Part I: My Philosophy of Education Toolbox

Elements of Reasoning

Please note, the information for this section is from: Nosich, G. M. (2016). The Elements of
Reasoning. In Learning to Think Things Through: A Guide to Critical Thinking Across the
Curriculum (4th ed., pp. 47–77). Pearson.

 Purpose is essential when it comes to the classroom and teaching/learning, in all aspects.
Nosich identifies purpose as being synonymous with objectives, goals, desired outcome,
intention, and function (p. 50, 2016). This element reflects the necessity for a clear goal
or objective and to do something with intent at the outset. By considering the purpose of
something (i.e. a book, activity, essay, action, experiment, etc.), you can access a deeper
understanding of the content's relevance or insights. By asking such reflective questions
to access a purpose, you engage in higher-level thinking, which prompts a deeper
understanding of any given context. Nosich highlights that purpose is beyond something
you can know/identify, but it is also something you can hold onto as you work through a
task/challenge, something you can question and challenge. Purpose can be used
comparatively- yours against mine, etc. (p. 50, 2016). Purpose is a multi-faceted element
of reasoning and is also necessary when designing any thinking activities for the students
in your classroom (keep in mind that all activities should be thinking activities… so
purpose should be at the forefront of your planning).
 Questions or the "question at issue" (q at i) is the backbone of accomplishing your
purpose. Without proper questioning or focus on a particular essential question, there is
no way to reach/achieve your purpose in a way that supports reasoning and critical
thinking. Nosich identifies question at issue as being synonymous with problem, topic,
and "the point" (p. 51, 2016). These are helpful to keep in mind when reflecting on the
importance of questions, as it allows for a clear connection to classroom application. As
we know, frequently, we design learning activities/lessons around a particular question to
be answered, and we anticipate what questions might be asked. A "q at i" allows you to
become more specific in addressing the multiple facets of a purpose or goal. Nosich says
that the "q at i" goes further than identification and requires the thinker to move beyond
by seeking out additional and related questions and asking questions about the potential
problems or issues that might arise once an answer is found (p. 52, 2016). As with
purpose, questioning is inherent in all activities that require thinking- you cannot think
without asking questions and considering alternate or connected problems/topics. It is
essential to recognize that the questions you ask must be clear and specific while
allowing for flexibility in the goal of each question; when asking questions of your
students or various content, you must be cognizant of the goal/purpose of your question
(is it open-ended? Is there a specific answer you're looking for? Etc.).
 Information is the next step in moving through reasoning and thinking activities.
Information, and the process of evaluating information, is essential in answering the
question at issue and achieving or deciphering a purpose/goal. Nosich identifies
information as synonymous with data, observations, and evidence (p. 55, 2016). It is
necessary to make various considerations when it comes to information, such as what
information is relevant, what information you have (and what you still need), what
 information is missing, and what information supports which claims. Within a classroom,
context is necessary to develop skills in which your students can identify cohesive and
trustworthy information and use it purposefully. Nosich highlights that people use a wide
variety of information, even when they are not engaged in reasoning or critical thinking,
to answer questions and come to conclusions (p. 55, 2016). The difference here is that we
need to allow our students to move beyond identification (similar to questions above) and
go to a place where information is evaluated, be able to distinguish between facts and
interpretation, coherently organize information, and recognize when you need further
information to adequately address a question or problem (Nosich, p.55, 2016).
Information by itself isn't enough; it needs to be presented and learned in such a way that
connects with the bigger picture; otherwise, it becomes meaningless, and the implications
diminish.
 Interpretation/Inference becomes increasingly important when addressing the
previously mentioned elements of reasoning. Not only is it essential to come to your
interpretations and inferences, but it is also necessary to be aware of interpretations when
addressing information that is presented in support of or in juxtaposition to a question or
purpose. As educators and students, we must remain cognizant of the varying
interpretations and inferences and how they are reflective of one's own biases and
perspective. Nosich identifies this element of reasoning as synonymous with conclusion,
solution, and decisions arrived at (p. 57, 2016). This element of reasoning is a bit more
complicated than others because it is largely dependent on your context- depending on
what you're going through in your life, where you come from, who you are, etc., the
conclusions your draw or the inferences you make can be different. This is part of
addressing the critical thinking skills necessary to interpret information and come to a
conclusion that aligns with the questions and purposes at hand. Similar to the other
elements of reasoning, it is not enough to just identify interpretations or conclusions.
Nosich highlights parallel skills that need to be developed to fulfill this element of
reasoning; you must be able to compare your interpretations to others, decide the
reasonableness of varying interpretations, be able to contextualize interpretations and
inferences, as well as group interpretations and connect them with systems of
understanding (p. 58, 2016). When teaching students to make inferences or come to a
conclusion, it is vital to highlight that our brains make many inferences unknowingly, but
it is essential to work through critical thinking to make sense of the inferences and
conclusions that support a given purpose.
 Concepts are always present at any level of thinking, at any given time. It is necessary to
understand what concepts are and how they interact with the elements of interpretation,
information, questions and purpose. Nosich places concepts in the sense that they become
synonymous with categories or organizing ideas (p.56, 2016). Often, concepts can get
lost in the sea of information or assumptions. It is beneficial, especially when teaching
students about critical thinking or leading students in the development of reasoning, to
take Nosich's rule that concepts are best described as a word, not a sentence: "honesty is a
concept, whereas 'honesty is the best policy' is an assumption" (p.56, 2016). This element
of reasoning is increasingly important because, to understand a purpose (or the following
elements) fully, you must be able to identify the guiding concepts that are underlying or
work to shape the understandings that come from that particular purpose/goal. We need
to allow students to develop the skills to refine concepts, compare and contrast differing

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 concepts, and change/amend concepts in the presence of new information/contexts
(Nosich, p. 57, 2016). To become successful critical thinkers, we must allow students to
develop an awareness of concepts that work to shape their thinking, interpretations and
questions.
 Assumptions often come with a negative connotation, but in the context of reasoning,
they play a vital role in moving towards critical thinking and the establishment/success of
a purpose/goal. For Nosich, assumptions are equated with background theory, what is
given or taken for granted, as well as axioms (p. 52, 2016). Having assumptions is less of
a problem. It is when we remain unaware of our assumptions and go on believing we are
not making assumptions that problems arise; we are always making assumptions, and we
hold various assumptions closely, but we need to become aware of those assumptions to
evaluate them and move forward with reasoning or critical thinking. In addition to
identifying your assumptions, or the assumptions in content, Nosich suggests that we
should also be able to: evaluate others' assumptions in the light of the evidence, compare
assumptions, place assumptions in a larger context, and seek out others with different
assumptions to become more aware of your own (p. 53, 2016). Assumptions serve a
crucial purpose in reasoning and should be addressed along every step- establishing a
goal, asking questions, seeking information, interpreting information, etc.
 Implications/Consequences are necessary to consider when participating in critical
thinking, reasoning, or even within the classroom. Nosich identifies implications and
consequences as synonymous with what follows and the costs or benefits (p. 53, 2016).
Often, an implication or consequence is significantly larger than what might be occurring
at that moment, and it is critical to address those; the implications and consequences are
beyond the immediate end of reasoning. It is necessary to note that holding certain
positions, coming to conclusions, answering questions (moving through the elements of
reasoning) all come with further implications that need to be considered, such as how that
information or stance will impact others. This element of reasoning has both positive and
negative sides- we know that implications or consequences may be good or bad. Nosich
says it is vital to move beyond simple identification of implications/consequences and
move to a real-world context where we must assess the likelihood of
implications/consequences (because they may not be obvious), as well as weigh the costs
and benefits of a situation, and learn to accept the unwelcome implications that you may
face as a result of a position (p.54, 2016). By considering implications or consequences
both in and out of the classroom, we allow space to use higher-level thinking skills and
take charge of your thinking for teachers and students.
 Point of View is necessary to consider when participating in any reasoning or critical
thinking activity; not only that, but it is essential to offer various points of view on a
particular topic/issue to gain a well-rounded understanding. Nosich identifies point of
view as being synonymous with perspective or frame of reference (p.59, 2016). Point of
view or perspective can vary drastically from person-to-person or from discipline-to-
discipline, so it is crucial to identify and evaluate the differing perspectives to come to a
reasoned conclusion based on the information, questions and purpose of critical thinking.
This element is increasingly important for the classroom because students must feel
comfortable seeking alternatives, as it is challenging to come to a meaningful
understanding by holding the belief that there is a single perspective. This element
closely aligns with bias and assumptions; we must evaluate the plausibility and

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 underlying assumptions that come with a given perspective in addition to simple
identification (Nosich, p.61, 2016).

Intellectual Standards

Please note, the information for this section is from: Nosich, G. M. (2016). Standards of Critical
Thinking. In Learning to Think Things Through: A Guide to Critical Thinking Across the
Curriculum (4th ed., pp. 133–161). Pearson.

 Clarity is the first standard in which you must think about your thinking to know if you
are participating in critical thinking. Not only is clarity of utmost importance for critical
thinking, but this connects deeply with your goals and instruction in the classroom-
without clarity, it will be difficult for your students to be successful. An excellent way to
see clarity is to place it among synonymous terms, such as understandable, plain, and
clarifying (Nosich, p.134, 2016). As Nosich says, "your thinking is clear when it's easily
understood, when it is free from the likelihood of misunderstanding, when it's readily
apparent what follows from it" (p.134, 2016). Not only is it important for your thinking to
be clear in your mind, but the real test of clarity is if you can express your thoughts
clearly so another person can understand them; our thoughts need to be like glass or
water- clear, so you can see through to the other side without anything getting in the way
(Nosich, p. 135, 2016). It is necessary to consider the context in which you express your
critical thinking, as clarity may shift at a different time and place. An excellent way to
assess the clarity of your thinking is to ask yourself the following questions: Is this
thinking clear? Is this clear in my mind? Am I saying this clearly? Could I elaborate?
Can I provide an example or illustration?
 Accuracy is a complex standard because it revolves around the notion of truth. Truth
means many different things, depending on the philosophical stance you are taking.
Nosich defines accuracy as being synonymous with true, well established, confirmed,
corroborated, well authenticated, and plausible (p. 139, 2016). That being said, it is
commonly understood that you can be accurate if your thoughts and words describe
things as they are (Nosich, p. 139, 2016). It is essential to recognize how this standard
interacts with clarity: a statement can be clear but not accurate. This means we must
ensure we are truthful and accurate, to the best of our knowledge/ability, in that particular
context. A good way to determine your thoughts' accuracy, you can ask yourself the
following questions: Is my thinking based on the truth? How can I check if this is true?
Does it reflect the way things are?
 Precision is closely tied with both clarity and accuracy, but with a slightly different
focus. It is possible to make a clear and accurate statement, but it may not be precise or
specific enough to make a reasoned judgement about something. To be precise means
that your thinking is as specific and detailed as needed to reason through an issue
(Nosich, p. 151, 2016). Nosich identifies precision as being synonymous with exact,
specific, detailed, and focused (p. 151, 2016). Precision is heavily dependent on context
(like the previous standards) because certain situations naturally require a higher level of
precision- if I am baking a cake, it is not enough to say I need a little bit of baking
powder; I would need to be more precise and say I need 1.5 tsp of baking powder. An
excellent way to determine the level of precision required would be to ask yourself the

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 following questions: Is this reasoning/thinking precise enough? Does this need more
detail to make sense? If I am more specific, will it help to make my point?
 Relevance is heavily tied to the question-at-issue when reasoning or engaging in critical
thinking. Nosich identifies relevance as being related to main, central, critical, crucial,
and significant (p. 142, 2016). Relevance is a hard thinking skill for students to acquire,
as they are still trying to figure out what is important and related to the topic at hand-
sometimes students in early grades might feel like sharing their favourite colour is
relevant to the conversation/ work on addition and counting. We must work on our
thinking, and guide students, so they see that "to say something is important, is to say it
matters… the thinking is important when it's directly relevant to addressing the problem
at hand" (Nosich, p. 142, 2016). When determining the relevance of a thought/statement
to the act of critical thinking, you can ask yourself the following questions: Does this
directly relate to the question-at-issue? Does this help to solve the problem? Does my
thinking focus on what is important?
 Depth is incredibly important when engaging in critical thinking, as we need to ensure
that we are looking deep enough into an issue for it to carry meaning. Depth is related to
complexity, insightfulness, and comprehensive (Nosich, p. 147, 2016). When asking and
answering questions, it is essential to lead students to begin thinking about depth as an
important factor in a good learning/ thinking activity. It is helpful to "recognize that to
accomplish your purpose, you must look below the surface of the question or issue…
identify the complexities that underlie it… [and] take adequate account of those
complexities and underlying issues in addressing the question" (Nosich, p.147, 2016).
When considering the depth of your thinking or purpose, you can ask yourself the
following questions: Is this problem/question/issue/thought difficult? Why? Does my
thinking address the complexities of the issue? Have I taken into consideration the
underlying theories, beliefs, and structures?
 Breadth is often overlooked but is incredibly important if we want to engage in critical
thinking fully. An issue, question, or thought may satisfy the above standards but still
lack breadth. Breadth is seen as related to alternative perspectives, related areas or
concepts, and diversity. This standard adds meaning to critical thinking by using
alternative perspectives to highlight your point or just simply to show that there are other
ways of reasoning. Nosich says that your thinking is "broad enough when you (a)
recognize the need to look at other aspects, other perspectives, other parallel problems,
(b) identify them, and (c) take adequate account of them in reasoning through the
question" (p. 147, 2016). Not only is breadth critical in reasoning, but it is also essential
to weave into the framework of your classroom to give students a bigger picture view on
learning and the topics discussed. To address the breadth of your thinking, you can ask
yourself the following questions: What would an alternative viewpoint say about this?
How else could I approach the question? Would the question/answer differ if I were in a
different context?
 Logic addresses the issue of coherence and consistency in thoughts/ideas. When
engaging in critical thinking, it is vital to ensure that our thoughts/ideas/questions come
together coherently; this means that your thoughts should be mutually supportive. They
should also have internal coherence, consistency and link together in a way that makes
sense. By emphasizing logic, you are also adding to the meaningfulness of your critical
thinking. This standard can be related to Nosich's standard of sufficiency, which is

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 defined as having thoroughly reasoned through the question or issue to the point where it
satisfies the purpose, giving adequate information in a sensible way that takes into
account all necessary factors (p. 143, 2016). A good way to see if your thinking is logical
would be to ask yourself the following questions: Does this make sense? Does my
thinking/question align with the issue? Does this fulfill the purpose in a meaningful way?
Is the argument valid and true?