Controls of Ore Localization

Structural Controls of Ore Localization

Structural controls on mineralization are evident in almost every type of ore deposit. Faults or other
permeable features, either primary or superimposed, tap a supply of mineral-bearing fluid and allow it
to migrate into a "trap" where it cools and precipitates the mineral content or, more commonly, where
it has sufficient time to react with and replace receptive country rocks. It is therefore important to
recognize different types of structtiral features which are present in rocks, and how the development
of these structures can influence ore deposition either directly or indirectly. Natural forces, such as
heat and pressure, can occur on any scale, large or small. The same forces can cause "deformation" of
the rocks, which includes:
folding: bending of the rocks
faulting: fracturing and displacement
shearing: sliding parallel to the plane of contact between two rocks
compression: colliding together of two rocks
extension: separating or increasing the distance between two rocks.
Nearly all hydrothermal deposits exhibit some degree of structural control on mineralization.
Structures (fractures, faults or folds) which form prior to a mineralizing event are referred to as "pre-
mineral" (Fig 1). Geologists are keenly interested in premineral structures because these structures
influence the localization of ore by hydrothermal fluids utilizing these pathways. By mapping these
structures and projecting the geometry in the subsurface, new ore deposits may be discovered.
Structures which form after a mineralizing event, and hence may be responsible for offset or removal
of mineralized zones, are referred to as "post-mineral". In some cases the formation of structures and
mineralization appear to be nearly synchronous (Fig 2). In these situations, shearing was probably
ongoing during the mineralization event. This is evidenced by ore minerals localized along a fault
plane which are deformed.
Fractures and fault zones provide excellent pathways for hydrothermal fluids to circulate through.
Open-space filling has long been recognized as the primary method of vein formation. The formation
of breccia and gouge due to the grinding action of the rocks adjacent to the fault plane increases the
'structural porosity', which in turn increases the permeability. Under certain conditions, breccia or
gouge may itself provide the host for mineralization. Intersections of structural features often are
better locations to prospect for mineralization, especially where the structures are high angle. It is
thought that the intersection of high angle structures provides pathways for fluids from deep sources
to move closer to the surface.
In most epigenetic ore deposits, structures superimposed on the rocks have exerted a great influence
upon the path of circulation followed by the orebearing fluids. Faults and folds are probably the most
common secondary structures, though breccia zones, pipes, and other features are locally of great
significance. Because fault surfaces are uneven, movement along a fault will produce breccia and
gouge. A zone of fine-grained gouge will frequently hinder the circulation of fluids, either along or
across a fault. On the other hand, coarse, clean breccia, containing a minimum of powdered rock
material, results in a considerable increase in permeability, especially in brittle rocks that are fractured
under light loads (Lovering, 1942). Accordingly, faults of minor displacement may be much better
hosts for ore solutions than faults of large magnitude, which are more likely to develop gouge. As a
general rule, then, tight fractures filled with gouge are less favorable places for ore deposition than the
more open fractures. /
Veins form along cracks or fissure zones in the earth's crust, and fault planes are especially favorable
loci. They are either the simple filling of open .fissures or the replaced country rock along a narrow
but permeable fracture.

Physico-chemical Controls of Ore

Localization:
The movement of fluids under-ground is
controlled by permeability, which in
turn is a function of the physico-
chemical characteristics of the rock plus
the elements of superimposed structure.
The structures and textures that control
ore deposition can best be described as
primary or superimposed (secondary),
according to whether they were formed
at the same time as the rock mass or
were formed later. In certain types of
ore deposits, the primary controls are
dominant; in others, superimposed features, such as faults, are the only basic controls
of ore deposition. Establishing a physical control and differentiating between the two types are
fundamental problems in the exploitation of any mineralized district.
Primary Features:
Primary structures and textures of
both igneous and sedimentary
rocks commonly control the
distribution of ore-bearing fluids,
and hence the localization of the
ores. Any textural or structural
feature that influences the
porosity and permeability of a
rock may control the deposition
of ores, and as a result, the
variety of primary controls is
practically unlimited. A few of
the most obvious primary
structural controls are:
1. Permeable (elastic)
limestone or dolomite,
especially where it is
dammed by impermeable
cap rocks;
2. Well-sorted conglomerates
that permit easy circulation of ore-bearing fluids; 3. broken and permeable tops of lava flows,
which also permit ready circulation of ore bearing fluids;
3. Permeable sandstones, especially channel sands and beach deposits.
Dolomites and dolomitic limestones are ordinarily somewhat more permeable and porous than pure
limestones, and for this reason dolomites permit mineralizing solutions to circulate more readily than
do limestones. Hence many geologists believe that dolomite is more likely to be a host for ore.
Concentrations of ore are found in conglomerate beds between lava flows and in the fragmental,
vesicular surface layers of individual flows. These regions have been favorable for ore deposition
because of their extremely high permeabilities. /
Permeable zones formed by channel deposits and sands interbedded with siltstones are often
mineralized.

Chemical Controls of Ore Deposition:

The simple existence of a favorable structural environment, and even the presence in this structure of
the ore-bearing fluids, does not necessarily mean that ore will be deposited. Ore-bearing fluids react
continuously with the wall rocks, and they are constantly changing in character as well as changing
the character of the material they traverse. Moreover, factors such as reductions in temperature and
pressure may bring about chemical reactions or decrease solubilities and contribute to the deposition
of ore minerals. In many places geologists are unable to explain why certain beds are mineralized and
other beds, both above and below the ore horizon, are barren. These barren beds may have
compositions and physical characteristics identical with the mineralized strata.
Even though we understand little about chemical controls, we can often demonstrate the existence of
such controls.
Much of the ground preparation that takes place prior to the introduction and deposition of ores is
really chemical. Silicification, dolomitization, and recrystallization are all chemical processes, and
even much of the brecciated ground was made brittle by chemical reaction with earlier solutions.
One explanation advanced for the common localization of ores in carbonate rocks beneath relatively
impermeable covers is that ascending orebearing fluids are impounded and forced to move laterally in
the more permeable carbonate rocks. Since carbonates are permeable and are chemically favorable
host rocks, the additional migration through them that results from forced lateral movement allows
ample contact for chemical reaction to take place, which results in the precipitation of ore minerals.
Carbonates are termed chemically reactive rocks because they break down readily in the presence of
acids and because they are relatively soluble in water.
The effects of temperature and pressure are important in the deposition of ores. Solubilities of many
substances increase in direct proportion to the temperature of the solution. As a result, cooling
solutions will precipitate any materials whose saturation values have been exceeded and it is very
probable that some ore bearing fluids travel away from the source and deposit the metals as soon as
they reach a zone of reduced temperature, regardless of the type of host rock. A reduction in pressure
may have the similar effect.
Solubility of an ore mineral may be dependent upon the concentration of dissolved volatiles, such as
H2S or CO2; hence a reduction in pressure will allow these gases to leave the solution, causing a
concomitant precipitation of the ore minerals. The importance of such a mechanism is debatable, but it
is probably operative in open-fissure deposits. Solutions ascending through veins will naturally
undergo a drop in pressure, and the deposition of ores may be dependent upon such a factor.
The stability of a solution may be determined by the conditions of pH and the oxidation potential of
the environment, changes in which could cause precipitation of the dissolved material. The ability of
an environment to supply or accept electrons will determine the valence state of any ion present, and
the valence state may in turn determine whether the ion can remain in solution. For example, iron in
simple solution is quite soluble in the ferrous state and nearly insoluble (except at low pH) when
oxidized to the ferric state.

Stratigraphic Controls of Ore Localization:

Many ore deposits occur exclusively in a given stratigraphic horizon. This is particularly true of ores
of sedimentary origin. Many epigenetic ores are also confined to particular strata. Such deposits are
collectively referred to as stratabound deposits. Whereas such localization is quite obvious and
understandable in the case of sedimentary ores, in the case of epigenetic ores it depends upon a
multiplicity of factors.
The reason why one rock is more receptive to ore than another is not always evident. On theoretical
grounds, two conditions would be expected to be favorable:
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 (a) Permeability, in order to allow passage solutions, and
(b) Chemical reactivity, in order to induce precipitation of ore-minerals.
The two conditions may be combined in the case of a soluble rock through which solutions can eat
their own way by chemical reaction. Permeability may be either a primary property the rock, as in
sandstones, conglomerates, or vesicular lava-tops, or may be imposed by fracturing or shearing.
Whether physical properties (especially permeability) or chemical properties (especially reactivity will
be the predominating influence is rarely predictable in advance of exploration. Thus, if a porphyry and
a limestone occur together, ore may favor the porphyry, because of more open fractures in it, or it may
favor the limestone, which it finds more hospitable chemically. Although limestones are normally very
receptive to ore, there are cases in which the ore shuns them and deposits in rocks which might
ordinarily be considered as poor hosts. Eg at Mount Isa (Queensand), the great lead-zinc deposits
occur in shale while limestones in the region have not been mineralized.
There is some indication that certain host-rocks show a preference for specific metals. Limestone is
especially hospitable to lead and zinc but relatively unreceptive to gold. Quartzite is also a good
carrier of lead-zinc ores in some districts.
The rocks most receptive to gold seem to be those which contain chlorite or other minerals of similar
composition, although chlorite in the immediate vicinity of the ore is often altered to sericite. There
are more gold deposits in chloritic slates and phyllites and in basic to intermediate igneous rocks than
in quartzites, rhyolites, or limestones.
Susceptibility to replacement is often a matter of delicate if not obscure control. Why replacement
should, for example, single out certain beds within apparently uniform limestones is a question that
has aroused much inquiry but has received no conclusive answer, at least none that applicable to the
general case
It is probable, however, that the mineralogy and texture of the rock, though important, do not tell the
whole story, and that the manner in which individual beds behaved during folding may hold part of the
secret. Delicate differences in relative competence could control the manner in which individual beds
are prepared to receive ore solutions.

Competent vs. Incompetent Formations:

In some districts, at least, competent rocks are more hospitable hosts to ore than incompetent ones,
and surely this is what would be expected from their mode of failure in fracturing. "Competent" as
the term is used here, refers to rocks that are relatively strong but, when they do fail, break as though
they were brittle material. "Incompetent" refers to rocks which are weak and have a tendency to
deform plastically or by flow. Under most conditions, quartzites, conglomerates, and fresh igneous
rocks are competent. Incompetent are shales, slates, schists, and limestones; also igneous rocks that
have been altered to sericite, chlorite or serpentine. These generalizations, however, are subject to
some modifications with varying circumstances. In the first place, competence is a relative matter. A
limestone behaves as a competent rock; an identical limestone between beds of quartzite is likely to
behave incompetently. Furthermore, the manner of failure depends in some degree on the manner in
which the rocks were deformed. A limestone under light load may behave as a competent rock, but
under high confining pressure, especially in the presence of solvent and with the rate of deformation
slow enough to give time for recrystallization, it may behave as a very incompetent material.
Competent rocks, in addition to their tendency to fail by fracture rather than by shear, have an
advantage in that they yield to fracture such a way as to provide permeable channelways. Their
strength tends to prevent fractures from squeezing shut, and, if they do succumb to failure adjacent to
fracture-walls, it is by producing a jumble of fragments which presents large surfaces to ore depositing
solutions. When competent rocks shatter, they produce either a network of interconnected cracks or a
permeable breccia free from gouge. Furthermore, since the shearing angle decreases with increasing
brittleness, a shear-fracture passing from semi-plastic into brittle rock is deflected toward the plane of
maximum normal stress and therefore toward an attitude more favorable to opening by the movement
that initiated the shear.
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