abstract algebra: 

the area of modern mathematics that considers algebraic structures

to be sets with operations defined on them, and extends algebraic concepts usually
associated with the real number system to other more general systems, such as groups,
rings, fields, modules and vector spaces

algebra: a branch of mathematics that uses symbols or letters to represent variables,

values or numbers, which can then be used to express operations and relationships and
to solve equations

algebraic expression: a combination of numbers and letters equivalent to a phrase in

language, e.g. x2 + 3x - 4

algebraic equation: a combination of numbers and letters equivalent to a sentence in

language, e.g. y = x2 + 3x - 4

algorithm: a step by step procedure by which an operation can be carried out

amicable numbers: pairs of numbers for which the sum of the divisors of one number
equals the other number, e.g. 220 and 284, 1184 and 1210

analytic (Cartesian) geometry: the study of geometry using a coordinate system and

the principles of algebra and analysis, thus defining geometrical shapes in a numerical
way and extracting numerical information from that representation

analysis (mathematical analysis): grounded in the rigorous formulation of calculus,

analysis is the branch of pure mathematics concerned with the notion of a limit (whether
of a sequence or of a function)

arithmetic: the part of mathematics that studies quantity, especially as the result of

combining numbers (as opposed to variables) using the traditional operations of
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division (the more advanced manipulation of
numbers is usually known as number theory)

associative property: property (which applies both to multiplication and addition) by

which numbers can be added or multiplied in any order and still yield the same value,
e.g. (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) or (ab)c = a(bc)

asymptote: a line that the curve of a function tends towards as the independent
variable of the curve approaches some limit (usually infinity) i.e. the distance between
the curve and the line approaches zero

axiom: a proposition that is not actually proved or demonstrated, but is considered to

be self-evident and universally accepted as a starting point for deducing and inferring
other truths and theorems, without any need of proof

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base n: the number of unique digits (including zero) that a positional numeral system
uses to represent numbers, e.g. base 10 (decimal) uses 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 in
each place value position; base 2 (binary) uses just 0 and 1; base 60 (sexagesimal, as
used in ancient Mesopotamia) uses all the numbers from 0 to 59; etc

Bayesian probability: a popular interpretation of probability which evaluates the

probability of a hypothesis by specifying some prior probability, and then updating in the
light of new relevant data

bell curve: the shape of the graph that indicates a normal distribution in probability and
statistics

bijection: a one-to-one comparison or correspondence of the members of two sets, so

that there are no unmapped elements in either set, which are therefore of the same size
and cardinality

binomial: a polynomial algebraic expression or equation with just two terms, e.g. 2x3 -
3y = 7; x2 + 4x; etc

binomial coefficients: the coefficients of the polynomial expansion of a binomial power

of the form (x + y) n, which can be arranged geometrically according to the binomioal
theorem as a symmetrical triangle of numbers known as Pascal’s Triangle, e.g.
(x + y)4 = x4 + 4x3y + 6x2y2 + 4xy3 + y4 the coefficients are 1, 4, 6, 4, 1

Boolean algebra or logic: a type of algebra which can be applied to the solution of
logical problems and mathematical functions, in which the variables are logical rather
than numerical, and in which the only operators are AND, OR and NOT

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calculus (infinitesimal calculus): a branch of mathematics involving derivatives and

integrals, used to study motion and changing values

calculus of variations: an extension of calculus used to search for a function which

minimizes a certain functional (a functional is a function of a function)

cardinal numbers: numbers used to measure the cardinality or size (but not the order)
of sets - the cardinality of a finite set is just a natural number indicating the number of
elements in the set; the sizes of infinite sets are described by transfinite cardinal
numbers,  0 (aleph-null),  1 (aleph-one), etc

Cartesian coordinates: a pair of numerical coordinates which specify the position of a

point on a plane based on its distance from the the two fixed perpendicular axes (which,
with their positive and negative values, split the plane up into four quadrants)
coefficients: the factors of the terms (i.e. the numbers in front of the letters) in a
mathematical expression or equation, e.g. in the expression 4x + 5y2 + 3z, the
coefficients for x, y2 and z are 4, 5 and 3 respectively

combinatorics: the study of different combinations and groupings of numbers, often

used in probability and statistics, as well as in scheduling problems and Sudoku puzzles

complex dynamics: the study of mathematical models and dynamical systems defined

by iteration of functions on complex number spaces

complex number: a number expressed as an ordered pair comprising a real number

and an imaginary number, written in the form a + bi, where a and b are real numbers,
and i is the imaginary unit (equal to the square root of -1)

composite number: a number with at least one other factor besides itself and one, i.e.
not a prime number

congruence: two geometrical figures are congruent to one another if they have the
same size and shape, and so one can be transformed into the other by a combination of
translation, rotation and reflection

conic section: the section or curve formed by the intersection of a plane and a cone (or
conical surface), depending on the angle of the plane it could be an ellipse, a hyperbola
or a parabola

continued fraction: a fraction whose denominator contains a fraction, whose

denominator in turn contains a fraction, etc, etc

coordinate: the ordered pair that gives the location or position of a point on a

coordinate plane, determined by the point’s distance from the x and y axes, e.g. (2, 3.7)
or (-5, 4)

coordinate plane: a plane with two scaled perpendicular lines that intersect at the
origin, usually designated x (horizontal axis) and y (vertical axis)

correlation: a measure of relationship between two variables or sets of data, a positive

correlation coefficient indicating that one variable tends to increase or decrease as the
other does, and a negative correlation coefficient indicating that one variable tends to
increase as the other decreases and vice versa

cubic equation: a polynomial having a degree of 3 (i.e. the highest power is 3), of the
form ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0, which can be solved by factorization or formula to find its
three roots

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decimal number: a real number which expresses fractions on the base 10 standard
numbering system using place value, e.g. 37⁄100 = 0.37

deductive reasoning or logic: a type of reasoning where the truth of a conclusion

necessarily follows from, or is a logical consequence of, the truth of the premises (as
opposed to inductive reasoning)

derivative: a measure of how a function or curve changes as its input changes, i.e. the
best linear approximation of the function at a particular input value, as represented by
the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the function at that point, found by the
operation of differentiation

descriptive geometry: a method of representing three-dimensional objects by

projections on the two-dimensional plane using a specific set of procedures

differential equation: an equation that expresses a relationship between a function

and its derivative, the solution of which is not a single value but a function (has many
applications in engineering, physics economics, etc)

differential geometry: a field of mathematics that uses the methods of differential and
integral calculus (as well as linear and multilinear algebra) to study the geometry of
curves and surfaces

differentiation: the operation in calculus (inverse to the operation of integration) of

finding the derivative of a function or equation

Diophantine equation: a polynomial equation with integer coefficients that also allows
the variables and solutions to be integers only

distributive property: property whereby summing two numbers and then multiplying by

another number yields the same value as multiplying both values by the other value and
then adding them together, e.g. a(b + c) = ab + ac

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element: a member of, or an object in, a set

ellipse: a plane curve resulting from the intersection of a cone by a plane, that looks
like a slightly flattened circle (a circle is a special case of an ellipse)

elliptic geometry: a non-Euclidean geometry based (at its simplest) on a spherical

plane, in which there are no parallel lines and the angles of a triangle sum to more than
180°

empty (null) set: a set that has no members, and therefore has zero size, usually
represented by {} or ø
Euclidean geometry: “normal” geometry based on a flat plane, in which there are
parallel lines and the angles of a triangle sum to 180°

expected value: the amount predicted to be gained, using the calculation for average
expected payoff, which can be calculated as the integral of a random variable with
respect to its probability measure (the expected value may not actually be the most
probable value and may not even exist, e.g. 2.5 children)

exponentiation: the mathematical operation where a number (the base) is multiplied by

itself a specified number of times (the exponent), usually written as a superscript an,
where a is the base and n is the exponent, e.g. 43 = 4 x 4 x 4

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factor: a number that will divide into another number exactly, e.g. the factors of 10 are
1, 2 and 5

factorial: the product of all the consecutive integers up to a given number (used to give
the number of permutations of a set of objects), denoted by n!, e.g. 5! = 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5
= 120

Fermat primes: prime numbers that are one more than a power of 2 (and where the
exponent is itself a power of 2), e.g. 3 (21 + 1), 5 (22 + 1), 17 (24 + 1), 257 (28 + 1),
65,537 (216 + 1), etc

Fibonacci numbers (series): a set of numbers formed by adding the last two numbers
to get the next in the series: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, ...

finite differences: a method of approximating the derivative or slope of a function using

approximately equivalent difference quotients (the function difference divided by the
point difference) for small differences

formula: a rule or equation describing the relationship of two or more variables or

quantities, e.g. A = πr2

Fourier series: an approximation of more complex periodic functions (such as square

or saw-tooth functions) by adding together various simple trigonometric functions (e.g.
sine, cosine, tangent, etc)

fraction: a way of writing rational numbers (numbers that are not whole numbers), also
used to represent ratios or division, in the form of a numerator over a denominator,
e.g. 3⁄5 (a unit fraction is a fraction whose numerator is 1)

fractal: a self-similar geometric shape (one that appears similar at all levels of
magnification) produced by an equation that undergoes repeated iterative steps or
recursion
function: a relation or correspondence between two sets in which one element of the
second (codomain or range) set ƒ(x) is assigned to each element of the first (domain)
set x, e.g. ƒ(x) = x2 or y = x2 assigns a value to ƒ(x) or y based on the square of each
value of x

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game theory: a branch of mathematics that attempts to mathematically capture

behaviour in strategic situations, in which an individual's success in making choices
depends on the choices of others, with applications in the areas of economics, politics,
biology, engineering, etc

Gaussian curvature: an intrinsic measure of the curvature of a point on a surface,

dependent only on how distances are measured on the surface and not on the way it is
embedded in space

geometry: the part of mathematics concerned with the size, shape and relative position
of figures, or the study of lines, angles, shapes and their properties

golden ratio (golden mean, divine proportion): the ratio of two quantities (equivalent
to approximately 1 : 1.6180339887) where the ratio of the sum of the quantities to the
larger quantity equals the ratio of the larger quantity to the smaller one, usually denoted
by the Greek letter phi φ (phi)

graph theory: a branch of mathematics focusing on the properties of a variety of

graphs (meaning visual representations of data and their relationships, as opposed to
graphs of functions on a Cartesian plane)

group: a mathematical structure consisting of a set together with an operation that

combines any two of its elements to form a third element, e.g. the set of integers and
the addition operation form a group

group theory: the mathematical field that studies the algebraic structures and
properties of groups and the mappings between them

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Hilbert problems: an influential list of 23 open (unsolved) problems in mathematics

described by David Hilbert in 1900

hyperbola: a smooth symmetrical curve with two branches produced by the section of a
conical surface

hyperbolic geometry: a non-Euclidean geometry based on a saddle-shaped plane, in

which there are no parallel lines and the angles of a triangle sum to less than 180°
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identity: an equality that remains true regardless of the values of any variables that
appear within it, e.g. for multiplication, the identity is one; for addition, the identity is zero

imaginary numbers: numbers in the form bi, where b is a real number and i is the

“imaginary unit”, equal to √-1 (i.e. i2 = -1)

inductive reasoning or logic: a type of reasoning that involves moving from a set of
specific facts to a general conclusion, indicating some degree of support for the
conclusion without actually ensuring its truth

infinite series: the sum of an infinite sequence of numbers (which are usually produced
according to a certain rule, formula or algorithm)

infinitesimal: quantities or objects so small that there is no way to see them or to

measure them, so that for all practical purposes they approach zero as a limit (an idea
used in the developement of infinitesimal calculus)

infinity: a quantity or set of numbers without bound, limit or end, whether countably
infinite like the set of integers, or uncountably infinite like the set of real numbers
(represented by the symbol ∞)

integers: whole numbers, both positive (natural numbers) and negative, including zero

integral: the area bounded by a graph or curve of a function and the x axis, between

two given values of x (definite integral), found by the operation of integration

integration: the operation in calculus (inverse to the operation of differentiation) of

finding the integral of a function or equation

irrational numbers: numbers that can not be represented as decimals (because they

would contain an infinite number of non-repeating digits) or as fractions of one integer
over another, e.g. π, √2, e

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Julia set: the set of points for a function of the form z2 + c (where c is a complex

parameter), such that a small perturbation can cause drastic changes in the sequence
of iterated function values and iterations will either approach zero, approach infinity or
get trapped in loop

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knot theory: an area of topology that studies mathematical knots (a knot is a closed
curve in space formed by interlacing a piece of “string” and joining the ends)
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least squares method: a method of regression analysis used in probability theory and
statistics to fit a curve-of-best-fit to observed data by minimizing the sum of the squares
of the differences between the observed values and the values provided by the model

limit: the point towards which a series or function converges, e.g. as x becomes closer
and closer to zero, (sin x)⁄x becomes closer and closer to the limit of 1

line: in geometry, a one-dimensional figure following a continuous straight path joining

two or more points, whether infinite in both directions or just a line segment bounded by
two distinct end points

linear equation: an algebraic equation in which each term is either a constant or the
product of a constant and the first power of a single variable, and whose graph is
therefore a straight line, e.g. y = 4, y = 5x + 3

linear regression: a technique in statistics and probability theory for modelling

scattered data by assuming an approximate linear relationship between the dependent
and independent variables

logarithm: the inverse operation to exponentiation, the exponent of a power to which a

base (usually 10 or e for natural logarithms) must be raised to produce a given number,
e.g. because 1,000 = 103, the log10 100 = 3

logic: the study of the formal laws of reasoning (mathematical logic the application of
the techniques of formal logic to mathematics and mathematical reasoning, and vice
versa)

logicism: the theory that mathematics is just an extension of logic, and that therefore
some or all mathematics is reducible to logic

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magic square: a square array of numbers where each row, column and diagonal added
up to the same total, known as the magic sum or constant (a semi-magic square is a
square numbers where just the rows and columns, but not both diagonals, sum to a
constant)

Mandelbrot set: a set of points in the complex plane, the boundary of which forms a
fractal, based on all the possible c points and Julia sets of a function of the
form z2 + c (where c is a complex parameter)

manifold: a topological space or surface which, on a small enough scale, resembles

the Euclidean space of a specific dimension (called the dimension of the manifold), e.g.
a line and a circle are one-dimensional manifolds; a plane and the surface of a sphere
are two-dimensional manifolds; etc

matrix: a rectangular array of numbers, which can be added, subtracted and multiplied,
and used to represent linear transformations and vectors, solve equations, etc

Mersenne number: numbers that are one less than 2 to the power of a prime number,
e.g. 3 (22 - 1); 7 (23 - 1); 31 (25 - 1); 127 (27 - 1); 8,191 (213 - 1); etc

Mersenne primes: prime numbers that are one less than a power of 2, e.g. 3 (22 - 1); 7
(23 - 1); 31 (25 - 1); 127 (27 - 1); 8,191 (213 - 1); etc - many, but not all, Mersenne
numbers are primes, e.g. 2,047 = 211 - 1 = 23 x 89, so 2,047 is a Mersenne number but
not a Mersenne prime

method of exhaustion: a method of finding the area of a shape by inscribing inside it a

sequence of polygons whose areas converge to the area of the containing shape (a
precursor to the methods of calculus)

modular arithmetic: a system of arithmetic for integers, where numbers "wrap around"
after they reach a certain value (the modulus), e.g. on a 12-hour clock, 15 o’clock is
actually 3 o’clock (15 = 3 mod 12)

modulus: a number by which two given numbers can be divided by integer division,
and produce the same remainder, e.g. 38 ÷ 12 = 3 remainder 2, and 26 ÷ 12 = 2
remainder 2, therefore 38 and 26 are congruent modulo 12, or (38 ≡ 26) mod 12

monomial: an algebraic expression consisting of a single term (although that term

could be an exponent), e.g. y = 7x, y = 2x3

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natural numbers: the set of positive integers (regular whole counting numbers),

sometimes including zero

negative numbers: any integer, ration or real number which is less than 0, e.g. -743,
-1.4, -√5 (but not √-1, which is an imaginary or complex number)

non-commutative algebra: an algebra in which a x b does not always equal b x a, such

as that used by quaternions

non-Euclidean geometry: geometry based on a curved plane, whether elliptic

(spherical) or hyperbolic (saddle-shaped), in which there are no parallel lines and the
angles of a triangle do not sum to 180°
normal (Gaussian) distribution: a continuous probability distribution in probability
theory and statistics that describes data which clusters around the mean in a curved
“bell curve”, highest in the middle and quickly tapering off to each side

number line: a line on which all points correspond to real numbers (a simple number
line may only mark integers, but in theory all real numbers to +/- infinity can be shown
on a number line)

number theory: the branch of pure mathematics concerned with the properties of

numbers in general, and integers in particular

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ordinal numbers: an extension of the natural numbers (different from integers and from
cardinal numbers) used to describe the order type of sets i.e. the order of elements
within a set or series

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parabola: a type of conic section curve, any point of which is equally distant from a
fixed focus point and a fixed straight line

paradox: a statement that appears to contradict itself, suggesting a solution which is

actually impossible

partial differential equation: a relation involving an unknown function with several

independent variables and its partial derivatives with respect to those variables

Pascal’s Triangle: a geometrical arrangement of the coefficients of the polynomial

expansion of a binomial power of the form (x + y)n as a symmetrical triangle of numbers

perfect number: a number that is the sum of its divisors (excluding the number itself),
e.g. 28 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 7 + 14

periodic function: a function that repeats its values in regular intervals or periods, such
as the trigonometric functions of sine, cosine, tangent, etc

permutation: a particular ordering of a set of objects, e.g. given the set {1, 2, 3}, there
are six permutations: {1, 2, 3}, {1, 3, 2}, {2, 1, 3}, {2, 3, 1}, {3, 1, 2}, and {3, 2, 1}

pi (π): the ratio of a circumference of a circle to its diameter, an irrational (and

transcendental) number approximately equal to 3.141593...

place value: positional notation for numbers, allowing the use of the same symbols for
different orders of magnitude, e.g. the "one's place", "ten's place", "hundred's place", etc
Platonic solids: the five regular convex polyhedra (symmetrical 3-dimensional shapes):
the tetrahedron (made up of 4 regular triangles), the octahedron (made up of 8
triangles), the icosahedron (made up of 20 triangles), the cube (made up of 6 squares)
and the dodecahedron (made up of 12 pentagons)

polar coordinates: a two-dimensional coordinate system in which each point on a

plane is determined by its distance r from a fixed point (e.g. the origin) and its
angle θ (theta) from a fixed direction (e.g the x axis)

polynomial: an algebraic expression or equation with more than one term, constructed
from variables and constants using only the operations of addition, subtraction,
multiplication and non-negative whole-number exponents, e.g. 5x2 - 4x + 4y + 7

prime numbers: integers greater than 1 which are only divisible by themselves and 1

projective geometry: a kind of non-Euclidean geometry which considers what happens

to shapes when they are projected on to a non-parallel plane, e.g. a circle may be
projected into an ellipse or a hyperbola

plane: a flat two-dimensional surface (physical or theoretical) with infinite width and
length, zero thickness and zero curvature

probability theory: the branch of mathematics concerned with analysis of random

variables and events, and with the interpretation of probabilities (the likelihood of an
event happening)

Pythagoras’ (Pythagorean) theorem: the square of the hypotenuse of a right angled

triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the two sides (a2 + b2 = c2)

Pythagorean triples: groups of three positive integers a, b and c such that

the a2 + b2 = c2 equation of Pythagoras’ theorem, e.g. ( 3, 4, 5), ( 5, 12, 13), ( 7, 24, 25), (
8, 15, 17), etc

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quadratic equation: a polynomial equation with a degree of 2 (i.e. the highest power is
2), of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, which can be solved by various methods including
factoring, completing the square, graphing, Newton's method and the quadratic formula

quadrature: the act of squaring, or finding a square equal in area to a given figure, or

finding the area of a geometrical figure or the area under a curve (such as by a process
of numerical integration)

quartic equation: a polynomial having a degree of 4 (i.e. the highest power is 4), of the
form ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e = 0, the highest order polynomial equation that can be
solved by factorization into radicals by a general formula
quaternions: a number system that extends complex numbers to four dimensions (so
that an object is described by a real number and three complex numbers, all mutually
perpendicular to each other), which can be used to represent a three-dimensional
rotation by just an angle and a vector

quintic equation: a polynomial having a degree of 5 (i.e. the highest power is 5), of the
form ax5 + bx4 + cx3 + dx2 + ex + f = 0, not solvable by factorization into radicals for all
rational numbers

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rational numbers: numbers that can be expressed as a fraction (or ratio) a⁄b of two

integers (the integers are therefore a subset of the rationals), or alternatively a decimal
which terminates after a finite number of digits or begins to repeat a sequence

real numbers: all numbers (including natural numbers, integers, decimals, rational

numbers and irrational numbers) which do not involve imaginary numbers (multiples of
the imaginary unit i, or the square root of -1), may be thought of as all points on an
infinitely long number line

reciprocal: a number which, when multiplied by x yields the multiplicative identity 1, and
can therefore be thought of as the inverse of multiplication, e.g. the reciprocal of x is 1⁄x,
the reciprocal of 3⁄5 is 5⁄3

Riemannian geometry: a non-Euclidean geometry that studies curved surfaces and

differentiable manifolds in higher dimensional spaces

right triangle: a triangle (three sided polygon) containing an angle of 90°

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self-similarity: object is exactly or approximately similar to a part of itself (in fractals,

the shapes of lines at different iterations look like smaller versions of earlier shapes)

sequence: an ordered set whose elements are usually determined based on some
function of the counting numbers, e.g. a geometric sequence is a set where each
element is a multiple of the previous element; an arithmetic sequence is a set where
each element is the previous element plus or minus a number

set: a collection of distinct objects or numbers, without regard to their order, considered
as an object in its own right

significant digits: the number of digits to consider when using measuring numbers,

those digits that carry meaning contributing to its precision (i.e. ignoring leading and
trailing zeros)
simultaneous equations: a set or system of equations containing multiple variables
which has a solution that simultaneously satisfies all of the equations (e.g. the set of
simultaneous linear equations 2x + y = 8 and x + y = 6, has a solution x = 2 and y = 4)

slope: the steepness or incline of a line, determined by reference to two points on the

line, e.g. the slope of the line y = mx + b is m, and represents the rate at which y is
changing per unit of change in x

spherical geometry: a type of non-Euclidean (elliptic) geometry using the two-

dimensional surface of a sphere, where a curved geodesic (not a straight line) is the
shortest paths between points

spherical trigonometry: a branch of spherical geometry which deals with polygons

(especially triangles) on the sphere, and the relationships between their sides and
angles

subset: a subsidiary collection of objects that all belong to, or is contained in, an
original given set, e.g. subsets of {a, b} could include: {a}, {b}, {a, b} and {}

surd: the n-th root a number, such as √5, the cube root of 7, etc

symmetry: the correspondence in size, form or arrangement of parts on a plane or line

(line symmetry is where each point on one side of a line has a corresponding point on
the opposite side, e.g. a picture a butterfly with wings that are identical on either side;
plane symmetry refers to similar figures being repeated at different but regular locations
on the plane)

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tensor: a collection of numbers at every point in space which describe how much the
space is curved, e.g. in four spatial dimensions, a collection of ten numbers is needed at
each point to describe the properties of the mathematical space or manifold, no matter
how distorted it may be

term: in an algebraic expression or equation, either a single number or variable, or the

product of several numbers and variables separated from another term by a + or - sign,
e.g. in the expression 3 + 4x + 5yzw, the 3, the 4x and the 5yzw are all separate terms

theorem: a mathematical statement or hypothesis which has been proved on the basis
of previously established theorems and previously accepted axioms, effectively the
proof of the truth of a statement or expression

topology: the field of mathematics concerned with spatial properties that are preserved
under continuous deformations of objects (such as stretching, bending and morphing,
but not tearing or gluing)
transcendental number: an irrational number that is “not algebraic”, i.e. no finite
sequence of algebraic operations on integers (such as powers, roots, sums, etc.) can
be equal to its value, examples being π and e. For example, √2 is irrational but not
transcendental because it is the solution to the polynomial x2 = 2.

transfinite numbers: cardinal numbers or ordinal numbers that are larger than all finite
numbers, yet not necessarily absolutely infinite

triangular number: a number which can be represented as an equilateral triangle of

dots, and is the sum of all the consecutive numbers up to its largest prime factor - it can
also be calculated as n(n + 1)⁄2, e.g. 15 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 5(5 + 1)⁄2

trigonometry: the branch of mathematics that studies the relationships between the

sides and the angles of right triangles, and deals with and with the trigonometric
functions (sine, cosine, tangent and their reciprocals)

trinomial: an algebraic equation with 3 terms, e.g. 3x + 5y + 8z; 3x3 + 2x2 + x; etc

type theory: an alternative to naive set theory in which all mathematical entities are
assigned to a type within a hierarchy of types, so that objects of a given type are built
exclusively from objects of preceding types lower in the hierarchy, thus preventing loops
and paradoxes

V Back to Top

vector: a physical quantity having magnitude and direction, represented by a directed

arrow indicating its orientation in space

vector space: a three-dimensional area where vectors can be plotted, or a

mathematical structure formed by a collection of vectors

Venn diagram: a diagram where sets are represented as simple geometric figures
(often circles), and overlapping and similar sets are represented by intersections and
unions of the figures

Z Back to Top

Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory: the standard form of set theory and the most common
foundation of modern mathematics, based on a list of nine axioms (usually modified by
a tenth, the axiom of choice) about what kinds of sets exist, commonly abbreviated
together as ZFC

Zeta function: A function based on an infinite series of reciprocals of exponents

(Riemann’s zeta function is the extension of Euler’s simple zeta function into the domain
of complex numbers)
 Date Name Nationality   Major Achievements

35000 African First notched tally bones

BCE

3100 Sumerian Earliest documented counting and measuring system

BCE

2700OF IMPORTANT
ST Egyptian Earliest fully-developed base 10 number system in use
MATHEMATICIANS
BCE
a2600
chronological list of some of the most important
Sumerian mathematicians
Multiplication in history and
tables, geometrical their major
exercises and achievments,
division as well as some very early
ements in mathematics for which individual contributions can not be acknowledged.
BCE problems

the mathematicians have individual

2000- Egyptian pages inEarliest
this website,
papyrithese
showingpages are linked;
numeration otherwise
system more information can usually be obtained from
and basic
l 1800
page relating to the particular period in history, or from
arithmetic the list of sources used. A more detailed and comprehensive mathematical chronol
found
BCE at http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Chronology/full.html.

1800- Babylonian Clay tablets dealing with fractions, algebra and equations
1600
BCE

1650 Egyptian Rhind Papyrus (instruction manual in arithmetic, geometry, unit

BCE fractions, etc)

1200 Chinese First decimal numeration system with place value concept
BCE

1200- Indian Early Vedic mantras invoke powers of ten from a hundred all
900 the way up to a trillion
BCE

800- Indian “Sulba Sutra” lists several Pythagorean triples and simplified
400 Pythagorean theorem for the sides of a square and a
BCE rectangle, quite accurate approximation to √2

650 Chinese Lo Shu order three (3 x 3) “magic square” in which each row,
BCE column and diagonal sums to 15

624- Thales Greek Early developments in geometry, including work on similar and
546 right triangles
BCE

570- Pythagoras Greek Expansion of geometry, rigorous approach building from first
495 principles, square and triangular numbers, Pythagoras’
BCE theorem

500 Hippasus Greek Discovered potential existence of irrational numbers while

BCE trying to calculate the value of √2

490- Zeno of Elea Greek Describes a series of paradoxes concerning infinity and
430 infinitesimals
BCE

470- Hippocrates of Greek First systematic compilation of geometrical knowledge, Lune of

410 Chios Hippocrates
BCE

460- Democritus Greek Developments in geometry and fractions, volume of a cone

370
BCE

428- Plato Greek Platonic solids, statement of the Three Classical Problems,
348 influential teacher and popularizer of mathematics, insistence
BCE on rigorous proof and logical methods
MILLENNIUM PROBLEMS

Yang–Mills and Mass Gap

Experiment and computer simulations suggest the existence of a "mass gap" in the solution to the
quantum versions of the Yang-Mills equations. But no proof of this property is known.

Riemann Hypothesis
The prime number theorem determines the average distribution of the primes. The Riemann hypothesis
tells us about the deviation from the average. Formulated in Riemann's 1859 paper, it asserts that all the
'non-obvious' zeros of the zeta function are complex numbers with real part 1/2.

P vs NP Problem
If it is easy to check that a solution to a problem is correct, is it also easy to solve the problem? This is the
essence of the P vs NP question. Typical of the NP problems is that of the Hamiltonian Path Problem:
given N cities to visit, how can one do this without visiting a city twice? If you give me a solution, I can
easily check that it is correct. But I cannot so easily find a solution.

Navier–Stokes Equation
This is the equation which governs the flow of fluids such as water and air. However, there is no proof for
the most basic questions one can ask: do solutions exist, and are they unique? Why ask for a proof?
Because a proof gives not only certitude, but also understanding.

Hodge Conjecture
The answer to this conjecture determines how much of the topology of the solution set of a system of
algebraic equations can be defined in terms of further algebraic equations. The Hodge conjecture is known
in certain special cases, e.g., when the solution set has dimension less than four. But in dimension four it is
unknown.

Poincaré Conjecture
In 1904 the French mathematician Henri Poincaré asked if the three dimensional sphere is characterized
as the unique simply connected three manifold. This question, the Poincaré conjecture, was a special case
of Thurston's geometrization conjecture. Perelman's proof tells us that every three manifold is built from a
set of standard pieces, each with one of eight well-understood geometries.

Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer Conjecture

Supported by much experimental evidence, this conjecture relates the number of points on an elliptic
curve mod p to the rank of the group of rational points. Elliptic curves, defined by cubic equations in two
variables, are fundamental mathematical objects that arise in many areas: Wiles' proof of the Fermat
Conjecture, factorization of numbers into primes, and cryptography, to name three.