UNIT

The World

Why It Matters
The world today in the twenty-first
century is a much smaller place
than it was at the time
of your grandparents.
Advances in technology,
communications, and
transportation have nar-
rowed vast distances
and made neighbors of
the world’s people. The
Internet, for example,
now puts you in immedi-
ate touch with people in
other parts of the world.
In the years to come,
you and your generation —
here and elsewhere — will
be challenged to use this
and other technology to
make the world a better
place for everyone.

Japanese tourist and Indian vendor,

Goa, India

Deborah Harse/The Image Work

 To learn more about the basics
of geography visit www.nationalgeographic.com/education.

Chapter 1: How Geographers Look at

the World 2–27

Chapter 2: The Physical World 28–47

Chapter 3: Climates of the Earth 48–67
Chapter 4: The Human World 68–113

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 CHAPTER

Why It Matters How

Geographers
News coverage of local, national,
and international events is part
of daily life in the twenty-first
century. An understanding of

Look at
geography will help you learn
how such events affect your life.

Geography Skills
the World
Handbook
Geography is used to interpret the
past, understand the present, and
plan for the future. Geography
skills provide the tools for under-
standing relationships between
people, places, and environments.

The Geographer’s
Craft
Geographers study how people,
places, and environments are
distributed on Earth’s surface.
Geographers use six essential ele-
ments to organize and describe
information about the Earth.
Geographers study patterns of
human and physical geography
using direct observation, mapping,
interviewing, statistics, and
technology.

ONLINE
Chapter Overview Visit the World
Geography and Cultures Web site at
glencoe.com and click on Chapter
Overviews—Chapter 1 to preview infor-
mation about how geographers look at
the world.

The Anasazi ruins at Mesa Verde, Colorado, offer a

fascinating glimpse of early Native American cultures.

Unit 1

Patsy Davidson/The Image Works

 Organizing Information Make a
Top-Tab Book to help you under-
stand how geographers look at the
world.

Reading and Writing As you read the chapter, write at

least five facts, generalizations, or observations for each
of the following headings: Elements of Geography,
Research Methods, Geography and Other Subjects, and
Geography as a Career.

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Chapter 1
 SECTION 1 Geography
Contents
Skills Handbook
• From 3-D to 2-D
• Great Circle Routes Geography skills provide the tools and methods for
us to understand the relationships between people,
• Planar Projection places, and environments. We use geographic skills
• Cylindrical Projection when we make daily personal decisions — where to buy
• Conic Projection
• Common Map Projections a home; where to get a job; how to get to the shopping
mall; where to go on vacation. Community decisions,
• Latitude such as where to locate a new school or how to solve
• Longitude problems of air and water pollution, also require the
• The Global Grid
• Northern and Southern
skillful use of geographic information.
Hemispheres
• Eastern and Western Hemispheres Geographers use a wide array of tools and technologies—from basic globes to
high-tech global positioning systems—to understand the Earth. These help us
collect and analyze a great deal of information. However, the
• Using Scale
study of geography is more than knowing a lot of facts about
• Absolute and Relative Location
places. Rather, it has more to do with asking questions about
the Earth, pursuing their answers, and solving problems.
Thus, one of the most important geographic tools is inside
your head: the ability to think geographically.
• Qualitative Maps — Dr. Richard Boehm,
• Flow Line Maps September 2006

World Geography and Cultures

author Dr. Richard Boehm

Unit 1

courtesy Dr. Richard Boehm

Globes and Maps
A globe is a scale model of the Earth. Because Earth is round, a globe
presents the most accurate depiction of geographic information such as
area, distance, and direction. However, globes show little close-up
detail. A printed map is a symbolic representation of all or part the
planet. Unlike globes, maps can show small areas in great detail.

Think about the surface of the Earth as the The idea of a great circle route is an important
peel of an orange. To flatten the peel, you have difference between globes and maps. A round
to cut it like the globe shown here. To create globe accurately shows a great circle route, as
maps that are not interrupted, mapmakers, or indicated on the map below. However, as shown
cartographers, use mathematical formulas to on the flat map, the great circle distance (dotted
transfer information from the three-dimensional line) between Tokyo and
globe to the two-dimensional map. However, Los Angeles appears
when the curves of a globe become straight lines to be far longer than
on a map, distortion of size, shape, distance, or the true direction
area occurs. distance (solid
line). In fact, the
great circle dis-
tance is 345 miles
(555 km) shorter.

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A straight line of true direction—one that
runs directly from west to east, for example—is
not always the shortest distance between two
points on Earth. This is due to the curvature of
the Earth. To find the shortest distance between
1. Explain the significance of: globe, map, cartographer, great
any two places, stretch a piece of string around circle route.
a globe from one point to the other. The string
2. Describe the problems that arise when the curves of a globe
will form part of a great circle, an imaginary
become straight lines on a map.
line the follows the curve of the Earth. Traveling
along a great circle is called following a great 3. Use a Venn diagram like the one below to identify the simi-
circle route. Ship captains and airline pilots use larities and differences between globes and maps.
great circle routes to reduce travel time and
conserve fuel. Globes Maps

Chapter 1
 Projections
To create maps, cartographers project the round Earth onto a flat
surface — making a map projection. Distance, shape, direction, or size
may be distorted by a projection. As a result, the purpose of the map usu-
ally dictates which projection is used. There are many kinds of map projec-
tions, some with general names and some named for the cartographers
who developed them. Three basic categories of map projections are shown
here: planar, cylindrical, and conic.

A planar projection shows the Earth centered

in such a way that a straight line coming from
the center to any other point represents the
shortest distance. Also known as an azimuthal
projection, it is most accurate at its center. As a
result, it is often used for maps of the Poles.

A cylindrical projection is based on the projec-

tion of the globe onto a cylinder. This projection
is most accurate near the Equator, but shapes
and distances are distorted near the Poles.

A conic projection comes from placing a cone

over part of a globe. Conic projections are best
suited for showing limited east-west areas that
are not too far from the Equator. For these uses,
a conic projection can indicate distances and
directions fairly accurately.

Unit 1
 Geography Skills Handbook

Each type of map projection has advantages Robinson Projection

and some degree of inaccuracy. Four of the most
common projections are shown here.

Winkel Tripel Projection

The Robinson projection has minor distortions. The sizes and

shapes near the eastern and western edges of the map are
accurate, and outlines of the continents appear much as they
do on the globe. However, the polar areas are flattened.

Mercator Projection
Most general reference world maps are the Winkel Tripel pro-
jection. It provides a good balance between the size and shape
of land areas as they are shown on the map. Even the polar
areas are depicted with little distortion of size and shape.

Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area Projection

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An interrupted projection resembles a globe that has been
cut apart and laid flat. Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area pro- The Mercator projection increasingly distorts size and distance
jection shows the true size and shape of Earth’s landmasses, as it moves away from the Equator. However, Mercator pro-
but distances are generally distorted. jections do accurately show true directions and the shapes of
landmasses, making these maps useful for sea travel.

1. Explain the significance of: map projection, planar, cylin- 5. Use a Venn diagram like the one below to identify the
drical, conic, interrupted projection. similarities and differences between the Winkel Tripel
2. How does a cartographer determine which map projec- and Mercator projections.
tion to use?
3. How is Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area projection differ-
Winkel Tripel Mercator
ent from the Mercator projection?
projection projection
4. Which of the four common projections described above is
the best one to use when showing the entire world? Why?

Chapter 1
 Determining Location
Geography is often said to begin with the question: Where? The basic
tool for answering the question is location. Lines on globes and maps
provide information that can help you locate places. These lines cross
one another forming a pattern called a grid system, which helps you find
exact places on the Earth’s surface.
A hemisphere is one of the halves into which the Earth is divided.
Geographers divide the Earth into hemispheres to help them classify
and describe places on Earth. Most places are located in two of the four
hemispheres.

Lines of latitude, or parallels, circle the Earth parallel

to the Equator and measure the distance north or south
of the Equator in degrees. The Equator is measured at
0° latitude, while the Poles lie at latitudes 90°N (north)
and 90°S (south). Parallels north of the Equator are
called north latitude. Parallels south of the Equator are
called south latitude.

Lines of longitude, or meridians, circle the Earth

from Pole to Pole. These lines measure distance east
or west of the Prime Meridian at 0° longitude.
Meridians east of the Prime Meridian are known as
east latitude. Meridians west of the Prime Meridian
are known as west longitude. The 180° meridian on
the opposite side of the Earth is called the International
Date Line.

Every place has a global address, or absolute location.

You can identify the absolute location of a place by
naming the latitude and longitude lines that cross exactly
at that place. For example, Tokyo, Japan, is located at
36°N latitude and 140°E longitude. For more precise
readings, each degree is further divided into 60 units
called minutes.

Unit 1
 Geography Skills Handbook

The diagram below shows that the Equator The Prime Meridian and the International Date
divides the Earth into the Northern and Southern Line divide the Earth into the Eastern and Western
Hemispheres. Everything north of the Equator is Hemispheres. Everything east of the Prime
in the Northern Hemisphere. Everything south Meridian for 180° is in the Eastern Hemisphere.
of the Equator is in the Southern Hemisphere. Everything west of the Prime Meridian for 180° is
in the Western Hemisphere.
Northern Hemisphere
Eastern Hemisphere

Southern Hemisphere
Western Hemisphere

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1. Explain the significance of: location, grid system, hemi- 5. Use a chart like the one at the right to identify the conti-
sphere, Northern Hemisphere, Southern Hemisphere, nents in each hemisphere. Continent will appear in more
Eastern Hemisphere, Western Hemisphere. than one hemisphere.
2. Why do all maps label the Equator 0° latitude and the
Hemisphere Continents
Prime Meridian 0° longitude?
Northern
3. Which lines of latitude and longitude divide the Earth
into hemispheres? Southern

4. Use the Reference Atlas maps to create a chart listing the Eastern
latitude and longitude of three world cities. Have a part- Western
ner try to identify the cities.

Chapter 1
 Reading a Map
In addition to latitude and longitude, maps feature other important
tools to help you interpret the information they contain. Learning to
use these map tools will help you read the symbolic language of maps
more easily.

The key lists and explains the symbols, colors, and lines
The title tells you what kind of used on the map. The key is sometimes called a legend.
information the map is showing.

Europe: Political

The scale bar shows the relation-

ship between map measurements
and actual distances on the Earth.
By laying a ruler along the scale
bar, you can calculate how many
miles or kilometers are represented
per inch or centimeter. The map
projection used to create the map is
often listed near the scale bar.

The compass rose indicates

directions. The four cardinal
directions — north, south, east, and
west — are usually indicated with
arrows or the points of a star.
The intermediate directions —
northeast, northwest, southeast,
and southwest — may also be shown

Cities are represented by a dot.

Sometimes the relative sizes of
cities are shown using dots of differ-
ent sizes.

National capitals are On political maps of large areas, boundary

often represented by lines highlight the borders between differ-
a star within a circle. ent countries, states, or countries.

Unit 1
 Geography Skills Handbook

All maps are drawn to a certain scale. Scale is a consistent, propor-

tional relationship between the measurements shown on the map and
the measurement of the Earth’s surface.

Small-Scale Maps A small-scale map, like this Large-Scale Maps A large-scale map, like this
political map of France, can show a large area map of Paris, can show a small area with a great
but little detail. Note that the scale bar on this amount of detail. Study the scale bar. Note that
map indicates that about 1 inch is equal to the map measurements correspond to much
200 miles. smaller distances than on the map of France.

France: Political The City of Paris

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tion, find a reference point — a location you
As you learned on page 8, absolute location is already know — on a map. Then look in the
the exact point where a line of latitude crosses a appropriate direction for the new location. For
line of longitude. Another way to indicate loca- example, locate Paris (your reference point) on
tion is by relative location, or the location of one the map of France above. The relative location
place in relation to another. To find relative loca- of Lyon can be described as southeast of Paris.

1. Explain the significance of: key, compass rose, cardinal 4. Describe the relative location of your school in two dif-
directions, intermediate directions, scale bar, scale, rela- ferent ways.
tive location. 5. Use a Venn diagram to identify the similarities and differ-
2. Describe the elements of a map that help you interpret ences of small-scale maps and large-scale maps.
the information displayed on the map.
3. How does the scale bar help you determine distances on
the Earth’s surface? Small-scale maps Large-scale maps

Chapter 1
 Physical Maps
A physical map shows the location and the topography, or shape of
the Earth’s physical features. A study of a country’s physical features
often helps to explain the historical development of the country. For
example, mountains may be barriers to transportation and rivers and
streams can provide access into the interior of a country.

Texas: Physical

Physical maps show rivers, streams,

lakes, and other water features.

Physical maps may show landforms

such as mountains, plains, plateaus,
and valleys.

Physical maps use shading and texture

to show general relief — the differences
in elevation, or height, of landforms.
An elevation key uses colors to indicate
specific measured differences in elevation
above sea level.

Some physical maps also show political features

such as boundary lines, countries, and states.

1. Explain the significance of: physical map, topography, Physical Feature What You Can Learn from the Map
relief, elevation. Davis Mountains
2. What is the approximate elevation of central Texas? Of Red River
western Texas? Gulf Coastal Plains
3. Complete a table like the one to the right to explain
what you can learn from the map about each of the
physical features listed.

Unit 1
 Geography Skills Handbook

Political Maps
A political map shows the boundaries and locations of political units
such as countries, states, counties, cities, and towns. Many features
depicted on a political map are human-made, or determined by humans
rather than by nature. Political maps can show the networks and links
that exist within and between political units.

Texas: Political

Political maps show human-made features such

as boundaries, capitals, cities, roads, highways,
and railroads.

THE WORLD
Political maps may show some physical features
such as relief, rivers, and mountains.

Areas surrounding the subject area of the map are usually

a different color to set them apart. They are labeled to give
you a context for the area you are studying.

1. Explain the significance of: political map, human-made. Human-Made Feature What You Can Learn from the Map
2. What types of information would you find on a political Austin
map that would not appear on a physical map? El Paso
3. Complete a table like the one to the right to explain Texas state boundary
what you can learn from the map about each of the
human-made features listed.

Chapter 1
Thematic Maps
Maps that emphasize a single idea or a particular kind of information
about an area are called thematic maps. There are many kinds of the-
matic maps, each designed to serve a different need. This textbook
includes thematic maps that show climate, natural vegetation, popula-
tion density, and economic activities.

Maps that use colors, symbols, lines, or dots Maps that illustrate the movement of people,
to show information related to a specific idea animals, goods, and ideas, as well as physical
are called qualitative maps. Such maps are processes like hurricanes and glaciers, are called
often used to depict historical information. flow-line maps. Arrows are usually used to
For example, the qualitative map below shows represent the flow and direction of movement.
resources and exports in Latin America over The flow-line map to the right shows the move-
time. ment of Slavic peoples throughout Europe.

Latin America: Europe: Slavic Migrations

Resources and Exports

Unit 1
 Geography Skills Handbook

Geographic Information Systems

Modern technology has changed the way maps are made. Most car-
tographers use computers with software programs called geographic
information systems (GIS). A GIS is designed to accept data from dif-
ferent sources — maps, satellite images, printed text, and statistics. The
GIS converts the data into a digital code, which arranges it in a data-
base. Cartographers then program the GIS to process the data and pro-
duce maps. With GIS, each kind of information on a map is saved as a
separate electronic layer. This modern technolgy allows cartographers
to make maps—and change them—quickly and easily.

THE WORLD
1 The first layer of information in a GIS 2 Additional layers of information are 3 Complex information can be presented
pinpoints the area of interest. This allows the added based on the problem or issue being using more than one layer. For example,
user to see, in detail, the area he or she studied. In this case, hospital administrators the hospital’s surrounding neighborhoods
needs to study. In this case, the area of study want to find out about the population living include other groups in addition to African
is a 5 mile (8 km) radius around Christ near the hospital so they can offer the com- Americans. A third layer showing whites who
Hospital in Jersey City, New Jersey. munity the services it needs. A second layer live within the 5 mile (8 km) radius has been
showing African Americans who live within added to the GIS. Administrators can now
the 5 mile (8 km) radius has been added to use this information to help them make deci-
the GIS. sions about staffing and services associated
with the hospital.

1. Explain the significance of: thematic map, qualitative 5. Complete a chart like the one below by identifying three
maps, flow-line maps. examples of each type of thematic map found in this
2. Which type of thematic map would best show natural textbook. Note the page numbers of each.
vegetation regions in Europe?
Qualitative Maps Flow-Line Maps
3. Which type of thematic map would best show trade
routes between the United States, Canada, and Mexcio?
4. How does GIS allow cartographers to create maps and
make changes to maps quickly and easily?

Chapter 1
 SECTION 2 The Geographer’s
Guide to Reading
Craft
This section explains the elements
of geography and the methods Geography is more than just learning place-names. It
geographers use to study patterns also has practical uses. For example, ecologist J. Michael
of human and physical geography.
Fay conducted a flyover to identify the physical changes
and human impact on the African continent.
• site (p. 18) • movement
• situation (p. 18) (p. 19)
• place (p. 18) • human- Voices Around the World
• region (p. 18) environment
• formal region interaction “ . . . [T]he Megaflyover is a zig-zaggy marathon of low-altitude flights tracing
(p. 18) (p. 19) cloverleaf patterns over much of the continent, from Cape Town to Tangier . . . to
• functional • cartography gather abundant, incremental, and systematized data on the state of wild land-
region (p. 18) (p. 20) scapes and the trends of human-caused transformation. Fay’s motive isn’t idle
• perceptual • geographic curiosity. His aerial enterprise is closely linked with . . . a major initiative of the
region (p. 18) information Wildlife Conservation Society, known as the Human Footprint
• ecosystem systems (GIS) project. That project, which involves . . . multidimensional
(p. 19) (p. 21)
mapping to show gradients of wildness and human
impacts around the world, is intended to help WCS
• occur (p. 17) • obtain (p. 21) target conservation efforts.”
• traditional • alter (p. 22)
(p. 18) • assist (p. 24) — David Quammen,
• aspect (p. 19) “Tracing the Human Footprint,”
National Geographic,
September 2005
Organizing As you read about the
work of geographers, complete a
graphic organizer similar to the one
below by listing the specialized
research methods geographers use.

Research
Methods

J. Michael Fay

Unit 1

Mark Christmas/National Geographic Image Collction

The Elements Absolute Location and Relative Location
of Geography
Geographers study the location of
people and places on Earth’s surface and the pat-
terns in which they are arranged.
GEOGRAPHY AND Is your community located
near a river or in the mountains? Why do you think
this is so? Read to learn how the study of geography
can help you understand the world around you.

Geographers study the Earth’s physical and

human features and the interactions of people,
places, and environments. They search for patterns
in these features and interactions, seeking to
explain how and why they exist or occur. In their
work, geographers consider six elements: the world
in spatial terms, places and regions, physical sys-
tems, human systems, environment and society,
and the uses of geography.

Learn how to find absolute location and relative location by following

the steps below.
Spatial relationships are the links people and
places have to one another because of their loca- ABSOLUTE LOCATION

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tions. For geographers, location, or a specific place 1 To find the absolute location of Indianapolis, first identify the line
on the Earth, is a reference point in the same way of latitude that runs near the city. This is 40° N.
that dates are reference points for historians. 2 Then identify the line of longitude that runs near Indianapolis.
One way of locating a place is by describing its This is 86° W.
absolute location—the exact spot at which the 3 Finally, write the location of Indianapolis using latitude and
place is found on the Earth. To determine absolute longitude. This is latitude 40° N, longitude 86° W.
location, geographers use a network of imaginary
lines around the Earth. RELATIVE LOCATION
Remember that the Equator, the Prime Meridian, 4 To find the relative location of Lansing, identify places such as
and other lines of latitude and longitude cross one cities, lakes, rivers, and states near Lansing. Unlike absolute
location, relative location can be described in many ways.
another to form a grid system. Using the grid, you
can name the absolute location of any place on 5 For example, Lansing is northwest of Ann Arbor.
Earth. This location is stated in terms of latitude, 6 Lansing is also east of Lake Michigan.
degrees north or south of the Equator, and longi-
tude, degrees east or west of the Prime Meridian. 1. Location What is the absolute location of Chicago? How did you
For example, Dallas, Texas, is located at latitude determine it?
32° N (north) and longitude 96° W (west).
2. Place Describe the relative location of Chicago in two different
Although absolute location is useful, most
ways.
people locate a place in relation to other places,
known as its relative location. For example, 3. Location What is the absolute location of Springfield? The relative
location?
New Orleans is located near the mouth of the
Mississippi River. Knowing the relative location 4. Place Describe the relative location of Madison using physical
of a place helps you create mental maps to ori- features.
ent yourself in space and to develop an aware-
Use StudentWorks™ Plus or glencoe.com.
ness of the world around you.

Chapter 1
 Using the concepts of absolute location and Earth’s complexity, geographers often group
relative location, geographers make a distinction places into regions, or areas with similar charac-
between the site and situation of a place. Site teristics. The defining characteristics of a region
refers to the specific location of a place, including may be physical, such as climate, landforms,
its physical setting. For example, the site of San soils, vegetation, and animal life. A region may
Francisco is its location at the end of a peninsula, also be defined by human characteristics. These
surrounded by the Pacific Ocean and San may include language, religion, political systems,
Francisco Bay. Situation is an expression of rela- economic systems, and population distribution.
tive location. It refers to the geographic position Geographers identify three types of regions: for-
of a place in relation to other places and its con- mal, functional, and perceptual. A formal region is
nections to other regions. San Francisco’s situa- defined by a common characteristic, such as a
tion is as a port city on the Pacific coast, close to product produced there. The Corn Belt—a band
California’s agricultural lands. of farmland from Ohio to Nebraska in the United
States—is a formal region because corn is its
major crop. A functional region is a central place
A place is a particular space with physical and and the surrounding area linked to it. Metropolitan
human meaning. Every place on Earth has its areas, as well as smaller cities and towns, are func-
own unique characteristics, determined by the tional regions. A perceptual region is defined by
surrounding environment and the people who popular feelings and images rather than by objec-
live there. One task of geographers is to under- tive data. For example, the term “heartland” refers
stand and explain how places are similar to and to a central area in which traditional values are
different from one another. To interpret the believed to predominate.

Some traditional Hawaiian beliefs

are used to explain the flow of
fiery lava from a volcano.
Human-Environment Interaction How does volcanic
activity shape the Earth’s surface and impact human activities?

Unit 1

Paul Richards/Bettmann/CORBIS
Michael Coyne/Lonely Planet Images

Geography covers a broad range of topics. To

make their work easier, geographers divide their
subject area into different branches. The two
major branches are physical geography and
human geography. Physical geography focuses
on the study of the Earth’s physical features. It
looks at climate, land, water, plants, and animal
life in terms of their relationships to one another
and to humans. Human geography, or cultural
geography, is the study of human activities and
their relationship to the cultural and physical
environments. It focuses on political, economic,
social, and cultural factors, such as population
growth, urban development, and economic pro-
duction and consumption.
Physical geography and human geography are
further divided into smaller subject areas. For
Farmers in many countries alter
example, climatology is the study of weather, the natural environment by creat-
climate, long-term conditions of the atmosphere, ing terraced fields.
and their impact on ecology and society.
Human-Environment Interaction How have people
Historical geography is the study of places and
changed the physical environment in your community?
human activities over time and the geographic
factors that have shaped them.
Geographers analyze how certain natural phe-

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nomena, such as volcanoes, hurricanes, and
floods, shape the Earth’s surface. A Hawaiian example, new people entering a long-established
uses traditional beliefs to describe the fascinat- society usually bring different ideas and prac-
ing force of a volcano: tices that may transform that society’s existing
culture. In studying human systems, geogra-
phers look at how people compete or cooperate

‘‘ We don’t see her work as destruction but as

cleansing. She’s a creator. When she comes
through, she wipes the land clean and leaves us
new fertile ground. We don’t get mad. It is all
to change or control aspects of the Earth to
meet their needs.

Human-environment interaction, or the study

’’
hers to begin with.
of the interrelationship between people and their
— Jennifer S. Holland, “Red Hot Hawaii,” physical environment, is another theme of geog-
National Geographic, October 2004 raphy. Geographers examine the ways people
use their environment, how and why they change
Geographers study how physical features inter- it, and what consequences result from these
act with plants and animals to create, support, or changes. In some cases the physical environment
change ecosystems. An ecosystem is a community affects human activities. For example, moun-
of plants and animals that depend upon one tains and deserts often pose barriers to human
another, and their surroundings, for survival. movement. In other instances human activities,
Geographers also examine how people shape such as building a dam, cause changes to the
the world — how they settle the Earth, form physical environment. By understanding how
societies, and create permanent features. A the Earth’s physical features and processes shape
recurring theme in geography is the ongoing and are shaped by human activity, geographers
movement of people, goods, and ideas. For help societies make informed decisions.

Chapter 1
 Research Methods
Geography provides insight into how physical
features and living things developed in the past.
Geographers use different research
It also interprets current trends to plan for future methods to conduct their work.
needs. Governments, businesses, and individuals
use geographic information in planning and GEOGRAPHY AND How do you prepare to
decision making. Data on physical features and write a research report? Read to learn how geogra-
phers organize and study geography.
processes can determine whether a site is suit-
able for human habitation or has resources
worth developing. Geographic information on Geographers use specialized research methods
human activities, such as population growth and in their work. These methods include direct
migration, can help planners decide whether to observation, mapping, interviewing, statistics,
build new schools or highways in a particular and the use of technology.
place. As geographers learn more about the rela-
tionships among people, places, and the envi-
ronment, their knowledge helps us plan and Geographers use direct observation to study
build a better future. the Earth and the patterns of human activities
Location How is absolute loca- that take place on its surface. They will often
tion different from relative location? visit a place to gather specific information about
it and its geographic features. Geographers also
employ remote sensing to study the Earth, using
aerial photographs and satellite images. For
example, aerial photographs or satellite images
can be used to locate mineral deposits or to
determine the size of freshwater sources.

Maps are essential to geographers. Specialists

who make and design maps are known as cartog-
raphers. Their area of work, known as cartography,
involves designing and making maps.
Many findings from geographic research can
be shown on maps better than they can be
explained in written text. Cartographers select
complex pieces of information about an area
and present them in a more understandable form
on a map. In this way they show the location,
features, patterns, and relationships of people,
places, and things. In addition, maps allow a
visual comparison between places and regions.
For example, a geographer might compare pop-
ulation density maps of two counties in order to
determine where to build new schools.

To answer a geographic question, geographers

Through direct observation, a must often go beyond observation. In many
scientist studies ice cores to learn cases, they want to find out how people think or
about patterns of global warming and cooling. feel about certain places. They also may want to
Location Why is direct observation in areas like examine the ways in which people’s beliefs and
Antarctica important? attitudes have affected the physical environment.

Unit 1

Paul Nicklen/National Geographic Image Collection/Getty Images#

 Skills for Thinking Like a Geographer

Skill Examples Tool and Technologies

Asking Geographic Questions — helps you • Why has traffic increased along this road? • Maps • Remote sensing
pose questions about your surroundings • What should be considered when building • Globes • News media
a new community sports facility? • Internet
Acquiring Geographic Information — • Compare aerial photographs of a region • Direct observation • Satellite images
helps you answer geographic questions over time. • Interviews • Historical records
• Design a survey to determine who might • Reference books
use a community facility.
Organizing Geographic Information — • Compile a map showing the spread of • Field maps • Graphs
helps you analyze and interpret information housing development over time. • Databases • Diagrams
you have collected • Summarize information obtained from • Statistical tables • Summaries
interviews.
Analyzing Geographic Information — • Draw conclusions about the effects of road • Maps • GIS
helps you look for patterns, relationships, construction on traffic patterns. • Charts • Spreadsheets
and connections • Compare information from different maps • Graphs
that show available land and zoning
districts.
Answering Geographic Questions — • Present a report conveying the results of a • Sketch maps
helps you apply information to real-life case study. • Reports
situations and problem solving • Suggest locations for a new facility based • Research papers
on geographic data gathered. • Oral or multimedia presentations

One of the most important geographic tools is the ability to

think geographically. The five skills identified above are key
to geographic understanding. As noted in the chart above, geographers often
1. Place What types of information can you gain from a use scientific instruments in their work. They
map that would help you ask questions about why traffic

THE WORLD
especially depend on advanced technological
has increased along a specific road? tools, such as satellites and computers. Satellites
2. Regions Why are the news media and the Internet orbiting the Earth carry remote sensors, high-tech
important tools for geographers? cameras, and radar that gather data and images
related to the Earth’s environment, weather,
human settlement patterns, and vegetation.
Geographic information systems (GIS) are com-
Such information is obtained by interviewing. puter tools that process and organize data and
Geographers choose a particular group of peo- satellite images with other types of information
ple for study. Instead of contacting everyone in gathered by geographers and other scientists. GIS
that group, however, geographers talk to a care- technology can be used for many purposes. For
fully chosen sample whose answers represent example, urban planners use it to help determine
the whole group. where to build roads. Biologists use it to monitor
wildlife populations in a specific area. Public
safety officials use it to pinpoint safe and efficient
Some of the information geographers use is evacuation routes from hurricane paths.
numerical. Temperature and rainfall data indicate The development of computer technology has
a region’s climate, for example. Geographers use also transformed the process of mapmaking. Today,
computers to organize and present this informa- most cartographers rely on computers and com-
tion. They also analyze the data to find patterns puter software to make maps. Each type of data
and trends. For example, census data can be stud- on a map is kept as a separate “layer” in the map’s
ied to learn about the age, ethnic, and gender digital files. This method allows cartographers to
makeup of the population. After identifying these make and change maps quickly and easily.
patterns and trends, geographers use statistical Location How has technology
tests to see whether their ideas are valid. changed the way maps are created?

Chapter 1
 Geography and
Other Subjects
Geography is related to other subject
areas such as history and economics.
GEOGRAPHY AND Do you use math when
figuring out a science problem? Read to learn how
geographers use knowledge from other subject
areas to understand the world around them.

Geographers use geographic tools and meth-

Human geographers
ods to understand historical patterns, politics
often depend on ele-
and political patterns, societies and culture and
ments of sociology and anthropology to help
their impact on landscape, and economies. them observe and study different cultures.
Human-Environment Interaction How can discussion with
an area’s inhabitants evolve into a greater understanding of
Geographers use historical perspectives to a region’s people?
understand what places could have looked like in
the past. For example, geographers might want to
know about the changes that have occurred in
Boston, Massachusetts, over the past two centu- of life in different parts of the world. Human
ries. They may begin by gathering information geographers also seek to understand how the
about different time periods in the city’s history. activities of different groups affect physical sys-
This information could be used to answer such tems and how the physical systems affect human
geographic questions as: How have human systems differently.
activities changed the natural vegetation? Are
the waterways different today than they were in
the past? Answers to such questions help people Geographers study economies to understand
make informed decisions about the present and how the locations of resources affect the ways
better plans for the future. people make, transport, and use goods, and how
Geographers study political patterns to see how and where services are provided. Geographers
people in different places are governed. They look are interested in how locations are chosen for vari-
at how political boundaries have formed and ous economic activities, such as farming, mining,
changed. Geographers are also interested in how manufacturing, and trade. A desirable location
the natural environment has influenced political usually includes plentiful resources and good trans-
decisions and how governments change natural portation routes.
environments. For example, in the 1960s the Geographers are also interested in the interde-
Egyptian government built the massive Aswa-n pendence of people’s economic activities around
High Dam on the Nile River to help irrigate the the world. New developments in communications
land. The dam altered the Nile River valley in and transportation—such as the Internet, cellular
profound ways and has had a significant impact phones, and overnight air delivery—make the
on the region’s people. movement of information and goods faster and
more efficient than ever before. With such ever-
changing technology, a modern business can oper-
Human geographers, or cultural geographers, ate globally without depending on any one place
use the tools of sociology and anthropology to to fill all of its needs.
understand cultures around the world. They study
the relationships between physical environment Human-Environment Interaction
and social structures. They examine people’s ways Why do geographers study economies?

Unit 1

Charlotte Thege/PeterArnold, Inc.

Geography as a Career opportunities exist at all levels — from elemen-
tary school to high school to university. Teachers
with some background and training in geogra-
Geography skills are useful in a vari-
phy are in demand in elementary and high
ety of jobs and work environments.
schools in the United States. At the university
GEOGRAPHY AND What skills do you use level, teaching and research focused on specific
when learning how to get to the library? Read to branches of geography have been established for
learn how geography is used in the workplace. decades. Students with formal geographic train-
ing from a university have found work in many
Although people trained in geography are in different industries.
great demand in the workforce, many of them Because geography itself has many specialized
do not have geographer as a job title. Geography fields, there are many different kinds of geogra-
skills are useful in so many different situations phers. Those with knowledge of physical geog-
that geographers have more than a hundred dif- raphy work as climate and weather experts and
ferent job titles. Geographers work in a variety soil scientists. Recently, geographers with train-
of jobs in government, business, and education. ing in environmental studies have been in
They often combine the study of geography with demand for work as environmental managers
other areas of study. For example, an ecologist and technicians. Such work includes assessing
must know the geographic characteristics of a the environmental impact of proposed develop-
place or region in which he or she studies living ment projects on air, water quality, and wildlife.
organisms. Also, a travel agent must have knowl- They also prepare the environmental impact
edge of geography in order to plan trips for report that is often required before construction
clients. can begin.
One broad cluster of career opportunities in Human geographers find work in many areas,
geography is teaching and education. Teaching including health care, transportation, population

Storm chasers use technology to

record, measure, and document
the intensity of storms.
Human-Environment Interaction Aside from dramatic
images, what other information can the work of storm chasers provide?

Chapter 1

Jim Reed/CORBIS
 studies, economic development, and interna-
tional economics. Some human geographers with
a background in urban planning are hired as
planners in local and state government agencies.
They focus on housing and community develop-
ment, park and recreation planning, and urban
and regional planning. Planners map and analyze
land use and transportation systems, and moni-
tor urban land development.
Geographers who specialize in a specific branch
of geography—such as economic geography or
regional geography—also find jobs outside of the
university setting. For example, an economic geog-
rapher examines human economic activities and Geography skills are used to survey
their relationship to the environment. He or she the land near a construction site.
may work at such tasks as market analysis and Human-Environment Interaction In what other types of
site selection for stores, factories, and restaurants. situations may geography skills be necessary?
A regional geographer studies the features of a
particular region and may assist government and
businesses in making decisions about land use.
Geographers also find employment as writers and ONLINE
editors for publishers of textbooks, maps, atlases, Student Web Activity Visit the World Geography
and news and travel magazines. and Cultures Web site at glencoe.com and click on
Student Web Activities—Chapter 1 for an activity about
Place Why are there many differ- careers in geography.
ent types of geographers?

SECTION 2 REVIEW
Vocabulary Critical Thinking
1. Explain the significance of: site, situation, place, region, for- 6. Think about the physical and human characteristics
mal region, functional region, perceptual region, ecosystem, that constitute a region. Identify the differences and similarities
movement, human-environment interaction, cartography, among formal, functional, and perceptual regions.
geographic information systems (GIS). 7. Making Generalizations How does the study of other subject
areas help geographers in their work as countries become
Main Ideas
increasingly interdependent?
2. Describe the research methods geographers use.
8. Analyzing Visuals Study the physical map of the United
3. What other subject areas is geography related to? States on pages xl–xli. What kinds of information can you
4. List examples of jobs and work environments in which geogra- learn from this map? How does the information on this map
phy skills are useful. differ from the political map on pages xlii–xliii?
5. Use a table like the one below to describe the elements geog-
raphers use to study people and places on Earth’s surface. Writing About Geography
9. Expository Writing As a geographer working on a plan for
The Elements of Geography a new community center, what research methods would you
The World in Spatial Terms use? Explain your choices in a paragraph.
Places and Regions
Physical Systems
Human Systems ONLINE
Environment and Society Study Central To review this section, go to
The Uses of Geography
glencoe.com and click on Study Central.

Unit 1

Purestock/SuperStock
 Study anywhere, anytime
by downloading quizzes

CHAPTER VISUAL SUMMARY and flashcards to your

PDA from glencoe.com.

WHAT IS GEOGRAPHY?
• Geography is the study of the location of people and places and the
patterns in which they are arranged on Earth.
• Physical geography focuses on the physical features and processes
of Earth.
• Human geography focuses on the political, economic, or cultural
characteristics of human populations.
• An important element in geography is the interaction between people
and their environment. Geographers try to understand how Earth’s
physical environment shape and are shaped by human activities.

A researcher takes ice core samples to study climate change.

Great Circle Routes THE GEOGRAPHER’S TOOLS

• To understand geography, you first need to understand how maps work.
• Three-dimensional globes are the most accurate depiction of Earth. For
example, the shortest distance between two places is not always a
straight line but a great circle. This is due to the curvature of the Earth.
• Flat maps use one of several types of projections that distort Earth’s
features in some way.
• It is important to understand how each projection distorts Earth so you
can pick the map projection that best suits your needs.

THE WORLD
France: Physical

TYPES OF MAPS
• Maps can be used to show many different types of information.
• Most maps show location. The two most common types of
maps show the location and physical features of a place, or the
location and political boundaries.
• Some other types of maps are qualitative maps and flow-line
maps. These are useful when dealing with historical informa-
tion or when trying to show movement.

Chapter 1

(bkgd)Robert Laberge/Getty Images, (tr)Paul Nicklen/National Geographic Image Collection/Getty Images

CHAPTER 1
STANDARDIZED TEST PRACTICE
TEST-TAKING TIP
Be sure to read all the choices before you answer a question so that you are sure that
you have picked the best choice.

Reviewing Vocabulary Reviewing Main Ideas

Directions: Choose the word or words that best complete the Directions: Choose the best answers to the following questions.
sentence.
Section 1 (pp. 4–15)
1. To draw a map of the round Earth on a flat surface, map 5. The shortest distance between two places on the Earth
makers use . follows a .
A absolute locations A great circle
B relative locations B straight line on a map
C map projections C scenic route
D hemispheres D map projection

6. location is a place’s global address.

2. Lines of are drawn on maps from the North Pole to A Relative
the South Pole to measure distance east and west.
B Global
A latitude
C Absolute
B parallels
D Cartographic
C location
D longitude

Section 2 (pp. 16–24)

7. To study and interpret the Earth’s complexity, geographers
3. A city and its surroundings make up a region. often divide it into .
A functional A projections
B perceptual B regions
C formal C places
D virtual D situations

8. In studying the Earth and its people, geographers

4. Designing and making maps is the work of . use .
A history A direct observation
B cartography B interviews
C anthropology C technology
D economies D all of these

GO ON

26 Unit 1
 ASSESSMENT

Critical Thinking Document-Based Questions

Directions: Choose the best answers to the following questions. Directions: Analyze the document and answer the short-answer
questions that follow the document.
9. How has the geographer’s craft changed over the last Geography is increasingly important because our ties to the
100 years? rest of the world increase every day. Here is what geographer
A The world has literally become smaller. George J. Demko said about geography:
B Maps are no longer as important as they once were.
Geography — real-world geography — is the art and science of
C Technology has provided computers and views from the location, or place. It is about spatial patterns and spatial pro-
air and from space. cesses. It is about which way the wind blows from Chernobyl,
D Interviewing is used less often to learn about and com- the Pacific “ring of fire,” AIDS, terrorists, and refugees. It is
pare cultures. about acid rain, El Niño, ocean dumping, cultural censorship,
droughts and famines. . . .
Base your answer to question 10 on the map and on your knowledge Real-world geography also explores things in locations: why
of Chapter 1. something is where it is and what processes change its distri-
bution. Geography is the why of where of an ever-changing
Scandinavia
universe. Its surpassing objective is to discover the processes
that move over space and connect places and continually
transform the location and character of everything.
— George J. Demko,
Why in the World: Adventures in Geography

11. What are some of the world issues that Dr. Demko lists as
concerns of geography?

12. According to the excerpt, what is the main objective of

geography?

Extended Response
13. Why is it important for geographers to use a variety of meth-
ods to study the Earth?

14. Identify the six essential elements of geography. How are

each of these used in the study of geography?

10. The absolute location of Oslo is

A 60° south and 10° west. STOP
B 60° west and 10° north.
C 60° north and 10° east.
ONLINE
D 10° east and 60° south.
For additional test practice, use Self-Check Quizzes—
Chapter 1 on glencoe.com.
Need Extra Help?
If you missed questions. . . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Go to page. . . 6 8 18 20 5 8 18 20 10 8 20 21 22 17

Chapter 1 27
 CHAPTER

Why It Matters
Understanding that Earth is part
of a larger physical system called
The Physical
World
the solar system helps us under-
stand how life on our planet is
possible. Earth’s physical sys-
tems —air, landforms, and
water — are affected by natural
forces such as earthquakes and
volcanoes that can influence
human activities on the planet.

Section 1: Planet Earth

Physical processes shape Earth’s
surface. As part of a larger system
called the solar system, Earth has
water, land, and air that make
the planet suitable for plant and
animal life.

Section 2: Forces of Change

Physical processes shape Earth’s
surface. The surface of the Earth
has been shaped by the internal
forces of tectonic activity, as well as
by the external forces of weather-
ing and erosion.

Section 3: Earth’s Water

Physical processes shape Earth’s
surface. The water cycle keeps the
amount of water on Earth, both
freshwater and salt water, fairly
constant.

Geography ONLINE
Chapter Overview Visit the World
Geography and Cultures Web site at
glencoe.com and click on Chapter
Overviews—Chapter 2 to preview infor-
Kilauea, in Hawaii, is one of the most
mation about planet Earth.
active volcanoes in the world.

28 Unit 1
Jim Sugar/CORBIS
 Organizing Information Make a
Three-Pocket Book to help you orga-
nize information about the physical
systems and processes that affect life
on Earth.

Reading and Writing As you read this chapter, write

information on note cards about the structure of planet
Earth and its place in the solar system, the natural forces
that affect Earth’s physical systems, and Earth’s water.
Place the cards in the correct pocket of your Foldable.

THE WORLD

Chapter 2 29
 SECTION 1 Planet Earth
Guide to Reading An astronaut, seeing Earth from the blackness of
Section Preview
space, described it as “piercingly beautiful.” From the
Earth is part of a larger system vantage point of space, the Earth’s great beauty resem-
called the solar system. Earth has bles a blue and white marble, with contrasts of water
water, land, and air that make it
suitable for plant and animal life. and land beneath huge swirls of white clouds.

Content Vocabulary
• hydrosphere (p. 32) Voices Around the World
• lithosphere (p. 32)
“To the ancient Egyptians the heavens were almost close enough to touch—a
• atmosphere (p. 32)
• biosphere (p. 32) benign canopy of light and dark held up by mountain peaks. But modern science
• continental shelf (p. 33) has exploded that ancient, peaceful mirage, replacing it with . . . change, and
processes that sometimes defy human understanding.
Academic Vocabulary
Guided by leaps of imagination and armed with
• approach (p. 31)
• assistance (p. 32)
potent new technologies . . . scientists have . . .
• features (p. 33) claimed the universe itself as a
titanic laboratory.”
Places to Locate
• Isthmus of Panama (p. 33) —Kathy Sawyer,
• Sinai Peninsula (p. 33) “Unveiling the Universe,”
• Mount Everest (p. 33) National Geographic, October 1999
• Dead Sea (p. 33)
• Mariana Trench (p. 33)
Reading Strategy
Categorizing As you read about
Earth, complete a graphic organizer An astronomer with
similar to the one below by describ- radio telescopes
ing the four components of Earth.

Component Description
Hydrosphere
Lithosphere
Atmosphere
Biosphere

30 Unit 1
Roger Ressmeyer/CORBIS
Our Solar System planets. Dwarf planets are small round bodies
that orbit the sun, but have not cleared the area
around their orbits of other orbiting bodies.
MAIN Idea Earth is part of a larger physical sys- All of the planets are grouped into two
tem that contains other planets, moons, and stars. types — terrestrial planets and gas giant planets.
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU Have you ever seen a movie Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars are called
or read a book about outer space? Read to learn terrestrial planets because they have solid, rocky
how Earth fits into the ever-changing solar system. crusts. Mercury and Venus are scalding hot, and
Mars is a cold, barren desert. Only Earth has
Earth is part of our solar system, which liquid water at the surface and can support
includes the sun and the objects that revolve varieties of life.
around it. At the center of the solar system is the Farther from the sun are the gas giant
sun — a star, or ball of burning gases. The sun’s planets — Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
enormous mass, or the amount of matter it con- They are more gaseous and less dense than the
tains, creates a strong pull of gravity. This basic terrestrial planets, even though they are larger in
physical force keeps the Earth and the other diameter. Each gas giant planet is like a minia-
objects revolving around the sun. ture solar system, with orbiting moons and thin,
encircling rings. Only Saturn’s rings, however,
The Planets are easily seen from Earth by telescope.
Except for the sun, spheres called planets are the
largest objects in the solar system. At least eight
planets exist, and each is in its own orbit around
Asteroids, Comets,
the sun. Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars are the and Meteoroids
inner planets, or those nearest the sun. Earth, the Thousands of smaller objects—including aster-
third planet from the sun, is about 93 million miles oids, comets, and meteoroids—revolve around the
(about 150 million km) away. Farthest from the sun. Asteroids are small, irregularly shaped, planet-

THE WORLD
sun are the outer planets—Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, like objects. They are found mainly between Mars
and Neptune. and Jupiter in the asteroid belt. A few asteroids
The planets vary in size. Jupiter is the largest. follow paths that cross Earth’s orbit.
Earth ranks fifth in size, and Mercury is the Comets, made of icy dust particles and frozen
smallest. All of the planets except Mercury and gases, look like bright balls with long, feathery
Venus have moons, smaller spheres or satellites tails. Their orbits are inclined at every possible
that orbit them. Earth has 1 moon, and Saturn angle to Earth’s orbit. They may approach from
has at least 18 moons. Ceres and Pluto are dwarf any direction.

The Solar System 1. Location Which four planets are closest to the sun?
2. Regions What physical characteristics do the inner planets share?
The outer planets?

Chapter 2 31
 Meteoroids are pieces of space debris — chunks
of rock and iron. When they occasionally enter Getting to Know Earth
Earth’s atmosphere, friction usually burns them
up before they reach the Earth’s surface. Those MAIN Idea Earth’s surface is a complex mix of
that collide with Earth are called meteorites. landforms and water systems.
Meteorite strikes, though rare, can significantly GEOGRAPHY AND YOU What do you know about
affect the landscape, leaving craters and causing Earth’s water, land, and air? Read to learn how
other devastation. In 1908 a huge area of forest these features support life on Earth.
in the remote Russian region of Siberia was flat-
tened and burned by a “mysterious fireball.” The Earth is a rounded object wider around the
Scientists theorize it was a meteorite or comet. center than from top to bottom. Earth has a larger
A writer describes the effects: diameter at the Equator—about 7,930 miles
(12,760 km)—than from Pole to Pole, but the dif-

‘‘ The heat incinerated herds of reindeer and ference is less than 1 percent. With a circumference
charred tens of thousands of evergreens across of about 24,900 miles (40,060 km), Earth is the
hundreds of square miles. For days, and for largest of the inner planets.
thousands of miles around, the sky remained
bright with an eerie orange glow — as far away
as western Europe people were able to read Water, Land, and Air

’’
newspapers at night without a lamp. The surface of the Earth is made up of water
and land. About 70 percent of our planet’s sur-
Richard Stone, “The Last Great Impact on Earth,” face is water. Oceans, lakes, rivers, and other
Discover, September 1996 bodies of water make up a part of the Earth
called the hydrosphere.
Movement Besides the planets, About 30 percent of the Earth’s surface is land,
what other things revolve around the sun? including continents and islands. Land makes up
a part of the Earth called the
lithosphere, the Earth’s crust.
Water, Land, and Air
The lithosphere also includes
the ocean basins, or the land
beneath the oceans.
The air we breathe is part
of Earth’s atmosphere, a
layer of gases extending
above the planet’s surface.
The atmosphere is composed
of 78 percent nitrogen, 21
percent oxygen, and small
amounts of argon and other
gases.
All people, animals, and
plants live on or close to
the Earth’s surface or in the
atmosphere. The part of the
Earth that supports life is
the biosphere. Life outside
the biosphere, such as on a
The atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere form the biosphere, the part of Earth where life exists. space station orbiting Earth,
1. Place What are Earth’s water systems called? exists only with the assis-
tance of mechanical life-
2. Human-Environment Interaction How does human activity impact the biosphere?
support systems.

32 Unit 1
Landforms
Landforms are the natural features of the
Earth’s surface. So are bodies of water. The dia-
gram on pages xxvi-xxvii shows many of the
Earth’s landforms, which have a particular shape
or elevation. Landforms often contain rivers,
lakes, and streams.
Underwater landforms are as diverse as those
found on dry land. In some places the ocean
floor is a flat plain. Other parts feature moun-
tain ranges, cliffs, valleys, and deep trenches.
Seen from space, Earth’s most visible land-
forms are the seven large landmasses called con-
tinents. Australia and Antarctica stand alone,
while the others are joined in some way. Europe
Earth’s Heights and Depths
and Asia are parts of one landmass called Great contrasts exist in the heights and depths of
Eurasia. A narrow strip of land called the Isthmus the Earth’s surface. The highest point on Earth is
of Panama links North America and South in South Asia at the top of Mount Everest, which
America. At the Sinai Peninsula, the human- is 29,035 feet (8,850 m) above sea level. The low-
made Suez Canal separates Africa and Asia. est dry land point, at 1,349 feet (411 m) below sea
The continental shelf is an underwater extension level, is the shore of the Dead Sea in Southwest
of the coastal plain. Continental shelves slope out Asia. Earth’s deepest known depression lies under
from land for as much as 800 miles (1,287 km) the Pacific Ocean southwest of Guam in the
and descend gradually to a depth of about 660 feet Mariana Trench, a narrow, underwater canyon
(200 m), where a sharp drop marks the beginning about 35,827 feet (10,920 m) deep.
of the continental slope. This area drops more Human-Environment Interaction

THE WORLD
sharply to the ocean floor. How does the biosphere support life on Earth?

SECTION 1 REVIEW
Vocabulary Critical Thinking
1. Explain the significance of: hydrosphere, lithosphere, atmo- 5. Think about Earth’s surface and list conditions that
sphere, biosphere, continental shelf. must be present in a space station in order to support life.
6. Drawing Conclusions NASA has recently launched space
Main Ideas
probes to explore Mars. Why might Mars have been chosen
2. List examples of Earth’s landforms and water systems. How do for these explorations?
these features help support life on our planet?
7. Analyzing Visuals Study the diagram of the solar system on
3. How are terrestrial planets and gas giant planets similar? How page 31. How is the size of a planet’s orbit influenced by its
are they different? distance from the sun?
4. Use a diagram like the one below to describe Earth’s place in
the larger physical system that includes other planets, moons, Writing About Geography
and stars. 8. Descriptive Writing Consider the ratio of water and land on
Earth. Describe how Earth’s landforms and bodies of water
Physical System would be different if the proportions were reversed.
Solar System

Geography ONLINE
Planets Study Central™ To review this section, go to
glencoe.com and click on Study Central.

Chapter 2 33
 SECTION 2 Forces of
Guide to Reading
Section Preview
Change
Internal and external forces shape
the Earth‘s surface. The center of Earth is filled with intense heat and
pressure. These natural forces drive numerous changes
Content Vocabulary
• core (p. 35) • spreading such as volcanoes and earthquakes that renew and
• mantle (p. 35) (p. 37) enrich Earth’s surface. These physical processes can
• crust (p. 35) • fold (p. 37)
also disrupt, and often destroy, human life. As a result,
• continental • fault (p. 37)
drift (p. 35) • faulting (p. 38) scientists are working to learn how to predict them.
• plate tectonics • weathering
(p. 35) (p. 39)
• magma (p. 35) • erosion (p. 39) Voices Around the World
• subduction • glacier (p. 39)
“[S]cientists are doing everything they can to solve the mysteries of earthquakes.
(p. 37) • moraine (p. 39)
They break rocks in laboratories, studying how stone behaves under stress. They
• accretion (p. 37)
hike through ghost forests where dead trees tell of long-ago tsunamis. They make
Academic Vocabulary maps of precarious, balanced rocks to see where the ground has shaken
• releasing (p. 35) in the past, and how hard. They dig trenches across faults, search-
• constantly (p. 35)
ing for the active trace. They have wired up fault zones with so
• tension (p. 38)
many sensors it’s as though
Places to Locate the Earth is a patient in
• Himalaya (p. 37) intensive care.”
• San Andreas Fault (p. 37)
• Ko-be (p. 38) — Joel Achenbach,
• San Francisco (p. 38) “The Next Big One,”
• Ring of Fire (p. 38) National Geographic,
• Greenland (p. 40) April 2006
• Antarctica (p. 40)
Reading Strategy
Taking Notes As you read about
the forces that change the Earth,
use the major headings of the sec-
tion to create an outline similar to
the one below.

Forces of Change
I. Earth’s Structure
A.
B.
II. Internal Forces of Change
A.
B.

A geologist studying
earthquake activity

34 Unit 1
Reed Saxon/AP Images
Earth’s Structure Inside the Earth

MAIN Idea The Earth’s internal and external

structure, including the tectonic plates, is responsi-
ble for the creation of the continents, oceans, and
mountain ranges.
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU Are there mountains near
where you live? Read to learn how Earth’s moun-
tains are formed.

For hundreds of millions of years, the surface of

the Earth has been in slow but constant motion.
Some forces that change the Earth, such as wind
and water, occur on the surface. Others, such as
volcanic eruptions and earthquakes, originate
deep in the Earth’s interior.

A Layered Planet
1. Location Which of Earth’s layers is between the crust and the
The diagram at the right shows that Earth is outer core?
composed of three main layers — the core, the
2. Location How much does the temperature change from the inner
mantle, and the crust. At the very center of the
core to the outer core? From the outer core to the mantle?
planet is a super-hot but solid inner core. Scientists
believe that the inner core is made up of iron and Use StudentWorks™ Plus or glencoe.com.
nickel under enormous pressure. Surrounding the
inner core is a band of melted iron and nickel

THE WORLD
called the liquid outer core. one gigantic supercontinent called Pangaea
Next to the outer core is a thick layer of hot, (pan•JEE•uh). The maps on the next page show
dense rock called the mantle. The mantle con- that over millions of years, this supercontinent
sists of silicon, aluminum, iron, magnesium, has broken apart into smaller continents. These
oxygen, and other elements. This mixture con- continents in turn have drifted and, in some
tinually rises, cools, sinks, warms up, and rises places, recombined. The theory that the conti-
again, releasing 80 percent of the heat generated nents were once joined and then slowly drifted
from the Earth’s interior. apart is called continental drift.
The outer layer is the crust, a rocky shell form- The term plate tectonics refers to all of the
ing the Earth’s surface. This relatively thin layer physical processes that create many of the Earth’s
of rock ranges from about 2 miles (3.2 km) thick physical features. Many scientists theorize that
under oceans to about 75 miles (121 km) thick plates moving slowly around the globe have pro-
under mountains. The crust is broken into more duced Earth’s largest features—not only conti-
than a dozen great slabs of rock called plates nents, but also oceans and mountain ranges. Most
that rest — or more accurately, float — on a par- of the time, plate movement is so gradual—only
tially melted layer in the upper portion of the about 1 inch (2 to 3 cm) a year—that it cannot be
mantle. The plates carry the Earth’s oceans and felt. As they move, the plates may crash into each
continents. other, pull apart, or grind and slide past each other.
Whatever their actions, plates are constantly
Plate Movement changing the face of the planet. They push up
If you had seen the Earth from space 500 mil- mountains, create volcanoes, and produce earth-
lion years ago, the planet probably would not quakes. When the plates spread apart, magma, or
have looked at all like it does today. Many sci- molten rock, is pushed up from the mantle, and
entists believe that most of the landmasses form- ridges are formed. When plates bump together,
ing our present-day continents were once part of one may slide under another, forming a trench.

Chapter 2 35
 Internal Forces
‘‘ [W]e have a highly successful theory, called plate
tectonics, that explains . . . why continents drift,
mountains rise, and volcanoes line the Pacific
Rim. Plate tectonics may be one of the signature
of Change
MAIN Idea Plate tectonics is responsible for fold-

’’
triumphs of the human mind. . . .
ing, lifting, bending, and breaking parts of the Earth’s
surface.
Joel Achenbach, “The Next Big One,”
National Geographic, April 2006 GEOGRAPHY AND YOU Have you seen news cover-
age about earthquakes or volcanoes in different parts
of the world? Read to learn how the internal forces of
Many scientists estimate that plate tectonics plate tectonics can cause such natural disasters.
has been shaping the Earth’s surface for 2.5 to
4 billion years. According to some scientists,
Earth’s surface has changed greatly over time.
plate tectonics will have sculpted a whole new
Scientists believe that some of these changes
look for our planet millions of years from now.
come from forces associated with plate tecton-
Scientists, however, have not yet determined
ics. One of these forces relates to the movement
exactly what causes plate tectonics. They theorize
of magma within the Earth. Others involve
that heat rising from the Earth’s core may create
movements that can fold, lift, bend, or break the
slow-moving currents within the mantle. Over
solid rock at the Earth’s crust.
millions of years, these currents of molten rock
may shift the plates around, but the movements
are extremely slow and difficult to detect.

Movement What is the theory of

1. Regions How does the first map of Pangaea compare
continental drift?
to the last map? The map of plate movement?
2. Movement Which plates are moving toward each
other? Away from each other?

Continental Drift Use StudentWorks™ Plus or glencoe.com.

36 Unit 1
Colliding and Spreading Plates with steep sides and sharp peaks, and piles up the
resulting debris in trenches. This buildup can cause
Mountains are formed in areas where giant con-
continents to grow outward. Most scientists believe
tinental plates collide. For example, the Himalaya
that much of western North America expanded
mountain ranges in South Asia were thrust upward
outward into the Pacific Ocean over more than
when the Indian landmass drifted against Eurasia.
200 million years as a result of accretion.
Himalayan peaks are getting higher as the Indian
New land can also form when two sea plates
landmass continues to move northward.
converge. In this process, one plate moves under
Mountains are also created when a sea plate
the other, often forming an island chain at the
collides with a continental plate. The diagram
boundary. Sea plates also can pull apart in a pro-
on page 38 shows how in a process called
cess known as spreading. The resulting rift, or deep
subduction (suhb•DUHK•shuhn) the heavier
crack, allows magma from within the Earth to well
sea plate dives beneath the lighter continental
up between the plates. The magma hardens to build
plate. Plunging into the Earth’s interior, the sea
undersea volcanic mountains or ridges and some
plate becomes molten material. Then, as magma,
islands. This spreading activity occurs down the
it bursts through the crust to form volcanic
middle of the Atlantic Ocean’s floor, pushing
mountains. The Andes, a mountain system in
Europe and North America away from each other.
South America, was formed over millions of
years as a result of subduction. The Nazca Plate
slid beneath the South American Plate. Folds and Faults
In other cases where continental and sea plates Moving plates sometimes squeeze the Earth’s
meet, a different process, known as accretion, surface until it buckles. This activity forms folds,
occurs. During accretion (uh•KREE•shuhn), pieces or bends, in layers of rock. In other cases, plates
of the Earth’s crust come together slowly as the sea may grind or slide past each other, creating cracks
plate slides under the continental plate. This move- in the Earth’s crust called faults. One famous
ment levels off seamounts, underwater mountains fault is the San Andreas Fault in California.

THE WORLD
Plate Movement

Chapter 2 37
 The process of faulting occurs when the folded that cradle the Pacific meet the plates that hold
land cannot be bent any further. Then the Earth’s the continents surrounding the Pacific. North
crust cracks and breaks into huge blocks. The America, South America, Asia, and Australia are
blocks move along the faults in different direc- affected by their location on the Ring of Fire.
tions, grinding against each other. The resulting
tension may release a series of small jumps, felt Volcanic Eruptions
as minor tremors on the Earth’s surface. Volcanoes are mountains formed by lava or by
magma that breaks through the Earth’s crust.
Earthquakes Volcanoes often rise along plate boundaries
Sudden, violent movements of tectonic plates where one plate plunges beneath another, as
along a fault line are known as earthquakes. These along the Ring of Fire. In such a process, the
shaking activities dramatically change the surface rocky plate melts as it dives downward into the
of the land and the floor of the ocean. During a hot mantle. If the molten rock is too thick, its
severe earthquake in Alaska in 1964, a portion of flow is blocked and pressure builds. A cloud of
the ground lurched upward 38 feet (11.6 m). ash and gas may then spew forth, creating a fun-
Earthquakes often occur where plates meet. nel through which the red-hot magma rushes to
Tension builds up along fault lines as the plates the surface. There the lava flow may eventually
stick. The strain eventually becomes so intense form a large volcanic cone topped by a crater, a
that the rocks suddenly snap and shift. This bowl-shaped depression at a volcano’s mouth.
movement releases stored-up energy along the Volcanoes also arise in areas away from plate
fault. The ground then trembles and shakes as boundaries. Some areas deep in the Earth are hot-
shock waves surge through it moving away from ter than others, and magma often blasts through
the area where the rocks first snapped apart. the surface as volcanoes. As a moving plate passes
In recent years disastrous earthquakes have over these hot spots, molten rock flowing out of
occurred in Kōbe, Japan, and in Los Angeles and the Earth may create volcanic island chains, such
San Francisco. These cities are located along the as the Hawaiian Islands. At some hot spots, mol-
Ring of Fire, one of the most earthquake-prone ten rock may also heat underground water, caus-
areas on the planet. The Ring of Fire is a zone of ing hot springs or geysers like Old Faithful in
earthquake and volcanic activity around the Yellowstone National Park.
perimeter of the Pacific Ocean. Here the plates Location Where is the Ring of Fire?

Forces of Change

38 Unit 1
External Forces Wind Erosion
Wind erosion involves the movement of dust,
of Change sand, and soil from one place to another. Plants
help protect the land from wind erosion; how-
MAIN Idea External forces such as weathering ever, in dry places where people have cut down
and erosion also shape the surface of the Earth. trees and plants, winds pick up large amounts of
soil and blow it away. Wind erosion can provide
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU Have you ever seen soil
some benefits. The dust carried by wind often
washed over the road after a heavy rain? Read to
learn how wind and rain can shape Earth’s surface.
forms large deposits of mineral-rich soil.

Glacial Erosion
External forces, such as wind and water, also Another cause of erosion is glaciers, or large
change the Earth’s surface. Wind and water move- bodies of ice that move across the Earth’s surface.
ments involve two processes. Weathering breaks Glaciers form over time as layers of snow press
down rocks and erosion wears away the Earth’s together and turn to ice. Their great weight causes
surface by wind, glaciers, and moving water. them to move slowly downhill or spread out-
ward. As they move, glaciers pick up rocks and
Weathering soil in their paths, changing the landscape. They
The Earth is changed by two basic kinds of can destroy forests, carve out valleys, alter the
weathering. Physical weathering occurs when courses of rivers, and wear down mountaintops.
large masses of rock are physically broken down When glaciers melt and recede, in some places
into smaller pieces. For example, water seeps they leave behind large piles of rocks and debris
into the cracks in a rock and freezes, then called moraines. Some moraines form long ridges
expands and causes the rock to split. Chemical of land, while others form dams that hold water
weathering changes the chemical makeup of back and create glacial lakes.
rocks. For example, rain water that contains car-
bon dioxide from the air easily dissolves certain

THE WORLD
rocks, such as limestone. Many of the world’s
caves have been and continue to be formed by
this process. 1. Place How does accretion create deep trenches?
2. Human-Environment Interaction How have human
settlements been affected by the process of faulting?

Use StudentWorks™ Plus or glencoe.com.

Chapter 2 39
 There are two types of glaciers . Sheet glaciers
are flat, broad sheets of ice. Today sheet glaciers
cover most of Greenland and all of Antarctica.
They advance a few feet each winter and recede
in the summer. Large blocks of ice often break
off from the coastal edges of sheet glaciers to
become icebergs floating in the ocean. Mountain
glaciers, located in high mountain valleys where
the climate is cold, gouge out round, U-shaped
valleys as they move downhill.

Water Erosion
Water erosion begins when springwater and
rainwater flow downhill in streams, cutting into
the land, and wearing away the soil and rock. The
resulting sediment grinds away the surface of rocks
along the stream’s path. Over time, the eroding
action of water forms first a gully and then a
V-shaped valley. Sometimes valleys are eroded
even further to form canyons. The Grand Canyon
is an example of the eroding power of water.
Oceans also play an important role in water Fast-moving water, the
erosion. Pounding waves continually erode coastal most significant cause
cliffs, wear rocks into sandy beaches, and move of erosion, helped create the Delicate Arch in
sand away to other coastal areas. Arches National Park near Moab, Utah.
Regions How have many of the Movement How does water erosion form valleys and
world’s caves been formed? canyons?

SECTION 2 REVIEW
Vocabulary Critical Thinking
1. Explain the significance of: core, mantle, crust, continental drift, 5. Based on your understanding of plate tectonics,
plate tectonics, magma, subduction, accretion, spreading, fold, what changes would you predict to the Earth’s appearance
fault, faulting, weathering, erosion, glacier, moraine. millions of years from now?
6. Drawing Conclusions In what ways can erosion be both
Main Ideas
beneficial and harmful to agricultural communities?
2. How does the internal structure of the Earth influence the
7. Analyzing Visuals Study the map of plate movement on
creation of continents, oceans, and mountain ranges?
page 37. Which plates are responsible for the earthquakes
3. Describe the two kinds of weathering and the three kinds of that have occurred in California?
erosion that shape the surface of the Earth.
4. Use a chart like the one below to explain how plate tectonics Writing About Geography
is responsible for folding, lifting, bending, and breaking parts 8. Descriptive Writing Review how internal forces shape the
of Earth’s surface. surface of the Earth. Now imagine that the mantle ceased to
circulate molten rock. Write a description of how land forma-
Forces of Change tion on the surface of the Earth would be different.
Process How It Works Example
Subduction
Geography ONLINE
Study Central™ To review this section, go to
glencoe.com and click on Study Central.

40 Unit 1
ML Sinibaldi/CORBIS
 SECTION 3 Earth’s Water
Guide to Reading A submarine crew investigating the Arctic Ocean can
Section Preview
still experience the thrill of exploring uncharted terri-
Earth’s water cycle keeps the tory — one of Earth’s last frontiers. Although humans
amount of water on our planet, live mostly on land, water is important to our lives,
both freshwater and salt water,
fairly constant. and all living things need water to survive.

Content Vocabulary
• water cycle (p. 42) Voices Around the World
• evaporation (p. 42)
“In a world that’s been almost completely mapped, it’s easy to forget why car-
• condensation (p. 42)
• precipitation (p. 42) tographers used to put monsters in the blank spots. Today we got a reminder.
• desalination (p. 43) The submarine captain had warned us that we were in uncharted waters. . . .
• groundwater (p. 44) Yet the first days of our cruise through this ice-covered ocean, Earth’s least
• aquifer (p. 44) explored frontier, were . . . smooth. . . . Even when we passed over a mile-high
Academic Vocabulary
mountain that no one on the planet knew existed, the reaction was one of
• area (p. 43) quiet enthusiasm — ‘Neat.’ ”
• focus (p. 43)
— Glenn Hodges,
• source (p. 44)
“The New Cold War,”
Places to Locate National Geographic,
• Pacific Ocean (p. 43) March 2000
• Atlantic Ocean (p. 43)
• Indian Ocean (p. 43)
• Arctic Ocean (p. 43)
• Mediterranean Sea (p. 43)
• Gulf of Mexico (p. 43)
Reading Strategy
Organizing As you read, complete
a graphic organizer similar to the
one below by listing the processes
that contribute to the water cycle.

Water Cycle

A pilot aboard a submarine

research vessel

Chapter 2 41
Sandra Teddy/Getty Images
 The Water Cycle Water vapor rising from the oceans, other bod-
ies of water, and plants is gathered in the air. The
amount of water vapor the air holds depends on
MAIN Idea The amount of water on Earth remains its temperature. Warm, less dense air holds more
fairly constant and moves in the water cycle. water vapor than does cool air.
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU Have you ever experi- When warm air cools, it cannot retain all of its
enced a day when the air just feels heavy and wet? water vapor, so the excess water vapor changes
Read to learn what causes such conditions and into liquid water—a process called condensation.
how it is related to the water cycle. Tiny droplets of water come together to form
clouds. When clouds gather more water than they
As you recall, oceans, lakes, rivers, and other can hold, they release moisture, which falls to the
bodies of water make up the Earth’s hydro- Earth as precipitation — rain, snow, or sleet,
sphere. Almost all of the hydrosphere is salt depending on the air temperature and wind con-
water found in the oceans, seas, and a few large ditions. This precipitation sinks into the ground
saltwater lakes. The remainder is freshwater and collects in streams and lakes to return to the
found in lakes, rivers, and groundwater. oceans. Soon most of it evaporates, and the cycle
The total amount of water on Earth does not begins again.
change, but the Earth’s water is constantly mov- The amount of water that evaporates is
ing — from the oceans to the air to the land and approximately the same amount that falls back
finally back to the oceans. The water cycle is the to the Earth. This amount varies little from year
name given to this regular movement of water. to year. Thus, the total volume of water in the
The diagram below shows how the water cycle water cycle is more or less constant.
works. Regions What drives the Earth’s
The sun drives the cycle by evaporating water water cycle?
from the surfaces of oceans, lakes, and streams.
Evaporation is the changing of liquid water into
vapor, or gas. The sun’s energy causes evaporation.

1. Movement In which part of the water cycle does

liquid become vapor?
The Water Cycle
2. Human-Environment Interaction How would life on
Earth be different if there were no precipitation?

Use StudentWorks™ Plus or glencoe.com.

42 Unit 1
Bodies of Salt Water
MAIN Idea Salt water covers much of the Earth’s
surface.
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU Have you ever been swim-
ming in the ocean? Read to learn about Earth’s
bodies of salt water.

Seen from space, the Earth’s oceans and seas

are more prominent than its landmasses. About
70 percent of the Earth’s surface is water, but
almost all of it is salt water. Freshwater makes
up only a small percentage of Earth’s water.

Oceans
About 97 percent of the Earth’s water consists
of a huge, continuous body of water that circles
the planet. Geographers divide this enormous
expanse into four oceans: the Pacific, the Atlantic, Because desalination is expensive, only a small
the Indian, and the Arctic. The Pacific, the larg- amount of freshwater is obtained this way. Even
est of the oceans, covers more area than all the so, certain countries in Southwest Asia and
Earth’s land combined. The Pacific Ocean is also North Africa use desalination because other
deep enough in some places to cover Mount freshwater sources are scarce. Many of these
Everest, the world’s highest mountain, with more countries also have the energy supplies to run
the desalination plants cheaply.

THE WORLD
than 1 mile (1.6 km) to spare. The immense size
of Earth’s oceans continues to inspire awe and
fascination in humans.
Seas, gulfs, and bays are bodies of salt water
smaller than oceans. These bodies of water are
often partially enclosed by land. As one of the
world’s largest seas, the Mediterranean Sea is
almost entirely encircled by southern Europe,
‘‘ That the planet’s fresh water is consumed profli-
gately is beyond doubt, particularly in agriculture,
which accounts for 70 percent of all water use.
Getting more out of each drop of water is impera-
tive, for as the world’s population increases and
northern Africa, and southwestern Asia. The the demand for food soars, unchecked irrigation
Gulf of Mexico is nearly encircled by the coasts poses a serious threat to rivers, wetlands, and
of the United States and Mexico. Scientists have

’’
lakes.
identified 66 separate seas, gulfs, and bays and
many smaller divisions.
Fen Montaigne, “Water Pressure,”
National Geographic, September 2002

Salt Water to Freshwater

Regions What are bodies of salt
Although 97 percent of the world’s water is
water smaller than oceans?
found in oceans, the water is too salty for drink-
ing, farming, or manufacturing. Today efforts
focus on ways to meet the world’s increasing
Geography ONLINE
need for freshwater, such as turning ocean water
Student Web Activity Visit the World Geography
into freshwater by removing the salt in a pro-
and Cultures Web site at glencoe.com and click on
cess known as desalination. The diagram above Student Web Activities—Chapter 2 for an activity about
shows one way that salt water can be turned the Earth’s oceans.
into freshwater.

Chapter 2 43
 Bodies of Freshwater Flowing water forms streams and rivers. Melt-
water, an overflowing lake, or a spring may be
the source, or beginning, of a stream. Streams
MAIN Idea Although there is a small amount of may combine to form a river, a larger stream of
freshwater on Earth, it is necessary to sustain life. higher volume that follows a channel along a par-
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU Does your family or com- ticular course. When rivers join, the major river
munity get its water from a well? Read to learn about systems that result may flow for thousands of
groundwater, one of Earth’s freshwater sources. miles. Rain, runoff, and water from tributaries or
branches swell rivers as they flow toward a lake,
Only about 3 percent of the Earth’s total water gulf, sea, or ocean. The place where the river emp-
supply is freshwater, and most is not available for ties into another body of water is its mouth.
human consumption. More than 2 percent is fro-
zen in glaciers and ice caps. Another 0.5 percent Groundwater
is found beneath the Earth’s surface. Lakes, Groundwater, freshwater that lies beneath the
streams, and rivers contain less than 1 percent of Earth’s surface, comes from rain and melted
the Earth’s water. snow that filter through the soil and from water
that seeps into the ground from lakes and rivers.
Lakes, Streams, and Rivers Wells and springs tap into groundwater and are
A lake is a body of water completely sur- important sources of freshwater for people in
rounded by land. Most lakes contain freshwater, many rural areas and in some cities. An under-
although some, such as Southwest Asia’s Dead ground porous rock layer often saturated by
Sea and Utah’s Great Salt Lake, are saltwater very slow flows of water is called an aquifer
remnants of ancient seas. Most lakes are found (A•kwuh•fuhr). Aquifers and groundwater are
where glacial movement has cut deep valleys important sources of freshwater.
and built up dams of soil and rock that held
back melting ice water. North America has thou- Place What are the sources of
sands of glacial lakes. Earth’s freshwater?

SECTION 3 REVIEW
Vocabulary Critical Thinking
1. Explain the significance of: water cycle, evaporation, conden- 5. Use your knowledge of the water cycle to explain
sation, precipitation, desalination, groundwater, aquifer. how droughts might occur.
6. Making Inferences Why might salt water someday provide
Main Ideas
water for drinking, farming, and manufacturing?
2. How does the water cycle function to maintain a fairly con-
7. Identifying Cause and Effect When drinking water is con-
stant amount of water on the Earth?
taminated by hazardous substances, how is it released on
3. Describe the bodies of salt water that cover much of the land or into rivers and lakes?
Earth’s surface.
8. Analyzing Visuals Look at the diagram of the water cycle on
4. Use a web diagram like the one below to identify the bodies page 42. What source of water supplies wells and springs?
of freshwater that are necessary to sustain life on Earth.
Writing About Geography
9. Expository Writing Many large urban areas developed in
river basins. Write a description of how a river or rivers con-
Earth’s Freshwater Features
tributed to the development of your community.

Geography ONLINE
Study Central™ To review this section, go to
glencoe.com and click on Study Central.

44 Unit 1
 Study anywhere, anytime
by downloading quizzes

CHAPTER 2 VISUAL SUMMARY and flashcards to your

PDA from glencoe.com.

PLANET EARTH
• Earth is the third planet from the sun in our solar system. It is one of
4 planets with a solid, rocky crust, and the only planet with liquid
water on its surface.
• Earth’s proximity to the sun allows for liquid water on the surface
needed to sustain life.
• Earth also has an atmosphere that protects life from the harmful
effects of the sun and keeps the Earth at a temperature suitable for
a variety of life forms.

Earth from Space

FORCES OF CHANGE
• The Earth is shaped by internal and external forces.
• Inside the Earth is a superheated, solid inner core. A liquid

THE WORLD
outer core is covered by the hot rock of the mantle.
• The Earth’s crust, made up of more than a dozen slabs, rests on
a melted layer of mantle. These slabs move around the globe,
creating physical features.
• Wind and water erosion shape the surface of the Earth.

Earth’s Available Water

The San Andreas Fault, California

EARTH ’S WATER
• The water cycle keeps Earth’s water constantly moving—water
evaporates from oceans, lakes and streams. Then it cools,
becomes condensation, and falls to Earth as precipitation.
• Most of Earth’s water is found in the oceans. The rest is frozen
in glaciers, found underground, or in lakes, rivers and streams.
• Because most of Earth’s water is salty ocean water, people
have found a way to remove the salt from water. Desalination
is expensive, but useful in places where freshwater is scarce.

Chapter 2 45
(bkgd)Robert Laberge/Getty Images, (tr)NASA/CORBIS, (cl)Tom Bean/CORBIS
CHAPTER 2
STANDARDIZED TEST PRACTICE
TEST TAKING TIP
TEST-TAKING
Scan the entire test section before you begin. Answer the questions
that are easiest for you first.

Reviewing Vocabulary Reviewing Main Ideas

Directions: Choose the word or words that best complete the Directions: Choose the best answers to the following questions.
sentence.
Section 1 (pp. 30–33)
1. The is the Earth’s land or crust. 5. Gravity is the physical force that
A hydrosphere A creates the asteroid belt.
B atmosphere B is due to the sun’s small mass and the lack of matter it
C biosphere contains.
D lithosphere C establishes and maintains the order of the planets.
D keeps the planets and other objects revolving around
the sun.
2. According to the theory of , the Earth’s continents
were once joined in one large landmass and then separated.
A evolution
B motion
C continental drift Section 2 (pp. 34–40)
D relativity 6. The force that does most of the work of wearing down
Earth is .
A wind
3. In the process of , Earth’s surface is worn down by B sand
wind, glaciers, and water. C water
A folding D heat
B plate tectonics
C erosion
D weathering

Section 3 (pp. 41–44)

4. A saturated, porous, underground layer of rock through which 7. The total amount of water in the hydrosphere generally
water flows slowly is . .
A a spring A decreases
B an aquifer B increases
C a desalinization C stays the same
D a pool D decreases, then increases

GO ON

46 Unit 1
 ASSESSMENT

Critical Thinking Document-Based Questions

Directions: Choose the best answers to the following questions. Directions: Analyze the document and answer the short-answer ques-
tions that follow the document.
8. How are the hydrosphere, the lithosphere, and the atmo- Human actions can make natural disasters worse. When a strong
sphere related? earthquake struck northern Pakistan in October 2005, the dam-
A All are circular regions. age was made worse by human effects on the environment.
B They are all elements that make up the biosphere.
This month’s massive earthquake did not destroy Mohammad
C People have no control over the hydrosphere, the litho- Shafi Mir’s house and bury his mother, but what followed
sphere, or the atmosphere. seconds later did: a torrent of boulders thundering down
D All three revolve around the sun. a mountainside. . . .
The landslides that tumbled across the zone of the Oct. 8
Base your answer to question 9 on the map and on your knowledge earthquake dramatized not only the power of nature but
of Chapter 2. how humans have brought tragedy upon themselves through
massive deforestation and other ecological assaults on the
Plate Movement Himalayas.
In this once-remote region, loss of green cover from com-
mercial logging, local cutting and overgrazing has weakened
the land’s ability to retain water, which now rushes easily
Gulf of Mexico down mountainsides to set off slides that some call “ecologi-
cal land mines.”
—”Earthquake Dramatizes Human Ecological Assault on the
Caribbean Sea
Himalayas,“ October 22, 2005, Associated Press Archive
N

W E 10. What human activity has made the effect of a strong earth-
quake worse?
S

11. What does the writer mean by “ecological land mines”?

PA C I F I C
OCEAN Extended Response
Lambert Azimuthal
12. Recall what you have learned about the lithosphere, hydro-
Equal-Area projection sphere, and atmosphere. How do they affect human life?

9. Which plates collided to help form the Andes? 13. What are the different types of erosion? How does each
affect the land?
A South American and Nazca
B Caribbean and Cocos
C North American and Nazca
D South American and Caribbean
STOP

Geography ONLINE
For additional test practice, use Self-Check Quizzes—
Chapter 2 on glencoe.com.
Need Extra Help?
If you missed questions. . . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Go to page. . . 32 35 39 44 31 40 42 32 37 39 40 32 39

Chapter 2 47
 CHAPTER

Why It Matters
Climate affects where and how
people live. An understanding of
Climates of
the Earth
Earth’s climates and the factors,
both physical and human, that
influence them adds to a more
complete view of life on Earth.

Section 1: Earth-Sun
Relationships
The physical environment affects
people and their activities. Earth’s
position in relation to the sun affects
temperatures, day and night, and
seasons on Earth, which in turn influ-
ence when and how people perform
certain activities.

Section 2: Factors
Affecting Climate
Physical processes shape Earth’s
surface. Latitude, elevation, wind
patterns, and ocean currents affect
Earth’s climates.

Section 3: World
Climate Patterns
Geographers organize Earth into
regions that share common char-
acteristics. Geographers classify
Earth’s climate and vegetation into
regions.

Geography ONLINE
Chapter Overview Visit the World
Geography and Cultures Web site at
glencoe.com and click on Chapter
Overviews—Chapter 3 to preview infor-
mation about planet Earth.
Monaco Glacier, Svalbard, Norway, is a
popular hunting ground for polar bears.

48 Unit 1
Hans Strand/CORBIS
 Identifying Make a Vocabulary
Book to help you organize and learn
the content vocabulary terms intro-
duced as you read about the climates
of the Earth. You may need to make
more than one Vocabulary Book.

Reading and Writing As you read the chapter, write a

THE WORLD
term on each tab and its definition underneath. You may
want to illustrate visual terms such as rain shadow.

Chapter 3 49
 SECTION 1 Earth-Sun
Guide to Reading
Section Preview
Relationships
Earth’s position in relation to the
sun affects temperatures, day and From the Alps in the heart of Europe, scientists gather
night, and seasons on Earth. data about melting glaciers and changes in the snow
Content Vocabulary line. Their research reveals information about the
• weather (p. 51) • equinox (p. 51) Earth’s atmosphere and the warming effects of the sun.
• climate (p. 51) • solstice (p. 51) Such dynamic relationships between the Earth and the
• axis (p. 51) • greenhouse
• temperature effect (p. 52) sun influence all life on Earth.
(p. 51) • global warming
• revolution (p. 53)
(p. 51) Voices Around the World
Academic Vocabulary “We marvel at the mountains, but it’s the water that everything depends on.
• contrast (p. 51) . . . Snow, glaciers, permafrost, surging hot springs, aquamarine ramparts of
• affects (p. 51) ice — the very capillaries of the rock itself are permeated with water. It comes
• regulated (p. 52) sleeking down black rock faces, it drips into hidden cavern pools. If the Alps
Places to Locate had a voice, it would be the musical notes of water. Water is what is literally
• Tropic of Cancer (p. 51) holding the high mountains together, and if the ice and permafrost begin to
• Tropic of Capricorn (p. 52) lose their grip, as is already happening, the mountains start to crumble.”
Reading Strategy — Erla Zwingle, “Meltdown: The Alps Under Pressure,”
Categorizing Complete a graphic National Geographic, February 2006
organizer similar to the one below
by listing the major characteristics
of the summer and winter solstices.

Northern Hemisphere

Summer solstice Winter solstice

• •
• •
• •
• •

Hikers in the Alps

50 Unit 1

Hans Strand/CORBIS
Climate and Weather
MAIN Idea The relationship between the Earth
and the sun affects climate, which influences life on
Earth in dramatic ways.
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU Did you know that as you
are sitting in geography class it is nighttime in some
parts of the world? Read to learn how the Earth-sun
relationship causes night and day.

Climate is often confused with weather, which

is a short-term aspect of climate. Weather is the
condition of the atmosphere in one place during
a limited period of time. When people look out
the window or watch the news to see whether
they need umbrellas or sunscreen, they are
checking the weather.
Climate is the term for the weather patterns that Earth’s Revolution
an area typically experiences over a long period of While planet Earth is rotating on its axis, it is
time. People in Seattle, Washington, for example, also traveling in an orbit around the sun, our near-
frequently use umbrellas because of the rainy, wet est star. It takes the Earth a few hours more than
climate. In contrast, people in the dry, desert 365 days—one year—to complete one revolution,
climate of Phoenix, Arizona, must use sunscreen or trip around the sun.
to protect themselves from the sun. The Earth’s revolution and its tilt cause changes
in the angle and amount of sunlight that reach
different locations on the planet. These changes

THE WORLD
Earth’s Tilt and Rotation follow a regular progression known as the sea-
Earth’s tilt is one reason for variations in sun- sons. During the course of a year, people on
light. As the diagram above shows, the Earth’s most parts of the Earth experience distinct dif-
axis — an imaginary line running from the North ferences in the length of days and the daily tem-
Pole to the South Pole through the planet’s cen- perature as the seasons change.
ter— is currently tilted at an angle of about The seasons are reversed north and south of
23½°. Because of the tilt of this axis, not all the Equator. When it is spring in the Northern
places on the planet receive the same amount of Hemisphere, it is fall in the Southern Hemisphere.
direct sunlight at the same time. When it is winter in the Southern Hemisphere, it
For this reason, the angle of tilt affects the is summer in the Northern Hemisphere. Around
temperature — the measure of how hot or cold a March 21, the sun’s rays fall directly on the
place is. Areas that receive a large amount of direct Equator. This day is called an equinox (meaning
sunlight have warmer temperatures than places “equal night”) because daylight and nighttime
that receive little direct sunlight. Temperature is hours are equal.
usually measured in degrees on a set scale. The
most common scales for measuring temperature The Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn As the Earth
are Fahrenheit (°F) and Celsius (°C). continues its revolution around the sun, it moves
Whether or not a particular place on Earth so that eventually the sun’s rays directly strike the
receives light also depends on the side of the Tropic of Cancer at 23½° N, the northernmost
planet that is facing the sun. Earth rotates on its point on the Earth to receive the direct rays of the
axis, making one complete rotation every 24 sun. These direct rays reach the Tropic of Cancer
hours. Rotating from west to east, the Earth about June 21, bringing the Northern Hemisphere
turns first one hemisphere and then the other its longest day of sunlight. This date, known as
toward the sun, alternating between the light of the summer solstice, marks the beginning of sum-
day and the darkness of night. mer in the Northern Hemisphere.

Chapter 3 51
 By about September 23, the Earth has revolved
so that the sun’s rays directly strike the Equator The Greenhouse Effect
again. This equinox marks the beginning of fall in
the Northern Hemisphere. Gradually the sun’s MAIN Idea The natural process of the greenhouse
direct rays strike farther south, reaching their effect has been influenced by human activity.
southernmost latitude of 23½° S, at the Tropic of GEOGRAPHY AND YOU Have you heard news
Capricorn about December 22. The winter sol- accounts of the dangers of global warming? Read to
stice is the day of shortest daylight in the Northern learn how global warming can affect Earth.
Hemisphere, beginning the season of winter.
The Poles The most dramatic variation in the Even on the sunniest days in the warmest cli-
amount of sunlight occurs at the Poles. For six mates, only part of the sun’s radiation passes
months of the year, one Pole is tilted toward the through the Earth’s atmosphere. The atmosphere
sun and receives continuous sunlight, while the reflects some radiation back into space. Enough
other Pole is tilted away from the sun and radiation, however, reaches the Earth to warm
receives little to no sunlight. the land, water, and air.
At the North Pole, the sun never sets from Because the atmosphere traps some heat and
about March 20 to September 23. At the South keeps it from escaping back into space too
Pole, continuous daylight lasts from about quickly, Earth’s atmosphere is like the glass in a
September 23 to March 20. The tilt of the Earth’s greenhouse — it traps the sun’s energy for grow-
axis as it revolves around the sun causes this natu- ing plants even in cold weather. Without this
ral phenomenon, known as the midnight sun. The greenhouse effect, the Earth would be too cold
occurrence of the midnight sun goes almost unno- for most living things.
ticed in sparsely populated Antarctica. Parts of In order to support plant growth, conditions
northern North America (including Alaska) and in a greenhouse must be regulated. If too much
northern Europe in the Arctic, however, have
become popular tourist destinations as lands of
the midnight sun.
Regions What factor distin- 1. Regions Why are the seasons reversed in the
guishes weather from climate? Northern and Southern Hemispheres?
2. Place Explain the difference between the equinoxes
and the solstices.

The Earth’s Seasons Use StudentWorks™ Plus or glencoe.com.

52 Unit 1
heat escapes, the plants will freeze. If too much
heat is trapped, the plants will wilt or dry out.
The greenhouse effect of Earth’s atmosphere fol-
lows some of the same general rules. Normally,
the atmosphere provides just the right amount of
insulation to promote life on the planet. The
50 percent of the sun’s radiation that reaches the
Earth is converted into infrared radiation, or heat.
Clouds and greenhouse gases—atmospheric com-
ponents such as water vapor and carbon dioxide
(CO2)—absorb the heat reflected by the Earth and
radiate it back again so that a balance is created.
Many scientists, however, claim that in recent
decades a rise in atmospheric CO2 levels has coin-
cided with a general rise in global temperatures.
This trend — known as global warming — is
believed to be caused in part by human activities,
such as the burning of coal, oil, and natural gas.
These fossil fuels release carbon dioxide, a green- Scientists do not all agree on the nature of
house gas, in the atmosphere that traps more heat. global warming and its effects. Some claim that
Some scientists report that global warming will a natural cycle, not human activity, is causing
make weather patterns more extreme. Water, for rising temperatures. Others claim that the evi-
example, will evaporate more rapidly from oceans, dence for global warming is inconclusive and
increasing humidity and rainfall generally. Rapid that it is too early to forecast future effects.
water evaporation from soil, however, will cause Human-Environment Interaction
land to dry out more quickly between rains. Some How has human activity contributed to global
areas may even become drier than before. warming?

THE WORLD
SECTION 1 REVIEW
Vocabulary Critical Thinking
1. Explain the significance of: weather, climate, axis, temperature, 4. What effects does the Earth’s tilt on its axis have on
revolution, equinox, solstice, greenhouse effect, global your daily life?
warming. 5. Comparing and Contrasting Explain the differences in the
weather you would expect in Alaska and in Florida.
Main Ideas
6. Analyzing Information What would you pack if you were
2. Explain the greenhouse effect. Then describe how this natural
visiting Argentina in December?
process has been influenced by human activity.
7. Analyzing Visuals Study the diagram of the Earth’s seasons
3. Use a chart like the one below to describe how the relation-
on page 52. In what months do the sun’s rays directly strike
ship between the Earth and the sun affects climate. List
the Equator? The Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn?
characteristics of the Earth-sun relationship and describe their
effects on climate. Writing About Geography
8. Expository Writing Review the text in Section 1 about global
Earth-Sun Relationship Effects on Climate
warming. Then write a paragraph explaining the ways in
Tilt which agriculture may be affected.
Rotation
Revolution
Geography ONLINE
Study Central™ To review this section, go to
glencoe.com and click on Study Central.

Chapter 3 53
 SECTION 2 Factors
Guide to Reading
Section Preview
Affecting Climate
Factors such as latitude, elevation,
wind patterns, and ocean currents Latitude, wind patterns, ocean currents, and landforms
affect Earth’s climates. create extremely cold temperatures and climate condi-
Content Vocabulary tions in Antarctica. Only a few brave researchers and
• prevailing wind • El Niño (p. 58) scientists spend months at a time in one of the last wil-
(p. 56) • windward derness places on Earth. Antarctica provides them with
• Coriolis effect (p. 59)
(p. 56) • leeward (p. 59) a wonderful natural laboratory in which to study Earth.
• doldrums • rain shadow
(p. 57) (p. 59)
• current (p. 57) Voices Around the World
Academic Vocabulary “There are no places left like Antarctica: a wilderness continent that offers scien-
• retains (p. 55) tists unique views of the workings of the Earth. . . . [W]inds roll down the polar
• creates (p. 56) plateau at speeds up to 180 miles an hour. Some of the world’s most violent
• factors (p. 57) squalls and mountainous seas batter the lonely archipelagoes off the Antarctic
Places to Locate Peninsula. . . . Antarctica influences weather patterns across the Southern
• low latitudes (p. 55) Hemisphere, shapes ocean currents throughout the world, and acts as a
• high latitudes (p. 55) sobering litmus for humanity’s use and abuse of the planet.”
• Arctic Circle (p. 55)
• Antarctic Circle (p. 55) —Roff Smith,
• midlatitudes (p. 55) “Frozen Under,”
National Geographic,
Reading Strategy December 2001
Organizing As you read about fac-
tors affecting Earth’s climate, create
a web diagram like the one below
by listing factors that cause both
winds and ocean currents.

Winds and Ocean

Currents

Adélie penguin, Antarctica

54 Unit 1
Tim Davis/Stone Collection/Getty Images
Latitude, Elevation, Warm/hot and cool/cold air masses affect mid-
latitude weather throughout the year. Although
and Climate warm, tropical, wet air masses from near the
Equator predominate in summer, they are still
present in winter. In fact, they are the source of the
MAIN Idea Latitude and elevation affect the angle
rain and snow the midlatitudes receive during win-
of the sun’s rays and temperatures on Earth.
ter. Cool/cold air masses bring this part of the
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU Did you know that some world its relief from the hot, humid weather in
parts of the Earth experience daylight nearly 24 hours summer, as well as the cold of winter.
a day for six months? Read to learn how latitude
affects the amount of sun a place receives.
Elevation
During the Earth’s annual revolution around At all latitudes, elevation influences climate
the sun, the sun’s direct rays fall upon the planet because of the relationship between the eleva-
in a regular pattern. This pattern can be corre- tion of a place and its temperature. The table
lated with bands, or zones, of latitude to describe below shows how elevation can influence tem-
climate regions. Within each latitude zone, cli- perature regardless of latitude. The Earth’s atmo-
mate follows general patterns. sphere thins as altitude increases. Thinner air is
less dense and retains less heat. As elevation
increases, temperatures decrease by about 3.5°F
Low Latitudes (1.9°C) for each 1,000 feet (305 m). This effect
Between 30° S and 30° N latitude is a zone occurs at all latitudes. For example, in Ecuador,
known as the low latitudes. This zone includes the city of Quito (KEE•toh) is nearly on the
the Tropic of Capricorn, the Equator, and the Equator. However, Quito lies in the Andes at an
Tropic of Cancer. Portions of the low latitudes elevation of more than 9,000 feet (2,743 m), so
receive the direct rays of the sun year-round. average temperatures there are about 32°F
Places located in the low latitudes have warm to (18°C) cooler than in the coastal lowlands.

THE WORLD
hot climates.
The Influence of Elevation on Temperature
High Latitudes Elevation Latitude & Average
Longitude Temperature
The Earth’s polar areas, which stretch from
60° N to 90° N and from 60° S to 90° S, are Quito, Ecuador 9,223 ft. 0°09´ S 58°F (14°C)
(2,811 m) 78°29´ W
called the high latitudes. When either the
Nairobi, Kenya 5,327 ft. 1°19´ S 67°F (19°C)
Northern or the Southern Hemisphere is tilted (1,623 m) 36°55´ E
toward the sun, its polar area receives nearly Bujumbura, 2,568 ft. 3°19´ S 77°F (25°C)
continuous, but indirect, sunlight. From about Burundi (782 m) 29°19´ E
March 21 to about September 23, the polar area Manaus, Brazil 276 ft. 3°09´ S 81°F (27°C)
from north of the Arctic Circle (latitude 66½° N) (84 m) 59°59´ W
experiences continuous daylight or twilight. The Telluride, 8,760 ft. 37°57´ N 39°F (3°C)
polar area south of the Antarctic Circle (latitude Colorado (2,670 m) 107°49´ W
66½° S) experiences continuous daylight or twi- Source: www.weatherbase.com
light for the other six months of the year.

Midlatitudes Sunlight is bright in Quito and other places

The most variable weather on Earth is found with high elevation because the thinner atmo-
in the midlatitudes, between 30° N and 60° N in sphere filters fewer rays of the sun. Even in
the Northern Hemisphere and between 30° S bright sunlight, the world’s highest mountains—
and 60° S in the Southern Hemisphere. The mid- the Andes and the Alps, for example—are cold,
latitudes generally have a temperate climate — one snowy places year-round.
that ranges from fairly hot to fairly cold — with Regions What happens to tem-
dramatic seasonal weather changes. perature as elevation increases?

Chapter 3 55
 World Zones of Latitude and Wind Patterns

Winds and Ocean Wind Patterns

Currents Winds blow because of temperature differences
on Earth’s surface, with tropical air moving
toward the Poles and polar air moving toward
MAIN Idea Wind and water combine with the the Equator. Global winds blow in fairly constant
effects of the sun to influence Earth’s weather and patterns called prevailing winds, as shown on the
climate.
map above. The direction of prevailing winds is
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU How does wind affect the determined by latitude and is affected by the
weather in your community? Does it bring cold air or Earth’s movement. Because Earth rotates to the
warm air? Read to learn about the patterns of global east, the global winds are displaced clockwise in
winds and ocean currents that affect climate. the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise
in the Southern Hemisphere. This phenomenon,
Air moving across the surface of the Earth is called the Coriolis effect, causes prevailing winds
called wind. Winds occur because sunlight heats to blow diagonally rather than along strict north-
the Earth’s atmosphere and surface unevenly. south or east-west directions.
Rising warm air creates areas of low pressure, Winds are often named for the direction from
and sinking cool air causes areas of high pres- which they blow, but they sometimes were given
sure. The cool air then flows in to replace the names from the early days of sailing. Named for
warm rising air. These movements over the their ability to move trading ships through the
Earth’s surface cause winds, which distribute the region, the prevailing winds of the low latitudes
sun’s energy around the planet. are called trade winds. They blow from the north-

56 Unit 1
 World Ocean Currents

1. Regions What air currents flow over the midlatitudes?

2. Movement How do ocean currents develop? How is this process
east toward the Equator from about latitude similar to the development of wind patterns?
30° N and from the southeast toward the Equator
from about latitude 30° S. Westerlies are the pre- Use StudentWorks™ Plus or glencoe.com.
vailing winds in the midlatitudes, blowing diago-
nally west to east between about 30° N and 60° N
and between about 30° S and 60° S. In the high To lighten the load so the ships could take
latitudes, the polar easterlies blow diagonally east advantage of the slightest breeze, sailors would
to west, pushing cold air toward the midlatitudes. toss excess cargo and supplies overboard, includ-
ing livestock being carried to colonial settle-
The Horse Latitudes ments. This practice gave rise to the name by
which the calm areas at the edges of the Tropics
At the Equator, global winds are diverted north
are known — the horse latitudes.
and south, leaving a narrow, generally windless
band called the doldrums. Two other narrow
bands of calm air encircle the globe just north of Ocean Currents
the Tropic of Cancer and just south of the Tropic Just as winds move in patterns, cold and warm
of Capricorn. In the days of wind-powered sail- streams of water, known as currents, move
ing ships, crews feared being stranded in these through the oceans. Ocean currents are caused by
windless areas. With no moving air to lift the many of the same factors that cause winds, includ-
sails, ships were stranded for weeks in the hot, ing the Earth’s rotation, changes in air pressure,
still weather. Food supplies dwindled, and perish- and differences in water temperature. The Coriolis
able cargoes spoiled as the ships sat. effect is also observed in ocean currents.

Chapter 3 57
 As ocean currents circulate, cold water from El Niño (ehl NEE•nyoh). It is a periodic change in
the polar areas moves slowly toward the Equator, the pattern of ocean currents, water temperatures,
warming as it moves toward the low latitudes. and weather in the mid-Pacific region.
This water forms the warm ocean currents. The El Niño does not occur every year, but its
warm water, in turn, moves away from the frequency appears to have increased over the last
Equator, cooling as it nears the polar areas. 25 years. In an El Niño year, the normally low
Ocean currents affect climate in the coastal lands atmospheric pressure over the western Pacific
along which they flow. Cold ocean currents cool rises, and the normally high pressure over the
the lands they pass. Warm ocean currents bring eastern Pacific drops. This reversal causes the
warmer temperatures. For example, the North trade winds to diminish or even to reverse direc-
Atlantic Current flows near western Europe. This tion. The change in wind pattern reverses the
current gives western Europe a relatively mild cli- equatorial ocean currents, drawing warm water
mate in spite of its northern latitude. from near Indonesia east to Ecuador, where it
spreads along the coasts of Peru and Chile.
Weather and the Water Cycle Changing air pressures resulting from El Niño
Wind and water work together to affect weather influence climates around the world. Precipitation
in another important way. Driven by temperature, increases along the coasts of North and South
condensation creates precipitation—moisture fall- America, warming winters and increasing the risk
ing to the Earth in the form of rain, sleet, hail, or of floods. In Southeast Asia and Australia, drought
snow. The sudden cloudburst that cools a steamy and occasional massive forest fires occur.
summer day is an example of how precipitation Scientists are not sure what causes El Niño or
both affects and is affected by temperature. Water why it appears to be occurring more frequently.
vapor forms in the atmosphere from evaporated Preliminary studies have linked it to global
surface water. As rising air cools when elevation warming. The costs in human and economic
increases, the water vapor condenses into liquid terms of the weather catastrophes associated
droplets, forming clouds. Further cooling causes with El Niño make learning more about this cli-
rain to fall, which can help lower the temperature matic event vitally important.
on warm days. Place What happens to global
winds at the Equator?
El Niño
Climate is also affected by recurring phenomena,
or events, that alter weather patterns. The most
famous of these recurring climatic events is
1. Human-Environment Interaction How might El
Niño impact the lives of people in North America?

The Influence of El Niño 2. Place What happens to the water temperatures and
wind patterns in an El Niño year?

58 Unit 1
Landforms and
Climate
MAIN Idea Landforms and bodies of water influ-
ence Earth’s climate patterns.
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU Do you live near moun-
tains? A large body of water? Read to find out how
these features can affect climate.

The climates of places located at the same lati-

tude can be very different, depending on the pres-
ence or absence of certain physical features. Large
bodies of water, for example, are slower to heat windward side — the side of the mountain range
and to cool than land. As a result, water tempera- facing the wind. After the precipitation is
tures are more uniform and constant than land released, winds become warmer and drier as
temperatures. Coastal lands receive the benefit of they descend on the opposite, or leeward, side of
this moderating influence and experience less the mountains. The hot, dry air produces little
changeable weather than do inland areas. precipitation in an effect known as a rain shadow.
Mountain ranges, too, influence precipitation The rain shadow effect often causes dry
and affect climate. As the diagram shows, winds areas — and even deserts — to develop on the lee-
are pushed upward when they meet a mountain ward sides of mountain ranges.
range. The rising air cools and releases most of Movement What happens to
its moisture in the form of precipitation on the winds after they release precipitation?

THE WORLD
SECTION 2 REVIEW
Vocabulary Critical Thinking
1. Explain the significance of: prevailing wind, Coriolis effect, 5. Describe the general differences in climate
doldrums, current, El Niño, windward, leeward, rain between the low latitudes and the midlatitudes.
shadow. 6. Analyzing Information Both Quito, Ecuador, and Singapore,
Singapore, are located near the Equator. What factor may
Main Ideas
contribute to Quito’s lower average annual temperature?
2. How do wind and water combine with the effects of the sun to
7. Identifying Cause and Effect How does the presence of
influence Earth’s weather and climate?
mountain ranges influence climate?
3. Explain how landforms and bodies of water influence Earth’s
8. Analyzing Visuals Study the maps of wind patterns and ocean
climate patterns.
currents on pages 56–57. Describe the patterns of warm currents
4. Use a table like the one below to explain how latitude and and cold currents on both maps. Are they similar or different?
elevation affect the angle of the sun’s rays and temperatures
on Earth. Writing About Geography
9. Expository Writing Study the map of wind currents on
Location Effect page 56. Suppose you are on a ship sailing in the low lati-
Low latitudes
tudes. Write a paragraph explaining what might happen as
you drift near the Equator.
High latitudes
Midlatitudes
Elevation Geography ONLINE
Study Central™ To review this section, go to
glencoe.com and click on Study Central.

Chapter 3 59
 SECTION 3 World Climate
Guide to Reading
Section Preview
Patterns
Geographers classify Earth’s climate
and vegetation into regions. Recurr- Ordinary climate patterns vary from region to region.
ing climate phenomena influence However, factors such as winds and air pressure can cre-
climate patterns.
ate pockets of dramatic climate. For example, most of
Content Vocabulary Australia has a dry climate, but during the summer the
• natural • mixed forest trade winds meet, creating intense thunderstorms and
vegetation (p. 62)
(p. 61) • prairie (p. 62) bringing monsoons to the continent’s northern coast.
• oasis (p. 61) • permafrost
• coniferous (p. 63)
(p. 62) • hypothesis Voices Around the World
• deciduous (p. 64)
“Here at last, in Weipa, was the wet I’d been looking for — the lush growth
(p. 62) • smog (p. 64)
along the shore, the brooding thundery skies, the heavy curtains of rain. Nearly
Academic Vocabulary three feet of rain had fallen here in the past month, and more drenchings were
• widespread (p. 61) on the way. ‘All this can get to be really depressing,’ a woman named Lorisa
• exceeds (p. 61) Morgan told me one morning when I dropped by the community center and
• consists (p. 61)
thrift shop. ‘You get so tired after a while of mold growing on everything. You
Places to Locate want to go out for a nice dinner? First you have to
• Tropics (p. 61) clean the mold off your belt and shoes. We have to
• Sahara (p. 61) store our videos and computer disks in the refrig-
Reading Strategy erator to keep the mold from ruining them.’”
Organizing Complete a graphic
organizer similar to the one below — Roff Smith, “The Wet Down Under,”
National Geographic, November 2004
by filling in a brief description of
each climate region.

Climate Description
Tropical
Dry
Midlatitude
Flooding in New South Wales, Australia
High latitude
Highland

60 Unit 1
Vivien Jones/AP Images
Climate Regions Dry areas with sparse plant life are called
deserts. Yearly rainfall in deserts seldom exceeds
10 inches (about 25 cm), and temperatures vary
MAIN Idea Geographers divide the Earth into widely from the heat of day to the cool of night
regions that have similar climates. and from season to season. Desert climates
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU Does it rain much where occur in just under one-third of the Earth’s total
you live? Or is it very cold with lots of snow? Read land area. The Sahara alone extends over almost
to learn about the climate region where you live. the entire northern one-third of the African
continent.
Climates are organized into regions — tropical, The natural vegetation of deserts consists of
dry, midlatitude, high latitude, and highland. But scrub and cactus, plants that tolerate low and
since climates can vary within these broad regions, unreliable precipitation, low humidity, and wide
geographers further divide the major regions into temperature ranges. In some desert areas, under-
smaller ones. Each of these divisions has its own ground springs may support an oasis, an area of
characteristic soils and natural vegetation — the lush vegetation. Some deserts have dunes or
plant life that grows in an area where the natural rocky surfaces, and others have fertile soil that
environment is unchanged by human activity. can yield crops through irrigation.
Often bordering deserts are dry, largely tree-
Tropical Climates less grasslands called steppes. Yearly rainfall in
Tropical climates are found in or near the low steppe areas averages 10 to 20 inches (25 to 51
latitudes — the Tropics. The two most wide- cm). The world’s largest steppe stretches across
spread kinds of tropical climate regions are eastern Europe and western and central Asia.
tropical wet and tropical dry. Steppes are also found in North America, South
Hot and wet throughout the year, tropical wet America, Africa, and Australia.
climates have an average temperature of 80°F
(27°C). The warm, humid air is saturated with
moisture, producing rain almost daily. Yearly Latitude, Climate, and Vegetation
rainfall averages about 80 inches (203 cm). This
continual rain tends to leach, or draw out, nutri-
ents from the soil in these climates. Wildlife is
also abundant.
Tropical rain forest vegetation grows thickly
in layers. Tall trees form a canopy over shorter
trees and bushes. Shade-loving plants grow on
the trees. The world’s largest tropical rain forest
is in the Amazon River basin. Similar climate
and vegetation exist in other parts of South
America, the Caribbean, Asia, and Africa.
Tropical dry climates have dry winters and wet
summers, accompanied by high year-round tem-
peratures. In the dry season, the ground is covered
with clumps of coarse grass. Fewer trees exist in
these regions, also called savannas, than in the rain
forests. Tropical savannas are found in Africa,
Central and South America, Asia, and Australia.

Dry Climates 1. Regions How do changes in temperature and moisture affect

Geographers have identified two types of dry vegetation?
climates, based on the vegetation in each. Both
2. Place What sort of temperatures would you expect to find in a
desert and steppe climates occur in low latitudes
temperate grassland? A rain forest?
and midlatitudes.

Chapter 3 61
 Midlatitude Climates
The midlatitudes include four temperate cli- with similar climate and vegetation. Such areas
mate regions. Midlatitude climates experience include southwest Australia.
variable weather patterns and seasonal changes In the southeastern United States, a humid sub-
that give rise to a variety of natural vegetation. tropical climate brings short, mild winters and
Along western coastlines, between the latitudes nearly year-round rain. The wind patterns and
of 30° N and 60° N and 30° S and 60° S, are regions high pressure related to nearby oceans keep
with a marine west coast climate. For example, the humidity levels high in these areas. Vegetation
Pacific coast of North America has a marine west consists of prairies, or inland grasslands, and for-
coast climate. Ocean winds bring cool summers ests of evergreen and deciduous trees.
and cool, damp winters. Abundant rainfall sup- In some midlatitude regions of the Northern
ports the growth of both coniferous and deciduous Hemisphere, landforms influence climate more
trees. Coniferous trees, most of which are ever- than winds, precipitation, or ocean temperatures
greens, have cones. Deciduous trees, most of which do. Humid continental climate regions do not
have broad leaves, change color and drop their experience the moderating effect of ocean winds
leaves in autumn. Typical of marine west coast cli- because of their northerly continental, or inland,
mates are mixed forests with both kinds of trees. locations. The farther north one travels in these
Lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea humid continental areas, the longer and more
have mild, rainy winters and hot, sunny sum- severe are the snowy winters, and the shorter and
mers. The natural vegetation includes thickets of cooler are the summers. Vegetation in humid con-
woody bushes and short trees known as tinental regions is similar to that found in marine
Mediterranean scrub. Geographers classify as west coast areas, with evergreens outnumbering
Mediterranean any coastal midlatitude areas deciduous trees in the northernmost areas.

World Climate Regions

62 Unit 1
High-Latitude Climates Snow and ice, often more than 2 miles (3 km)
thick, constantly cover the surfaces of ice cap
In high-latitude climates, freezing tempera-
regions. Lichens are the only form of vegetation
tures are common throughout the year because
that can survive in these areas, where monthly
of the lack of direct sunlight. As a result, the
temperatures average below freezing.
amount and variety of vegetation is limited.
Just south of the Arctic Circle lie the subarctic
climate regions. Winters here are bitterly cold, Highland Climates
and summers are short and cool. Subarctic High mountain areas, even along the Equator,
regions have the world’s widest temperature share some of the same characteristics of high-
ranges, varying from winter to summer by as latitude climates because of the thinning of the
much as 120°F (49°C). In parts of the subarctic, atmosphere at high altitudes. The higher the eleva-
only a thin layer of surface soil thaws each sum- tion, the cooler the temperatures. Natural vegeta-
mer. Below it is permanently frozen subsoil, or tion also varies with elevation. Mixed forests lie at
permafrost. Brief summer growing seasons may the bases of mountain ranges. Higher up are mead-
support needled evergreens. ows with small trees, shrubs, and wildflowers.
Closer to the Poles are tundra climate regions. Regions What happens as you
Winter darkness and bitter cold last for several move north through humid continental regions?
months and the sun’s indirect rays during long
summer days have limited warming effects. The
layer of thawed soil is even thinner than in the
subarctic. Trees cannot establish roots, so vege-
tation is limited to low bushes, very short grasses, 1. Regions Why does the amount of vegetation
mosses, and lichens (LY• kuhns). decrease as you move toward higher latitudes?
2. Location Which type of climate and vegetation is
found only along coastal areas?
World Natural Vegetation Regions Use StudentWorks™ Plus or glencoe.com.

THE WORLD

Chapter 3 63
 Climate Changes sunlight back into space, cooling the atmosphere
and lowering surface temperatures.
Human interaction with the environment also
MAIN Idea Climate changes over time. Although affects climate. Burning fossil fuels releases gases
the causes of change are unclear, evidence sug- that mix with water in the air, forming acids that
gests that human activity has influenced some of fall in rain and snow. Acid rain can destroy for-
the changes. ests. Fewer forests may result in climatic change.
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU Does your community The exhaust released from burning fossil fuels in
have problems with smog? Read to learn how automobile engines and factories is heated in the
human activity can influence climate change. atmosphere by the sun’s ultraviolet rays, forming
smog, a visible chemical haze in the atmosphere
that endangers people’s health. Other human-
Climates change gradually over time, although
driven changes result from dams and river diver-
the causes of these changes are unclear. Scientists
sions. These projects, intended to supply water to
search for answers by studying the interrelation-
dry areas, may cause new areas to flood or to dry
ships among ocean temperatures, greenhouse
out and may affect climate over time.
gases, wind patterns, and cloud cover.
During the last 1 to 2 million years, for exam- Human-Environment Interaction
ple, the Earth passed through four ice ages, eras How does the burning of fossil fuels create smog?
when glaciers covered large areas of the planet’s
surface. One hypothesis, or scientific explana-
Geography ONLINE
tion, for these ice ages is that the Earth absorbed
Student Web Activity Visit the World Geography
less solar energy because of variations in the
and Cultures Web site at glencoe.com and click on
sun’s output of energy or because of variations
Student Web Activities—Chapter 3 for an activity about
in the Earth’s orbit. Another hypothesis suggests global climate change.
that dust clouds from volcanic activity reflected

SECTION 3 REVIEW
Vocabulary Critical Thinking
1. Explain the significance of: natural vegetation, oasis, conifer- 4. How are the five major climate regions related to
ous, deciduous, mixed forest, prairie, permafrost, hypothesis, the three zones of latitude?
smog. 5. Comparing and Contrasting What factors account for the
similarities and differences between the subdivisions in tropi-
Main Ideas
cal climate zones?
2. Describe one hypothesis for climate change. Then list exam-
6. Drawing Conclusions What are the two main categories of
ples of human activities that affect climate.
factors causing climate change?
3. Create a table like the one below to show how geographers
7. Analyzing Visuals Study the map of world natural vegetation
divide the Earth into regions with similar climates. Add infor-
regions on page 63. What vegetation type dominates Russia?
mation and a brief description about each of the world’s cli-
Canada?
mate regions.
Writing About Geography
Earth’s Climates
Climate Region Features 8. Summary Writing On the map of world climate regions on
page 62, locate the climate regions for Tashkent, Cape Town,
Lima, Chicago, London, and Jakarta. Then write a paragraph
summarizing the relationship between climate and settlement.

Geography ONLINE
Study Central™ To review this section, go to
glencoe.com and click on Study Central.

64 Unit 1
 Study anywhere, anytime
by downloading quizzes

CHAPTER 3 VISUAL SUMMARY and flashcards to your

PDA from glencoe.com.

EARTH-SUN RELATIONSHIPS
• The relationship of the Earth to the sun affects climate patterns
around the world.
• The Earth’s tilt and revolution cause the seasons by changing
the relationship of the Earth’s surface to the sun.
• When the sun is directly over the Tropic of Cancer it is summer
in the Northern Hemisphere. When it is directly over the Tropic
of Capricorn, it is winter in the Northern Hemisphere.

Latitude and Temperature

Inuit boy with sled dogs during midnight sun, Canada

FACTORS AFFECTING CLIMATE

THE WORLD
• Latitude plays a major role in climate. The farther one gets from
the Equator, the cooler the climate.
• High elevations are generally cooler than the surrounding
landscape.
• Other factors that help determine climate are wind and water
currents, recurring phenomena such as El Nino, and large
landforms.

WORLD CLIMATE PATTERNS

• Geographers divide the world into major climate regions.
• The major climate regions are tropical, dry, midlatitude, high
latitude and highland climates. Each of these can be broken
down into smaller categories.
• Each climate region has its own characteristic natural
vegetation.
• Climate patterns change over time as a result of both natural
processes and human activity.

Viedma glacier breaking into lake, Argentina

Chapter 3 65

(bkgd)Robert Laberge/Getty Images, (tr)Rob Howard/CORBIS, (br)Keren Su/CORBIS

CHAPTER 3
STANDARDIZED TEST PRACTICE
TEST TAKING TIP
TEST-TAKING
If you find a question that is more difficult for you, skip it and go on to answer the
other questions. Then return to the more difficult question.

Reviewing Vocabulary Reviewing Main Ideas

Directions: Choose the word or words that best complete the Directions: Choose the best answers to the following questions.
sentence.
Section 1 (pp. 50–53)
1. Day-to-day conditions of the atmosphere make up . 5. Why is the greenhouse effect necessary to life?
A weather A People’s activities increase the greenhouse effect.
B climate B Without the greenhouse effect, Earth would be too cold
C axis for life.
D equinox C Farmers grow crops in greenhouses.
D Scientists are afraid that climate change will harm society.

2. Long-term atmospheric conditions that people can expect to

be generally true make up .
A weather
B climate
Section 2 (pp. 54–59)
C solstice
6. During El Niño years, weather in western South America
D tilt becomes .
A hotter and drier
B warmer and rainier
3. Because of , winds tend to blow diagonally rather
than from due north, south, east, or west. C colder and rainier
A weather D colder and drier
B rain shadow
C the Coriolis effect
D El Niño

Section 3 (pp. 60–64)

4. Grasslands in midlatitude climates are called . 7. Each climate region has its own kind of .
A savannas A rock structure
B mixed vegetation B tectonic plate
C prairies C natural vegetation
D tundras D Coriolis effect

GO ON

66 Unit 1
 ASSESSMENT

Critical Thinking Document-Based Questions

Directions: Choose the best answers to the following questions. Directions: Analyze the document and answer the short-answer
questions that follow the document.
8. How do human activities impact climate?
A The sun may give off varying amounts of solar energy. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
went into force in 1994. The excerpt below explains why its
B Volcanic eruptions may increase cloud cover. framers believed it was necessary.
C People add gases to the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels.
D Scientists do research to learn what causes climate change. The Parties to this Convention,
Acknowledging that change in the Earth’s climate and its
Base your answer to question 9 on the map and on your knowledge
adverse effects are a common concern of humankind,
of Chapter 3.
Concerned that human activities have been substantially
Temperature Variation increasing the atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse
gases, that these increases enhance the natural greenhouse
effect, and that this will result on average in an additional
ARCTIC OCEAN warming of the Earth’s surface and atmosphere and may
adversely affect natural ecosystems and humankind, . . .
Acknowledging that the global nature of climate change calls
for the widest possible cooperation by all countries and their
participation in an effective and appropriate international
response, in accordance with their common but differentiated
responsibilities and respective capabilities and their social and
economic conditions, . . .
Affirming that responses to climate change should be coordi-
N
nated with social and economic development in an integrated
manner with a view to avoiding adverse impacts on the latter,
W E taking into full account the legitimate priority needs of devel-
S
oping countries for the achievement of sustained economic
growth and the eradication of poverty. . . .

10. Why were the writers of the framework concerned about

PACIFIC ATLANTIC climate?
OCEAN OCEAN

11. What attitude does the framework take regarding social

and economic development?

Extended Response
9. Going from the Equator to the North Pole, average
temperatures______. 12. Describe the influence humans have upon
climate change?
A become progressively warmer STOP
B become warmer, then colder
C become colder, then warmer
D become progressively colder Geography ONLINE
For additional test practice, use Self-Check Quizzes—
Chapter 3 on glencoe.com.
Need Extra Help?
If you missed questions. . . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Go to page. . . 51 51 56 62 52 58 61 64 55 64 64 64

Chapter 3 67
 CHAPTER

Why It Matters
A study of the human world—
population, culture, political and
The Human
World
economic systems, and resources—
will help you understand events in
the world around you.

Section 1: World Population

The characteristics and distribu-
tion of human populations affect
physical and human systems.
Population growth and distribution
influence where people live and
how they change the natural
environment.

Section 2: Global Cultures

The characteristics and distribution
of cultures influence human sys-
tems. The spatial interaction of
cultures can spread new ideas,
establish trading relationships, cause
wars, and build political partnerships.

Section 3: Political and

Economic Systems
Cooperation and conflict among
people influence the division and
control of Earth’s surface. Political
and economic systems provide the
organization and power for groups
of people to control Earth’s surface.
Geography ONLINE
Section 4: Resources, Trade, Chapter Overview Visit the World
and the Environment Geography and Cultures Web site at
Changes occur in the use, distribu- glencoe.com and click on Chapter
tion, and importance of natural Overviews—Chapter 4 to preview infor-
resources. People are dependent mation about planet Earth.
on the world’s natural resources for
survival, but certain economic activi-
ties can threaten humans’ future
access to these resources.
A woman sells fresh seafood in a Korean market.

68 Unit 1
Yvette Cardozo/Imagestock
 Know-Want-Learn Create a
Trifold Book to help you keep track
of what you know, what you want to
learn, and what you learn about the
geography of the human world.

Reading and Writing Before you read, make a list on

your Foldable of what you know about world population,
cultures, political and economic systems, and resources,
trade, and the environment. Then make a list of what
you want to learn about these topics. When you have fin-

THE WORLD
ished reading the chapter, write down what you learned.

Chapter 4 69
 SECTION 1 World
Guide to Reading
Section Preview
Population
Population growth and distribution
influence where people live and Explorer and conservationist J. Michael Fay’s flight
how they change the natural across Africa showed that the effects of rapid popula-
environment.
tion growth reflect the global challenge humans face
Content Vocabulary today. How can people maintain conditions favorable
• death rate • doubling time to human life without endangering those very condi-
(p. 71) (p. 71)
• birthrate (p. 71) • population tions through overpopulation?
• natural distribution
increase (p. 71) (p. 72)
• migration (p. 71) • population Voices Around the World
• demographic density (p. 72) “Wherever humans live at high population densities, making unsustainable
transition (p. 71)
demands on natural systems . . . you eventually see ecological breakdown,
Academic Vocabulary unmet needs, and tensions that lead toward conflict. Look at Darfur. Look at
• trend (p. 71) Rwanda. Look at Zimbabwe. Get beyond the
• community (p. 72) headlines, beyond the tribal and racial ani-
• negative (p. 72)
mosities, to the resource disputes that
Places to Locate underlie them. . . . Along with the human
• Hungary (p. 72) struggles come human impacts. Although
• Germany (p. 72) some areas of landscape are less heavily
• Canada (p. 73)
inhabited than they might be, others are
• Bangladesh (p. 73)
overburdened, eroded, blighted by the
• Mexico City (p. 74)
presence and demands of too many
Reading Strategy people.”
Organizing As you read about
changes in world population, create — David Quammen, “Tracing the
a web diagram like the one below Human Footprint,” National
by listing the challenges created by Geographic, September 2005
population growth.

Challenges of
Population Growth

A Sudanese refugee

70 Unit 1
Cris Bouroncle/AFP/Getty Images
Population Growth The Demographic Transition Model

MAIN Idea Population growth varies from country

to country and is influenced by cultural ideas, migra-
tion, and level of development.
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU Do you have any siblings?
If so, how many? Read to learn how changes in
family size create challenges to population growth.

Nearly 6.5 billion people now live on Earth,

inhabiting about 30 percent of the planet’s land.
Global population is growing rapidly and is
expected to reach 9 billion by the year 2050.
Such rapid growth was not always the case.
From the year 1000 until 1800, the world’s pop-
ulation increased slowly. Then the number of
people on Earth more than doubled between
1800 and 1950. By 2006 the world’s population
had soared to more than 6 billion.

The Demographic Transition

Scientists in the field of demography, the study
of populations, use statistics to learn about pop-
ulation growth. The birthrate is the number of
births per year for every 1,000 people. The death

THE WORLD
rate is the number of deaths per year for every 1. Place How does total population change from Stage 1 to Stage 4?
1,000 people. Natural increase, or the growth
2. Place What happens to birthrates between Stage 2 and Stage 3?
rate, of a population is the difference between
What influences this change?
an area’s birthrate and its death rate. Migration,
or the movement of people from place to place, Use StudentWorks™ Plus or glencoe.com.
must also be considered when examining popu-
lation growth.
The demographic transition model uses birth-
rates and death rates to show changes in the pop- Although birthrates have fallen significantly in
ulation trends of a country or region. The model many countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America
was first used to show the relationship of declin- over the past 40 years, they are still higher than
ing birthrates and death rates to industrialization in the industrialized world. Families in these
in Western Europe. Falling death rates are due regions traditionally are large because of cultural
to more abundant and reliable food supplies, beliefs about marriage, family, and the value of
improved health care, access to medicine and children. For example, a husband and wife in a
technology, and better living conditions. Birthrates rural agricultural area may choose to have several
decline more slowly as cultural traditions change. children who will help farm the land. A high
Today, most of the world’s industrialized and number of births combine with low death rates to
technologically developed countries have experi- greatly increase population growth in these
enced the transition from high birthrates and regions. As a result, the doubling time, or the
death rates to low birthrates and death rates. number of years it takes a population to double
These countries have reached what is known as in size, has been reduced to only 25 years in some
zero population growth, in which the birthrate parts of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. In con-
and death rate are equal. When this balance trast, the average doubling time of a developed
occurs, a country’s population does not grow. country can be more than 300 years.

Chapter 4 71
 Challenges of Growth Population Distribution
Rapid population growth presents many chal-
lenges to the global community. As the number
MAIN Idea World population distribution is
of people increases, so does the difficulty of pro-
uneven and is influenced by migration and the
ducing enough food to feed them. Fortunately, Earth’s physical geography.
since 1950 world food production has risen on
all continents except Africa. In Africa, lack of GEOGRAPHY AND YOU Do you live in a crowded
investment in agriculture, along with warfare city or an open rural area? Read to learn how popu-
lation distribution varies and how it is measured.
and severe weather conditions that ruin crops,
have brought hunger to this region.
In addition, populations that grow rapidly use Not only do population growth rates vary
resources more quickly. Some countries face among the Earth’s regions, but the planet’s
shortages of water, housing, and clothing, for population distribution, the pattern of human
instance. Rapid population growth strains these settlement, is uneven as well. Population distri-
limited resources. Another concern is that the bution is related to the Earth’s physical geogra-
world’s population is unevenly distributed by phy. Only about 30 percent of the Earth’s
age, with the majority of some countries’ popu- surface is made up of land, and much of that
lations being infants and young children who land is inhospitable. High mountain peaks, bar-
cannot contribute to food production. ren deserts, and frozen tundra make human
While some experts are pessimistic about the activity very difficult. As the world population
long-term effects of rapid population growth, density map on page 73 shows, almost every-
others are optimistic that, as the number of one on Earth lives on a relatively small portion
humans increases, the levels of technology and of the planet’s land — a little less than one-third.
creativity will also rise. For example, scientists Most people live where fertile soil, available
continue to study and develop ways to boost water, and a climate without harsh extremes
agricultural productivity. Fertilizers can improve make human life possible.
crop yields. Irrigation systems can help increase Of all the continents, Europe and Asia are
the amount of land available for farming. New the most densely populated. Asia alone con-
varieties of crops have been created to withstand tains more than 60 percent of the world’s peo-
severe conditions and yield more food. ple. Throughout the world, where populations
are highly concentrated, many people live in
Negative Population Growth metropolitan areas — cities and their surround-
In the late 1900s, some countries in Europe ing urbanized areas. Today most people in
began to experience negative population growth, Europe, North America, South America, and
in which the annual death rate exceeds the annual Australia live in or around urban areas.
birthrate. Hungary and Germany, for example,
show change rates of –0.4 and –0.1, respectively.
Population Density
This situation has economic consequences differ-
Geographers determine how crowded a country
ent from, but just as serious as, those caused by
or region is by measuring population density—the
high growth rates. In countries with negative
number of people living on a square mile or square
population growth, it is difficult to find enough
kilometer of land. To determine population density
workers to keep the economy going. Labor must
in a country, geographers divide the total popula-
be recruited from other countries, often by
tion of the country by its total land area.
encouraging immigration or granting temporary
work permits. Although the use of foreign labor
has helped countries with negative change rates
maintain their levels of economic activity, it also Geography ONLINE
has created tensions between the “host” popula- Student Web Activity Visit the World Geography
tion and the communities of newcomers. and Cultures Web site at glencoe.com and click on
Student Web Activities—Chapter 4 for an activity on
Place Where was the demo- world population.
graphic transition model first used?

72 Unit 1
 Population density varies widely from country The rest of Egypt is desert. Thus, some geogra-
to country. Canada, with a low population density phers describe a country’s population density in
of about 8 people per square mile (3 people per sq. terms of land that can be used to support the
km), offers wide-open spaces and the choice of liv- population rather than total land area. When
ing in thriving cities or quiet rural areas. In con- Egypt’s population density is measured this way,
trast, Bangladesh has one of the highest population it is about 5,741 people per square mile (2,217
densities in the world—about 2,594 people per people per sq. km)!
square mile (1,001 people per sq. km).
Countries with populations of about the same Population Movement
size do not necessarily have similar population The Earth’s population is moving in great
densities. For example, both Bolivia and the numbers. People are moving from city to city or
Dominican Republic have about 8.9 million from city to suburbs. Others are migrating from
people. With a smaller land area, the Dominican rural villages to cities. The resulting growth of
Republic has 471 people per square mile (168 city populations brought about by such migra-
people per sq. km). However, Bolivia has only tion and the changes that come with this increase
21 people per square mile (8 people per sq. km). are called urbanization.
Because the measure of population density
includes all the land area of a country, it does
not account for uneven population distribution
within a country . In Egypt, for example, overall
population density is 191 people per square mile 1. Regions Which areas of the Northern Hemisphere
(74 people per sq. km). In reality, about 90 per- are the most densely populated?
cent of Egypt’s people live along the Nile River.
2. Human-Environment Interaction Study the popula-
tion densities for South America. What conclusions
can you draw about its physical geography?

World Population Density Use StudentWorks™ Plus or glencoe.com.

Chapter 4 73
 The primary cause of urbanization is the desire
of rural people to find jobs and a better life in
more prosperous urban areas. Rural populations
certainly have grown, but the amount of farm-
land has not increased to meet the growing
number of people. As a result, many rural
migrants find urban jobs in manufacturing and
service industries.
About half of the world’s people live in cities.
Between 1960 and 2005, the population of met-
ropolitan Mexico City rose from about 5 mil-
lion to more than 19 million. The graph at the
right shows that other cities in Latin America, as
well as in Asia and Africa, have seen similar
growth. Some of these cities contain a large part
of their country’s entire population. For exam-
ple, about one-third of Argentina’s people live in
Buenos Aires. tries of Europe, North America, and Australia.
Population movement also occurs between Some were forced to flee their country because
countries. Some people emigrate from the coun- of the push factors of wars, food shortages, or
try of their birth. They are known as emigrants other problems. They are refugees, or people
in their homeland and immigrants in their new who flee to escape persecution or disaster.
country. In the past 40 years, economic pull fac-
tors have drawn millions of people from Africa, Movement What influences the
Asia, and Latin America to the wealthier coun- migration of people from one country to another?

SECTION 1 REVIEW
Vocabulary Critical Thinking
1. Explain the significance of: death rate, birthrate, natural 5. How might the population growth rates of developing
increase, migration, demographic transition, doubling time, countries be affected as they become increasingly industrialized?
population distribution, population density. 6. Comparing and Contrasting How do the effects of zero
population growth and negative population growth differ?
Main Ideas
How are they similar?
2. Why is world population distribution uneven? What factors
7. Analyzing Visuals Compare the world population density map
contribute to this uneven distribution?
on page 73 to the world physical map on pages xxviii–xxix of the
3. Describe how the demographic transition model is used to Reference Atlas. Identify three of the most densely populated
show a country’s population growth. areas on Earth. What physical features do they share?
4. Why does population growth vary? Use a table like the one
below to help answer the question by filling in examples of Writing About Geography
the factors that influence population growth. 8. Expository Writing What physical features, such as land-
forms or bodies of water, might be present in countries that
Influence Example have large numbers of people concentrated in relatively small
Cultural ideas areas? Write a paragraph with supporting details to explain
Migration your answer.
Level of development

Geography ONLINE
Study Central™ To review this section, go to
glencoe.com and click on Study Central.

74 Unit 1
 SECTION 2 Global Cultures
Guide to Reading The world’s people organize communities, develop
Section Preview
their ways of life, and adjust to the differences and
The spatial interaction of cultures similarities they experience. Many people struggle to
can spread new ideas, establish maintain some elements of their traditional cultures
trading relationships, cause wars,
and build political partnerships. while establishing ties with the global community.

Content Vocabulary
• culture • culture Voices Around the World
(p. 76) region (p. 77)
“. . . Berber struggle for cultural recognition has grown stronger over time.
• language • cultural
family (p. 76) diffusion (p. 78)
The urban Berbers leading this revival movement are intellectuals who use
• ethnic group • culture hearth French, a language they associate with culture and human rights, rather than
(p. 77) (p. 78) Arabic, which they despise as the language of their oppressors. But the lan-
guage they’re really pushing is Tamazight, or Berber. During the last decade
Academic Vocabulary
• similar (p. 76)
of Hassan II’s rule (which ended with the monarch’s death in 1999), they
• major (p. 78) founded Berber language and cultural associ-
ations, set up websites and news-
Places to Locate
papers, and, in 1994, won
• Egypt (p. 78)
the right to broadcast news
• Iraq (p. 78)
• Pakistan (p. 78) in Berber on national
• China (p. 78) television.”
• Mexico (p. 78)
— Jeffrey Tayler,
Reading Strategy “Among the Berbers,”
Organizing As you read about National Geographic,
global cultures, complete a graphic January 2005
organizer like the one below by
listing the world culture regions.

World Culture
Regions

A Tuareg man belonging to the

Berber ethnic group

Chapter 4 75

Martin Harvey/CORBIS
 of a language that differs from the main lan-
Elements of Culture guage. These differences may include variations
in the pronunciation and meaning of words.
MAIN Idea Geographers divide the Earth into cul- Linguists, scientists who study languages,
ture regions, which are defined by the presence of organize the world’s languages into language
common elements such as language and religion. families — large groups of languages having sim-
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU What language do most ilar roots. Seemingly diverse languages may
people in your community speak? Read to learn how belong to the same language family. For exam-
language is important to a culture’s development. ple, English, Spanish, and Russian are all mem-
bers of the Indo-European language family.
Geographers study culture, the way of life of a
group of people who share similar beliefs and Religion
customs. A particular culture can be understood Religious beliefs vary significantly around the
by looking at language, religion, daily life, his- world, and struggles over religious differences
tory, art, government, and the economy. can be a source of conflict. In many cultures,
however, religion enables people to find a sense of
Language identity. It also influences aspects of daily life,
Language is a key element in a culture’s devel- from the practice of moral values to the celebra-
opment. Through language, people communi- tion of holidays and festivals.
cate information and experiences and pass on Throughout history, religious symbols and
cultural values and traditions. Even within a cul- stories have shaped cultural expressions such as
ture, however, there are language differences. painting, architecture, and music. The feature on
Some people may speak a dialect, or a local form pages 80–99 discusses world religions.

World Language Families

76 Unit 1
 When examining cultures, geographers look at
Social Groups economic activities. They study how a culture uti-
A social system develops to help the members lizes its natural resources to meet human needs.
of a culture work together to meet basic needs. They also analyze the ways in which people pro-
In all cultures the family is the most important duce, obtain, use, and sell goods and services.
group. Most cultures are also made up of social
classes, groups of people ranked according to Culture Regions
ancestry, wealth, education, or other criteria. To organize their understanding of cultural
Moreover, cultures may include people who development, geographers divide the Earth into
belong to different ethnic groups. An ethnic culture regions. Each culture region includes
group is made up of people who share a com- countries that have certain traits in common.
mon language, history, place of origin, or a com- They may share similar economic systems, forms
bination of these elements. of government, and social groups. Their histories,
religions, and art forms may share similar influ-
Government and Economy ences. The map below shows the culture regions
Governments of the world share certain features. you will study in this textbook.
For example, each maintains order within the
Place Why are social groups
country, provides protection from outside dan-
important to the development of a culture?
gers, and supplies other services to its people.
Governments are organized by levels of power—
national, regional, and local—and by type of
authority—a single ruler, a small group of leaders,
or a body of citizens and their representatives.
1. Regions In which culture regions do Indo-European
languages predominate?
2. Place Do people within the same culture region
World Culture Regions necessarily speak the same language? Explain.

Chapter 4 77
 Cultural Change and on fertile plains. They became farmers who
lived in permanent villages and grew crops on the
same land every year. This shift from hunting and
MAIN Idea Internal and external factors change gathering food to producing food is known as the
cultures over time. Agricultural Revolution.
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU Have you ever moved to a By about 3500 b.c., some of these early farm-
new town or made friends with someone who has ing villages had evolved into civilizations, highly
just moved into your community? Read to learn how organized, city-based societies with an advanced
the movement of people can change cultures. knowledge of farming, trade, government, art,
and science.
Internal factors — new ideas, lifestyles, and
Culture Hearths The world’s first civilizations
inventions — create change within cultures.
arose in culture hearths, early centers of civiliza-
Change can also come through spatial interac-
tion whose ideas and practices spread to sur-
tion such as trade, migration, and war. The pro-
rounding areas. The map below shows that the
cess of spreading new knowledge from one
most influential culture hearths developed in
culture to another is called cultural diffusion.
areas that make up the modern countries of
Egypt, Iraq, Pakistan, China, and Mexico.
The Agricultural Revolution These five culture hearths had certain geo-
Cultural diffusion has been a major factor in graphic features in common. They all emerged
cultural development since the dawn of human from farming settlements in areas with a mild cli-
history. The earliest humans were nomads, groups mate and fertile land. In addition, they were
of hunters and herders who had no fixed home but located near a major river or source of water. The
moved from place to place in search of food, water, peoples made use of these favorable environ-
and grazing land. As the Earth’s climate warmed ments. They dug canals and ditches to irrigate the
about 10,000 years ago, many of these nomads land. All of these factors enabled people to grow
settled first in hilly areas and later in river valleys surplus crops.
Surplus food set the stage
for the rise of cities and civi-
World Culture Hearths lizations. With more food
available, there was less need
for everyone in a settlement
to farm the land. People
developed other ways of
making a living. They created
new technology and carried
out specialized economic
activities, such as metalwork-
ing and shipbuilding, that
spurred the development of
long-distance trade.
In turn, the increased wealth
from trade led to the rise of cit-
ies and complex social systems.
The people of a city needed
a well-organized government
to coordinate harvests, plan
building projects, and manage
1. Location Where in Asia were the first major settlements located? an army for defense. Officials
and merchants created writing
2. Human-Environment Interaction What kind of body of water do most of the culture
systems to record and transmit
hearths have in common?
information.

78 Unit 1
Cultural Contacts Cultural contact among differ-
ent civilizations promoted cultural change as
ideas and practices spread through trade and
travel. Migration has also fostered cultural diffu-
sion. People migrate to avoid wars, persecution,
and famines. In some instances, as in the case of
enslaved Africans brought to the Americas, mass
migrations have been forced. Conversely, positive
factors—better economic opportunities and reli-
gious or political freedoms—may draw people
from one place to another. Migrants carry their
cultures with them, and their ideas and practices
often blend with those of the people already liv-
ing in the migrants’ adopted countries.
Although geisha are part of
Industrial and Information traditional Japanese culture,
their daily lives are connected to the modern world.
Revolutions
Movement How did the information revolution help
Cultural diffusion has increased rapidly dur- connect cultures around the world?
ing the last 250 years. In the 1700s and 1800s,
some countries began to industrialize, using
power-driven machines and factories to mass- At the end of the 1900s, the world experienced
produce goods. With new production methods, a new turning point—the information revolution.
these countries produced goods quickly and Computers now make it possible to store huge
cheaply, and their economies changed dramati- amounts of information and instantly send it all
cally. This development, known as the Industrial over the world, thus linking the cultures of the
Revolution, also led to social changes. As peo- world more closely than ever before.

THE WORLD
ple left farms for jobs in factories and mills, Location Where were the five
cities grew larger. earliest world culture hearths located?

SECTION 2 REVIEW
Vocabulary Critical Thinking
1. Explain the significance of: culture, language family, ethnic 4. How do factors such as trade, war, migration, and
group, culture region, cultural diffusion, culture hearth. inventions affect cultural change?
5. Making Generalizations Explain the factors that influence a
Main Ideas
country’s ability to control territory.
2. Describe the elements of culture geographers use to organize
6. Identifying Cause and Effect What cultural changes have
the world into culture regions.
resulted from the information revolution?
3. What are the internal and external factors that change cultures
7. Analyzing Visuals Study the map of culture hearths on page
over time? Use a web diagram like the one below to list fac-
78. What factors influenced their location?
tors that influence cultural change.
Writing About Geography
Cultural Change
8. Descriptive Writing Use the Internet to find information about
Internal factors External factors how various cultures view particular places or features. Then write
an essay describing the similarities and differences you found.

Geography ONLINE
Study Central™ To review this section, go to
glencoe.com and click on Study Central.

Chapter 4 79

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 World Religions
Geography of Religion

A religion is a set of beliefs in an ultimate reality

and a set of practices used to express those
beliefs. Religion is a key component of culture.
TERMS
animism—belief that spirits inhabit natural objects and forces
of nature
Each religion has its own special celebrations and atheism—disbelief in the existence of any god
worship styles. Most religions also have their own monotheism—belief in one god
sacred texts, symbols, and sites. All of these aspects polytheism—belief in more than one god
of religion help to unite followers regardless of
secularism—belief that life’s questions can be answered apart
where in the world they live. from religious belief
sect—a subdivision within a religion that has its own distinc-
tive beliefs and/or practices

World Religions

80 World Religions
W e study religion because it is an important
component of culture, shaping how people
interact with one another, dress, and eat. Religion is
at the core of the belief system of a region’s culture.
The diffusion of religion throughout the world
has been caused by a variety of factors including
migration, missionary work, trade, and war.
Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam are the three
major religions that spread their religion through
missionary activities. Religions such as Hinduism,
Sikhism, and Judaism are associated with a
particular culture group. Followers are usually
born into these religions. Sometimes close contact
and differences in beliefs have resulted in conflict
between religious groups.

Early Diffusion of Major World Religions

World Religions 81
 S iddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha (“the Awakened”) after
his enlightenment at the age of 35, was born some 2,500 years ago
in what is now Nepal. The Buddha’s followers adhere to his teachings
(dharma, meaning “divine law”), which aim to end suffering in the
world. Buddhists call this goal Nirvana; and they believe that it can
be achieved only by understanding the Four Noble Truths and by
following the 4th Truth, which says that freedom from suffering is
possible by practicing the Eightfold Path. Through the Buddha’s
teachings, his followers come to know the impermanence of all
things and reach the end of ignorance and unhappiness.
Over time, as Buddhism spread throughout Asia, several
branches emerged. The largest of these are
Theravada Buddhism, the monk-centered
Buddhism which is dominant in Sri Lanka,
Burma, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia; and
Mahayana, a complex, more liberal variety
of Buddhism that has traditionally been
dominant in Tibet, Central Asia, Korea,
China, and Japan.

Sacred Text For centuries

the Buddha’s teachings
were transmitted orally. For Statue of the Buddha,
Theravada Buddhists, the Kamakura, Japan
authoritative collection of
Buddhist texts is the Tripitaka
(“three baskets”). These texts
were first written on palm
leaves in a language called Sacred Symbol The dharmachakra (“wheel of the law”) is
Pali. This excerpt from the a major Buddhist symbol. Among other things, it signifies
Dhammapada, a famous text the overcoming of obstacles. The eight spokes represent
within the Tripitaka, urges the Eightfold Path — right view, right intention, right speech,
responding to hatred with love: right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness,
right concentration — that is central for all Buddhists.

‘‘ Never in this world is hate

Appeased by hatred.
It is only appeased by love —
This is an eternal law.
— Dhammapada I.5 ’’

82 World Religions
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Sacred Site Buddhists believe that Siddhartha
Gautama achieved enlightenment beneath the
Bodhi Tree in Bodh Gaya-, India. Today, Buddhists
from around the world flock to Bodh Gaya- in
search of their own spiritual awakening.

Worship and Celebration The ultimate goal of

Buddhists is to achieve Nirvana, the enlightened
state in which individuals are free from ignorance,
greed, and suffering. Theravada Buddhists believe
that monks are most likely to reach Nirvana because
of their lifestyle of renunciation, moral virtue, study,
and meditation.

World Religions 83

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 C hristianity claims more members than any of
the other world religions. It dates its beginning
to the death of Jesus in a.d. 33 in what is now
Israel. It is based on the belief in one god and on the
life and teachings of Jesus Christ. Christians believe
that Jesus, who was born a Jew, is the son of God
and is fully divine and human. Christians regard
Jesus as the savior who died for humanity’s sins.
Christians feel that people are saved and achieve
eternal life by faith in Jesus Christ.
The major forms of Christianity are Roman
Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, and
Protestantism. All three are united in their belief
in Jesus Christ as savior, but have developed
their own individual theologies.

Sacred Text The Bible is the spiritual text for all

Christians and is considered to be inspired by
God. This excerpt, from Matthew 5:3-12, is from
Christ’s Sermon on the Mount.

‘‘ Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is

the kingdom of heaven.
Blessed are those who mourn, for they shall
be comforted.
Blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit Stained glass window depicting Jesus Christ
the earth.
Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for Sacred Symbol
righteousness, for they shall be satisfied. Christians believe
Blessed are the merciful, for they shall that Jesus Christ
obtain mercy. died for their sins.
Blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall His death redeemed
see God. those who follow
his teachings. The
Blessed are the peacemakers, for they shall
statue Christ the
be called sons of God. Redeemer, located
Blessed are those who are persecuted for in Rio de Janeiro,
righteousness’ sake, for theirs is the kingdom Brazil, symbolizes
of heaven. this fundamental
Blessed are you when men revile you and belief.
persecute you and utter all kinds of evil
against you falsely on my account.
Rejoice and be glad, for your reward is great
in heaven, for so men persecuted the
prophets who were before you.
’’
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Sacred Site Bethlehem was the birth-
place of Jesus Christ and holds great
importance to Christians. The Church
of the Nativity is located in the heart of
Bethlehem. It houses the spot where
Christians believe Jesus was born.

Worship and Celebration Christians

celebrate many events commemorating
the life and death of Jesus. Among the
most widely known and observed are
Christmas, Good Friday, and Easter.
Christmas is often commemorated by
attending church services to celebrate
the birth of Jesus. As part of the
celebration, followers often light candles.

World Religions 85

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 C onfucianism began oven 2,500
years ago in China. Although
considered a religion, it is actually
a philosophy. It is based upon the
teachings of Confucius, which are
grounded in ethical behavior and
good government.
The teachings of Confucius focused
on three areas: social philosophy,
political philosophy, and education.
Confucius taught that relationships
are based on rank. Persons of higher
rank are responsible for caring
for those of lower rank. Those of
lower rank should respect and obey
those of higher rank. Eventually his
teachings spread from China to other
East Asian societies.

Students studying Confucianism, Chunghak-dong, South Korea

The Analects

Sacred Text Confucius was famous for his sayings

and proverbs. These teachings were gathered into
a book called the Analects after Confucius’s death.
Below is an example of Confucius’s teachings.
Confucius said:

‘‘ To learn and to practice what is learned time

and again is pleasure, is it not? To have
friends come from afar is happiness, is it not?
Sacred Symbol The symbol of Confucianism,
yin-yang, symbolizes the harmony the philosophy
offers. The white is yin, the light, bright, cheerful,
To be unperturbed when not appreciated by playful aspect of life. The black is yang, the dark,
others is gentlemanly, is it not?
’’
— The Analects
mysterious, serious part of life. The two act
together to balance one another.

86 World Religions
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Sacred Site The temple at Qufu is a group of
buildings dedicated to Confucius. It is located on
Confucius’s ancestral land. It is one of the largest
ancient architectural complexes in China. Every
year followers gather at Qufu to celebrate the
birthday of Confucius.

Worship and Celebration Confucianism does

not have a god or clergy, but there are temples
dedicated to Confucius, the spiritual leader. Those
who follow his teachings see Confucianism as a
way of life and a guide to ethical behavior and
good government.

World Religions 87

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 H induism is the oldest of the world’s major living religions.
It developed among the cultures in India as they spread
out over the plains and forests of the subcontinent. It has no
single founder or founding date. Hinduism is complex: it has
numerous sects and many different divinities are honored.
Among the more famous Hindu gods are Brahma, Vishnu,
and Shiva, who represent respectively the creative, sustaining,
and destructive forces in the universe. Major Hindu beliefs
are reincarnation, karma, and dharma.
Hindus believe the universe contains several heavens and hells.
According to the concept of rebirth or reincarnation, which is
central to their beliefs, souls are continually reborn. In what
form one is reborn is determined by the good and evil actions
performed in his or her past lives. Those acts are karma. A
soul continues in the cycle of rebirth until release is achieved.

Sacred Text The Vedas consist of hymns, prayers, and

speculations composed in ancient Sanskrit. They are
the oldest religious texts in an Indo-European language.
The Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda
are the four great Vedic collections. Together, they make
up one of the most significant and authoritative Hindu
religious texts.

‘‘ Now, whether they perform a cremation for

such a person or not,
people like him pass into the flame,
Statue of Vishnu

from the flame into the day,

from the day into the fortnight of the waxing moon
from the fortnight of the waxing moon into the six
months when the sun moves north,
from these months into the year,
from the year into the sun,
from the sun into the moon, and from
the moon into the lightning.
Then a person who is not human —
he leads them to Brahman.
This is the path to the gods, the path to Brahman.
Those who proceed along this path do not Sacred Symbol One important symbol of
Hinduism is actually a symbol for a sound.
return to this human condition.
’’
— The Chandogya Upanishad 4:15.5
“Om” is a sound that Hindus often chant
during prayer, mantras, and rituals.

88 World Religions
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Sacred Site Hindus believe that
when a person dies his or her
soul is reborn. This is known as
reincarnation. Many Hindus bathe
in the Ganges and other sacred
rivers to purify their soul and to be
released from rebirth.

Worship and Celebration Holi is a

significant North Indian Hindu festival
celebrating the triumph of good over
evil. As part of the celebration, men,
women, and children splash colored
powders and water on each other. In
addition to its religious significance,
Holi also celebrates the beginning of
spring.

World Religions 89

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 F ollowers of Islam, known as Muslims, believe in
one God, whom they call Allah. The word Allah is
Arabic for “the god.” The spiritual founder of Islam,
Muhammad, began his teachings in Makkah (Mecca)
in a.d. 610. Eventually the religion spread throughout
much of Asia, including parts of India to the borders of
China, and a substantial portion of Africa. According
to Muslims, the Quran, their holy book, contains the
direct word of God, revealed to the Prophet Muhammad
sometime between a.d. 610 and a.d. 632. Muslims
believe that God created nature and without his inter-
vention, there would be nothingness. God serves four
functions: creation, sustenance, guidance, and judgment.
Central to Islamic beliefs are the Five Pillars. These
are affirmation of the belief in Allah and his prophet
Muhammad; group prayer; tithing, or the giving of The Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem
money to charity; fasting during Ramadan; and a
pilgrimage to Makkah once in a lifetime if physically
and financially able. Within Islam, there are two main
branches, the Sunni and the Shia. The differences
between the two are based on the history of the Muslim The Quran
state. The Shia believed that the rulers should descend
from Muhammad. The Sunni believed that the rulers
need only be followers of Muhammad. Most Muslims
are Sunni.

Sacred Text The sacred text of Islam is the Quran.

Preferably, it is written and read only in Arabic,
but translations have been made into many
languages. The excerpt below is a verse repeated
by all Muslims during their five daily prayers.

‘‘ In the Name of Allah, the Compassionate,

the Merciful,
Praise be to Allah, the Lord of the World,
The Compassionate, the Merciful,
Master of the Day of Judgment,
Only You do we worship, and only You
Do we implore for help.
Lead us to the right path,
The path of those you have favored
Not those who have incurred
Your wrath or
Have gone astray.
’’
— The Quran
Sacred Symbol Islam is often symbolized by the
crescent moon. It is an important part of Muslim
rituals, which are based on the lunar calendar.

90 World Religions
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 Sacred Site Makkah is a sacred site for all
Muslims. One of the Five Pillars of Islam
states that all those who are physically and
financially able must make a hajj, or pilgrim-
age, to the holy city once in their life.
Practicing Muslims are also required to
pray facing Makkah five times a day.

Worship and Celebration Ramadan is a month-

long celebration commemorating the time during
which Muhammad received the Quran from Allah.
It is customary for Muslims to fast from dawn
until sunset all month long. Muslims believe that
fasting helps followers focus on spiritual rather
than bodily matters and creates empathy for
one’s fellow men and women. Ramadan ends
with a feast known as Eid-al-Fitr, or Feast
of the Fast.

World Religions 91

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 J udaism is a monotheistic religion.
In fact, Judaism was the first major
religion to believe in one god. Jews
trace their national and religious
origins back to God’s call to Abraham.
Jews have a covenant with God. They
believe God will someday send a
messiah who will redeem them from
exile and usher in an era of world
peace.
Over time Judaism has separated
into branches, including Orthodox,
Reform, Conservative, and
Reconstructionist. Orthodox Jews are
the most traditional of all the branches.

Sacred Text The Torah is the five

books of Moses, which tell the story
of the origins of the Jews and explain
Jewish laws. The remainder of the
Hebrew Bible contains the writings of
the prophets, Psalms, and ethical and
historical works.

El Ghriba Synagogue, Jerba, Tunisia

‘‘ I am the Lord your God, who

brought you out of the land of
Egypt, out of the house of slavery;
Sacred Symbol
you shall have no other gods The menorah
before me.
’’ — Exodus 20:2
is used in the
celebration
of Hanukkah,
commemorating
the rededication
of the Temple
of Jerusalem
following the
Maccabees’
victory over the
Syrians.

The Torah scroll

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 Sacred Site The Western Wall is what remains of
the structure surrounding the Second Jerusalem
Temple, built after the Jews’ return from the
Babylonian captivity. It is considered a sacred
spot in Jewish religious tradition. Prayers are
offered at the wall three times a day—morning,
afternoon, and evening.

Worship and Celebration The day-long Yom

Kippur service ends with the blowing of the
ram’s horn (shofar). Yom Kippur is the holiest
day in the Jewish calendar. During Yom Kippur,
Jews do not eat or drink for 25 hours. The pur-
pose is to reflect on the past year and gain for-
giveness from God for one’s sins. It falls in
September or October, ten days after Rosh
Hashanah, the Jewish New Year.

World Religions 93

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 S ikhism emerged in the mid-1500s in the Punjab,
in northwest India, rising from the religious
experience and teachings of Guru Nanak. The religion
exhibits influences from Islam and Hinduism, but it is
distinct from both. Sikh traditions teach that Nanak
encountered God directly and was commissioned by
Him to be His servant.
Sikhs (“students, disciples”) believe in one almighty
god who is formless and without qualities (nirguna) but
can be known through meditation and heard directly.
Sikhism forbids discrimination on the basis of class,
color, religion, caste, or gender. While 80 percent of
the world’s 20 million Sikhs live in the Punjab, Sikhism
has spread widely as many Sikhs have migrated to new
homes around the world.

Sikh man, Chapeltown, England

The Adi Granth

Sacred Text The great authoritative sacred text

for Sikhs is the Adi Granth (“Principal Book,” also
known as the Guru Granth Sahib). Compiled from
the mid-1500s through the 1600s, it includes
contributions from Sikh gurus and also from some
persons also claimed as saints by Hindus and
Muslims, such as Namdev, Ravidas, and Kabir.

‘‘ Enshrine the Lord’s Name within your heart.

The Word of the Guru’s Bani prevails
throughout the world, through this Bani, the
Sacred Symbol The sacred symbol of the Sikhs
is the khanda. It is composed of four traditional
Lord’s Name is obtained.
’’
— Guru Amar Das, page 1066
Sikh weapons: the khanda or double-edged
sword (in the center), from which the symbol
takes its name; the cakkar (disk), and two
curved daggers (kirpan) representing temporal
and spiritual power, respectively Piri and Miri.

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Sacred Sites Amritsar is the spiritual capital
of Sikhism. The Golden Temple (Harimandir
Sahib) in Amritsar is the most sacred of Sikh
shrines.

WR-60P
Worship and Celebration Vaisakhi is a
significant Punjabi and Sikh festival in April
celebrating the new year and the beginning
of the harvest season. Celebrations often
take place along riverbanks with participants
dancing and wearing brightly colored clothes.

World Religions 95

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 T here are many varieties of religious belief that
are limited to particular ethnic groups. These
local religions are found in Africa as well as isolated
is characteristic of many indigenous religions.
Natural features are sacred, and stories about how
nature came to be are an important part of religious
parts of Japan, Australia, and the Americas. heritage. Although many of these stories have been
written down in modern times, they were originally
Most local religions reflect a close relationship with
transmitted orally.
the environment. Some groups teach that people
are a part of nature, not separate from it. Animism

Africa The continent of Africa is

1 home to a variety of local religions.
Despite their differences, most
African religions recognize the
existence of one creator in addition
to spirits that inhabit all aspects of
life. Religious ceremonies are often
celebrated with music and dance.

1 These Turkana women from

Kenya are performing a traditional
jumping dance.
2 Rituals are an important part of
African religions. These Masai boys
are wearing ceremonial dress as
part of a ritual.
3 Masks are a component of
2 ritual and ceremony. This mask
from Cameroon is used to
celebrate harvest.

96 World Religions
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 4 Japan Shinto, founded in Japan, is the larg-
est indigenous religion. It dates back to pre-
historic times and has no formal doctrine.
The gods are known as kami. Ancestors are
also revered and worshiped. Its four million
followers often practice Buddhism in
addition to practicing Shinto.

4 This Shinto priest is presiding over

a ritual at a Japanese temple. These
priests often live on shrine grounds.
5 Shinto shrines, like this one, are usually
built in places of great natural beauty to
emphasize the relationship between
people and nature.
5

Australia The Australian Aboriginal

religion has no deities. It is based
upon a belief known as the Dreaming, 7
or Dreamtime. Followers believe that
ancestors sprang from the Earth and
created all people, plant, and animal life.
They also believe that these ancestors
continue to control the natural world.

6 These Aborigine women are blessing

a newborn with smoke during a tradi-
tional ritual intended to ensure the child’s
health and good fortune.
7 Aborigines, like these young girls,
often paint their faces with the symbols
of their clan or family group.

World Religions 97

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 1
Native Americans The beliefs of most
Native Americans center on the spirit
world; however, the rituals and practices
of individual groups vary. Most Native
Americans believe in a Great Spirit who,
along with other spirits, influences all
aspects of life. These spirits make their
presence known primarily through acts
of nature.
The rituals, prayers, and ceremonies of
Native Americans are often centered on
2
health and good harvest and hunting.
Rituals used to mark the passage
through stages of life, including birth,
adulthood, and death, are passed down
as tribal traditions. Religious ceremonies
often focus on important points in
the agricultural and hunting seasons.
Prayers, which are offered in song and
dance, also concentrate on agriculture
and hunting themes as well as health
and well-being.

1 Rituals are passed down from

generation to generation. These Native
3 Americans are performing a ritual dance
in Utah.
2 There are many different Native
American groups throughout the United
States and Canada. This Pawnee is
wearing traditional dress during a
celebration in Oklahoma.
3 Totem poles, like this one in
Alaska, were popular among the Native
American peoples of the Northwest
Coast. They were often decorated with
mythical beings, family crests, or other
figures. They were placed outside
homes.

98 World Religions
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 Assessment
Reviewing Vocabulary Confucianism (pp. 86–87)

Match the following terms with their definition. 13. What is Confucianism based on? Why might some not
consider it a religion?
1. sect a. belief that spirits inhabit natural
objects and forces of nature 14. What does yin-yang symbolize?
2. monotheism b. belief in one god Hinduism (pp. 88–89)
c. a subdivision within a religion that 15. What type of religion is Hinduism? Where did it develop?
3. polytheism
has its own distinctive belief and/or
16. Describe reincarnation. What role do Hindus believe karma
practices
4. animism plays in this process?
d. belief in more than one god
5. atheism e. disbelief in the existence of any god Islam (pp. 92–93)
17. What are the two branches of Islam? What is the main
difference between the two groups?
Reviewing the Main Ideas 18. What role does Makkah play in the Islamic faith?
World Religions (pp. 80–81)
Judaism (pp. 94–95)
6. Which religion has the most followers worldwide? Which
has the fewest? 19. What is the Torah?
7. Analyzing Visuals Compare the maps at the bottom of 20. What is the purpose of Yom Kippur?
pages 80 and 81. Which religions have spread throughout
Sikhism (pp. 94–95)
the world? What factors may have contributed to this
spread? 21. Where do most Sikhs live? Why?
22. What other religions have contributed to the Adi Granth?
8. On a separate sheet of paper, make a table of the major
world religions. Use the chart below to get you started. Indigenous Religions (pp. 96–98)
23. Many of the sacred stories in local religions explain the
Name Founder Geographic Sacred sites creation of people, animals, and plant life. Why would reli-
distribution
gions feature such stories?
Buddhism
24. Which of the indigenous religions has the largest
Christianity
membership?
Confucianism
Hinduism
Islam
Critical Thinking
Judaism
25. Drawing Conclusions How are major religions similar?
Sikhism
How are they different?
Indigenous
26. Analyzing Information How do people’s religious
Buddhism (pp. 82–83) beliefs affect what people eat and how they dress?

9. According to Buddhism, how can the end of suffering in 27. Making Inferences How do religious beliefs influence
the world be achieved? a society’s laws?
10. What is Nirvana? According to Buddhists, who is most
likely to achieve Nirvana and why? Problem-Solving Activity
28. Research Project Use library and Internet sources to
Christianity (pp. 84–85)
research the role of food and food customs in one of the
11. In what religion was Jesus raised? world’s major religions. Create a presentation to report
12. Why do Christians regard Jesus as their savior? your findings to the class.

World Religions 99
 SECTION 3 Political and
Guide to Reading
Section Preview
Economic
Political and economic systems
provide the organization and power
for groups of people to control
Earth’s surface.
Systems
Governments and economies of countries around the
Content Vocabulary
• unitary system • traditional world are becoming increasingly interconnected. Some
(p. 101) economy countries or groups of countries, such as the European
• federal system (p. 103)
(p. 101) • market
Union, have strong economies that allow them to help
• autocracy economy improve standards of living in other countries.
(p. 101) (p. 103)
• monarchy • mixed
(p. 102) economy Voices Around the World
• oligarchy (p. 103)
“I drove east on the highway that connects the capital of Tallinn with Narva, on the
(p. 102) • command
• democracy economy Russian border. Nearly everywhere I looked I saw the handiwork of the European
(p. 102) (p. 103) Union, starting with the road itself. The EU has already invested millions of euros
to improve the highway, which serves as the main link to St. Petersburg, Russia.
Academic Vocabulary
This highway passes the town of Sillamäe, once a “closed” city run by the Soviet
• unique (p. 101)
• authority (p. 101) military, which enriched uranium for weapons programs in a huge factory overlook-
• assembly (p. 102) ing the sea. The EU is here, too, kicking in more than a million dollars to help pre-
vent the radioactive waste from leaching
Places to Locate
into the Baltic Sea.”
• United States (p. 101)
• Saudi Arabia (p. 102) — Don Belt, “Europe’s Big
• United Kingdom (p. 102) Gamble,” National
• China (p. 104) Geographic, May 2004
• Vietnam (p. 104)
Reading Strategy
Taking Notes Use the major
headings of the section to
create an outline similar to
the one below.

Political and Economic Systems

I. Features of Government
A.
B.

The night express

at Tallinn, Estonia

100 Unit 1
Andreas Gebert/dpa/Landov
Features of
Government
MAIN Idea Territory, population, and sovereignty
influence levels and types of governments in coun-
tries around the world.
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU What do you know about
the powers of government in the U.S. federal sys-
tem? Read to learn about the powers of govern-
ment in other places.

Today the world includes nearly 200 indepen-

dent countries that vary in size, military might,
natural resources, and world influence. Each
country is defined by characteristics such as terri- Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf,
tory, population, and sovereignty, or freedom Africa’s first elected female
head of state, is president of the unitary govern-
from outside control. These elements are brought
ment of Liberia.
together under a government. A government must
make and enforce policies and laws that are bind- Place How does the unitary system of government differ
ing on all people living within its territory. from that of a federal system?

Levels of Government
Another similar type of government structure is
The government of each country has unique
a confederation, a loose union of independent
characteristics that relate to that country’s histori-
territories. The United States at first formed a

THE WORLD
cal development. To carry out their functions, gov-
confederation, but this type of political arrange-
ernments are organized in a variety of ways. Most
ment failed to provide an effective national gov-
large countries have several different levels of gov-
ernment. As a result, the U.S. Constitution
ernment. These usually include a national or cen-
established a strong national government, while
tral government, as well as the governments of
preserving some state government powers. Today,
smaller internal divisions such as provinces, states,
other countries with federal or confederal sys-
counties, cities, towns, and villages.
tems include Canada, Switzerland, Mexico, Brazil,
Unitary System A unitary system of government Australia, and India.
gives all key powers to the national or central
government. This structure does not mean that Types of Governments
only one level of government exists. Rather, it Governments can be classified by asking the
means that the central government creates state, question: Who governs the state? Under this clas-
provincial, or other local governments and gives sification system, all governments belong to one
them limited sovereignty. The United Kingdom of the three major groups: (1) autocracy—rule by
and France both developed unitary governments one person; (2) oligarchy—rule by a few people;
as they emerged from smaller territories during or (3) democracy—rule by many people.
the late Middle Ages and early modern times.
Autocracy Any system of government in which
Federal System A federal system of government the power and authority to rule belong to a single
divides the powers of government between the individual is an autocracy (aw•TAH•kruh•see).
national government and state or provincial gov- Autocracies are the oldest and one of the most
ernments. Each level of government has sover- common forms of government. Most autocrats
eignty in some areas. The United States developed achieve and maintain their position of authority
a federal system after the thirteen colonies became through inheritance or by the ruthless use of
independent from Great Britain. military or police power.

Chapter 4 101

Remy De La Mauviniere/AP Images

 Several forms of autocracy exist. One is an Oligarchy An oligarchy (AH•luh•gahr•kee) is
absolute or totalitarian dictatorship in which the any system of government in which a small
decisions of a single leader determine government group holds power. The group derives its power
policies. The government under such a system from wealth, military power, social position, or
can come to power through revolution or an elec- a combination of these elements. Sometimes reli-
tion. The totalitarian dictator seeks to control all gion is the source of power. Today the govern-
aspects of social and economic life. Examples of ments of communist countries, such as China,
totalitarian dictatorships include Adolf Hitler’s are mostly oligarchies. Leaders in the Communist
government in Nazi Germany (from 1933 to Party and the military control the government.
1945), Benito Mussolini’s rule in Italy (from 1922 Both dictatorships and oligarchies sometimes
to 1943), and Joseph Stalin’s regime in the Soviet claim they rule for the people. Such governments
Union (from 1924 to 1953). may try to give the appearance of control by the
Monarchy (MAH•nuhr•kee) is another form people. For example, they might hold elections
of autocratic government. In a monarchy, a king but offer only one candidate. Such governments
or queen exercises the supreme powers of govern- may also have some type of legislature or
ment. Monarchs usually inherit their positions. national assembly elected by or representing the
Absolute monarchs have complete and unlim- people. These legislatures, however, only approve
ited power to rule. The king of Saudi Arabia, policies and decisions already made by the
for example, is an absolute monarch. Absolute leaders. As in a dictatorship, oligarchies usually
monarchs are rare today, but from the 1400s to suppress all political opposition.
the 1700s kings or queens with absolute pow-
Democracy A democracy is any system of gov-
ers ruled most of Western Europe.
ernment in which leaders rule with the consent
Today some countries, such as the United
of the citizens. The term democracy comes from
Kingdom, Sweden, Japan, Jordan, and Thailand,
the Greek demos (meaning “the people”) and
have constitutional monarchies. Their monarchs
kratia (meaning “rule”). The ancient Greeks
share governmental powers with elected legisla-
used the word democracy to mean government
tures or serve as ceremonial leaders.
by the many in contrast to government by the
few. The key idea of democracy is that people
hold sovereign power.
Direct democracy, in which citizens themselves
decide on issues, exists in some places at local
levels of government. No country today has a
national government based on direct democracy.
Instead, democratic countries have representative
democracies, in which the people elect represen-
tatives with the responsibility and power to make
laws and conduct government. An assembly of
the people’s representatives may be called a coun-
cil, a legislature, a congress, or a parliament.
Many democratic countries, such as the United
States and France, are republics. In a republic,
voters elect all major officials, who are respon-
sible to the people. The head of state —
or head of government — is usually a president
elected for a specific term. Not every democracy
is a republic. The United Kingdom, for example,
Egyptian president Hosni is a democracy with a monarch as head of state.
Mubarak is slowly moving This monarch’s role is ceremonial, however, and
the country toward a democratic government.
elected officials hold the actual power to rule.
Place How is a direct democracy different from
Place How does an autocracy
a representative democracy?
differ from an oligarchy?

102 Unit 1
Shawn Baldwin/CORBIS
Economic Systems
MAIN Idea The three major economic systems
are traditional economy, market economy, and
command economy.
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU Can you imagine not hav-
ing a wide range of choices as you shop for clothes?
Read to learn about economic systems in which
choices are limited or do not exist at all.

All economic systems must make three basic

economic decisions: (1) what and how many
goods and services should be produced, (2) how
they should be produced, (3) who gets the goods As part of a traditional economy,
an Inuit man hunts for seals on an
and services that are produced. These decisions
ice floe.
are made differently in the three major economic
systems — traditional, market, and command . Regions What three basic decisions must all economic
systems make?
Traditional Economy
In a traditional economy, habit and custom In this arrangement, the government’s main eco-
determine the rules for all economic activity. nomic task is to preserve the free market by keep-
Individuals are not free to make decisions based ing competition free and fair and by supporting
on what they would like to have. Instead, their public interests. Governments in modern mixed
behavior is defined by the customs of their elders economies also influence their economies by
and ancestors. For example, it was a tradition in spending tax revenues to support social services.

THE WORLD
the Inuit society of northern Canada that a hunter
would share the food from the hunt with the other Command Economy
families in the village. Today, traditional econo- In a command economy, the government owns
mies exist in very limited parts of the world. or directs the means of production — land, labor,
capital (machinery, factories), and business man-
Market Economy agers — and controls the distribution of goods.
Believing that such economic decision making
In a market economy, individuals and private
benefits all of society and not just a few people,
groups make decisions about what to produce.
countries with command economies try to dis-
People, as shoppers, choose what products they
tribute goods and services equally among all cit-
will or will not buy, and businesses make more
izens. Public taxes, for example, are used to
of what they believe consumers want. A market
support social services, such as housing and
economy is based on free enterprise, the idea
health care, for all citizens. However, citizens
that private individuals or groups have the right
have no voice in how this tax money is spent.
to own property or businesses and make a profit
with only limited government interference. In a Communism A command economy is called either
free enterprise system, people are free to choose socialism or communism, depending on how much
what jobs they will do and for whom they will the government is involved. In theory, communism
work. Another term for an economic system requires strict government control of almost the
organized in this way is capitalism. entire society, including its economy. The govern-
No country in the world, however, has a pure ment decides how much to produce, what to pro-
market economy system. Today the U.S. economy duce, and how to distribute the goods and services
and others like it are described as mixed econo- produced. One political party—the Communist
mies. A mixed economy is one in which the Party—makes decisions and may even use various
government supports and regulates free enterprise forms of coercion to ensure that the decisions are
through decisions that affect the marketplace. carried out at lower political and economic levels.

Chapter 4 103

Gordon Wiltsie/National Geographic Image Collection

 Supporters of the market system claim, how-
ever, that without free decision making and incen-
tives, businesses will not innovate or produce
products that people want. Customers will be lim-
ited in their choices, and economies will stagnate.
As a result of these problems, command econo-
mies often decline. The Soviet Union, as described
below by a Russian observer, provided an exam-
ple of this situation:
Waiting in long lines for
limited amounts of goods

‘‘ In 1961 the [Communist] party predicted . . .

that the Soviet Union would have the world’s
highest living standard by 1980. . . . But when
that year came and went, the Soviet Union still
was common for people living in the Soviet
command economy.
Place How do communism and socialism differ?

limped along, burdened by . . . a stagnant

Socialism Socialism allows a wider range of free

’’
economy.
enterprise. It has three main goals: (1) an equitable
distribution of wealth and economic opportunity;
Dusko Doder, “The Bolshevik Revolution,”
National Geographic, October 1992 (2) society’s control, through its government, of
decisions about public goods; and (3) public own-
ership of services and factories that are essential.
By 2000, Russia and the other countries that Some socialist countries, like those in Western
were once part of the Soviet Union were devel- Europe, are democracies. Under democratic social-
oping market economies. China and Vietnam ism, people have basic human rights and elect their
have allowed some free enterprise to promote political leaders.
economic growth, although their governments Place On what idea is a market
tightly control political affairs. economy based?

SECTION 3 REVIEW
Vocabulary Critical Thinking
1. Explain the significance of: unitary system, federal system, 4. Explain the different ways in which an autocracy,
autocracy, monarchy, oligarchy, democracy, traditional econ- an oligarchy, and a democracy exercise authority.
omy, market economy, mixed economy, command economy. 5. Comparing and Contrasting What different roles might local
citizens have in government decision making under a unitary
Main Ideas
system, a federal system, and a confederation?
2. Define the three major economic systems. What are the
6. Analyzing Information How does a market economy affect
three basic economic decisions that all economic systems
other economies in a region?
must make?
3. Use a table like the one below to summarize the features of Writing About Geography
government—levels of government and types of government— 7. Expository Writing Write a one-page essay explaining the
that exist around the world. human and physical geographic characteristics that can influ-
ence a country’s foreign policy. Use Iraq, Israel, Japan, and
Level of Type of
Example Example the United Kingdom as examples.
government government

Geography ONLINE
Study Central™ To review this section, go to
glencoe.com and click on Study Central.

104 Unit 1
Peter Turnley/CORBIS
 SECTION 4 Resources,
Guide to Reading
Section Preview
Trade, and the
Although people are dependent on
the world’s natural resources for
survival, certain economic activities
can threaten humans’ future access
Environment
to these resources. The growth of the global economy continues to
Content Vocabulary make the world’s peoples increasingly interdependent,
• natural resource • developing or reliant on each other. Natural resources are
(p. 106) country (p. 108)
• industrializa- • free trade
extracted and traded around the world. And although
tion (p. 108) (p. 109) important to modern life, they are misused and often
• developed • pollution cause pollution and damage to the environment.
country (p. 108) (p. 109)
• newly
industrialized Voices Around the World
country (p. 108)
“Below more than a mile of ocean and three more of mud and rock, the prize
Academic Vocabulary
• ensure (p. 106)
is waiting. At the surface a massive drilling vessel . . . shudders every few min-
• benefit (p. 109) utes as its thrusters put out a burst of power to fight the strong current. The
• conduct (p. 109) PA system crackles, warning of small amounts of gas bubbling from the deep
Earth. And in the shadow of the 23-story-tall derrick, engineers and managers
Places to Locate
gather in worried knots. ‘We’ve got an unstable hole,’ laments Bill Kirton,

THE WORLD
• Malaysia (p. 108)
• European Union (p. 109) who’s overseeing the project. . . . [I]f the wells live up
to expectations, each will eventually gush tens
Reading Strategy of thousands of barrels a day. ‘That’s like
Organizing As you read about
a well in Saudi Arabia,’ says [a drilling
natural resources, complete a web
diagram similar to the one below supervisor]. ‘We hardly get those in the
by listing types of renewable energy U.S. anymore.’”
resources.
—Tim Appenzeller, “The End of
Renewable Energy Cheap Oil,” National Geographic,
Resources June 2004

A worker on an
oil drillship

Chapter 4 105

Greg Smith/CORBIS
 Resource Because fossil fuels, such as coal and oil, and
other nonrenewable resources cannot be replaced,
Management they must be conserved. The immediate goal of
conservation is to manage vital resources care-
fully so that people’s present needs are met. An
MAIN Idea Natural resources must be managed
equally important long-term goal is to ensure that
to ensure future needs.
the needs of future generations are met.
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU Have you heard news With these future needs in mind, environmen-
accounts about the U.S. dependence on foreign oil? tal experts have encouraged people to replace
Read to learn about the importance of conserving their dependence on fossil fuels with the use
nonrenewable resources. of renewable energy sources. Many countries,
for example, already produce hydroelectric
Earth provides all the elements necessary to sus- power — energy generated from falling water.
tain life. Elements from the Earth that are not Another renewable energy source is solar
made by people but can be used by them for food, energy, power produced by the sun’s energy.
fuel, or other necessities are called natural resources. Electricity derived from nuclear energy, the
Some are renewable resources, and cannot be used power created by a controlled atomic reaction,
up or can be replaced naturally or grown again in is another renewable source. Concerns, however,
a relatively short amount of time. Wind, sun, water, surround the use of nuclear power because, like
forests, and animal life are renewable resources. fossil fuels, it produces dangerous waste.
The Earth’s crust, however, contains many non- Human-Environment Interaction
renewable resources that cannot be replaced, such What are some types of renewable energy
as minerals and fossil fuels. sources?

The Global Economy

1. Location Study the world economic activity map on

page 107. Where are the primary economic activities
necessary for shoe production located?
2. Regions What other world region could supply shoe
manufacturers with rubber?

Use StudentWorks™ Plus or glencoe.com.

106 Unit 1
Economies and • Primary economic activities involve taking
or using natural resources directly from the
World Trade Earth. They include farming, grazing, fish-
ing, forestry, and mining. Primary economic
activities take place near the natural
MAIN Idea Countries with varying levels of eco-
resources that are being gathered or used.
nomic development have become increasingly
For example, coal mining occurs at the site
interdependent through world trade.
of a coal deposit.
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU What types of economic • Secondary economic activities use raw
activities take place in your community? Read to learn materials to produce something new and
how countries involved in different economic activi- more valuable. Such activities include man-
ties contribute to the global economy. ufacturing automobiles, assembling elec-
tronic goods, producing electric power, or
Most natural resources are not evenly distrib- making pottery. These activities occur close
uted throughout the Earth. This uneven distri- to the resource or to the market for the
bution affects the global economy, as you see finished good.
from the economic activities map on page 106. • Tertiary economic activities do not involve
As a result, countries specialize in the economic directly acquiring and remaking natural
activities best suited to their resources. resources. Instead, they are activities that
provide services to people and businesses.
Economic Development Doctors, teachers, lawyers, bankers, truck
Geographers and economists classify all of the drivers, and store clerks all provide profes-
world’s economic activities into four types: sional, wholesale, or retail services.

THE WORLD

Chapter 4 107
 • Quaternary economic activities are concerned Economic activities, including industrialization,
with the processing, management, and distri- or the spread of industry, help influence a country’s
bution of information. They are vitally impor- level of development. Those countries having
tant to modern economies that have been much technology and manufacturing, such as the
transformed in recent years by the informa- United States, are called developed countries.
tion revolution. Just as with tertiary economic Most people work in manufacturing, service, or
activities, people performing these activities information industries and enjoy a high stan-
include “white collar” professionals working dard of living. Farmers in developed countries
in education, government, business, informa- engage in commercial farming, raising crops and
tion processing, and research. livestock to sell in the market. Because of mod-
ern techniques, only a small percentage of work-
ers in developled countries is needed to grow the
World Economic Trends food to feed entire populations.
Newly industrialized countries have moved
from primarily agricultural to primarily manu-
facturing and industrial activities. Such countries
include Mexico and Malaysia. Those countries
working toward greater manufacturing and
technology use are called developing countries.
In many developing countries, which are mainly
in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, agriculture
remains dominant. Despite much commercial
farming, most farmers in these countries engage
in subsistence farming, growing only enough
food for family needs. As a result, most people
in developing countries remain poor.
The global influence of developed countries
has sparked resentment in some developing
countries. Feeding on this discontent, militant
groups have tried to strike back by engaging in
terrorism, the use of violence to create fear in a
population or region. Small in size and often
limited in resources, these groups use the fear
unleashed by violence to heighten their influ-
ence, hoping to promote and control changes
in society.

World Trade
The unequal distribution of natural resources
is one factor that promotes a complex network
of trade among countries. Countries export their
specialized products, trading them to other
countries that cannot produce those goods.
When countries cannot produce as much as they
need of a certain good, they import it, or buy it
1. Movement By how much has world trade increased since 1985?
from another country. That country, in turn,
Develop a hypothesis to explain this increase. Write a brief para-
graph summarizing your hypothesis.
may buy the first country’s products, making the
two countries trading partners.
2. Movement Compare the world trade and world GDP graphs.
Other factors affecting world trade are differ-
Which measure of economic activity has experienced the most
ences in labor costs and education levels.
dramatic change since 1995? Why do you think this is so?
Multinationals, firms that do business in many

108 Unit 1
places throughout the world, often base their
business decisions on these factors. They locate People and the
their headquarters in a developed country
and locate their manufacturing or assembly
Environment
operations in developing countries with low
MAIN Idea Economic activities have led to envi-
labor costs. In recent decades, many developing
ronmental pollution.
countries have allowed multinationals to buy
property and build factories or form partner- GEOGRAPHY AND YOU Is your community facing
ships with local companies. the challenges of water pollution or air pollution?
Read to learn how economic activities may be
Barriers to Trade A government conducts its responsible for such pollution.
country’s trade to benefit its own economy. Some
governments add a tariff, or a tax, to the price In recent decades, economic activities have
of imported goods. Because tariffs make such drastically affected the environment. A major
goods more costly, governments often use them environmental challenge today is pollution—the
to influence people to buy domestic products. release of unclean or toxic elements into the air,
Governments sometimes create other barriers water, and land.
to trade. They might put a strict quota, or num-
ber limit, on the quantity of a particular product Water and Land Pollution
that can be imported from a particular country.
Earth’s bodies of water are normally renew-
A government may even impose an embargo,
able, purifying themselves over time, but this
banning trade with another country altogether,
natural cycle can be interrupted by human activ-
as a way to punish that country for political or
ity. Oil tankers and offshore drilling rigs can
economic differences.
cause oil spills. Industries may dump chemical
waste that enters and pollutes the water supply.
Free Trade In recent years governments around
Fertilizers and pesticides from farms can seep
the world have moved toward free trade, the

THE WORLD
into groundwater and cause harm, as can ani-
removal of trade barriers so that goods can flow
mal waste and untreated sewage.
freely among countries. The General Agreement
Land pollution occurs where chemical waste
on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was the first inter-
poisons fertile topsoil or solid waste is dumped
national agreement to promote free trade. In
in landfills. Radioactive waste from nuclear
1995 GATT became the World Trade Organization
power plants and toxic runoff from chemical
(WTO), to which most countries now belong.
processing plants can also leak into the soil.
In various parts of the world, several coun-
tries have joined together to create regional free
trade agreements. For example, the United Air Pollution
States, Mexico, and Canada have set up the The main source of air pollution is the burning
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) of fossil fuels by industries and vehicles. Burning
to eliminate all trade barriers to one another’s fuel gives off poisonous gases that can damage
goods. The European Union (EU), the world’s people’s health. Acidic chemicals in air pollution
largest trading bloc, includes many of the also combine with precipitation to form acid
countries of Europe. Some members of the EU rain. Acid rain eats away at the surfaces of build-
have adopted a regional currency, the euro, to ings, kills fish, and can destroy entire forests.
extend their cooperative efforts. The Association Forests provide animal habitats, prevent soil
of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was erosion, and carry on photosynthesis
established in 1967 by Indonesia, Malaysia, (foh•toh•SIHN•thuh•suhs) — the process by
the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand which plants take in carbon dioxide and, in the
to encourage economic growth and trade in presence of sunlight, produce carbohydrates.
the region. The oxygen released during photosynthesis is
vital for human and animal survival. Decreasing
Regions In which regions of the acid rain will help preserve a region’s environ-
world are most developing countries located? mental balance.

Chapter 4 109
 Some scientists believe that rising levels of car-
bon dioxide in the atmosphere are contributing
to a general increase in the Earth’s temperature,
a trend called global warming. Although not all
people agree that global warming is occurring,
scientists who study it warn that the increase in
temperature will cause glaciers and ice caps to
melt, raising the level of the world’s oceans.

The Fragile Ecosystem

As humans expand their communities, they
threaten natural ecosystems, places where the
plants and animals are dependent upon one
another and their environment for survival.
Because the Earth’s land, air, and water are inter-
related, what harms one part of the system
harms all the other parts — including humans
and other living things. As people become more
aware of how their actions affect this delicate
balance of life, they are starting to manage
Testing and containing toxic waste is vital for the
health of natural ecosystems. resources more wisely.
Human-Environment Interaction How does water pollution impact
Human-Environment Interaction
natural ecosystems?
What is the main source of air pollution?

SECTION 4 REVIEW
Vocabulary Critical Thinking
1. Explain the significance of: natural resource, industrialization, 5. Research and compare two countries in the ways
developed country, newly industrialized country, developing they depend on the environment for the products they export.
country, free trade, pollution. 6. Evaluating Information Evaluate the impact of innovations,
such as fire, steam power, diesel machinery, and electricity,
Main Ideas
on the environment.
2. Why must natural resources be managed wisely?
7. Making Inferences What advantages and disadvantages
3. Explain how economic activities have led to air, water, and might a developing country experience by joining a free
land pollution. trade agreement?
4. Use a table like the one below to list and describe the four 8. Analyzing Visuals Study the world economic activity map on
types of economic activities. Then list an example of each. page 107. What regions have the most oil? The most coal? What
How have countries with varying levels of economic develop- patterns do you see? How does this influence world trade?
ment become interdependent through world trade? Write a
paragraph explaining your answer. Writing About Geography
9. Expository Writing Write a brief essay explaining how
Economic activity Example
quotas, embargoes, and tariffs differ, and then describe the
unintended consequence you think they might have on a
country’s economy.

Geography ONLINE
Study Central To review this section, go to
glencoe.com and click on Study Central.

110 Unit 1
Mug Shots/zefa/CORBIS
 Study anywhere, anytime
by downloading quizzes

CHAPTER 4 VISUAL SUMMARY and flashcards to your

PDA from glencoe.com.

Mexico: Population Density

WORLD POPULATION
• Population growth increased rapidly, but unevenly throughout
the twentieth century and into the twenty-first century.
• The world’s population is unevenly distributed. Large numbers
of people are migrating from rural areas to cities for jobs or to
escape famine and war.
• As people become more mobile, so do goods. Countries trade
to gain access to resources they lack.

THE WORLD
WORLD CULTURE
• Language, religion, social groups, government, and economic activities
define cultures.
• Geographers divide the Earth into specific culture regions.
• Trade, migration, war, and technology can change cultures.
• The world’s first civilizations arose in culture hearths in Central America,
Africa, and Asia.

U.S. singer Janet Jackson in Tokyo, Japan

GOVERNMENT AND ECONOMIC SYSTEMS

• Governments may be organized as a unitary system, a federal system,
or a confederation.
• An autocracy, an oligarchy, and a democracy differ in the way they exer-
cise authority.
• The three major economic systems are traditional economy, market
economy, and command economy.
• The type of economic system helps determine how a country will view
international trade. Market economies are more open to free trade,
while command economies are likely to put up trade barriers.

Mexcian President Felipe Calderon

Chapter 4 111

(bkgd)Robert Laberge/Getty Images, (cl)Handout/epa/CORBIS, (br)Evaristo Sa/AFP/Getty Images

CHAPTER 4
STANDARDIZED TEST PRACTICE
TEST TAKING TIP
TEST-TAKING
Tests are generally constructed to avoid a string of the same letter as the correct
answer. If you find that you have a lot of answers that are the same letter, go back
and check your work.

Reviewing Vocabulary Reviewing Main Ideas

Directions: Choose the word or words that best complete the Directions: Choose the best answers to the following questions.
sentence.
Section 1 (pp. 70–74)
1. The model uses birthrates and death rates to show 5. Why is negative population growth a concern?
changes in the population of a country or region.
A Many more schools must be built.
A natural increase
B There may not be enough workers to fill available jobs.
B population explosion
C There are too few old people to take care of the many
C migration children.
D demographic transition D People may not enjoy good health.

Section 2 (pp. 75–79)

2. Ideas spread from one culture to another by the process 6. Why were early farmers able to develop specialized economic
of . activities?

A culture A They chose places close to metal ores for their settlements.

B culture hearth B They were more highly educated than hunters and gather-
ers who lived nearby.
C cultural diffusion
C Farmers could produce surplus food, allowing other people
D global warming to do other kinds of work.
D They built walls around their towns.

Section 3 (pp. 100–104)

3. A government by one person is called .
7. The idea behind democracy is that
A a democracy
A a monarch is the best kind of ruler.
B an oligarchy
B a dictator rules on behalf of the people.
C a federation
C the people hold sovereign power.
D an autocracy
D a monarch has a purely ceremonial role.

Section 4 (pp. 105–110)

4. countries have recently moved from mainly agricul- 8. The immediate goal of conservation is to
tural to mainly industrial economic activities. A stop using natural resources.
A Newly industrialized B manage vital resources carefully so that people’s needs
B Developed are met.
C Developing C control the price of natural resources.
D Democratic D sell natural resources for a higher price.

GO ON

112 Unit 1
 ASSESSMENT

Critical Thinking Document-Based Questions

Directions: Choose the best answers to the following questions. Directions: Analyze the document and answer the short-answer
questions that follow the document.
9. Which of the following is an example of how culture affects
the daily lives of people? In October 2006 the population of the United States reached
A Language is the means by which people communicate 300 million people. Sandra Yin, a demographer at the Population
ideas. Reference Bureau, describes the population of the United States
and how it has grown.
B Religion helps keep peace around the world.
C Government is not usually affected by cultural influences. The United States is set to reach a milestone in October. It will
become the third country — after China and India — to be home
D Cultural influences are the same throughout a country.
to at least 300 million people.
Base your answer to question 10 on the map and on your knowledge Each 100 million has been added more quickly than the last.
of Chapter 4. It took the United States more than 100 years to reach its
first 100 million in 1915. After another 52 years, it reached
Early Civilizations 200 million in 1967. Less than 40 years later, it is set to hit the
300-million mark. Within another 37 years, we are projected
to pass 400 million.
Natural increase (the excess of births over deaths) drives most
population growth (nearly 60 percent annually) in the United
States. This relatively high natural increase sets the United
States apart from other developed countries such as Sweden
and the United Kingdom, where the excess of births over
deaths accounts for less growth, respectively. Other developed
countries such as Germany and Italy are seeing a natural
decrease, or slightly more deaths than births. International
migration accounts for about 40 percent of U.S. population
growth.
— Sandra Yin, “The United States at 300 Million,”
Population Reference Bureau

11. What is the main reason for the growth of population in the
United States? What other factor influences the growth?

Extended Response
12. Compare an oligarchy to a democracy. How are these forms
of government similar? How are they different?

10. What do the Nile valley and Mesopotamian civilizations

have in common?
STOP
A Both are located along the Red Sea.
B Both are located alongside major rivers.
C The waterways running through the civilizations empty Geography ONLINE
into the Mediterranean Sea.
For additional test practice, use Self-Check Quizzes—
D Both were established by Greek invaders. Chapter 4 on glencoe.com.
Need Extra Help?
If you missed questions. . . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Go to page. . . 71 78 101 108 72 78 102 106 77 78 113 102

Chapter 4 113