Modify or Repair Chassis/Frame and Associated Components: Workbook (AUM8101A)

Modify or Repair
Chassis/Frame and
Associated
Components
Workbook
(AUM8101A)
AUT035
AUM8101A
Modify or Repair Chassis/Frame and

Associated Components
Workbook
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First published 2008
ISBN 978-0-7307-9922-1
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AUM8101A Modify or Repair Chassis/Frame and Associated Components
Contents
Introduction... ............................................................................................................ 1
Repairing and modifying chassis ............................................................................... 1
Chassis types.............................................................................................................. 1
Monocoque .......................................................................................................... 1
Space frame ......................................................................................................... 2
Ladder type.......................................................................................................... 2
Chassis rails ......................................................................................................... 2
Single skin ............................................................................................................ 4
Double skin........................................................................................................... 4
Reason for chassis modifications .............................................................................. 6
Inspection of the chassis frames................................................................................ 6
Measuring chassis frame ..................................................................................... 6
Laser measuring .................................................................................................. 6
String line.......................................................................................................... ... 7
Drop line test ........................................................................................................ 8
Paperwork 6...............................................................................................................10
Inspection report ................................................................................................ 10
Job specification..................................................................................................11
Replacement or rectification of chassis components ......................................... 14
Drilling and bolting of attachments ..................................................................... 15
Alignment and modification of chassis frame ...................................................... 19
General requirements ........................................................................................ 19
Wheelbase alteration ......................................................................................... 19
Rear overhang ................................................................................................... 19
Suspension relocation ........................................................................................ 20
Cutting the chassis ................................................................................................. 24
The most common methods of cutting a chassis ............................................... 24
Double skinned chassis ..................................................................................... 25
Contracting (shortening) the chassis ................................................................. 27
Welding of the chassis ....................................................................................... 29
Frame rail reinforcement ........................................................................................ 31
Australian Design Rules ........................................................................................... 33
i
Turning circle ............................................................................................................ 36

Drive shaft alterations............................................................................................... 38
Critical speed and length of tail shaft ................................................................. 39
General rules...................................................................................................... 39
Universal joint angle ........................................................................................... 40
Operating angle calculations for tail shafts ........................................................ 40
Two joint tail shaft............................................................................................... 41
Parallel joint tail shaft ......................................................................................... 41
Nonparallel joint tail shaft ................................................................................... 42
Three joint shaft ................................................................................................. 42
Height of new centre bearing ............................................................................. 43
Universal joints ........................................................................................................ 49
Phasing............................................................................................................... 49
Length of slip joints ................................................................................................ 52
General design and installation guidelines ........................................................ 52
Suggested practical exercises ................................................................................. 55
ii
Introduction
Repairing and modifying chassis

The chassis frame forms the backbone of a heavy vehicle so the chassis must be able
to safely carry the maximum load for which the vehicle is designed. The chassis must
also absorb engine and drive-line torque, endure shock loading and accommodate
twisting caused by uneven road surfaces. Satisfactory performance of a heavy
vehicle chassis is the result of careful design and rigorous testing. Consequently, no
modification to a chassis frame should be made before consultation with the vehicle
manufacturer or an engineer experienced in commercial vehicle chassis modifications.
This will ensure that any proposed chassis modification will not reduce the vehicle’s
safety or performance.
Different chassis manufacturers have their own design concepts and varying ways of
achieving satisfactory overall chassis performance, so not all chassis are the same and
chassis components are not normally interchangeable between different makes and
models of vehicles.
Chassis frames are designed to offer good support for the body and payload and at
the same time provide torsional flexibility, mainly in the region between the gearbox
cross member and the cross member ahead of the rear suspension. Allowing for
chassis flexing is necessary because a rigid frame is more likely to fail than a flexible
one that can twist and bend in arduous conditions. A torsionally flexible frame also has
the advantage of decreasing the suspension loading when the vehicle is on uneven
surfaces, as all wheels can make contact with the road thus sharing the payload over
all of the wheels.
Chassis types
Monocoque
Monocoque bodies do not have a separate chassis but instead rely on their one-
piece body and chassis construction to gain rigidity. Monocoque vehicles are usually
found on smaller vehicles such as a small van, where weight is saved by not having
a separate chassis; the chassis and body are combined to make up one unit, with the
body sharing the load stresses. Monocoque is a French word meaning single shell
or unibody and is a construction technique that uses the external skin of the body to
support some or most of the load on the vehicle.
1
Space frame
Another type of chassis is the space chassis. These chassis are light-weight and
usually made of braced tube or RHS. Suburban omnibuses commonly use a space
chassis because they are light and flexible and the body adds to the vehicle’s rigidity.
Ladder type
The most common type of chassis consists of two chassis rails which run the full length
of the vehicle. The chassis rails are made of high tensile pressed steel channels. In a
ladder type of chassis, the chassis rails carry all the main components of the vehicle,
such as the engine, gearbox, front and rear axle suspensions. Also adding to the
burden of the chassis are components such as fuel tanks and air tanks.
This style of chassis is called a ‘ladder’ chassis because, when laid out with cross
members, they roughly represent a ladder configuration.
Chassis rails
Chassis rails are made of high tensile steel usually in the order of about 440 Mpa
and upwards with a yield strength of 760 Mpa, compared with mild steel, which has a
tensile strength of around 410 Mpa.
A chassis rail is made up of two flanges and a web. The flanges make up the top and
bottom of the chassis rail and carry most of the stresses imposed on the chassis.
2
Top flange
Web
Bottom flange
When the chassis is unladen the flanges are not stressed.
When the chassis flexes downward the top flange is compressed and the bottom flange
is stretched. The centre area of the web is considered stress neutral and flexes very
little as illustrated by the three holes in the web.
Due to the stresses imposed on the flanges drilling of the flanges is not recommended
with most manufacturers forbidding this practice. Welding on the flanges is only
allowed when joining the chassis rails, and of course the welding quality is particularly
important.
3
Single skin
A single skin chassis consists of one channel pressing for each chassis rail. This is the
standard chassis found on most small to medium-size vehicles.
Double skin
Some chassis are double skinned, which means there is a second chassis rail either
inside or outside the major chassis rail.
This design allows for added strength where needed without losing flexibility. Larger
prime movers use this chassis style. Often the double skin is only used for a section of
the chassis.
4
Questions
1. State the advantage a monocoque van has over a van with a ladder chassis.
________________________________________________________________
2. In a space frame chassis the vehicle’s body adds additional ________________.
3.
On the above single skin chassis rail, name the parts indicated by arrows.
4.
On the above sketch indicate the theoretical effect of downward flex on the holes
drilled in the chassis rail.
5. What advantage is there of using a double skin chassis rail in preference to single
chassis rail?
_________________________________________________________________
5
Reasons for chassis modifications

The most common reasons for chassis modifications are:
• to increase or decrease the wheelbase
• to increase front or rear overhang
• to increase the gross vehicle mass rating by adding additional axles
• to meet special body requirements such as low load height
• to repair the chassis after an accident or overstressing
• to accommodate localised loading imposed by special equipment such as
hoists, cranes or large fuel tanks.
Inspection of the chassis frames

Measuring chassis frame
There are several methods of measuring a chassis to establish whether the chassis
is bowed or out of square. All methods use a straight line as a datum and compare
the chassis to the datum to establish the straightness of the chassis. Methods of
establishing a datum line include using a laser beam, string line or the drop line test
using a plumb-bob.
Laser measuring
Using a laser beam is an accurate method. The laser head is set up at one end of the
chassis, say 50 mm away from the web, and aimed along the chassis to the other end
at the same distance away from the web, in this case 50 mm. A piece of flat material
such as cardboard is held at intervals along the chassis and the distance is measured
away from the web and down from the flange. This is done at several points along the
chassis. These measurements are noted and ideally should be the same at all points
along a straight chassis. A variation from the distance to the web will indicate a bent
chassis. At the same time the height of the flange can be noted; if this varies upward or
downward a bow in the chassis will be indicated.
Laser beam
Laser head
Person
Cardboard
6
Cardboard
Laser beam
Chassis rail
String line
This is a similar method to using a laser beam except that the laser is replaced by a
string line. When using this method it is necessary to measure to the string line from
the chassis flange and web.
These measurements are noted and ideally should be the same at all points along a
straight chassis. A variation from this will indicate a bent or bowed chassis.
Chassis
Cardboard
String line
Y
3
7
Drop line test

The drop line method does not require specialist equipment and is ideal if there is too
much obstruction along the chassis to remove. This method uses a plumb-bob to mark
points on a workshop floor and a string line to connect the points.
Points are selected from the underside of the chassis rail, these are usually the centre
of rivet heads or brackets providing there is a matching point on the opposite rail.
A plumb-bob is used to transfer these points from the underside of the chassis to the
workshop floor.
Workshop floor
8
Underside of
the chassis rail
Points taken from the underside of the chassis rail
The points on the workshop floor are marked with chalk or a chemical pen and would
appear as a series of dots or crosses.
These dots are connected diagonally using a chalk line.
Centre line
A centre line is marked out. If the chassis is straight the centre line will pass through
where the diagonal lines cross.
In a bowed chassis the diagonal lines will not cross the centre line and may appear like
this.
Additional diagonal lines will establish the exact area where the chassis bow occurs.
9
Paperwork
Inspection report
After testing, an inspection report can be made out indicating the condition of the
chassis, the area of damage and the severity.
Bloggs Chassis Repairers
Date Vehicle owner
Make of vehicle Model Licence plate
Inspection Report
Horizontal alignment of the

chassis
Chassis Point 1
Chassis Point 2
Chassis Point 3
Chassis Point 4
Vertical alignment of
chassis
Draw drop test results
Centre line
10
Job specification
If the work is to be carried out a Job Specification is issued. The Specification sheet
points out what work will be required to rectify the damage.
Bloggs Chassis Repairers
Date Vehicle owner
Make of vehicle Model Licence plate
Work Specification
Removal of chassis
attachment
Horizontal points to be
realigned
Vertical points to be
realigned
Chassis components to be
replaced
11
Questions
1.
The above marks from a drop line of a damaged chassis are marked out on the
workshop floor.
(a) What type of damage has been sustained?
_________________________________________________________________
(b) Suggest how this damage could be rectified.
_________________________________________________________________
2. List four reasons why a customer may want to have a chassis modified.
(a) ______________________________________________________________
(b) ______________________________________________________________
(c) ______________________________________________________________
(d) ______________________________________________________________
3. List three methods of establishing whether a chassis is bowed or out of square.
(a) ______________________________________________________________
(b) ______________________________________________________________
(c) ______________________________________________________________
12
4. When taking a reading off a laser beam along the chassis, what is indicated by the
following reading when only half the chassis has been checked?
Fifth reading
Fourth reading
Third reading
Second reading
First reading
Chassis rail Card
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
13
Replacement or rectification of chassis components

It is sometimes necessary to replace damaged chassis components such as cross
members or install additional supports such as centre bearing brackets. After a
wheelbase extension, additional cross members will be required if the length of the
unbraced chassis rail exceeds 1300 mm. If a compatible cross member is not available
then it will be necessary to fabricate one. All cross members of the vehicle should be
of similar design to the original cross members, as this will prevent stress focusing in
an area where it may have greater torsional strength. When moving an axle assembly,
ideally each spring hanger should be supported by a cross member.
Rectification and replacement of chassis frame components must be carried out in
accordance with the vehicle manufacturer’s specifications and tolerances relative to the
vehicle.
When fabricating a cross member the material used should not be thicker than the
web thickness of the chassis rail the cross member will be fastened to. A channel or
top hat section should be used as the cross member and fitted with triangular gussets.
This allows for torsional flexibility. Welding must not be carried out within 40 mm of the
triangular gusset’s edge.
3 x M12 bolts, Gr. 10.9 hardened

washers and locknuts per gusset Channel only NOT RHS
Channel section to be
well clear of gusset
bend radius
Minimum internal bend radii to be 2t
(where t = thickness of material)
Centres of bolt holes

to be no closer
than 40 mm
minimum bolt size is M12
Plug weld
No welds or bolt holes

within 40 mm of edge
of gusset
14
In general it is not recommended to use round tube or RHS to manufacture cross

members as these materials are not flexible enough. Check with the chassis
manufacturer, as some do recommend the use of round tube for cross members.
Drilling and bolting of attachments

When attaching components to the chassis rails the following general conditions apply,
although there are slight variations between chassis manufacturers. If in doubt, check
with the chassis manufacturer.
• All attachments should be fastened to the web of the chassis.
• Holes are not be drilled in the flanges of the chassis rail or in an area of the web
40 mm from the top or bottom flange.
40 mm
No drilling in this area
40 mm
• All holes must be drilled. Flame-cut holes are not allowed.

• De-burr holes after drilling.
• Hole centres are to be no closer than 50 mm or three times the diameter of the
largest hole, whichever is the lesser.
• Hole diameters must not exceed the bolt diameter by more than 1.0 mm.
• Holes must not be elongated.
15
• Do not drill more than two holes in a vertical line within the frame web, as this may
cause fracturing in the chassis when stress is applied.
Maximum of two
holes in a line
• All structural bolts should be fitted with suitable washers or doubling plates with
self-locking nuts. Spring-type washers are not allowed on structural members.
• Bolts and locknuts that are removed from used vehicles should be replaced with
new bolts and locknuts of the correct size and grade.
• All bolts for structural purpose must be ‘high tensile’, ISO Metric Grade 8.8 or 10.9
(or SAE Grade 5 or 8), using the original manufacturer’s practice as a guide for
bolt diameter selection.
M
88
8
M
10 9
• All bolts must be tightened to the correct torque.

• For additional or relocated cross members, the original manufacturer’s design
maximum spacing, strength and attachment strength should be maintained.
• Cross members should only be fitted to the web of the chassis rail with the
exception of an end of frame cross member, which can be fitted to the flange.
16
Questions
1. A chassis rail is 8 mm thick. To make a cross member, which of the following
thickness material should be chosen? Circle your answer.
• 8 mm thick
• 10 mm thick
• 12 mm thick
2. Give a reason for your choice, in the above question.

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
3. What type of washers should not be used when bolting components to a chassis?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
4. For the manufacture of cross members, why is RHS and pipe not generally
recommended?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
5.
On the above chassis, indicate and dimension the area where no drilling is to be
carried out.
17
6. What grade metric bolt must be used for attaching a bracket to carry an additional
fuel tank?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
7. When using 16 mm diameter bolts to fasten a bracket to the web of a chassis,

what will be the minimum distance apart of the hole centres?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
18
Alignment and modification of chassis frame

General requirements
The following minimum requirements apply to all frame modifications:
• All additional material used for modifying the frame rails should be of the same
dimensions and material specifications.
• All fabricated sections of the chassis frame rail and components must have
suitable radiused bends and be free from cracks, notches and imperfections.
• All bolts for structural purpose must be ‘high tensile’, ISO Metric Grade 8.8 or 10.9
(or SAE Grade 5 or 8), using the original manufacturer’s practice as a guide for
bolt diameter selection. Bolts used to secure suspension hangers and brackets to
frame rails must be ISO Metric 10.9 (or SAE Grade 8). Fitted bolts are preferable
but not essential. ‘Huck’ bolts may be used for fastening chassis components.
Note: The use of countersunk is not recommended and should be avoided.
• All modified frame rails should be straight and square prior to assembly. Bowed
frame rails should not be straightened by assembly of the frame.
Wheelbase alteration
It is recommended that wherever possible, wheelbase alterations are achieved by
moving the rear axle along the frame. Cutting of the frame should only be carried out if
sliding the axle cannot be accommodated.
Rear overhang
Altering the wheelbase alters the rear overhang of the chassis. If the axles are moved
forward it will be necessary to calculate the new rear overhang to establish whether
the vehicle will remain legal with the intended body attached to the chassis. Legal
overhang on a rigid vehicle is calculated as 60% of the wheelbase or 3.7 m, whichever
is the lesser.
Formula:
Rear overhang (ROH) = wheelbase × 60%
or 3.7 if lesser
Example:
The new wheelbase is to be 5500 mm, what will be the maximum legal rear overhang?
Rear overhang (ROH) = Wheelbase × 60%
Rear overhang (ROH) = 5500 × 60 ÷ 100
Rear overhang (ROH) = 5500 × 0.6
Rear overhang (ROH) = 3300 mm
The rear overhang in our calculation is 3300 mm or 3.3 m, which is less than 3.7 m,
therefore the legal rear overhang must not exceed 3.3 m.
19
Suspension relocation
In this case the axle suspension is unbolted from its current position and relocated to
the desired position. The chassis is then redrilled to accommodate the new suspension
position and the suspension bolted into place.
Recommended steps to follow when relocating a suspension.

• Before beginning any work on the chassis disconnect the battery.
• A recommended method of carrying out the relocation work is to mark the centre
line of the suspension on the chassis before the suspension is removed.
• Centre punch reference points on the chassis frame so that measurements can
be taken between them and the spring brackets, for example, before and after the
rear axle is moved.
Reference point
Spring hanger
• Measure the drive-line shaft angle and make a note of this as it will be required to
calculate the new angle of the next drive shaft. An electronics spirit level or similar
can be used to take this measurement.
• Remove the tail shaft (propeller shaft, drive shaft), compressed air lines to the rear
bogie and any other components which may get in the way.
• Support the chassis on a stand at the rear.
• Remove the spring brackets and their cross members.
20
Once the suspension is unbolted, a template of the existing holes can made from a
steel sheet folded at right angles at the top edge. The template is placed on the top
flange of the chassis and the centre line marked on the chassis is lined up with the
centre line marked on the template. The suspension holes are scribed from the inside
of the chassis rail onto the steel sheet. These marks are transferred to the new position
on the chassis by lining up the centre line on the sheet steel with the centre line of the
new suspension position. A centre punch is used to mark the chassis before drilling
pilot holes and completing the drilling with the finished hole size drill bit.
Template
Chassis rail
Slide the suspension in place and bolt into position.
The tail shaft will need to be altered to suit the new axle position, as will any other lines
which may not be long enough.
The holes which remain from the original suspension position should be plug welded
and ground flush or bolts placed back into the holes.
90º
Bevelling of hole
Grind weld flush
T = Thickness of frame rail

2
3 T T
D = Diameter of the original hole
in the frame rail
D
Copper backing washer
Plug welding a chassis hole
Components that may be affected are:

• drive line
• electrical leads
• air lines.
21
Questions
1. The wheelbase of a vehicle is 5800 mm. This is to be extended by 400 mm.
Calculate the legal rear overhang.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
2. The wheelbase of a vehicle is 4800 mm. This is to be shortened by 300 mm.

Calculate the legal rear overhang.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
3. To lengthen a wheelbase there are two possible choices. What are they?
(a) _____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
(b) _____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
4. Which of the above choices is preferred by chassis manufacturers?

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
5. What is the purpose of centre punching the chassis prior to relocation the
suspension?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
6. Name three components that may be affected by a suspension relocation.

(a) _____________________________________________________________
(b) _____________________________________________________________
(c) _____________________________________________________________
22
7. Sketch the correct method of plug welding an unwanted hole in the chassis frame.
23
Cutting the chassis

If relocation of the suspension assembly is not an option, then it will be necessary to
cut and extend or cut and contract the chassis. This is a major chassis modification and
is achieved by cutting the chassis between the axles.
The joining of the chassis is done by different methods, depending on the
chassis manufacturer’s recommendation. It is necessary to comply with these
recommendations to prevent voiding any truck warranty, so gather this information
before commencing the job.
The most common methods of cutting a chassis
90˚
Straight 90° cut on the flanges and web.
90˚
Straight 90° cut on the flanges and a 45° cut on the web.
45˚
A 45° cut on the top flange, a 45° cut on the web and a 45° cut on the bottom flange in
the opposite direction to the top flange.
24
90˚
A straight 90° cut on the flanges with a semicircle cut on the web.
Double skinned chassis

Care must be taken not to damage the second skin when cutting the chassis.
When joining the chassis rails, both the inner and outer skins must be welded at
different places with a minimum distance apart of 300 mm.
Sometimes it is difficult not to damage the second skin when cutting the chassis. If
possible, it is often easier to remove the inner skin prior to cutting.
90˚
Outer skin cut
Inner skin cut
Some chassis manufacturers allow a 90° cut in both skins.
Outer skin cut
Inner skin cut
25
Where it is too difficult to cut each skin as a separate unit, both skins may be cut at the
same place, but longer insert rails are required.
Inner skin cut Outer skin cut

and removed
Outer skin cut
and removed
Inner skin extension
Outer skin extension
26
Contracting (shortening) the chassis

Strip the chassis of all lines such as air and electrical, disconnect the drive shaft.
Mark out datum points with centre punch marks each side of the proposed cut.
These reference points must extend over the section to be removed. They need to be
in the centre of the chassis and diagonally equal in length.
B
C
Check for square, recording the measurements on the chassis. These measurements
will be required later.
Mark out the section to be removed and prick punch the line.
Stabilise the chassis each side of the proposed cut with stands.
27
Brace the chassis each side of the cut to prevent distortion.
Plasma cut or disc cut the chassis on the marked lines.

Prepare the joint for welding, veeing out to 30°– 35°.
Reposition the rear portion of the chassis and clamp into position.
Use a trammel or tape to measure the distance of the centre punch marks. They should
be the original distance less the removed section. Check that it is diagonally square.
Make adjustments as required and tack into place.
Check all is well.
Weld up the joint.
Dress the welds so they are flush.
Fit a stiffening plate as specified by the manufacturer.

28
Welding of the chassis

Trucks have a number of electronic control units and computers to control such things
as ABS braking, automatic gearboxes, fuel injection, torque converters, over-revving
protectors etc. These are sensitive to electrical interference which would be provided
by a welding machine.
• Before welding remove the battery negative terminal.
• Disconnect all computers.
• Fuel tanks and pipes in the vicinity of welding should be removed.
• Pipes and conduits made of synthetic material such as airlines and electrical
cables should be protected against spatter and temperatures exceeding
80° Celsius.
• Air bags and parabolic leaf springs need to be protected from weld spatter. Spring
leaf fracture can be caused by even a momentary exposure to welding spatter.
• Attach the welding ‘earth’ terminal as close to the weld area as possible. Never
earth components such as axles, wheels, springs, gearbox etc. Electrical arcing
through these points will cause serious damage to the internal components such
as the bearings and gears.
• Remove paint completely from the weld area before welding.
• Do not cool the weld with water.
• Weld should comply with Australian Standard AS1554 Structural steel welding
Category SP.
To ensure full penetration, the chassis should be prepared as a double v and welded
on both sides. Undercutting is not permitted.
2 mm
2 mm
30˚ 30˚
29
On a double skin chassis the welding preparation should be as a single ‘v’ for each
skin.
35˚
Manual metal arc welding
2 2
Double skinned chassis should
be prepared with a single ‘v’ 30˚
Gas metal arc welding
1 -2
On completion of the welding all excess weld metal must be ground flush to the
chassis. A 10% increase in frame thickness is permitted but not recommended.
All grinding should be in the direction of the chassis rail length.
Correct ground flush
Wrong undercut
Wrong excessive grinding
30
Frame rail reinforcement

After modification, the chassis will require reinforcement. There are two types
of reinforcement, a pressed channel reinforcement or a flitch plate. The method
chosen will depend on the position of the modification. All reinforcement materials
should be the same material and thickness as the chassis frame; that is high tensile
reinforcement on a high tensile steel chassis frame.
In the case of a wheelbase extension or reduction, the reinforcement must extent
to a minimum of 300 mm past the jointed area, but should not be terminated within
a distance equal to 2H from the centre of a spring hanger (H = the frame rail depth)
unless contrary practice is adopted by the vehicle manufacturer.
Each end of the reinforcement should be tapered at 45°, to help spread the stress
along the web of the chassis frame, or, alternatively, a ‘frog-mouth’ tapering may be
used.
45˚
2H
Interior tapered reinforcement
R20−30
H 0.6−0.7H
1.0−1.2H
Frog-mouth reinforcement
31
The corner radius of the reinforcement piece must be clear of the corner radius of the
chassis frame, whether the reinforcement is on the inside or the outside of the frame.
Clearance Clearance
Outer reinforcement Inner reinforcement
There are several methods of reinforcing the chassis rails; what they have in common
is tapered ends to more evenly dissipate the stresses in the chassis.
Each method offers a different degree of strength. The method chosen is usually what
fits the chassis best and the strength required.
Thickness
Height
Chassis rail
A B C
D E F
32
This table gives a comparison guide to relative strengths of the reinforcing methods.
Chassis depth Material Section modulus (x 10 – 6m3)

thickness
(H) mm (t) mm Method Method Method Method Method Method Method
A B C D E F G
200 6.4 128.31 173.05 186.81 260.55 253.02 230.89 191.73

300 6.4 228.60 326.92 350.68 460.48 449.50 410.17 317.25
200 7.9 155.35 209.92 228.60 317.91 307.91 274.16 242.69
300 7.9 277.76 400.66 427.70 563.72 549.79 492.92 391.98
Weld joints
Chassis
Reinforcement
An illustration of reinforcement Method E would look like the above. If the chassis is
6.4 mm thick with a depth of 200 mm the modulus strength would be 253.02 (x 10 – 6m3).
Australian Design Rules

No checklist of ADRs can be provided as nearly all chassis modifications are carried out
as a result of other vehicle modifications, which themselves affect the vehicle’s continuing
compliance with ADRs. It is then necessary to review every ADR that is applicable to the
vehicle and determine whether the modified vehicle is capable of complying. This should
be done before any chassis modification is commenced.
33
Questions
1.
On the above drawing sketch three different methods of chassis cuts.
2. Sketch a top view of two chassis rails. Indicate and dimension where to place
centre punch marks prior to cutting the chassis.
3. Sketch and dimension the weld preparation for welding a double skinned chassis
using a GMAW process.
34
4. Sketch and dimension the weld preparation for welding an 8 mm single skinned
chassis using a MMAW process.
5. List the relative strengths of reinforcing a 300 mm deep chassis with 7.9 mm
thickness material using the following methods.
• Method D _________________________________________________
• Method B _________________________________________________
• Method C _________________________________________________
Refer to the relative strengths table for chassis reinforcing.
6. With the aid of the relative strength table, which illustrated method of reinforcing is
the strongest?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
7. Of all the illustrated methods of reinforcing, which is the least strong?

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
8. How far away from a spring hanger should a tapered reinforcement stop?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
35
Turning circle
The turning circle of a vehicle is measured at the front outside tyre of the vehicle. This
will vary in proportion to the change in the wheelbase. If the turning circle of a vehicle
increases to above 25 metres, the work should not be carried out. It is important to
calculate the new turning circle prior to altering the chassis. For example, a vehicle
with a wheelbase of 4200 mm has been extended to 4800 mm. The turning circle will
increase from 16 800 mm to 19 200 mm. This is calculated using the following formula.
Formula:
original turning circle × new wheelbase
= new turning circle
old wheelbase
16 800 × 4800
= 19 200 (new turning circle)
4200
Turning circle
36
Questions
1. Calculate the turning circle of a chassis which will have the wheelbase increased
by 400 mm. The current wheelbase is 5500 mm. The current turning circle is
18 450 mm.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
2. Will this new turning circle be legal?

_________________________________________________________________
3. A rigid vehicle is to have its chassis reduced by 600 mm, what will the new turning
circle be? The chassis is 6200 mm long with a turning circle of 20 200 mm.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
37
Drive shaft alterations

After a wheelbase alteration the drive shaft will also need to be modified to match the
new wheelbase. The basic function of a drive shaft is to transmit power from the engine
via the transmission to the drive axles via the differential. This must be carried out in a
smooth and continuous action.
The axle of a vehicle is not attached directly to the chassis but rides suspended by
the springs in an irregular floating motion. This means the drive shaft must be able to
lengthen and contract as well as operate through constantly changing relative angles
between the transmission and the axle. All of these functions are accomplished by the
use of slip joints and universal joints.
Transmission
Universal joint Universal joint Differential
Differential
Slip joint Slip joint

Axle Axle
The safety implications of tail shaft modifications must be understood. The rotating tail
shafts of a heavy vehicle contain a high level of energy, and their accidental failure may
cause considerable damage and possible injury. Failure may result from incorrect
selection, design or construction; therefore any modification must be carried out with
great care.
For the tail shaft to be capable of transmitting the maximum driveline torque, the
size of the tail shaft components including universal joints, flanges, centre bearings,
tubing diameter and wall thickness, and tail shaft length must be within the truck
manufacturer’s specifications.
It is recommended that a tail shaft safety loop be fitted to restrain the front end of each
tail shaft on light omnibuses, in case of shaft failure.
If the vehicle was originally fitted with safety loops, these must remain and any
additional shafts must be fitted with them.
38
Critical speed and length of tail shaft

All rotating shafts deflect during rotation. The magnitude of this deflection is dependent
on the shaft speed and the stiffness of the shaft.
The stiffness of the shaft is dependent on the length of the shaft, the tube diameter and
the tube wall thickness. Shafts are designed to resist bending at a particular speed; this
is called the ‘critical’ speed. If rotating speed of the shaft is increased beyond its critical
speed this will result in ‘whirling’, vibrations, bending and sometimes destruction of the
shaft. Shafts must be designed to operate comfortably above their maximum operating
speed.
The safe operating speed for shafts in straight normal drives is not greater than
85 per cent of the critical speed. As a guide to safe working speeds and lengths for
various tube sizes there are monograms available, but most vehicle body builders send
this work out to specialised engineering firms. For universal joint angles up to 4°, the
safe operating speed is not greater than 65 per cent of the first critical speed. For larger
universal joint angles, the safe operating speed should be taken as 50 per cent of the
first critical speed.
The maximum operating speed of the tail shaft is the highest shaft speed that the
vehicle is likely to generate in service. This must be assumed to be higher than
road speed at maximum engine speed in top gear (with transmission over-drive if
applicable) to take into account downhill coasting. The following maximum speeds are
recommended for shaft design calculations:
• Light duty trucks – 160 km/h (100 mph);
• Heavy vehicles – 135 km/h (85 mph); or
• 20 per cent above governed road speed, whichever is the lesser.
A high standard of workmanship must be maintained when installing a drive shaft to
prevent any undue vibration or reduction on the working life of any components.
General rules
• When shortening the wheelbase only the front drive shaft should be altered.
• For wheelbase extensions the increase in drive-line length should be accompanied
by the addition of an intermediate drive shaft, a cross member and a centre
bearing. In some cases a heavier drive shaft may suffice.
• The transmission angle must be maintained.
39
Universal joint angle

Whilst these recommended angles of operation should not be exceeded, joints should
not be allowed to operate at very low angles for extended periods, or brinelling of the
journals and cups by the needle rollers may occur. To prevent the load between the
needles and journals and cups being applied in the one region all the time, a minimum
operating angle of 0.5° should be used to ensure that the needles roll slightly.
Hence, the operating angles for universal joints should fall between 0.5° and 4° for
heavy applications and 0.5° and 6° for light applications, although the maximum angles
vary with some manufacturers.
To calculate whether this configuration complies with the basic rules of operating
angles, some basic measurements will be necessary. To determine the angle of the
tail shaft off horizontal, it will be necessary to use a magnetic base protractor or an
electronic protractor.
Operating angle calculations for tail shafts

The operational angles should be a maximum of 6° for heavy vehicles and 8° for light
vehicles. However, vibration problems may arise even at these angles, so to minimise
this possibility and maximise the working life of the universal joints, operational angles
greater than 4° for heavy applications and greater than 6° for light applications should
be avoided. Most chassis manufacturers prefer an angle of 3°.
Operating angles to consider

There are several angles to consider when altering tail shafts, combined they make up
the overall operating angle of the entire drive line.
• First to consider is the operating angle of the universal joints. (Most manufacturers
recommend around 3° but definitely greater than 0.5°).
• The angle of the component parts each side of a tail shaft joint (universal). For
example, the angle between the transmission and the first slip joint.
• From the angle of the component parts can be calculated the operating angle of
each individual joint of the tail shaft (by either adding or subtracting the angles of
the component parts).
• The individual joint angles of the tail shaft are used to calculate the operating
angle of the tail shafts, such as the operating angle of the front tail shaft and
operating angle of the rear tail shaft. Most manufacturers recommend an angle of
3°.
• The overall operating angle of the entire drive line can now be calculated by
comparing the individual tail shaft angles. (this should be less than 1°).
The basic rules to keep in mind are:
• Shaft operating angles at the universal joints must be greater than one half of a
degree or 0.5 of a degree.
• For light vehicles the shaft operating angles at the universal joints must be less
than 6°.
• For heavy vehicles the shaft operating angles at the universal joints must be less
than 4°.
• When comparing all the angles in a drive-line there must be no greater difference
than 1°.
40
Two joint tail shaft

Two joint tail shafts are the most simplistic. There are two different types of tail shaft
configurations:
• Parallel joint shaft.
• Nonparallel joint shaft.
Parallel joint tail shaft
Angle A = 3°
Angle B = 3°
Ideally angle A should be equal to angle B (angle A = angle B)

It is desirable that angle A should be the same as angle B, however a tolerance of one
degree is normally acceptable.
To calculate the overall tail shaft operating angle, apply the following rules:
• Always start from the front of the vehicle.
• If the rearward section is inclining down, it is downward.
• If the rearward section is inclining up, it is upward.
• When the inclination is in the same direction of two connected components,
subtract the smaller number from the larger number to find the operating angle of
the universal joint. If the two angles are down (↓↓) or the two angles are up (↑↑),
subtract the smaller from the larger.
• When the inclination is in the opposite direction of two connected components,
add the measurements find the operating angle of the universal joint. For one up
and one down (↓↑) or for one down and one up (↑↓) add.
If there were a greater angle than one degree this could be remedied by one of the
following options:
• Introduce a centre bearing.
• Change the height of the centre bearing.
• Change the inclination angle of the rear differential by the use of shims.
• Change the inclination angle of the gearbox.
41
Nonparallel joint tail shaft
0˚
0˚
8˚
Angle A = 4˚
Angle B = 4˚
It is desirable that angle A should be the same as angle B; however a tolerance, of one
degree is normally acceptable.
If there were a greater angle than one degree this could be remedied by one of the
following options:
• Introduce a centre bearing.
• Tilt the rear differential by the use of shims.
Three joint shaft
Transmission 3˚ down
Centre bearing
Tail shaft 5˚ down Tail shaft 8˚ down
6.2˚ down
In this case the transmission is downward at 3° and the tail shaft runs downwards at 5°,
which means the operating angle at that universal joint is 2°↓ downwards.
(5°– 3° = 2°). This is greater than 0.5 of a degree and less than 6°, so the universal
angle joint is within recommended limits.
The next universal joint behind the centre bearing is 5° downward and the tail shaft is
8° downward making the joint angle of 3°. (8° – 5° = 3°). Once again within limits.
The last universal joint is 1.8° downward. (8° – 6.2° = 1.8°), and again within limits.
42
Centre bearing
Operating Operating
angle 2˚ angle 3˚ Operating
down down angle 1.8˚
down
The operating angle of the front shaft is 1° (3° – 2° = 1°).

The operating angle of the rear shaft is 1.2° (3° – 1.8° = 1.2°).
To find the overall operating angle of the entire shaft we will need to take the smaller
number from the greater number.
The front shaft has an operating angle of 1° (1.2° – 1° = 0.2°).
The rear shaft has an operating angle of 1.2°.
Therefore, the overall operating angle is 0.2 of a degree, which is below 1° so within
the accepted operating limits.
Height of new centre bearing

The formula for calculating the height of the additional or repositioned centre bearing is:
Formula:
F = E + DA
F = the height of an additional centre bearing when extending a

wheelbase or the height of the repositioned centre bearing for a
wheelbase reduction
E = height of existing centre bearing below the top of the chassis
D = the tangent of the transmission angle
A = the amount of the wheelbase change (either + or –).
Note: A is positive (+) for a wheelbase extension and negative (–) for a wheelbase
reduction.
43
Centre bearing
(88 mm below top of chassis)
Wheelbase
The vehicle’s wheelbase is extended by 550 mm. What will be the height of the new
centre bearing?
Formula:
F = E + DA
E = 88 mm
D = Tan angle of 3°
A = 550 mm positive
F = 88 + Tan 3° × 550
F = 88 + (0.052407779 × 550)
F = 88 + 28.82427861
F = 116.8242786
The height of the additional centre bearing will be 166.82 mm below the height of the
chassis.
Where the vehicle’s wheelbase is reduced by 450 mm
Formula:
F = E + DA
E = 88 mm
D = Tan angle of 3°
A = 450 mm negative
44
F = 88 + Tan 3° × – 450
F = 88 + (0.052407779 × – 450)
F = 88 + (–23.58350068)
F = 64.42 mm
The height of the repositioned cross member will be 64.42 mm below the top of the
chassis and 450 mm forward of its current position.
This will maintain the tail shaft operating angle.
45
Questions
1. What is meant by the critical speed of a tail shaft?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
2. State the purpose of the following:

• a tail shaft _______________________________________________
• a universal joint _______________________________________________
• a slip joint _______________________________________________
3. Why is there a limit to the length of the tail shaft tube?

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
4. The operating angle of a tail shaft at the universal joint should be no less than
_____ degrees and ideally no greater than the manufacturers’ preferred angle
of _____ degrees.
5. The overall operating angle of the tail shaft should be no greater than _____.
6. Sketch the difference between a parallel two joint shaft and a non parallel two joint
shaft.
46
Centre bearing
(45 mm below top of chassis)
Wheelbase
7. The wheelbase on the above vehicle is to be extended by 450 mm.

The transmission angle is 4°.
Calculate the height of the repositioned centre bearing.

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
8. The wheelbase of the previous vehicle has been shortened by 520 mm.
The transmission angle is 2°.
Calculate the new height of the repositioned centre bearing.
9. Calculate the operating angle of the tail shaft drive line below.
Centre bearing
Operating Operating
angle 3.5˚ angle 2˚ Operating
down down angle 2.6˚
down
47
10. State the function of a centre bearing in a tail shaft assembly.

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
11. Why is it important to have the operating angles on each end of a tail shaft line
equal to or within 1° of each other?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
48
Universal joints
A universal joint is constructed of two yokes, a cross between the yokes and four
bearings assembled on the trunions of the cross. One yoke is connected to the
transmission and revolves at a constant velocity at the same rate as the transmission
and in a circular path. The other yoke revolves in a non-uniform rotation in an elliptical
path.
Transmission yoke
Cross and bearing kit
Tube yoke
Drive shaft tubing
Phasing
The universal joints should be installed in phase throughout the drive line to prevent
vibration, although in some complex drive line systems ‘out of phasing’ may be required
to eliminate vibration.
As the whole joint makes one complete revolution, the yoke that is attached to the
transmission is held at a constant speed but the second yoke attached to the tail shaft
speeds up and slows down twice per revolution. This non-uniform output speed causes
the drive shaft to pulsate when the shaft is operating at an angle.
Section A Section B
49
Section A Section B
W X
W X
Z Y
Y
The distances travelled on the circular path between w, x, and y are the same. This is
the path travelled by the yoke from the transmission.
The elliptical path travelled by the tube yoke is not uniform, with the distances travelled
between w and x being far greater than between x and y. This means the yoke will
travel much faster between w and x than between x and y. This occurs twice every
revolution of the tail shaft.
Speed 0° 90° 180° 270° 360°

Increasing
+ +
Transmission yoke speed is constant
Constant
- -
Decreasing
If the ellipse travelled by the transmission yoke were put on a graph it would look like
this.
Speed 0° 90° 180° 270° 360°

Increasing
Tube yoke speed varies + +
Constant
- -
Decreasing
Single phase
To compensate for the increase and decrease in rotational speed a second universal
joint is located at the opposite end of the tail shaft and is placed in phase. The second
universal joint has exactly the same effect as the first one but in the opposite way.
When the front universal joint is speeding up, the second one is slowing down and vice
versa. This is called phasing.
50
Speed 0° 90° 180° 270° 360°
Forward joint + - + -
Rear joint
- + - +
Double phase
There is usually an arrow stamped on the tube yoke and the slip yoke so they will be
lined up correctly.
Universal joint
Slip yoke Drive shaft
Alignment arrows
51
Length of slip joints

It must be ensured that the sliding joint of the slip shaft never bottoms out or fully
extends (known as binding) under any operational conditions. All possible suspension
deflections and axle rotation under torque must be considered, and the length of the
shaft and amount of slip selected accordingly. The minimum spline engagement with
joint extended is 1.5 x spline diameter. The minimum spline end clearance with joint
contracted is 1.0 x spline diameter.
1.5 x
minimal
Fully extended
spline
Spline engagement
1x
minimum
Fully contracted
spline
Spline end clearance
General design and installation guidelines

• Support bearings are required when the distance from the transmission to rear
axles exceeds the maximum length at which a particular shaft can safely operate.
• As the wheelbase increases, it may be necessary to use more than one bearing.
• The support bearing locations should be chosen to minimise the variations in
angular velocity over the complete drive line and in the individual shafts.
• When shaft diameters are increased, clearances from other chassis and body
components must be checked through the whole range of suspension travel.
• Support bearing adaptor brackets, if used, must be designed to provide adequate
strength of attachment to the cross members and bearing housing without
prejudicing the strength of these parts. The flexible bushings of the support system
must not be distorted by axial misalignment.
52
Questions
1. If a tail shaft is out of phase, how may this affect the performance of a vehicle?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
2. Manufacturers usually identify the slip yoke with the tail shaft yoke to avoid out of
phase assembly. What should you look for?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
3. Explain why a single universal joint operating at a 3° angle would be out-of-phase.

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
4. How is out-of-phasing overcome?

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
5. Why must universal joints be operated at an angle?

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
6. Describe the purpose of a spline.

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
53
7. What is the minimum spline engagement for a 50 mm spline?

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
8. State the minimum end clearance for a 40 mm spline.

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
9. Why should a drive shaft and slip yoke be marked before disassembly?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
54
Suggested practical exercises

• Conduct a drop line test from a truck chassis onto a workshop floor.
• From the results of the drop line test complete an inspection report.
• From the inspection report complete a Job Specification sheet.
• Cut and extend a chassis.
• Outside welds must be finished off flush with the chassis rail without any undercut.
• Manufacture a cross member to suit an existing chassis.
• Fit a cross member to an existing chassis.
TIP
It may be necessary to cut the cross member through the centre prior to
fitting and weld together once it is in place.
Chassis rail
Cross member
Cut
55
AUT035
Modify or Repair
Chassis/Frame and
Associated
Components
Workbook
(AUM8101A)
DESCRIPTION
The chassis is a major component of vehicles. This workbook deals with how
alterations such as cutting, joining and modifying of a chassis will affect the vehicle
and how these need to be carried out to comply with the relevant laws, ADRs, and
manufacturers’ requirements.
Included are calculations to determine how chassis alterations will affect the operation
of the vehicle, such as the turning circle and drive line angle.
EDITION
First edition
CATEGORY
Automotive Manufacture
COURSES AND QUALIFICATIONS

• Certificate III Automotive Manufacture (Bus, truck and trailer)
RELATED PRODUCTS
AUT031 Fabricate Parts for Sub-Assemblies Workbook

AUT032 Perform Gas Metal Arc Welding Workbook
AUT033 Prepare and Operate Equipment, Tools and Machinery
– Hand Tools Workbook
AUT034 Prepare and Operate Equipment, Tools and Machinery
– Power Tools Workbook
Produced by WestOne Services
AUT035 MODIFY OR REPAIR

CHASSIS/FRAME AND
ASSOCIATED COMPONENTS
WORKBOOK (AUM8101A)
ISBN 978-0-7307-9922-1
ORDERING INFORMATION:
Contact WestOne Services on Tel: (08) 9229 5200 Fax: (08) 9227 8393 Email: sales@westone.wa.gov.au
Orders can also be placed through the website: www.westone.wa.gov.au
9 780730 799221

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Turning circle ............................................................................................................ 36

Repairing and modifying chassis

When the chassis is unladen the flanges are not stressed.

2. In a space frame chassis the vehicle’s body adds additional ________________.

Reasons for chassis modifications

Inspection of the chassis frames

Drop line test

Points taken from the underside of the chassis rail

These dots are connected diagonally using a chalk line.

Bloggs Chassis Repairers

Date Vehicle owner

Make of vehicle Model Licence plate

Horizontal alignment of the

Draw drop test results

Bloggs Chassis Repairers

Date Vehicle owner

Make of vehicle Model Licence plate

(a) What type of damage has been sustained?

(b) Suggest how this damage could be rectified.

3. List three methods of establishing whether a chassis is bowed or out of square.

Chassis rail Card

Replacement or rectification of chassis components

3 x M12 bolts, Gr. 10.9 hardened

Centres of bolt holes

No welds or bolt holes

In general it is not recommended to use round tube or RHS to manufacture cross

Drilling and bolting of attachments

No drilling in this area

• All holes must be drilled. Flame-cut holes are not allowed.

• All bolts must be tightened to the correct torque.

2. Give a reason for your choice, in the above question.

7. When using 16 mm diameter bolts to fasten a bracket to the web of a chassis,

Alignment and modification of chassis frame

Recommended steps to follow when relocating a suspension.

Slide the suspension in place and bolt into position.

T = Thickness of frame rail

Plug welding a chassis hole

Components that may be affected are:

2. The wheelbase of a vehicle is 4800 mm. This is to be shortened by 300 mm.

4. Which of the above choices is preferred by chassis manufacturers?

6. Name three components that may be affected by a suspension relocation.

Cutting the chassis

The most common methods of cutting a chassis

Straight 90° cut on the flanges and web.