Chapter (1) Introduction

1
chapter one introduction

Chapter (1)

Introduction

1.1 History of Refrigeration

For centuries, people have known that the evaporation of water produces a cooling
effect. At first, they did not attempt to recognize and understand the phenomenon, but they
knew that any portion of the body that became wet felt cold as it dried in the air. At least as
early as the second century, evaporation was used in Egypt to chill jars of water.

In 1755, William Cullen, a Scottish physician, obtained sufficiently low temperatures

for ice making. He accomplished this by reducing the pressure on water in a closed
container with an air pump. At a very low pressure the liquid evaporated or boiled at a low
temperature. The heat required for a portion of water to change phase from liquid to vapor
was taken from the rest of the water, and at least part of the water remaining turned to ice.

The theoretical background required for mechanical refrigeration was provided by

Rumford and Davy, who had explained the nature of heat, and by Kelvin, Joule, and
Rankine, who were continuing the work begun by Sadi Carnot in formulating the science of
thermodynamics.

Refrigerating machines appeared between 1850 and 1880, and these could be classified
according to the substance (refrigerant). Refrigerating machines using cold air as a refrigerant
were divided into two types, closed cycle and open cycle. In the closed cycle, air confined to
the machine at a pressure higher than the atmospheric pressure was utilized repeatedly during
the operation. In the open cycle, air was drawn into the machine at atmospheric pressure and,
when cooled, was discharged directly into the space to be refrigerated. In Europe, Dr Alexander
C. Kirk commercially developed a closed-cycle refrigerating machine in 1862, and Franz
Winehouse invented a closed-cycle machine and patented it in America in 1870. The open-
cycle refrigerating machines theoretically outlined by Kelvin and Rankine. In the early 1850s
were invented by a Frenchman, Paul Gifford, in 1873 and by Joseph J. Coleman and James Bell
in Britain in 1877 (Roelker,1906).

2
chapter one introduction

By 1890, mechanical refrigeration had proved to be both practical and economical for the
food refrigeration industry.

Steady technical construction of refrigerating units, as well as in their basic components,

compressors, condensers, and evaporators progress in the field of mechanical refrigeration
marked the years after 1890. Domestic refrigerators were not commercially available until
about 1920. During the 1920s, the air-conditioning industry also got its start with a few
commercial and home installations.

1.2 Air Conditioning

Air conditioning is the removal of heat from indoor air for thermal comfort. In another sense,
the term can refer to any form of cooling, heating, ventilation, or disinfection that modifies the
condition of air. An air conditioner (often referred to as AC or air con) is an appliance, system,
or machine designed to change the air temperature and humidity within an area (used for cooling
as well as heating depending on the air properties at a given time), typically using a refrigeration
cycle but sometimes using evaporation, commonly for comfort cooling in buildings .

1.3 Comfort Air Conditioning

The term “comfort” is often used to define a broader set of conditions than just temperature and
humidity. Air movement, adequate fresh air, cleanliness of the air, noise levels in the space,
adequate lighting, and proper furniture and work surfaces, are just a few of the other variables
that contribute to making a space comfortable for its occupants. This clinic, however, will focus
only on the aspects of thermal comfort.

Thermal comfort depends on creating an environment of dry-bulb temperature, humidity, and air
motion that is appropriate for the activity level of the people in the space. This environment
allows the body’s rate of heat generation to balance with the body’s rate of heat.

To achieve best Comfort conditions then

Relative humidity from 45% to 55%

Dry bulb temperature from 22 C to 26

3
chapter one introduction

1.3.1 Factors affecting comfort air conditioning

1. Air movement

Air should circulate freely in the room to which it is delivered. This will allow it to absorb heat
and moisture uniformly throughout the entire room during the cooling cycle and to deliver heat
and moisture uniformly during the heating cycle.

2. Cleaned air

Air should be cleaned - that is, freed of dust and soot particles and odor. Air cleanliness is
important from the stand point of human health. Also, the walls and ceilings of rooms should be
supplied with filtered air.

3. Humidity of air

It means the change of moisture contents of air during summer or winter in order to produce
comfortable and healthy conditions.

4. Temperature of air

The control of temperature means the maintenance of any desired temperature within an
enclosed, space even though die Temperature of the outside air is above or below die desired
room temperature.

1.3.2 Most air conditioning systems perform the following functions:

1. Provide the cooling and heating energy required. Condition the supply air, that is, heat or cool,
humidify or dehumidify clean and purify.

2. Distribute the conditioned air, containing sufficient outdoor air, to the conditioned space.

3. Control and maintain the indoor environmental parameters such as temperature, humidity,
cleanliness, air movement, sound level, and pressure differential between the conditioned space
and surroundings within predetermined limits.

4
chapter one introduction

1.4 Classifications of the air conditioning systems

There are several different ways of classifying air conditioning systems.

1.4.1 Classification based on major function:

A) Comfort air conditioning systems:

Their purpose is to create atmospheric conditions conductive to human health, comfort, and
efficiency. Air conditioning systems in homes, offices, restaurants, theaters, hospitals, schools
and churches are of the air round year air conditioning system.

B) Industrial air conditioning systems:

The purpose of these systems is to control atmospheric conditions primarily for the proper
conduct of research and manufacturing operations. Manufacturing tolerances in the electronics,
space and computer industries and in all high-speed automated manufacturing are such as to
require absolute control of temperature, moisture and air purity. Air conditioning systems in
paper mills, textile mills, candy factories, and printing or photo processing plants are also
essential for these industries. Some of these industrial systems incidentally serve human comfort,
but some do not. It should be noted here that the major emphasis in this project will be on
comfort air conditioning systems.

1.4.2 Classification based on season of the year:

A) Winter air conditioning systems:

These systems, when properly designed and installed maintain indoor atmospheric conditions for
winter comfort, temperature, humidity, air purity, and air movement The major problems of
winter air conditioning are to heat the air and bring the moisture contend (humidity) up to an
acceptable level, Winter heating is accomplished by distributing heated air to spaces by ductwork

5
chapter one introduction

or by distributing heat in the space by fin-tube, radiation. Or by convectors or fan-coils. Heat is

supplied by furnaces or boilers fired with gas, oil or coal, or by electrical resistance heaters.
Humidification of the heated space is often necessary to attain comfortable condition; Humidifier
may be of the simple pan type or spray type. Electrical heating by resistance elements, infrared
radiation heat or with heat pumps is finding increasing application in residential, commercials,
and industrial fields.

B) Summer air conditioning systems:

These systems control all the four atmospheric conditions for summer comfort. The major
problems are to cool the air to remove excess moisture from it. Cooling is ordinarily
accomplished by mechanical refrigeration. Removed of the moisture [dehumidification] is
accomplished as condensation of water vapor in the air occurs on cold coil surfaces.

C) Year-round air conditioning systems:

These systems are composed of heating and cooling equipment’s with automatic controls and
associated components to produce the four atmospheric conditions for human comfort at all
times of the year.

1.5 Central Air Conditioner

Central air conditioners circulate cool air through a system of supply and return ducts. Supply
ducts and registers (i.e., openings in the walls floors, or ceilings covered by grills) carry cooled
air from the air conditioner to the home. This cooled air becomes warmer as it circulates through
the home; then it flows back to the central air conditioner through return ducts and registers.

Air conditioners help to dehumidify the incoming air, but in extremely humid climates or in
cases where the air conditioner is oversized, it may not achieve a low humidity.

Running a dehumidifier in your air-conditioned home will increase your energy use, both for the
dehumidifier itself and because the air conditioner will require more energy to cool your house.

6
chapter one introduction

A preferable alternative is a dehumidifying heat pipe, which can be added as a retrofit to most
existing systems.

Central air conditioners are more efficient than room air conditioners. In addition, they are out of
the way, quiet, and convenient to operate. To save energy and money, you should try to buy an
energy- efficient air conditioner and reduce your central air conditioner's energy use. In an
average air-conditioned home, air conditioning consumes more than 2000 Kilowatt-hours of
electricity per year, causing power plants to emit about3500 pounds of carbon dioxide and 31
pounds of sulfur dioxide.

If you are considering adding central air conditioning to your home, the deciding factor may be
the need for ductwork.

If you have an older central air conditioner, you might choose to replace the outdoor compressor
with a modern, high-efficiency unit. If you do so consult a local heating and cooling contractor to
assure that the new compressor is properly matched to the indoor unit. However, considering
recent changes in refrigerants and air conditioning designs, it might be wiser to replace the entire
system.

1.5.1 Types of central air conditioning

1.5.1.1 All air system

An all-air system provides complete sensible and latent cooling, preheating and humidification
capacity in the air supplied by system. No additional cooling or humidification is required at the
zone. The basic concept of all-air systems is to supply air to the room at such conditions that the
sensible heat gain and latent heat gain in the space, when absorbed by the supply air will bring
the air to the desired room conditions.

Advantages of all-air systems:

The location of the central mechanical room for major equipment allows operation and
maintenance to be performed in unoccupied areas. In addition, it allows the maximum range of

7
chapter one introduction

choices of filtration equipment, vibration and noise control, and the selection of high quality and
durable equipment.

1. Keeping piping, electrical equipment, wiring, filters, and vibration and noise-producing
equipment away from the conditioned area minimizes service needs and reduces potential harm
to occupant's furnishings, and processes.

2. These systems offer the greatest potential for use of outside air (free cooling) instead of
mechanical refrigeration for cooling.

3. Seasonal changeover is simple and adapts readily to automatic control.

4. A wide choice of zoning, flexibility, and humidity control under all operating conditions is
possible, with the availability of Simultaneous heating and cooling even during off-season
periods

5. The systems are well suited to applications requiring unusual exhaust or makeup air quantities
(negative or positive Pressurization, etc.)

6. All-air systems adapt well to winter humidification

7. By increasing the air change rate and using high-quality controls, it is possible for these
systems to maintain the closest operating condition of ±0.25°F dry bulb and ±0.5% RH. Today
some systems can maintain essentially constant space conditions.

Disadvantages of all-air systems

They require additional duct clearance, which reduces usable floor space and increases the height
of the building.

1. Depending on layout, larger floor plans are necessary to allow enough space for the vertical
shafts required for air distribution.

2. Ensuring accessible terminal devices requires close cooperation between architectural,

mechanical, and structural designers.

3. Air balancing, particularly on large systems, can be more.

4. Perimeter heating is not always available to provide temporary heat during construction.

8
chapter one introduction

1.5.1.2 All-Water System

All-water system for heating and cooling use either hot or chilled water for space conditioning
with the air in the space heated or cooled by conduction, convection or radiation.

Advantages of all-water systems:

1. This delivery system (piping versus duct system) requires less building space

2. A smaller or no central fan room.

3. Little duct space...

4. The system has all the benefits of a central water chilling and

5. Heating plant, while retaining the ability to shut of local terminals in unused areas.

6. Because of this system can heat with low-temperature water it is particularly suitable for solar
or heat recovery refrigeration equipment.

Disadvantages of all-water systems:

1. Require much more maintenance than central all-air system.

2. This work must be done in occupied areas.

3. Units that operate at low dew points require condensate pans and drain system that that must
be cleaned and flushed periodically.

4. Condensate disposal can be difficult and costly.

5. It is also difficult to clean the coil.

6. Filters are small, low inefficiency, and require frequent changing to maintain air volume.

9
chapter one introduction

1.5.1.3 Air-Water System

System Air and water systems condition spaces by distributing air and water sources to terminal
units installed in habitable spaces throughout a building. The air and water are cooled or heated
in central mechanical equipment rooms. The air supplied is called primary air; the water supplied
is called secondary water.

Application of central system:

1- Large houses.

2- Hospitals.

3- Hotels.

4- Supermarkets.

10