for action of, 649–50 strength of, 254–55 acids, 309–14
mode of action of, 649–50 triple covalent, 250–51 binary ionic compounds, 294–301
pH change for, 650 types of, 228–29 binary molecular compounds, 306–09
766 Index
common name use in, 292, 308 Collision theory, 710 Conjugate acid(s), 621
IUPAC rules and, 291–92 activation energy and, 711 relationship to conjugate bases, 621–22
polyatomic–ion containing ionic collision orientation and, 711–12 Conjugate acid–base pair(s), 621
compounds, 303–05 concepts involved in, 711–12 determining members of, 622
summary of rules for, 314–17 molecular collisions and, 711 examples of, 621–22
Chemical periodicity, 213 Combined gas law, 504 Conjugate base(s), 621
atomic radii and, 215–16 combined with Avogadro’s law, 510 relationship to conjugate acids, 621–22
electronegativity and, 269–70 mathematical statement of, 504 Conversion fador(s), 68
metallic character and, 214–15 use of, in calculations, 505–07 Avogadro’s number, use of in, 352
nonmetallic character and, 214–15 Combustion analysis, 366 categories of, 69–71
Chemical property(ies), 114 empirical formula determination using, concentration, use of as a, 88–89
examples of, 114–15 366–70 cost, use of as a, 90–91
Chemical reaction(s), 117 Combustion reaction(s), 401 density, use of as a, 86–87
acid–base, 629–31 balancing equations for, 401–02 English–to–English, 69
chemical equilibrium and, 716–17 examples of, 401–02, 679–80 equation coefficients, use of in, 404–06
classes of, 398–403 Common name(s), 308 “equivalence” versus “equality,” 88
classification systems for, 678–80 for binary molecular compounds, 308 formula subscripts, use of in, 352
combustion, 401–02, 679–80 Common salt metric–to–English, 70–71
decomposition, 399–400, 679 chemical insight about, 595 metric–to–metric, 69–70
disproportionation, 692–96 Compound(s), 123 molality, use of as a, 598–600
double–replacement, 400, 679–80 binary, 293 molar mass, use of as a, 352
endothermic, 712–13 binary ionic, nomenclature rules for, molar volume, use of as a, 530
energy diagrams for, 713 294–301 molarity, use of as a, 582–83
exothermic, 712–13 binary molecular, nomenclature rules percent concentration, use of as a,
forcing to completion, 728 for, 306–09 575–78
hydrolysis of salts, 645–48 classification of, for naming, 291–92 percent, use of as a, 92–94
limiting reactant in, 413–17 common names for, 308 rate, use of as a, 89–90
neutralization, 651–52 comparison with mixtures, 123–24 significant figures and, 69–71
non–oxidation–reduction (nonredox), definite composition of, 328–30 use of, in dimensional analysis, 72–83
678–80 formula masses for, 331–34 Coordinate covalent bond(s), 253
of acids, 629–31 general characteristics of, 123–24 general characteristics of, 253–54
of bases, 631 heteroatomic molecules and, 143 molecules containing, examples of,
of carbonates and bicarbonates, 631 ionic, 144–45 253–54
of metals with acids, 629, 632 molar mass of, 343 Copper
of salts, 621–35 molecular, 144–45 chemical insight about, 455
precipitation, 667 number of known, 123 Core electrons, 200
rates of, factors affecting, 713–16 percent composition of, 335–37 condensed electron configurations and,
redox, 672 synthetic versus natural, 146 200–01
reversible, 717 systematic names for, 308 Cost
sequential, calculations involving, ternary, 304 use of, as a conversion factor, 90–91
422–23 ternary ionic, nomenclature rules for, Covalent bond(s), 229
simultaneous, calculations involving, 303–05 contrasted with ionic bonds, 229
421–22 ternary molecular, acids as, 314 coordinate, 252–54
single–replacement, 399–400, 679–80 ternary molecular, nomenclature rules double, 250–51
synthesis, 398–99, 678–80 for, 310–14 Lewis structures and, 247–50
theoretical yield of products in, 418–21 Compressibility, 442 multiple, 250
Chemical stoichiometry, 407 contrasted, for physical states of matter, nonpolar, 270–73
equilibrium mixtures and, 717–19 441–42 polar, 270–73
Chemical subdivision Concentrated solution, 568 single, 248–50
limit of, 145 Concentration, 572 triple, 250–51
Chemical symbol(s), 128 general expressions for, 572 Cubic meter, 66
generalizations concerning, 128 Concentration units
listing of, 129, inside front cover mass–volume percent, 574 D
Chemistry, 111 molality, 596–602 Dalton, John, 539
as study of matter, 111–12 molarity, 581–87 Human Side of Chemistry feature
scope of, 4 parts per billion, 578–80 about, 141
subdisciplines within, 2–3 parts per million, 578–80 Dalton’s law of partial
Chlorine percent by mass, 571–73 pressures, 539
chemical insight about, 517–18 percent by volume, 573 mathematical statement of, 539–41
Chlorofluorocarbons use of, as a conversion factor, 88–89 relationship to the ideal gas law,
chemical insight about, 364 Condensation 540–41
Cholesterol heat of, 456–57 use of, in calculations, 540–47
chemical insight about, 358 physical states involved in, 446 Data
Citric acid thermicity of, 446 qualitative, 6
chemical insight about, 583–84 Condensed electron configuration(s), quantitative, 6
Coefficient(s) 200 relationship to facts, 6
chemical equations and, 390–92 interpretation of, 200 types of, 6
scientific notation and, 35, 37–38 procedures for writing, 200–01 Davy, Humphry, 166
Index 767
Decomposition reaction(s), 399 Electron(s), 149 alkaline earth metals, 186

examples of, 399–400, 679 atomic number and number of, 153–55 chemical symbols for, 128–31
general equation for, 399 bonding, 248, 263 classification systems for, 211–13
Density, 83 discharge tube experiments and, 167–68 discovery of, 126
calculation of, using ideal gas law, discovery of, 149, 167–68 distribution of, Earth’s crust and, 126
518–19 distinguishing, 205–07 distribution of, human body and, 127
calculation of, using mass and volume, location of, within atom, 150–51 distribution of, universe and, 126
85 nonbonding, 248, 263 general characteristics of, 123–24
contrasted, for physical states of matter, orbitals for, 193–95 groups of, in periodic table, 185–861
441 paired versus unpaired, 202–04 halogens, 186
gaseous, calculated using molar volume, properties of, 149–50 homoatomic molecules and, 146
528–29 relationship of, to cathode rays, 167–68 inner–transition, 212
hydrogen bonding effects on, for water, sharing of, 229, 246–47 listing of, 129, inside front cover
475–76 shells for, 190–91 metallic, 211–12
temperature dependence pattern for, for subshells for, 191–92 metallic and nonmetallic character of,
water, 475–76 transfer of, 229, 233–36 214–15
terminology associated with, 84 unpaired, in electron orbital diagrams, metalloids, 215
use of, as a conversion factor, 86–87 202–04 molar mass of, 342–43
values, table of, 84 unpaired, paramagnetic atoms and, 204 naming of, 127
Deposition valence, 229–32 naturally occurring, 126
physical states involved in, 446 Electron cloud noble gas, 186, 212
thermicity of, 446 concept of, 151 nonmetallic, 211–12
Diamagnetic atom, 204 Electron configuration(s), 195 number of known, 123
Diatomic molecule, 143 Aufbau principle and, 195–99 periods of, in periodic table, 186
Dilute solution, 568 condensed, 199–201 physical states for, at room temperature
Dilution, 592 interpretation of, 195 and pressure, 440
mathematical equations associated with, periodic law and, 204–05 representative, 212
592–93 periodic table location of elements and, specially named groups of, 186
process of, calculations and, 593–95 205–10 synthetic versus natural, 126
Dimensional analysis, 72 procedures for writing, 195–201 transition, 212
English–to–English conversions and, Electron orbital(s), 193 Empirical formula(s), 361
77–78 electron occupancy and Hund’s rule, determination of, using combustion
metric–to–English conversions and, 202–04 analysis, 3366–70
78–83 maximum electron occupancy of, 193 determination of, using mass data,
metric–to–metric conversions and, 72–76 overlap of, in bond formation, 247 364–65
procedural steps in, 72 size/shape of, 193–94 determination of, using percent
Dipole–dipole interaction(s), 468 Electron orbital diagram(s), 202 composition, 363–64
characteristics of, 468 Hund’s rule and, 203–04 relationship to molecular formulas,
Diprotic acid(s), 623 procedures for drawing, 202–04 361–62, 370–74
examples of, 623–24 unpaired electrons and, 202–04 Endothermic change(s) of state, 446
Discharge tube(s) Electron shell(s), 190 evaporation, 446
canal rays and, 167 designations for, 190–91 melting, 446
cathode rays and, 167–68 energy order for, 190–91 sublimation, 446
discovery of subatomic particles and, maximum electron occupancy of, 191 Endothermic chemical reaction(s), 712
166–68 number of subshells within, 192 bond strengths and, 712–13
simplified structure of, 166 outermost, 233 energy diagram for, 713
Disproportionation reaction(s), 692 Electron spin(s), 195 Energy
balancing of equations for, 692–96 orbital diagrams and, 202–04 forms of, 447
Dissociation, 618 Electron subshell(s), 191 heat, 447–48
Arrhenius bases and, 618 designations for, 192 heat, calculations involving transfer of,
Distinguishing electron(s), 205–06 energy order for, 192 452–53
relationships to periodic table, 205–07 interrelationships among, 192 kinetic, states of matter and, 443–45
Double covalent bond(s), 250 maximum electron occupancy of, 192 of electrons, 188–90
molecules containing, examples of, 251 number of orbitals within, 192 potential, states of matter and, 443–45
relative strength of, 250 types of, 192 states of matter and, 443–45
Double–replacement reaction(s), 400 Electronegativity, 268 types of, 447
examples of, 400, 679–80 use of, in determining bond polarity, Equality conversion factor(s), 88
general equation for, 400 272–73 contrasted to equivalence conversion
use of, in determining molecular factors, 88
E polarity, 273–76 Equation coefficient(s), 391
Earth’s atmosphere values, listing of, 269 determination of, 392–97
chemical insight about, 93 values, periodic trends in, 269–70 mathematical significance of, 391–92
Elastic collision, 443 VSEPR theory, determination of central meaning of, 390–92
Electrolyte(s), 666 atom in, 269 volume interpretation for, 520–23
conductivity measurements and, 666–67 Electrostatic force(s), 443 Equilibrium constant(s), 719
strong, 666 as a form of potential energy, 443 calculation of magnitude of, 721–22
substances classified as, 666 Element(s), 123, 153 rules for writing, 719–20
types of, 666 abundances of, 126–27 temperature dependence of, 723–24
weak, 666 alkali metals, 186 writing expression for, 720–21
768 Index
Equilibrium mixture Formula mass, 331 Group(s), 186

stoichiometry of, 717–19 calculation of, examples of, 331–33 of the periodic table, notation for, 186,
Equilibrium position, 722 calculation of, operational rules for, 212–13
Le Chatelier’s principle and, 724–28 333–34 of the periodic table, systems for
Equilibrium state, 464 calculation of, significant figures and, denoting, 212–13
chemical, 716–17 333–34
conjugate acids and bases, 621–22 relationship of molecular mass to, 331 H
general characteristics of, 464 Formula unit(s), 243 Half–reaction(s), 686
physical, 716 interpretation of, for ionic compounds, use of, in balancing redox reactions,
saturated solutions and, 567 243–44 686–96
vapor pressure and, 464–65 ionic compounds and, 147 Halogens, 186
Equivalence conversion factor(s), 88 Freezing location of, within periodic table, 186
contrasted to equality conversion factors, physical states involved in 446 Heat capacity, 451
88 thermicity of, 446 relationship to specific heat, 451–52
examples of, 88–91 Fusion use of, in calculations, 451–52
Ethers heat of, 454–55 Heat of condensation, 456
chemical insight about, 402 relationship to heat of vaporization, 456
Ethyl alcohol G use of, in calculations, 458–59
chemical insight about, 448 Gas(es), 112, 444 Heat of fusion, 454
Ethylene density of, calculated using molar relationship to heat of solidification, 454
chemical insight about, 368 volume, 528–29 use of, in calculations, 454–55, 459–60
Evaporation, 461 distinguishing properties of, 112 values for, table of, 455
factors affecting rate of, 462–63 elemental, 488–89 Heat of solidification, 454
in closed container, equilibrium and, “ideal” contrasted to “real,” 511 relationship to heat of fusion, 454
463–64 kinetic molecular theory of matter Heat of vaporization, 456
kinetic molecular theory and, 461 applied to, 444–45 relationship to heat of condensation, 456
physical states involved in, 446 mixtures of, gas laws and, 537–38 use of, in calculations, 456–57, 459–60
thermicity of, 446 mixtures of, partial pressures and, values for, table of, 457
Exact number(s), 18 538–47 Helium
occurrence of, 18 molar volume of, 525–29 chemical insight about, 507, 509
significant figures and, 33 physical state of, distinguishing Heteroatomic molecule, 143
Exothermic change(s) of state, 446 properties of, 441–42 Heterogeneous
condensation, 446 pressure measurement for, 490–91 use of the term, 121–22
deposition, 446 selected common, table of properties Heterogeneous catalyst, 715
freezing, 446 for, 489 Heterogeneous mixture(s), 120
Exothermic chemical reaction(s), 712 STP conditions for, 527–28 characteristics of, 120–22
bond strengths and, 712–13 Gas law(s), 489–90 Homoatomic molecule, 143
energy diagram for, 713 Avogadro’s, 507–11 Homogeneous
Experiment(s), 6 Boyle’s, 494–98 use of the term, 121–22
controlled conditions for, 6 Charles’s, 498–502 Homogeneous catalyst, 715
data from, 6 Combined, 504–07 Homogeneous mixture(s), 121
discharge tube, 166–68 Dalton’s, of partial pressures, 539–43 characteristics of, 121–22
metal foil, 168–70 Gay–Lussac’s, 502–03 Household bleach
scientific method and, 5–10 Gay–Lussac’s, of combining volumes, chemical insight about, 420
Exponent(s), 36 520–23 Human body
mathematical meaning of, 36 ideal, 511–20 water and, 80
use of, in scientific notation, 36–38 Kelvin temperature and, 490 Human Side of Chemistry
Extensive property(ies), 115 use of with gaseous mixtures, Arrhenius, Svante August, 617
examples of, 115–16 537–38 Avogadro, Lorenzo Romano Amedeo
variables in, 489–93 Carlo, 339
F Gastric juice Berzelius, Jons Jakob, 128
Fahrenheit, Gabriel, 97 chemical insight about, 78 Boyle, Robert, 494
Fahrenheit temperature scale Gay–Lussac, Joseph Louis Charles, Jacques Alexandre Cesar, 499
characteristics of, 96–97 Human Side of Chemistry feature about, Dalton, John, 141
Ferric oxide 502 Gay–Lussac, Joseph Louis, 502
chemical insight about, 333 Gay–Lussac’s law, 502–03 Lavoisier, Antoine–Laurent, 388
Fixed–charge metal(s), 293 kinetic molecular theory and, 503 Le Chatelier, Henri Louis, 725
charges on ions of, 293 mathematical statement of, 503 Lewis, Gilbert Newton, 232
identity of, 293 use of, in calculations, 503 Mendeleev, Dmitri Ivanovich, 185
nomenclature for, 294 Gay–Lussac’s law of combining Pauling, Linus Carl, 268
Fluoridation volumes, 520 Priestly, Joseph, 127
chemical insight about, 579–80 original statement of, 521 Proust, Joseph Lewis, 328
Fluorine use of, in calculations, 522–23 Rutherford, Ernest, 169
chemical insight about, 531 Gold Schrodinger, Erwin, 190
Force(s) chemical insight about, 96, 452 Hund, Frederick, 202
cohesive, 443 Goldstein, Eugen, 149, 168 Hund’s rule, 202
disruptive, 443 Greenhouse effect use of, in electron orbital diagrams,
electrostatic, 443 chemical insight about, 83 201–04
Index 769
Hydrated ion, 569

Hydrazine
hydrated, 568–69
isoelectronic, 238–39
J
Joule, James Prescott, 447
chemical insight about, 409 Lewis structures for polyatomic, Joule, 447
Hydrochloric acid 258–59 unit conversions involving, 447–48
chemical insight about, 78, 595 Lewis symbols for monoatomic, 239–41
Hydrogen
chemical insight about, 506
magnitude of charge on, 236–39
mass of, present in a solution, 697
K
Kelvin, William, 97
Hydrogen bond(s), 469 metallic, nomenclature for, 294 Kelvin temperature scale
characteristics of, 468–70 molar mass of, 696 characteristics of, 96–97
effects of, on properties of water, 473–77 mole–to–volume calculation involving, temperature scale, gas laws and, 490, 501
predicting occurrence of, 470 698 Kilogram, 64
Hydrogen cyanide monoatomic, 234–36, 244 Kinetic energy, 442
chemical insight about, 529–30 nonmetallic, nomenclature for, 294 disruptive forces and, 443
Hydrogen sulfide notation for, 234–36 kinetic molecular theory of matter and,
chemical insight about, 276 number of protons and electrons in, 442–43
Hydrolysis, 645 235–36 Kinetic molecular theory off matter,
pH values for salt hydrolysis, table of, polyatomic, 244–45, 258–59 442
648 lon–dipole interaction(s), 472 applied to gaseous state, 444–45
salt, chemical equations for, 646–47 characteristics of, 472 applied to liquid state, 444
types of, for salts, 645–46 Ion–ion interaction(s), 472 applied to solid state, 443–44
characteristics of, 472 Boyle’s law and, 497–98
I Ion product constant for water, 636 Charles’s law and, 501–02
Ibuprofen numerical value of, 636–37 concepts associated with, 441–42
chemical insight about, 366 use of, in calculations, 636–37 evaporation and, 461
Ideal gas, 511 Ionic bond(s), 229 Gay–Lussac’s law and, 503
contrasted to “real” gas, 511 contrasted with covalent bonds, 246 kinetic energy and, 442
Ideal gas constant electronegativity differences and, 271–73 potential energy and, 443
significant figures and, 513 generalizations concerning formation
units for, 512–13
values of, 512–13
of, 242
Lewis structures and, 239–41
L
Lactose
Ideal gas law, 512 Ionic compound(s) chemical insight about, 601
density calculation using, 518–19 binary, nomenclature for, 294–301 Lavoisier, Antoine–Laurent
mathematical statement of, 512 contrasted with molecular compounds, Human Side of Chemistry feature about,
modified forms of, 516–20 228–29 388
molar mass calculation using, 517 formation of, electron transfer and, Law of conservation of mass, 388
use of, in calculations, 513–15 228–29, 233–36 atomic theory and, 389
value of constant within, 512–13 formula units and, 243–44 balanced chemical equations and, 390,
Indicator(s) formulas for, determination of, 241–43 406–07
acid–base titrations and, 651 general properties of, 228–29 data illustrating, 388–89
Inelastic collision, 443 Lewis structures for, 239–41 radioactive processes and, 389
Inexact number(s), 18 polyatomic–ion containing, Law off definite proportions, 328
measurements and, 18–20 nomenclature for, 303–05 atomic theory and, 330–31
Inner transition element(s), 212 structure of, 243–44 data illustrating, 328–31
electron characteristics of, 212 Ionic equation(s), 667 Le Chatelier, Henri Louis
periodic table locations for, 212 guidelines for writing, 667–68 Human Side of Chemistry feature about,
Intensive property(ies), 115 Ionization, 618 725
examples of, 115–16 Arrhenius acids and, 617–18 Le Chatelier’s principle, 724
Intermolecular force(s), 467 Iron catalysts and, 727
contrasted with intramolecular chemical insight about, 584 concentration changes and, 724–26
forces, 467 Isobar(s), 158 pressure changes and, 726–27
dipole–dipole interactions, 468 difference between isotopes and, 158 temperature changes and, 726
hydrogen bonds, 468–70 Isoelectronic species, 238 Length
ion–dipole interactions, 472 examples, table of, 239 conversion factors involving, 70
ion–ion interactions, 472 Isopropyl alcohol metric units of, 63–64
London forces, 471–72 chemical insight about, 598 Lewis, Gilbert Newton
types of, 467–72 Isotope(s), 156 Human Side of Chemistry feature about,
Intramolecular force(s) known number of, 158 232
characteristics of, 467 mass spectrometer and, 165–66 Lewis structure(s), 239
contrasted with intermolecular notation for, 156 ionic compounds and, 239–41
forces, 467 percentage abundances of, for selected molecular compounds and, 248–50
Iodine elements, 157 oxidation numbers and, 673–74
chemical insight about, 201, 576 properties compared for, 156 systematic procedures for drawing,
lon(s), 233–34 relative masses of, for selected elements, 255–61
anions, 234 157 Lewis symbol(s), 231
cations, 234 statements of atomic theory and, 157 for atoms, notation used in, 231–32
gram–to–volume calculation involving, IUPAC rules generalizations concerning, 231–32
698–99 naming compounds using, 291–92 valence electrons and, 231–32
770 Index
Lime Matter, 111 homogeneous, 123–24

chemical insight about, 422 changes in, 116–18 separation of, by physical means, 120
Limiting reactant, 413 chemistry as study of, 111–12 types of, 120–21
analogies for, 413–15 classifications of, 119–25 Molality concentration, 596
calculations involving concept of, 416–18 classifying based on molecular calculation of, 596–97
determination of, based on moles, characteristics, 143–46 mathematical equation for, 596
415–16 classifying based on number of relationship to molarity, 596, 599–602
determination of, based on volumes, substances present, 146 use of, as a conversion factor, 598–600
523–24 classifying based on phase Molar mass, 343
in a chemical reaction, 413–17 characteristics, 146 calculation of, using atomic masses, 346
Liquid(s), 112, 444 discontinuous nature of, 140–41 calculation of, using ideal gas law, 517
boiling point of, 465–67 physical states of, 112–13 for a compound, 343
boiling process for, characteristics of, properties of, 113–16 for an element, 342–43
465–66 Measurement(s), 17 relationship of to atomic masses, 342
distinguishing properties of, 112 accuracy of, 18–20 units for, 346
evaporation of, 461–64 errors in, types of, 19 use of, as a conversion factor, 352
intermolecular forces in, 467–72 importance of, 17–18 use of, in calculations, 344–45
kinetic molecular theory of matter inexact numbers and, 18–20 Molar mass of a compound, 343
applied to, 444 precision of, 18–20 Molar mass of an element, 342
physical state of, distinguishing rules for recording, 21–22 Molar volume of a gas, 525
properties of, 441–42 significant figure guidelines for, 22–26 calculation of using ideal gas law, 525–27
vapor pressure and, 464–65 true values for, 19 calculation of density using, 528–29
Liter, 67 uncertainty associated with, 20–22 use of as a conversion factor, 530
Lithium Melting Molarity concentration, 581
chemical insight about, 534 physical states involved in 446 calculation of, 581–82
Logarithms thermicity of, 446 mathematical equation for, 581
calculators and, 640, 642–43 Mendeleev, Dmitri Ivanovich relationship to mass percent, 585–86
significant figures and, 642–43 Human Side of Chemistry feature about, relationship to molality, 596, 599–602
use of, in calculating pH values, 639–40, 185 use of, as a conversion factor, 582–87
643–44 Menthol Mole(s), 338, 347
London, Fritz, 471 chemical insight about, 351 as a counting unit, 337–41
London forces, 471 Mercury Avogadro’s number and, 337–41
characteristics of, 471 chemical insight about, 210 chemical equations and, 403–06
Lowry, Thomas Martin, 618 Metal(s), 211 chemical formulas and, 348–51
activity series for, 629–30 mass of, 341–46
M alkali, 186 number of objects in, 339–40
Magnesium chloride alkaline earth, 186 use of, as a conversion factor, 351–58
chemical insight about, 242 inner transition, 212 Mole fraction, 541
Manometer, 491 periodic table locations for, 211 calculation of, in gaseous mixtures,
Mass, 64 periodic trends in metallic character, 541–42
calculation of, using density, 86–87 214–15 Mole percent
chemical concepts that involve, 346 properties of, 211 calculation of, in gaseous mixtures,
conversion factors involving, 70 reaction with acids, 629 546–47
difference between weight and, 64–65 reaction with salts, 632 defining equation for, 546
metric units of, 64–65 transition, 212 Mole–to–mass calculations
Mass number(s), 153 types of, for nomenclature purposes, using chemical equations, 401–11
general symbol for, 153 293–94 using molar mass, examples of, 344–45
informational value of, 153 Metalloid(s), 215 Mole–to–mole calculations
neutrons and, 153–54 periodic table locations for, 215 using chemical equations, 404–06
protons and, 153–54 properties of, 215 using formula subscripts, 350
use of, with elemental symbols, 154 Meter, 63 Mole–to–particle calculations
Mass spectrometer Methane using Avogadro’s number in, 339–40
isotope information, obtaining from, chemical insight about, 87 Molecular collision(s)
165–66 Methyl alcohol factors determining effectiveness of,
Mass–to–mass calculations chemical insight about, 574 711–12
using chemical equations, 408–10 Metric system elastic, 443
using formula subscripts, 356–57 compared with English system, 61, 64 inelastic, 443
Mass–to–particle calculations prefixes, table of, 62 Molecular compound(s)
using Avogadro’s number, 353–56 SI units and, 61–62 binary, nomenclature for, 306–09
using chemical equations, 411–12 units of length, 63–64 contrasted with ionic compounds,
using formula subscripts, 357–58 units of mass, 64–65 228–29
Mass–to–volume calculations units of volume, 65–67 general properties of, 228–29
using molar volume, 531–33 Meyer, Julius Lothar, 183, 185 Lewis structures for, 247–50
using molarity, 589–90 Mixture(s), 119 polarity of, 270–73
Mass–volume percent concentration, comparison with compounds, 123–24 Molecular formula(s), 361
574 gas laws and, 537–38 determination of, 370–74
calculations involving, 576 general characteristics of, 122 relationship to empirical formulas, 361–62,
mathematical equation for, 574 heterogenous, 122–24 370–74
Index 771
Molecular geometry, 261 Nitric acid Oxidation, 672

effects of nonbonding electron pairs on, chemical insight about, 360, 593 electron loss and, 672
263–67 Nitric oxide original meanings of the term, 671
electron pair repulsions and, 261–63 chemical insight about, 347 oxidation number increase and, 677
prediction of, using VSEPR theory, Nitrogen Oxidation number(s), 673
261–67 chemical insight about, 511, 537 determination of, examples of, 675–78
role of central atom in determining, Nitrogen dioxide Lewis structures and, 673–74
262–67 chemical insight about, 355 maximum and minimum values for, 676
Molecular mass Nitrogen inflation rules for determining, 674
relationship to formula mass, 331 chemical insight about, 217 use of, in balancing redox reactions,
Molecular polarity, 273 Nitrous oxide 680–96
determination of, examples, 275–76 chemical insight about, 516 Oxidation–reduction reaction(s), 672
diatomic molecules and, 273 Noble gas elements, 186, 212 balancing of, using half–reactions, 680,
factors which determine, 273 electronic characteristics of, 212 686–96
tetraatomic molecules and, 274–75 location of, within periodic table, 186, balancing of, using oxidation numbers,
triatomic molecules and, 273–74 212 680–86, 693–94
Molecule(s), 143 stability of electron configurations, 233 disproportionation and, 692–96
classification of, by number of atoms, Nomenclature rules importance of, 671
141–42 systematic procedures for using, 314–17 methods for balancing of, 680–96
classification of, by types of atoms, Nonaqueous solution(s), 568 terminology associated with, 671–72
141–42 Nonbonding electron(s), 248 Oxidizing agent(s), 672, 677
collisions between, 711–12 Lewis structures and, 248–50 gain of electrons and, 672
diatomic, 143–44 VSEPR theory and, 261–67 identification of, 673, 677
general characteristics of, 143–44 Nonelectrolyte(s), 666 oxidation number increase and, 677
geometry of, 261–67 conductivity measurements for, 666–67 relationship to substance reduced, 672
heteroatomic, 143–45 substances classified as, 666 Oxyacid(s), 312–13
homoatomic, 143–45 Nonmetal(s), 211 nomenclature of, 310–14
ionic solids and, 144–45 periodic table locations for, 211 series of, relationships among members,
Lewis structures for, 255–61 periodic trends in nonmetallic character, 313–14
limit of physical subdivision and, 145 214–15 Oxygen
nonpolar, 273–76 properties of, 211 chemical insight about, 535
polar, 273–76 Non–oxidation–reduction reaction, 678 Ozone
properties of, compared to constituent classifying reactions as, 678–80 chemical insight about, 75, 261
atoms, 145 Nonoxyacid(s), 312 Ozone hole
triatomic, 143–44 nomenclature for, 310–13 chemical insight about, 99
Monoatomic ion(s), 244 Nonpolar covalent bond(s), 270
charges on, 236–39 electronegativity differences and, 271–73 P
formulas for compounds containing, Nonpolar molecule(s), 273 Paired electron(s), 202
241–43 characteristics of, 273–75 diamagnetic atoms and, 204
nomenclature for, 294–95 Normal boiling point, 466 electron orbital diagrams and, 202–04
Monoprotic acid(s), 623 Nucleon(s), 151 Paramagnetic atom, 204
examples of, 623–24 structure of an atom and, 151 Partial pressure(s), 539
types of, 151 calculation of, for gases collected over
N Nucleus, 150 water, 545–46
Naproxen discovery of, 168–70 calculation of, from mole fractions,
chemical insight about, 366 mass number and, 153–54 542–43
Natural gas metal foil experiments and, 168–70 calculation of, in gaseous mixtures,
chemical insight about, 374 nucleons within, 151 539–43
Net ionic equation(s), 667 protons and neutrons in, 150 Parts per billion concentration, 578
acids and, 668 size of, 151–52 calculations involving, 579–80
bases and, 668 Numbers mathematical equations for, 578
converting molecular equations into, exact, 18 Parts per million concentration, 578
examples of, 667–71 inexact, 18 calculations involving, 579–80
guidelines for writing, 667–68 mathematical equations for, 578
salts and, 668 O Pauling, Linus Carl
Neutral solution, 638 Observation(s), 6 Human Side of Chemistry feature about,
defined in terms of hydronium ion obtaining data from, 6 268
concentration, 638 Ocean water Percent, 91
defined in terms of pH value, 640 chemical insight about, 76 calculation of, 92
Neutralization, 629 Octet rule, 233 use of, as a conversion factor, 92–94
acid–base, writing equations for, 630–31 valence electron configurations and, 233 Percent abundance(s), 156
Neutron(s), 149 Olive oil table of, for selected elements, 157
discovery of, 149 chemical insight about, 85 use of, atomic mass calculations and,
location of, within atom, 150 Orders of magnitude 163–64
mass number and number of, 153–55 scientific notation and, 37 Percent by mass concentration, 572
properties of, 149–50 Outer electrons, 200 calculations involving, 572, 575, 577
Nicotine condensed electron configurations and, mathematical equation for, 571–572
chemical insight about, 354 200–01 relationship to molarity, 585–86
772 Index
Percent by mass of an element in a for elements, at room temperature, 440 location of, within atom, 150–51
compound, 335 kinetic molecular theory and, 443–45 nuclear charge and, 150
calculation of, 335–37 Physical subdivision properties of, 149–50
Percent by volume concentration, 573 limit of, 145 relationship of, to canal rays, 168
calculations involving, 573–574 Polar covalent bond(s), 270 Proust, Joseph Louis
mathematical equation for, 573–574 electronegativity differences and, 271–73 Human Side of Chemistry feature about,
Percent composition by mass of a Polar molecule(s), 273 328
compound, 335 characteristics of, 273–75 Pure substance(s), 119
calculation of, 335–37 Polarity compounds as, 123–26
Percent error, 95 chemical bonds and, 270–73 elements as, 123–26
calculation of, 95–96 molecules and, 273–76 general characteristics of, 124
Percent ionic character of a bond, solubility of solutes and, 569–71 heterogeneous sample of, 121–22
271–72 Polyatomic ion(s), 244 structural units for, 144–45
electronegativity and, 271–72 characteristics of, 244–45 types of, 123–26
Percent purity, 359 common, names and formulas of, 301–03
calculations involving, 358–61 formula writing conventions for, 244–45 Q
Percent yield, 418 formulas for compounds containing, Qualitative data, 6
calculations involving concept of, 418–21 244–45 examples of, 6
sequential chemical reactions and, Lewis structures for, 258–59 Quantitative data, 6
418–21 Polyprotic acid(s), 623 examples of, 6
Period(s), 185 acidic hydrogen atoms and, 623–24 Quantized property
of the periodic table, notation for, Potential energy, 443 electron energies as a, 189
185–86 cohesive forces and, 443 Quantum mechanics
Periodic law, 182–83 kinetic molecular theory of matter information about electrons and, 189
discovery of, 182–83 and, 443
electron configurations and, 204–05 types of, 443 R
property periodicity and, illustration of, Precipitate, 667 Random error(s), 19
183 Precipitation reaction, 667 in measurements, 19
Periodic table, 183 Precision, 18 Rate, use of
atomic mass sequence within, 187–88 contrasted with accuracy, 18–20 as a conversion factor, 89–90
atomic number sequence within, 187 measurements and, 18–20 Rate of a chemical reaction, 713
distinguishing electrons and, 205–07 Pressure(s), 490 factors that influence, 713–16
electron configurations and element Le Chatelier’s principle and, 726–27 Reactant(s), 387
location correlation, 205–10 measurement of, significant figures in a chemical reaction, 387–88, 390
groups within, 186–87 and, 493 Reaction rate(s)
information arrangement within, 185 measurement of, using barometer, catalysts and, 715–16
“long” and “short” forms of, 187 490–91 factors that influence, 713–16
most commonly used form of, 184, measurement of, using manometer, 491 physical nature of reactants and, 714
inside front cover partial, of gases, 539–43 reactant concentrations and, 714
periods within, 185–86 solute solubility and 567 temperature change and, 714–15
shape of, rationale for, 187, 205–07 standard, for gases, 527–28 Redox reaction, 672
writing electron configurations using, units for, interconversion among, 491–93 Reducing agent(s), 672, 677
205–10 units for, table of, 492 identification of, 673, 677
pH, 638 vapor, 464–65 loss of electrons and, 672
acidic, basic, and neutral solutions Pressure percent oxidation number decrease and, 677
and, 640 calculation of, in gaseous mixtures, relationship to substance oxidized, 672
buffers and change in, 650 546–47 Reduction, 672
calculation of, 639–40, 643–44 defining equation for, 546 electron gain and, 672
hydronium and hydroxide Priestley, Joseph original meaning of the term, 671
concentrations and, table of, 641 Human Side of Chemistry feature oxidation number decrease and, 677
mathematical expression for, 638 about, 127 Relative mass scale
of a solution, 638–44 Product(s), 388 construction of, 160–61
values of, for common substances, of a chemical reaction, 388, 390 Representative element(s), 212
table of, 641 percent yield of, in a chemical reaction, electronic characteristics of, 212
values of, significant figures and, 642–43 418–21 periodic table locations for, 212
pH scale, 638 Property(ies), 113 Resonance structures, 255
Phosphine categories of, 114–16 depiction of bonding using, 254–55
chemical insight about, 249–50 chemical, 114–15 notation involved in, 255
Physical classifying as physical or chemical, 115 physical interpretation of, 255
use of the term, 118 extensive, 115–16 Reversible reaction(s), 717
Physical change(s), 116 intensive, 115–16 chemical equilibrium and, 717
characteristics of, 116 physical, 114–15 Rounding off, 27
Physical property(ies), 114 quantized, 189–90 of numbers, rules for, 27–28
examples of, 114–15 uses for, 113 of numbers, to given number of
Physical states of matter Proton(s), 149 significant figures, 27–28
distinguishing properties among, 450, atomic number and number of, 153–55 Rutherford, Ernest
441–42 discharge tube experiments and, 167–68 Human Side of Chemistry feature about,
factors which determine, 439–40 discovery of, 149, 168 169
Index 773
S SI system base unit(s), 62

table of, 62
basic, in terms of hydronium ion
concentration, 638
Salt(s), 628
hydrolysis of, 644–48 SI system derived unit(s), 62 basic, in terms of pH value, 640
net ionic equations and, 668 examples of, 62 concentrated, 568
reactions with acids, 632–33 SI system of units, 62 concentration units for, 571–82, 596–98
reactions with bases, 633 base units within, 62 dilute, 568
reactions with metals, 632 derived units within, 62 dilution procedures and, 592–96
reactions with other salts, 633–34 Significant figure(s), 22 effect of pressure on solute solubility,
selected, uses of, 628 addition and subtraction and, 29, 31–33 567
Saturated solution(s), 567 Avogadro’s number and, 347 effect of temperature on solute solubility,
characteristics of, 567 exact numbers and, 33 566–67
Schrodinger, Erwin formula masses and, 333–34 formation of, ionic solutes and, 568–69
Human Side of Chemistry feature ideal gas constant and, 513 formation of, rate of, 568–69
about, 190 logarithms and, 642–43 neutral, in terms of hydronium ion
Science; 1 measured values and, 22–26 concentration, 638
disciplines within, 1–2 multiplication and division and, 29–33 neutral, in terms of pH value, 640
limitations of, 11 multiplication by an exact number and, nonaqueous, 568
organizational chart for, 2 33–35 pH of, 638–44
supernatural phenomenon and, 11 overbar use and, 24 saturated, 567
Scientific disciplines, 1 pressure measurements and, 493 solubility rules for solutes, 569–71
boundary overlap of, 1–2 rounding off, to specified number of, supersaturated, 567
Scientific fact(s), 6 27–28 terminology for relative amount of solute
reproducibility of, 6 rules for determining number of, 23–24 in, 567–68
scientific method and, 6–7 scientific notation and, 38–39 types of, 565
Scientific hypothesis(es), 7 temperature readings and, 101 unsaturated, 567
limitations of, 10–11 uncertainty in measurements and, Solvent(s), 564
relationship to scientific laws, 7–8 25–26 in solutions, 564
scientific method and, 7–9 Silver Sorensen, Soren Peter Lauritz, 638
testability requirement for, 7 chemical insight about, 416 Specific heat, 449
validation of, 7–9 Simultaneous chemical reactions relationship to heat capacity, 451–52
Scientific law(s), 7 calculations involving, 421–22 use of, in calculations, 450–53
formulation of, 7 examples of 421–22 values for, table of, 449
scientific method and, 7 Single covalent bond(s), 250 Standard molar volume of a gas, 528
Scientific method, 5 molecules containing, examples of, Standard pressure for gases, 527
limitations of, 10–11 248–50 Standard temperature for gases, 527
procedural steps in, 5–10 relative strength of, 250 State(s)
terminology associated with, 5–10 Single–replacement reaction(s), 399 changes of, 116
Scientific notation, 35 examples of, 399–400, 679–80 gaseous, 112
addition and subtraction in, 45–48 general equation for, 399 liquid, 112
calculators and, 43–44 Sodium Chloride of matter, physical, 112–13
coefficient part of, 35, 37–38 chemical insight about, 597 solid, 112
converting from, to decimal notation, Sodium sulfite Steel
37–38 chemical insight about, 259 chemical insight about, 361
division in, 44–45 Solid(s), 112, 443 STP conditions for gases, 527
exponential part of, 35–36 distinguishing properties of, 112 Strong acid(s), 625
expressing numbers in, 35–42 kinetic molecular theory of matter common, listing of, 626
multiplication in, 42–44 applied to, 443–44 Strong base(s)
orders of magnitude and, 37 physical state of, distinguishing common, listing of, 627
significant figures and, 38–39 properties of, 441–42 Strong electrolyte(s), 666
uncertainty determination Solidification conductivity measurements for, 666–67
and, 40–42 heat of, 454–55 substances classified as, 666
Scientific research, 3 Solubility rules Subatomic particle(s), 149
applied, 3 for solutes, 569–71 arrangement of, within atom, 150–51
basic, 3 net ionic equations and, 668 evidence for existence of, 166–70
contrasted with technology, 3–4 Solubility(ies), 566 other than protons, neutrons, and
types of, 3 effect of pressure on, 567 electrons, 152
Scientific theory(ies), 9 effect of temperature on, 566–67 properties, table of, 150
limitations when using, 10–11 qualitative terms for, 567 types of, 149–50
proving correctness of, 10–11 rules for, 569–71 Sublimation
provisional nature of, 9–10 values of, for selected solutes, 566 physical states involved in, 446
purposes for, 9 Solute(s), 564 thermicity of, 446
scientific method and, 8–10 in solutions, 564 Substance(s)
Selenium ionic, dissolving of, 568–69 pure, 119
chemical insight about, 199 solubility rules for, 569–71 Sucrose
Semicohductor(s), 215 Solution(s), 564 chemical insight about, 573
Sequential chemical reactions acidic, in terms of hydronium ion Sulfuric acid
calculations involving, 422–23 concentration, 638 chemical insight about, 412–13, 587–88
examples of 422–23 acidic, in terms of pH value, 640 Supersaturated solution(s), 567
overall equation for, 423–24 aqueous, 568 formation of, 568
774 Index
Surface tension, 477

hydrogen bonding effects on, for water,
U Volume–to–mole calculations
using molarity, 590–91
Uncertainty
477 addition/subtraction and, 29, 31–33 Volume–to–volume calculations
Synthesis reaction(s), 398 measurements and, 20–22 using molar volume, 536–37
examples of, 398–400, 678–80 scientific notation numbers and, 40–42 using molarity, 589, 591–92
general equation for, 398 significant figures and, 25–26 VSEPR electron group(s), 263
Systematic error(s), 19 Units arrangements for, 263–65
in measurements, 19 conversions between, 68–71 conventions for determining number
Systematic name(s), 308 English and metric compared, 64 of, 263
for binary molecular compounds, 308 mathematical operations and, 68 VSEPR theory, 261
of heat energy, 447–48 electronegativity and the central atom,
T of length, 63–64 269
Technology, 3 of mass, 64–65 examples of use of, 266–67
contrasted with science, 3–4 of volume, 65–67 four electron–group arrangements in,
Temperature, 96 Unpaired electron(s), 202 264–65
changes of state and, 453–54 electron orbital diagrams and, 202–04 operational rules in applying, 263
dependency of equilibrium constants on, paramagnetic atoms and, 204 repulsion minimization and, 261–63
723–24 Unsaturated solution(s), 567 three electron–group arrangements in,
Kelvin scale, Charles’s law and, 501 264
Le Chatelier’s principle and, 726
measurement of, significant figures and,
V two electron–group arrangements in,
263–64
Valence electron(s), 229
101 determining number of, in atoms, 230–32
rate of evaporation and, 462–63 generalizations concerning, 231–32 W
reaction rates and, 714–15 Lewis symbols and, 231–32 Water
role of, in determining physical state, number of covalent bonds formed and, balance of, within human body, 80
443 251–52 boiling point of, effects of hydrogen
scales for measuring of, 96–97 octet rule and, 233 bonding on, 473–74
solute solubility and, 566 Vapor, 463 chemical insight about, 80
standard, for gases, 527–28 Vapor pressure(s), 464 density of, effects of hydrogen bonding
vapor pressure magnitude and, 464–65 factors affecting magnitude of, 464 on, 475–76
Temperature scale(s) measurement of, 465 effects of hydrogen bonding on
Celsius, characteristics of, 96–97 table of, for water, 465 properties of, 473–77
conversions between, 98–101 temperature dependency, for water, 545 fresh versus seawater, 76
Fahrenheit, characteristics of, 96–97 values for group VIA hydrogen pressure dependence of boiling point
Kelvin, characteristics of, 96–97 compounds, 474 for, 466
Ternary compound(s), 304 Vaporization self–ionization of, 635–37
Ternary ionic compound(s), 304 heat of, 456–57 surface tension for, effects of hydrogen
examples of, 304–05 Variable–charge metal(s), 293 bonding on, 477
nomenclature rules for, 303–05 common, charges on ions of, 294 thermal properties of, effects of
polyatomic ion presence in, 303–05 identity of, 293–94 hydrogen bonding on, 473–74
Ternary molecular compound(s), 314 nomenclature for, 294 vapor pressure for, temperature
nomenclature for, 310–14 Vinegar dependence of, 465
oxyacids as, 314 chemical insight about, 577 vapor pressure of, at various
Theoretical yield, 418 Vitamin A temperatures, 545
calculation of, 419–20 chemical insight about, 89 vapor pressure of, effects of hydrogen
Thermal expansion, 442 Vitamin C bonding on, 473
contrasted, for physical states of matter, chemical insight about, 74 Weak acid(s), 625
441–42 Volatile substance(s), 464 extent of proton transfer for, 626–27
Thomson, John Joseph, 150, 167 characteristics of, 464 Weak base(s)
Thomson, William, 501 Volume, 65 ammonia as a, 627
Titanium calculation of, using density, 86–87 characteristics of, 627
chemical insight about, 204 contrasted, for physical states of matter, Weak electrolyte(s), 666
Titration(s) 441 conductivity measurements for, 666–67
acid–base, 651–52 conversion factors involving, 70 substances classified as, 666
Transition element(s), 212 cubic units for, 65–67 Weight, 64
electronic characteristics of, 212 formulas for calculation of, 66 difference between mass and, 64–65
periodic table locations for, 212 gaseous, chemical equations and, 520–23
Triatomic molecule(s), 143 gaseous, limiting reactant concept and, Y
Triple covalent bond(s), 250 523–24 Yield
molecules containing, examples of, metric units of, 65–67 actual, 418–21
250–51 Volume percent percent, 418–21
relative strength of, 250 calculation of, in gaseous mixtures, theoretical, 418–21
Triprotic acid(s), 623 546–47
examples of, 623–24 defining equation for, 546
Mathematical Meanings of Metric System Prefixes
Prefix Meaning Prefix Meaning

Tera (T) 10 12 Pico (p) 10-12
Giga (G) 109 Nano (n) 10-9
Mega (M) 10 6 Micro (m) 10-6
Kilo (k) 103 Milli (m) 10-3
Hecto (h) 102 Centi (c) 10-2
Deca (da) 10 1 Deci (d) 10-1
Common Fixed-Charge Metallic Cations and Nonmetallic Anions
Cation Name Anion Name

+ -
Li lithium ion F fluoride ion
Na + sodium ion Cl - chloride ion
+ -
K potassium ion Br bromide ion
Rb + rubidium ion I- iodide ion
+ cesium ion 2- oxide ion
Cs O
2+ beryllium ion 2- sulfide ion
Be S
2+ magnesium ion 3- nitride ion
Mg N
2+ calcium ion 3- phosphide ion
Ca P
2+ strontium ion 4- carbide ion
Sr C
2+ barium ion
Ba
Ag + silver ion
2+ zinc ion
Zn
Cd2+ cadmium ion
3+ aluminum ion
Al
3+ gallium ion
Ga
Common Variable-Charge Metallic Cations
Cation IUPAC Name Older Name

+ copper(I) ion cuprous ion
Cu
2+ copper(II) ion cupric ion
Cu
2+ iron(II) ion ferrous ion
Fe
3+ iron(III) ion ferric ion
Fe
2+ tin(II) ion stannous ion
Sn
4+ tin(IV) ion stannic ion
Sn
2+ lead(II) ion plumbous ion
Pb
Pb4+ lead(IV) ion plumbic ion
+ gold(I) ion aurous ion
Au
Au3+ gold(III) ion auric ion
Names of Common Polyatomic Ions
Ion Name Ion Name

NO3- nitrate ion ClO4 -
perchlorate ion
NO2- nitrite ion ClO3- chlorate ion
N Cl
NH4+ ammonium ion ClO2- chlorite ion
N3- azide ion ClO - hypochlorite ion
SO42- sulfate ion CO32- carbonate ion
HSO4- hydrogen sulfate ion HCO3- hydrogen carbonate ion
S
S2O32- thiosulfate ion C2O42- oxalate ion
SO32- sulfite ion C C2H3O2- acetate ion
-
PO43- phosphate ion CN cyanide ion
HPO42- hydrogen phosphate ion OCN - cyanate ion
P
H2PO4- dihydrogen phosphate ion SCN -
thiocyanate ion
PO33- phosphite ion B BO33- borate ion
H3O + hydronium ion Mn MnO4- permanganate ion
H - 2-
OH hydroxide ion CrO4 chromate ion
Cr
O O22- peroxide ion Cr2O72- dichromate ion
Solubility Guidelines for Ionic Compounds in Water at 25ⴗC
Soluble Compounds Important Exceptions

Compounds containing the following ions are soluble with exceptions as noted.
Group IA (Li + , Na + , K + , etc.) none
+ none
Ammonium (NH4 )
-
Acetate (C2H3O2 ) none
Nitrate (NO3- ) none
Chloride (Cl - ), bromide (Br - ), and iodide (I - ) Ag + , Pb2+, Hg22+
Sulfate (SO42-) Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Pb2+
Insoluble Compounds Important Exceptions

Compounds containing the following ions are insoluble with exceptions as noted.
Carbonate (CO32-) NH4+ , group IA
Phosphate (PO43-) NH4+ , group IA
Sulfide (S2-) NH4+ , group IA, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+
-
Hydroxide (OH ) group IA, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+
Common Strong Acids Common Strong Bases
Formula Name Formula Name

HNO3 nitric acid LiOH lithium hydroxide
H2SO4 sulfuric acid NaOH sodium hydroxide
HClO4 perchloric acid KOH potassium hydroxide
HClO3 chloric acid RbOH rubidium hydroxide
HCl hydrochloric acid CsOH cesium hydroxide
HBr hydrobromic acid Ca(OH)2 calcium hydroxide
HI hydroiodic acid Sr(OH)2 strontium hydroxide
Ba(OH)2 barium hydroxide

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Periodic Table of the Elements

Actinium Ac 89 (227) Mendelevium Md 101 (258)

Cover Image Credit: Shilova Ekaterina / Shutterstock

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

www. pearsonhighered.com ISBN-10: 0-321-81463-0: ISBN-13: 978-0-321-81463-0

Chapter 1 The Science of Chemistry 1

Chapter 2 Numbers From Measurements 17

Chapter 3 Unit Systems and Dimensional Analysis 60

3.6 Conversion Factors 68

Chapter 4 Basic Concepts About Matter 111

Chapter 5 Atoms, Molecules, and Subatomic Particles 140

5.6 Atomic Number and Mass Number 152

Chapter 6 Electronic Structure and Chemical Periodicity 182

Chapter 7 Chemical Bonds 228

7.7 Chemical Formulas for Ionic Compounds 241

Chapter 8 Chemical Nomenclature 291

Chapter 9 Chemical Calculations: The Mole Concept

9.10 The Mole and Chemical Calculations 351

Chapter 10 Chemical Calculations Involving Chemical Equations 387

Chapter 11 States of Matter 439

11.14 Vapor Pressure of Liquids 464

Chapter 12 Gas Laws 488

Chapter 13 Solutions 564

13.3 Solution Formation 568

Chapter 14 Acids, Bases, and Salts 616

Chapter 15 Chemical Equations: Net Ionic and Oxidation–Reduction 665

Chapter 16 Reaction Rates and Chemical Equilibrium 710

NEW FEATURES OF THE ELEVENTH EDITION

IMPORTANT CONTINUING FEATURES IN THE ELEVENTH EDITION

For the Student

Reviewers of the Eleventh Edition of Introduction to Chemical Principles, Stoker

Reviewers of the Tenth Edition of Introduction to Chemical Principles, Stoker

1.1 Chemistry—A Scientific Discipline

1.1 CHEMISTRY—A SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINE

Astronomy Geology Physics Chemistry Botany Zoology

Astrochemistry Geochemistry Chemical Biochemistry

Analytical General Inorganic Organic Physical

Analysis Fundamental Noncarbon- Carbon- Energy

TABLE 1.1 Names of the Divisions of the American Chemical Society

Agricultural and Food Chemistry Fluorine Chemistry

1.2 SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY

1.4 HOW CHEMISTS DISCOVER THINGS—THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

There is no one single correct way to do scientific research, be it basic or applied

The scientific method is a set of general procedures based on experimentation and

On occasion, a great discovery is made by accident, but the majority of scientific

Experiments, Observations, and Data

FIGURE 1.2 Chemistry

more information. An experiment is a well-defined, controlled procedure for obtaining

EXAMPLE 1.1 Distinguishing between Qualitative

In practice, scientists usually start with a number of alternative scientific hypotheses

EXAMPLE 1.2 Relating Scientific Hypotheses to Experimental Information

FIGURE 1.4 A General Steps in the Scientiﬁc Method

Positive results support Negative results lead to modiﬁcation or rejection of

Further experiments (devised based on scientific theory)

Negative results lead to modiﬁcation Positive results support

1.5 THE LIMITATIONS OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Scientists do not view scientific theories or their precursors—scientific hypotheses—as

FIGURE 1.5 Possible

Results Disprove the Results Fail to Disprove