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Fuel cell based battery-less UPS system

Conference Paper  in  Conference Record - IAS Annual Meeting (IEEE Industry Applications Society) · November 2008
DOI: 10.1109/08IAS.2008.273 · Source: IEEE Xplore

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FUEL CELL BASED BATTERY-LESS UPS SYSTEM

A Thesis

by

MIRUNALINI VENKATAGIRI CHELLAPPAN

Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of

Texas A&M University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

August 2008

Major Subject: Electrical Engineering

 FUEL CELL BASED BATTERY-LESS UPS SYSTEM

A Thesis

by

MIRUNALINI VENKATAGIRI CHELLAPPAN

Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of

Texas A&M University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

Approved by:

Chair of Committee, Prasad N. Enjeti

Committee Members, Chanan Singh
Shankar P. Bhattacharyya
Emil Straube
Head of Department, Costas N. Georghiades

August 2008

Major Subject: Electrical Engineering

 iii

ABSTRACT

Fuel Cell Based Battery-less UPS System.

(August 2008)

Mirunalini Venkatagiri Chellappan, B.En, Anna University, Chennai, India

Chair of Advisory Committee: Dr. Prasad N. Enjeti

With the increased usage of electrical equipment for various applications, the

demand for quality power apart from continuous power availability has increased and

hence requires the development of appropriate power conditioning system. A major

factor during development of these systems is the requirement that they remain

environment-friendly. This cannot be realized using the conventional systems as they

use batteries and/or engine generators. Among various viable technologies, fuel cells

have emerged as one of the most promising sources for both portable and stationary

applications.

In this thesis, a new battery less UPS system configuration powered by fuel cell is

discussed. The proposed topology utilizes a standard offline UPS module and the battery

is replaced by a supercapacitor. The system operation is such that the supercapacitor

bank is sized to support startup and load transients and steady state power is supplied by

the fuel cell. Further, the fuel cell runs continuously to supply 10% power in steady

state. In case of power outage, it is shown that the startup time for fuel cell is reduced

and the supercapacitor bank supplies power till the fuel cell ramps up from supplying
 iv

10% load to 100% load. A detailed design example is presented for a 200W/350VA 1-

phase UPS system to meet the requirements of a critical load. The equivalent circuit and

hence the terminal behavior of the fuel cell and the supercapacitor are considered in the

analysis and design of the system for a stable operation over a wide range. The steady

state and transient state analysis were used for stability verification.

Hence, from the tests such as step load changes and response time measurements, the

non-linear model of supercapacitor was verified. Temperature rise and fuel consumption

data were measured and the advantages of having a hybrid source (supercapacitor in

parallel with fuel cell) over just a standalone fuel cell source were shown. Finally, the

transfer times for the proposed UPS system and the battery based UPS system were

measured and were found to be satisfactory. Overall, the proposed system was found to

satisfy the required performance specifications.

 v

DEDICATION

To my dad, mom and brother

(Chellappan Ramasamy Gounder, Gunasundari Chellappan and Raghunath Chellappan)

Who mean the world to me

 vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would firstly like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor and mentor, Dr.

Prasad Enjeti, for his guidance throughout my graduate studies. His wide technical

knowledge, understanding, encouraging and personal guidance provided the strong basis

for the completion of my thesis. I would like to thank all my committee members, Dr.

Chanan Singh, Dr. Shankar Bhattacharyya and Dr. Emil Straube for their time, help and

support.

I would also like to thank all my fellow students in the Power Electronics and

Power Quality Laboratory at Texas A&M University, especially Maja Harfman

Todorovic and Leonardo Palma for their help and guidance. Also, I would like to thank

my friends especially, Suresh Balasubramanian, Anand Balakrishnan and Haritha

Eachempatti, who have been a great support morally and technically.

Finally, special thanks to my mother, father and brother for their love, support

and encouragement.
 vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................. iii

DEDICATIONS ........................................................................................................... v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................... vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................. vii

LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................... ix

LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................... xii

CHAPTER

I INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 1

1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 1

1.2 Power quality disturbances................................................................ 3
1.3 Possible solutions for power quality disturbances ............................ 5
1.4 Overview of UPS systems ................................................................. 6
1.4.1 Passive standby UPS ................................................................... 7
1.4.2 Line interactive UPS ................................................................... 8
1.4.3 Double conversion online UPS ................................................... 9
1.4.4 Delta conversion on-line UPS ..................................................... 10
1.5 Disadvantages of battery based system and the alternatives
available ............................................................................................ 11
1.6 Fuel cell technology .......................................................................... 13
1.7 Fuel cell promise ............................................................................... 19
1.8 Hybrid source .................................................................................... 21
1.9 Fuel cell based battery-less UPS system ........................................... 23
1.10 Previous work .................................................................................... 24
1.11 Research objective............................................................................. 26
1.12 Thesis outline .................................................................................... 27

II MODELING OF FUEL CELL AND SUPERCAPACITOR .................. 29

2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 29

2.2 Equivalent circuit of fuel cell ............................................................ 29
 viii

CHAPTER Page

2.3 Non-linear model of supercapacitor .................................................. 35

2.4 Conclusions ....................................................................................... 40

III PROPOSED FUEL CELL BASED BATTERY-LESS UPS SYSTEM . 41

3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 41

3.2 Block diagram of the proposed topology .......................................... 42
3.3 Design example ................................................................................. 44
3.3.1 Specifications of UPS.................................................................. 44
3.3.2 Fuel cell capacity ......................................................................... 45
3.3.3 Supercapacitor sizing .................................................................. 47
3.3.4 Design of buck converter ............................................................ 50
3.3.5 Design of supercapacitor charging circuit ................................... 52
3.4 Losses in supercapacitor.................................................................... 54
3.5 Steady state stability analysis ............................................................ 55
3.6 Transient state stability analysis ........................................................ 57
3.7 Conclusions ....................................................................................... 64

IV EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS ................................................................ 66

4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 66

4.2 Experimental results for proposed UPS system ................................ 66
4.2.1 Transient response comparison of fuel cell and hybrid power
source .......................................................................................... 66
4.2.2 Fuel consumption ........................................................................ 69
4.2.3 Temperature rise .......................................................................... 69
4.2.4 Performance of battery based and the proposed UPS systems ... 71
4.3 Conclusions ....................................................................................... 73

V CONCLUSIONS ..................................................................................... 74

REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 77

VITA .......................................................................................................................... 81
 ix

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 1 ITI (CBEMA) curve (ITI, 2000) ....................................................... 2

Figure 2 Sources and types of power quality disturbances .............................. 5

Figure 3 Passive standby UPS topology .......................................................... 7

Figure 4 Line interactive UPS topology .......................................................... 8

Figure 5 Double conversion on-line UPS topology ......................................... 10

Figure 6 Delta conversion on-line UPS topology ............................................ 11

Figure 7 Comparison of efficiencies of fuel cells, diesel/steam engines and

gas turbines ........................................................................................ 13

Figure 8 Fuel cell basic structure ..................................................................... 14

Figure 9 Block diagram of a fuel cell power system ....................................... 15

Figure 10 Fuel cell and battery energy density vs. specific energy ................... 19

Figure 11 Typical cell voltage vs. current density plots for PEM fuel cells and
a common interpretation for voltage drop ......................................... 31

Figure 12 Equivalent circuit for PEM fuel cell ................................................. 31

Figure 13 Test setup for measuring the frequency respond of the PEM
fuel cell .............................................................................................. 32

Figure 14 Nyquist plot for 1200W fuel cell stack ............................................. 33

Figure 15 V-I curve for 1200W PEM fuel cell for power up to 200W ............. 34

Figure 16 Non-linear model of a supercapacitor ............................................... 35

Figure 17 Nyquist plot for sixteen Maxwell BCAP0140 supercapacitor .......... 37

 x

Page

Figure 18 Resistance, R4 vs. charge voltage ..................................................... 39

Figure 19 Capacitance, C4 vs. charge voltage ................................................... 39

Figure 20 Block diagram of the proposed topology .......................................... 43

Figure 21 Ballard Nexa 1200W PEM fuel cell .................................................. 45

Figure 22 Buck converter .................................................................................. 51

Figure 23 Supercapacitor charging circuit ......................................................... 53

Figure 24 Supercapacitor discharge profile ....................................................... 54

Figure 25 Fuel cell V-I characteristic and load power locus ............................. 56

Figure 26 Fuel cell DC-DC converter system ................................................... 58

Figure 27 Modeling of fuel cell impedance effect ............................................. 58

Figure 28 Small signal model of a) buck converter b) when fuel cell is

connected ........................................................................................... 60

Figure 29 Impedances for fuel cell buck converter system ............................... 61

Figure 30 Small signal representation of fuel cell and supercapacitor

powered system ................................................................................. 63

Figure 31 Effect of forming hybrid source ........................................................ 64

Figure 32 Transient behavior of fuel cell and hybrid (fuel cell in parallel with
supercapacitor) power sources for step change in load between
20 W and 200 W a) 20 W to 200 W with fuel cell power source;
b) 200 W to 20 W with hybrid power source; c) 20 W to 200 W
with hybrid power source; d) 200 W to 20 W with hybrid power
source ................................................................................................ 67

Figure 33 Transient behavior of fuel cell and hybrid (fuel cell in parallel with
supercapacitor) power sources for step change in load between
100 W and 200 W a) 100 W to 200 W with fuel cell power source;
b) 200 W to 100 W with hybrid power source; c) 100 W to 200 W
with hybrid power source; d) 200 W to 100 W with
 xi

Page

hybrid power source .......................................................................... 68

Figure 34 Fuel consumption of a) 100 W load and b) 200 W load ................... 70

Figure 35 Temperature rise curve for a) 100 W load and b) 200 W load.......... 70

Figure 36 Transfer time for a) battery based UPS system with 20W load
b) battery based UPS system with 100 W load c) proposed UPS
system with 20 W load and d) proposed UPS system with
100 W load ........................................................................................ 71

Figure 37 CBEMA - ITIC curve showing the region of operation of the

proposed UPS system ........................................................................ 72
 xii

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table I Cost of generating 1kW of energy .................................................... 20

Table II Comparison of various backup systems ............................................ 21

Table III Short and long term reserve energy sources for backup power ........ 22

Table IV Fuel Cell equivalent circuit parameters ............................................. 34

Table V Supercapacitor equivalent circuit parameters ................................... 38

Table VI Nonlinear variation of supercapacitor equivalent model

parameters ......................................................................................... 38

Table VII Specification of proposed fuel cell powered UPS ............................. 44

Table VIII Specifications of the Nexa fuel cell stack ......................................... 45

Table IX Specification of supercapacitor, BCAP0140 E350 (Maxwell

Technologies, 2000) .......................................................................... 50

Table X Response times for step load changes for fuel cell and hybrid power
source ................................................................................................ 69
 1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

In the present day, every application ranging from those used at home and small

offices to hospitals, banks and huge call centers are dependent on electricity. Any power

disturbance such as power outage or voltage sag/swell can result in malfunctioning of

the equipment, loss in productivity and data and in the case of health care, loss of lives is

also possible. Hence, power quality and power continuity are important factors that need

to be ensured for critical applications. There exists an intrinsic relationship between the

load performance and the electric power quality. Power outages and other power

disturbances cannot be avoided but a system can be developed to ensure that the load

does not see these power disturbances.

In view of this, various power conditioners such as surge suppressors, stabilizers

and Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) systems have been designed. A reference for

developing these power conditioners is a CBEMA curve (Figure 1) which is a

representation of the events of allowed voltage variations with time. This curve gives the

AC input voltage envelope that typically can be tolerated by the Information Technology

Equipment [1] as a function of time. The methods by which this curve may be

____________

This thesis follows the style of IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications.

 2

Figure 1. ITI (CBEMA) curve (ITI, 2000)

maximized so as to supply quality power for longer durations of time have been one of

the major goals of the power conditioning systems. While aiming towards these goals,

another factor to be considered is achieving these while staying environmentally

friendly. With batteries as the major means of storing back up energy, this is not
 3

possible. (Batteries and their disadvantages have been discussed later in this chapter).

Hence, an eco-friendly means of storing/generating energy has been the goal. One of the

steps towards this goal is the usage of fuel cells as the means of providing the back up

energy required. In the recent years, people have become more aware of the need and

advantages of using fuel cells. The fuel cell technology and its advantages have been

discussed in Section 1.6.

1.2 Power quality disturbances

The study of the different power quality disturbances, their effects on the

equipment and the frequency of occurrence is important for arriving at the most

appropriate and optimized solution for these disturbances. The common power quality

disturbances faced are voltage surges, spikes and sags and harmonics (or noise) in the

power line. These disturbances have been explained below [2]:

1. Surges: Surge is a rapid short-term increase in voltage. Surges are often

caused when high power demand devices such as air conditioners turn off

and the extra voltage is dissipated through the power line. Since sensitive

electronic devices require a constant voltage, surges stress delicate

components and cause premature failure.

2. Spikes: An extremely high and nearly instantaneous increase in voltage

within a very short duration measured in microseconds is called a spike.

Spikes are often caused by lightning or by events such as power coming back

on after an outage. A spike can damage or destroy sensitive electronic

equipment.
 4

3. Sag: A rapid short-term decrease in voltage is sag. Sag typically is caused by

simultaneous high power demand of many electrical devices such as motors,

compressors and so on. The effect of sag is to “starve” electronic equipment

of power causing unexpected crashes and lost or corrupted data. Sags also

reduce the efficiency and life span of equipment such as electric motors.

4. Noise: Noise is a disturbance in the smooth flow of electricity. Often

technically referred to as electro-magnetic interference (EMI) or radio

frequency interference (RFI). “Harmonics” are a special category of power

line noise that causes distortions in electrical voltage or current. It is the

presence of voltage/current components whose frequencies are multiples of

the fundamental frequency. These are caused by the non-linear power

requirement of the load. Noise can be caused by motors and electronic

devices in the immediate vicinity or far away. Noise can affect performance

of some equipment and introduce glitches and errors into software programs

and data files. Harmonics cause alteration in the rms, peak and average

values of the power demanded by the load hence causing an increase in the

power drawn.

5. Outage: Outage is the total loss of power for some period of time. Outages

are caused by excessive demands on the power system, lightning strikes and

accidental damage to power lines. In addition to shutting down all types of

electrical equipment, outages cause unexpected data loss.

 5

The various sources of power quality disturbances have been shown in Figure 2

which shows that a major percentage of the disturbance is caused due to the equipment

used in business or a facility. Hence it is vital to protect the equipment as well as the

utility from such disturbances. The possible solutions have been explained in the next

section.

Figure 2. Sources and types of power quality disturbances

1.3 Possible solutions for power quality disturbances

The most common solutions for the above mentioned power quality disturbances

are surge suppressors, stabilizers and UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) systems.

A surge suppressor is an electronic device that limits the damaging effect of

power surges on electronic equipment from commercial power plants, generators, and

electrical storms. A surge protector passes the electrical current along from the outlet to

a number of electrical and electronic devices plugged in to the power strip. In case of

voltage surge or spike, the surge protector attempts to regulate the voltage either by

blocking or shorting to ground voltages above a safe threshold.

 6

Stabilizer is a mains regulator which uses a continuously variable

autotransformer to maintain an AC output that is as close to the standard or normal

mains voltage as possible, under conditions of fluctuation. It uses a servomechanism (or

negative feedback) to control the position of the tap (or wiper) of the autotransformer,

usually with a motor. An increase in the mains voltage causes the output to increase,

which in turn causes the tap (or wiper) to move in a direction that reduces the output

towards the nominal voltage.

An Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) system is a device which ensures

quality and continuous power supply to the connected equipment by supplying power

from a separate source. The backup source may be battery, flywheel, generator or more

recently, fuel cells and supercapacitors. While stabilizers and surge suppressors provide

protection against surges, spikes and noise only, UPS system also takes care of voltage

sags and power outages. Hence, UPS system is the ideal solution for equipment

protection hence forms the base for this research.

1.4 Overview of UPS systems

An UPS system basically has three components – rectifier, inverter and back up

power system. The backup energy system can be batteries, flywheel, engine generator,

fuel cells and/or supercapacitors.

Depending on the design approach and the performance characteristics, there are

four common types of UPS systems [3]-[5]:

1. Passive standby

2. Line interactive
 7

3. Double conversion on-line

4. Delta conversion on-line

1.4.1 Passive standby UPS

This topology, shown in Figure 3, is also known as “Off-line UPS” or “Line-Preferred

UPS”.

Figure 3. Passive standby UPS topology

Passive standby UPS system is used for low power ratings (< 2 kVA) and is most

commonly used for Personal Computers. In normal mode of operation, the load is

supplied from the utility through a static switch, generally via a filter/conditioner to

mitigate the disturbances and to provide voltage regulation. During this mode, the

AC/DC converter (charger) charges the energy storage device. In the stored-energy

mode of operation, i.e. when the input line is outside the preset tolerance limits or is not

present at all, the load is supplied from the energy storage device through the inverter.

The main advantages of this topology are simple design, low cost and small size. The
 8

major drawbacks are that there is no isolation from the distribution system, long

switching time and no regulation of output frequency and voltage.

1.4.2 Line-interactive UPS

Line-interactive UPS system is used in low power ratings such as for small

business, web and departmental servers. This topology (shown in Figure 4) consists of a

static switch, a bidirectional converter and the energy storage device. A line-interactive

UPS interacts with the line and operates either to improve the power factor or to regulate

the output voltage for the load. This UPS has three modes of operation. In the normal

mode of operation, the utility feeds the load directly and the bidirectional converter is

operated in order to maintain the power factor close to unity and provide conditioned

power to the load. In the stored-energy mode of operation, the static switch breaks the

connection from the utility to prevent back-feed from the inverter. The converter acts as

an inverter to supply power to the load from the energy storage device. This type of UPS

may include a maintenance bypass, during which the UPS is totally switched off and the

load is supplied from the utility.

Figure 4. Line interactive UPS topology

 9

The advantages of the line-interactive UPS systems are simple design, high

reliability and lower cost compared to double conversion UPS systems. The main

disadvantages of this system are no isolation of the load from the distribution system, no

regulation of output frequency, mediocre output voltage conditioning and poor

efficiency. As frequency regulation is not possible it is poorly suited to sensitive loads

with medium to high power ratings.

1.4.3 Double conversion on-line UPS

Double conversion UPS systems are used exclusively for protection of critical

application of higher power ratings (from 10 kVA and upwards). During the normal

mode of operation, the power to the load is supplied via the rectifier/charger and

inverter. Here, a double conversion – AC/DC and DC/AC, takes place. These are also

known as “On-Line UPS” or “Inverter-Preferred UPS”. This topology, shown in Figure

5) allows good line conditioning as the two converters can be operated to provide the

required voltage and frequency. The AC/DC converter charges the battery or the energy

storage element that is present there.

During the stored energy mode, the energy storage device and the DC/AC

converter provide the required power. When the AC line resumes, the input and output

voltages are synchronized using an appropriate control loop. In the bypass mode of

operation, the load is transferred without a break to the AC bypass when there is UPS

internal malfunction, load current transients, overloads or end of battery backup time.

There is also a separate maintenance bypass switch which is operated manually and is

used for maintenance purpose. Continuous protection of load, isolation of load from the
 10

distribution system, improved performance under steady state and transient conditions,

good line conditioning are some of the advantages of this UPS system. The main

drawback of this topology is that it is expensive.

Figure 5. Double conversion on-line UPS topology

1.4.4 Delta conversion on-line UPS

This UPS topology is a newer technology which overcomes the drawbacks of

Double conversion UPS and is used for 5 kVA to 1.6 MW applications. The topology is

shown in Figure 6. During normal mode of operation, similar to the double conversion

UPS system, the delta conversion UPS system also has its inverter supplying the load

voltage. The variation here is that the delta converter also supplies power to the inverter

output. In case of power failure or disturbances, the operation is the same as the double

conversion UPS system.

 11

Figure 6. Delta conversion on-line UPS topology

1.5 Disadvantages of battery based system and the alternatives available

A typical UPS system uses Sealed Lead Acid (SLA) batteries as the means of

energy storage. Though they have the obvious advantages of being inexpensive, reliable

and mature technology, low self discharge and low maintenance requirements compared

to other battery technologies, there are some disadvantages which propel the search for

better ways of storing energy.

SLA batteries require slow charging for longer life and more reliable operation.

The reason is as follows: A SLA battery consists of lead electrodes and lead oxide

electrode with some amount of sulphuric acid. When these batteries are charged or

discharged, the reacting chemicals present in the interface between the electrode and

electrolyte get affected first. An interface charge is first created which diffuses over the

entire volume of the active material. When a SLA battery is completely discharged and
 12

given a fast charge, the interface charge is only created first and this charge will spread

throughout the battery thus causing the net interface charge to decrease. This will cause

trouble when the initial current required by the system is very high. When the batteries

are slowly charged, there is enough time for the interface charge to redistribute and get

replenished by the charger. Hence, slow charging of the batteries is essential for their

proper functioning and longevity.

Also care must be taken while charging as too high a rate of charging can lead to

thermal runaway, rupture or internal mechanical damage.

SLA batteries have to be stored in charged state always. This is because a

discharged battery will lead to freezing of its electrolyte. Also, leaving them charged and

unused for large periods of time will lead to deep discharge and subsequent irreversible

capacity loss.

The major drawback of SLA batteries is their very poor energy densities which

makes them heavy and occupy a huge amount of space which renders limited usage in

stationary and wheeled applications.

Another major shortcoming of lead-acid batteries is that they are environmentally

unfriendly due to the electrolyte and the lead content. Hence most SLA batteries are

recycled. Also, while transporting flooded lead acid batteries extreme precautions have

to be taken to avoid spillage in case of an accident.

Due to above problems associated with usage of batteries, better solutions for

backup power and energy storage have been explored and elaborated on in forthcoming

sections.
 13

1.6 Fuel cell technology

Fuel cell is an energy conversion device that uses an electrochemical process to

convert hydrogen into electricity without combustion. As long as fuel is supplied, the

fuel cell will continue to generate power. Since the conversion of the fuel to energy

takes place via an electrochemical process, not combustion, the process is clean, quiet

and highly efficient – two to three times more efficient than fuel burning (as shown in

Figure 7). Fuel cells are similar to batteries but the fuel and oxidant are stored externally,

enabling them to continue operating as long as the chemicals are supplied. In most

applications the oxygen is taken directly from air, so that only the fuel has to be stored.

The ideal fuel for fuel cells is hydrogen, but other hydrogen containing fuels (such as

natural gas or petrol) may be used if they are passed through a reformer, which converts

them into a hydrogen rich gas.

Figure 7. Comparison of efficiencies of fuel cells, diesel/steam engines and gas turbines

A fuel cell consists of two electrodes, an anode and a cathode, with an electrolyte

sandwiched in between Figure 8 is a diagram of a typical fuel cell. Oxygen passes over
 14

the cathode and hydrogen over the anode. When the two gases try to interact, the

presence of electrolyte splits the hydrogen atom into a proton and an electron. The

proton passes freely through the electrolyte. The electron travels through the electrical

circuit, creating an electric current before recombining with the hydrogen and oxygen,

creating a molecule of water. This chemical process generates electrical and thermal

energy but produces pure water as a by-product.

Figure 8. Fuel cell basic structure

As shown in Figure 9, a fuel cell system consists of three main components that

work together: a fuel reformer, a fuel cell stack consisting of many membrane electrode

assemblies, with gas and water distribution manifolds and electronic controls and power

conversion equipment. The reformer is responsible for producing a hydrogen-rich

stream, typically from a fossil fuel source, which is then fed into the stack containing the

membrane assembly to be combined with oxygen from the air. This catalytic reactive

combination of hydrogen and oxygen produces electricity. Reformers can be designed to

convert a number of everyday fuels into hydrogen, including natural gas, propane, coal-
 15

bed gas (sour gas), landfill decomposition gas, and gasoline. The reformer converts the

hydrogen from the hydrocarbon molecule, generally using the steam or heat captured

from the operating fuel cell. Alternatively, hydrogen can be produced in bulk at a

separate facility and then transported and stored on site in a compressed gas form or

bound in a metal hydride.

Figure 9. Block diagram of a fuel cell power system

The heart of the fuel cell is the membrane electrode assembly, composed of an

anode, cathode, electrolyte, and associated channels to deliver hydrogen and oxygen and

to remove water and heat. The anode and cathode have to be electrically isolated from

each other, but with a membrane in between them that allows hydrogen ions catalytically

produced at the anode to migrate to the cathode to combine with oxygen from the air,

producing water. The electric current flows from one electrode to the other through the

electrical load. The fuel cell system (Figure 9) contains a fuel cell stack, so called

because it is a stack of the fuel cells shown in (Figure 8). The size of the stack
 16

determines how much power and voltage can be produced by the system. The third part

of a fuel cell system consists of the electronic controls and power conversion equipment.

Integral to efficient design, electronic controls balance the inflows and outflows of fuel,

air, and cooling agents. Power conditioning equipment is also needed to convert the

direct current (DC) power produced by fuel cells into the appropriate power demand by

the load. This process is represented by the inverter box in Figure 9.

Fuel cells can be classified into five main types each depending on the type of

electrolyte and fuel used.

1. Alkali fuel cells (AFC) operate on compressed hydrogen and oxygen. They

generally use a solution of potassium hydroxide (chemically, KOH) in water

as their electrolyte. Efficiency is about 70 %, and operating temperature is

150 to 200 ˚C, (about 300 to 400 ˚F). Cell output ranges from 300 W to 5

kW. Alkali cells were used in Apollo spacecraft to provide both electricity

and drinking water. They require pure hydrogen fuel, however, and their

platinum electrode catalysts are expensive. And like any container filled with

liquid, they can leak.

2. Molten Carbonate fuel cells (MCFC) use high-temperature compounds of

salt (like sodium or magnesium) carbonates (chemically, CO3) as the

electrolyte. Efficiency ranges from 60 to 80 %, and operating temperature is

about 650 ˚C (1,200 ˚F). Units with output up to 2 MW have been

constructed, and designs exist for units up to 100 MW. The high temperature

limits damage from carbon monoxide "poisoning" of the cell and waste heat
 17

can be recycled to make additional electricity. Their nickel electrode-

catalysts are inexpensive compared to the platinum used in other cells. But

the high temperature also limits the materials and safe uses of MCFCs—they

would probably be too hot for home use. Also, carbonate ions from the

electrolyte are used up in the reactions, making it necessary to inject carbon

dioxide to compensate.

3. Phosphoric Acid fuel cells (PAFC) use phosphoric acid as the electrolyte.

Efficiency ranges from 40 to 80 %, and operating temperature is between 150

to 200 ˚C (about 300 to 400 ˚F). Existing phosphoric acid cells have outputs

up to 200 kW, and 11 MW units have been tested. PAFCs tolerate a carbon

monoxide concentration of about 1.5 %, which broadens the choice of fuels

they can use. If gasoline is used, the sulfur must be removed. Platinum

electrode-catalysts are needed, and internal parts must be able to withstand

the corrosive acid.

4. Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) work with a polymer

electrolyte in the form of a thin, permeable sheet. Efficiency is about 40 to 50

%, and operating temperature is about 80 ˚C (about 175 ˚F). Cell outputs

generally range from 50 to 250 kW. The solid, flexible electrolyte will not

leak or crack and these cells operate at a low enough temperature to make

them suitable for homes and cars. But their fuels must be purified, and a

platinum catalyst is used on both sides of the membrane, raising costs.

 18

5. Solid Oxide fuel cells (SOFC) use a hard, ceramic compound of metal (like

calcium or zirconium) oxides (chemically, O2) as electrolyte. Efficiency is

about 60 %, and operating temperatures are about 1,000 ˚C (about 1,800 ˚F).

Cells output is up to 100 kW. At such high temperatures a reformer is not

required to extract hydrogen from the fuel, and waste heat can be recycled to

make additional electricity. However, the high temperature limits

applications of SOFC units and they tend to be rather large. While solid

electrolytes cannot leak, they can crack.

Of the above mentioned fuel cell types, Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cell

generate more power for a given volume or weight of fuel cell. This high-power

characteristic makes them compact and lightweight. Also, the operating temperature is

less than 100˚C, which allows rapid start-up. The solid electrolyte has many advantages

such as - the sealing of the anode and cathode gases is simpler hence is lesser expensive

to manufacture, more immune to difficulties with orientation, fewer problems with

corrosion which lead to longer cell and stack life. Due to the above advantages, PEMFCs

are most commonly used in vehicular and other commercial applications.

The fuel for the PEMFC is hydrogen and the charge carrier is the hydrogen ion

(proton). At the anode, the hydrogen molecule is split into hydrogen ions (protons) and

electrons. The hydrogen ions permeate across the electrolyte to the cathode while the

electrons flow through an external circuit and produce electric power. Oxygen, usually

in the form of air, is supplied to the cathode and combines with the electrons and the

hydrogen ions to produce water. The reactions at the electrodes are as follows:
 19

Anode Reactions: 2H2 => 4H+ + 4e- (1)

Cathode Reactions: O2 + 4H+ + 4e- => 2 H2O (2)

Overall Cell Reactions: 2H2 + O2 => 2 H2O (3)

The voltage produced by a single PEMFC varies from 1.4 V at no load to 0.7 V

at nominal load current. Thus, in order to obtain a reasonable voltage a number of

individual cells need to be stacked in series. However stacking multiple cells in series

has the disadvantage of increasing the complexity of the system.

1.7 Fuel cell promise

Some of the main advantages of PEM fuel cells are their high efficiency, simple

operation and high energy density. These are the reasons, especially the later, why fuel

cells appear as a direct competition for traditional power sources for portable electronics.

Figure 10. Fuel cell and battery energy density vs. specific energy
 20

Since the introduction of portable electronics in the mid 1950’s batteries have

been their de facto source of energy. However the amount of energy that can be stored in

batteries is limited and their development does not keep up with the energy requirements

of modern devices. In contrast the energy density of fuel cells up to 4 times higher than

that of batteries currently available as can be observed from Figure 10. Moreover fuel

cells offer an energy density even higher that the theoretical limit of their closes

competitor (Li-ion).

Table I Cost of generating 1kW of energy

Total cost per

Lifespan of
Investment of kWh, including
Power equipment before Cost of fuel
equipment to maintenance and
source major overhaul or per kWh
generate 1kW equipment
replacement
replacement
$9400 500h $0.15
Ni-MH Based on 7.5V, $18.50
based on 1C discharge for electricity
1000mAh at $70/pack
$12000 500h $0.15
Li-ion Based on 7.2V, $24.00
, based on 1C discharge for electricity
1200mAh at $100/pack
Rechargeable $1000 10h $0.15
Based on 7.2V, $95.00
Alkaline 1400mAh at $6/pack
, based on 1C discharge for electricity
$7000 1500h $0.15
Ni-Cd Based on 7.2V, $7.50
, based on 1C discharge for electricity
1000mAh at $50/pack
Fuel Cell $3000-7500 2000h $0.35 $1.85-4.10

Another strong point of fuel cells appears when the cost of producing 1 kW of

energy is compared against batteries. As can be observed from Table I the total cost of

generating 1 kW of energy using a fuel cell is up to 5.8 times lower than using existing

reusable battery technologies. Also the life span of fuel cells is up to four times longer

than popular battery technologies such as Li-ion and Ni-MH. For these reasons fuel cells

appear as a very promising candidate for replacing batteries in portable devices in the
 21

upcoming years. However there still are issues that have to be resolved in order to make

fuel cells popular in the market place.

Also, given below in Table II is the table of comparison which shows the

advantage of using fuel cells over other backup systems such as engine generator,

battery, flywheel and supercapacitor (also known as ultracapacitor) [28].

Table II Comparison of various backup systems

Types of Backup Low Low High Long Run Low Long

System Cost Maintenance Reliability Time Pollution Life
Engine Generator No No Yes* Yes No Yes
VRLA Battery Yes No Yes* No No No**
Flywheel No Yes Yes No Yes Yes
Ultracapacitor Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes
Fuel Cell*** Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
* Reliability is determined by routine maintenance.
** Assuming valve regulated lead-acid (VRLA) with an average life 5-7 years.
*** Hydrogen-based PEM fuel cell.

1.8 Hybrid source

The major disadvantage of fuel cells is that they have long start-up time and slow

dynamics. Hence, to overcome these drawbacks, an energy buffer is needed to supply

the start-up power and peak load demand. This energy buffer can be either batteries or

supercapacitors.

Supercapacitors, also known as ultracapacitors or electrochemical double layer

capacitors (EDLC), are electrochemical capacitors that have an unusually high energy

density when compared to common capacitors, typically on the order of thousands of

times greater than a high-capacity electrolytic capacitor.

Their main attribute is high power capability and long life. Supercapacitors are

suited for short-term power backup requirements in the range from seconds to a few
 22

minutes, while the primary source device provides continuous power for a longer time.

Taking this into consideration the supercapacitor is an ideal device to connect in parallel

with the fuel cell to form a hybrid source capable of satisfying both steady-state and

peak power demand [6]. They are environmentally benign and provide a reliable source

of backup power demanded by a wide variety of applications as shown in Table III.

Table III Short and long term reserve energy sources for backup power

Characteristic Fuel cell with fuel Supercapacitor Lead-acid battery

Poor, limited to seconds of Good, requires linear
Very good, depends on fuel
use; not a candidate for scaling; thus, large
Energy storage available, fuel cells use stored
energy storage greater than 1 banks for large energy
energy (hydrogen)
minute storage
Power delivery Reasonable power
Can’t accept regenerative Very good and highly
and acceptance/ delivery; recharging is
current; provides rated power at efficient; can discharge and
power density slower and must be
about 50% efficiency accept high current
managed
Generates energy by dropping Generates energy at
Generates energy
Electrical behavior voltage and ramping current constant voltage and
electrochemically
and is highly predictable variable current
Limited life requires
Expected life is good and
Very good, has many years of destructive health
Life and steadily improving; “hot-
useful life, health monitoring monitoring and
maintenance swappable” cartridges can
simple and non-destructive maintenance over the
eliminate downtime
life of the application
Operating 0o to 50oC; limited by cold
-40oC to +65oC -20oC to +55oC
temperature range weather below 0oC
Cost competitive with Low initial cost, but has
Cost-effectiveness High value proposition in
batteries, especially where high maintenance cost
for stationary and applications requiring system
portability or reliability is and low reliability for
portable power reliability
required critical applications
Highly scalable from small (cell Highly scalable, lightweight Heavy weight and size;
phones) to mid-sized generation power; very high power requires one-to-one
Footprint plants (250kW); runtime is a density; small combined with scaling for more
function of incremental fuel fuel cell or other energy runtime; can provide
storage source power and energy
Lasts the life of application so Requires maintenance
Can be optimized for most
Integration can be intergraded into the and replacement not
economical design at rated power
potential solution; suitable partner with fully integrated into the
with power buffer included
energy generator solution
Highly efficient at low
50% fuel-efficient at rated Highly efficient at high loads
loads-about 90%; low
Efficiency power; at reduced load, charging or discharging-about
efficiency at high-rate
efficiency varies up to 100% 95%
charging-about 50%
 23

In order to design the optimum combination and realize the advantages listed

above, detailed performance information in the form of a comprehensive electric circuit

model is needed for each component. This information is usually unavailable from

product data sheets for fuel cells as well as supercapacitors and has to be experimentally

determined.

1.9 Fuel cell based battery-less UPS system

As discussed earlier, conventional UPS system uses battery as the short energy

storage/backup system and engine generators for long term backup to ensure power

reliability and continuity for critical loads. There are many disadvantages associated with

batteries such as low energy and power density, limited number of charge/discharge

cycles, environmentally unfriendly nature and buildup of heat and pressure under heavy

energy demands. Also, generators have the disadvantage of high cost and high

maintenance requirements. Hence other ways of energy storage and generation have been

explored such as flywheels, supercapacitors, fuel cells and their combinations.

For the past few years, fuel cells, especially PEMFC, have been the main focus as

the back up power source because of their various advantages over batteries and

generators such as longer operating times, higher power capacity, lower maintenance,

lower cost and mainly – environmental friendliness. But the major drawbacks of fuel

cells are long startup time and slow dynamics. This can be easily overcome by

connecting a supercapacitor bank in parallel providing power during the startup of the

fuel cell and during peak power demands [7]-[8]. The connection of supercapacitor in

parallel with the fuel cell stack has many other advantages on the system as a whole
 24

which are: 120 Hz ripple suppression, absorbing/providing peak currents thus

smoothening out the glitches in the power to the load (helps in improving the power

quality) and finally this hybrid setup helps in improving the fuel economy of the fuel cell.

Hence, based on the above conditions, this thesis looks into the design

considerations for a 350 VA/200 W, fuel cell powered 1-φ offline UPS with one hour of

backup power employing modular (fuel cell & power converter) blocks. The motive is to

use a battery based off-the-shelf UPS system and design power converter modules to

accommodate for the fuel cell unit and the supercapacitors. Interactions between the

internal impedance of the fuel cell and supercapacitor along with their steady state and

transient stability are also considered.

1.10 Previous work

Over the years many solutions were proposed for solving the problem of power

quality disturbances and most of these involve the usage of batteries/generators. As an

alternative, the usage of fuel cells and supercapacitor as a hybrid source has been

suggested [7]-[9]. The system on the whole is complex and in order to understand their

operation better, the equivalent circuits of supercapacitor and fuel cell have been

derived.

Many models of fuel cells have been proposed so far [10]-[15], which vary in

complexity and accuracy. Using one of these equivalent circuit models the effect of the

load current in the performance of the fuel cell has been studied by Choi and Enjeti [16],

but their work focused only on the effect of low frequency ripple.
 25

Various supercapacitor equivalent models [17]-[20] have been developed. In

[19], Zubieta and Bonert have shown the voltage dependence of the capacitance. Also,

they have explained the development of the equivalent circuit in a clear and simple

manner. But this model is obtained by injection of small amounts of current charging the

supercapacitor to a particular voltage level and deriving the model parameters at steady

state thus, not taking into account the transient analysis. The model suggested in [19]

considers the transient behavior of the supercapacitor and this model combined with

voltage dependent model in [17] are used. The Nyquist plots, obtained for various charge

states using frequency response analyzer, are shifted in both Re and Im directions which

implies that at least one capacitance in the model needs to be charge dependent. Also the

effects of capacitances increase with the increase in voltage across the supercapacitor

terminals have not been analyzed.

The effect on the dynamics of the DC-DC converter due to the internal

impedance of the fuel cell has not been studied so far. However analytical tools exist that

can facilitate this analysis [21]. The use of a fuel cell as a power source for DC-DC

converters can be treated in a similar fashion as when a filter is connected between the

power source and a DC-DC converter. An approach to analyze this problem is presented

by Erickson and Maksimović in [23] and it is shown that for the case of using a filter the

stability and dynamics of the system may be compromised.

Many topologies and designs have been put forward for fuel cell powered UPS

system [24]-[28]. Most of these only give the conceptual design and only [27]-[28] have

shown the actual implementation of system where the power supplied from the utility is
 26

transferred to the load via UPS. When the power outage occurs, energy stored in the fuel

cell/supercapacitor is used to support the load. As the power outage continues and

voltage becomes lower than the pre-determined value, the signal-output unit outputs an

operation signal to start the fuel cell system. The fuel cell system begins to warm up and

incorporated inverter starts to generate the 110V AC power. Power transfer is performed

by the synchronization-switch system. However, since this system requires the power

conditioning stage for both batteries and fuel cell, the system is expensive. Further, it is

disadvantageous in terms of efficiency because the power is always processed by the

UPS. Also, another main problem faced is that most backup systems already present

have batteries/generators installed. Hence, a system has to be developed which is

modular and can be interfaced with the dc link of the existing UPS system.

1.11 Research objective

The objective of this thesis is to design and analyze a fuel cell powered battery-

less single-phase UPS for small power applications. The suggested system will provide

continuous and quality power to critical loads. The proposed topology has a standard

module offline UPS system and the battery bank at the dc link is replaced by the

proposed hybrid energy source. This hybrid section consists of the fuel cell stack in

parallel with a supercapacitor bank and its boost converter.

A good approach to this analysis is start with determination of the impedance

model of the fuel cell and supercapacitor. This will be achieved using frequency

spectroscopy. The equivalent model will be used to analyze the terminal behavior of the

supercapacitor and fuel cell and the interactions between themselves and with respect to
 27

the power electronic circuits. This will be done both analytically and experimentally and

the main focus is on determining static and dynamic stability conditions as well as

hydrogen fuel consumption.

Supercapacitor sizing for load transients such as sudden power fluctuations, slow

dynamics of fuel preprocessor and overload conditions will be shown. The losses during

the charge/discharge cycles of the supercapacitor are estimated and their energy storage

capability at different voltage levels will be calculated. For transient stability analysis,

the effect of fuel cell internal impedance (extra element) along with the impedance of the

supercapacitor (nonlinear) on the transfer function of the DC-DC (boost) converter will

be analyzed.

1.12 Thesis outline

Chapter I of the thesis presents an overview about the various power quality

disturbances and the need for backup energy system and the available backup systems..

The possible solutions for the various disturbances are reviewed and a detailed overview

of UPS system is presented. The disadvantages of battery as the backup energy source

and alternative backup systems are discussed. This chapter also explains in detail the

fuel cell technology and comparison between the various types of fuel cells. Finally, the

proposed topology for fuel cell powered battery-less UPS system and research objectives

of this thesis has been presented.

Chapter II discusses the details of modeling the fuel cell, experimental

verification of the model and the significance of the proposed model of the fuel cell.

Further, the non-linear model of supercapacitor also has been developed on this chapter.
 28

Chapter III deals with the proposed fuel cell based battery-less UPS topology and

an explanation of the block diagram and its components. The specifications of the UPS

have been given and the required fuel cell capacity and supercapacitor sizing have been

shown. For the specified system, design of the essential converters, namely – buck

converter and supercapacitor charging circuit for the supercapacitor bank are discussed.

Eventually, the losses in supercapacitor during its charge/discharge cycles have been

elaborated. This is followed by mathematical analysis of the interactions between the

fuel cell, supercapacitor and the power electronic circuits and their transient and stability

analysis.

Chapter IV presents the various experimental results and a comparison of battery

based UPS system and the proposed topology has been shown.

Chapter V concludes the thesis by presenting the general conclusion of this work.
 29

CHAPTER II

MODELING OF FUEL CELL AND SUPERCAPACITOR

2.1 Introduction

A good starting point to examine the behavior of a system and its transient and

steady state stability would be to model its equivalent circuit. Hence, to analyze the

proposed UPS system, the modeling of the non-electrical components (fuel cell and

supercapacitor) is vital. As the UPS system considered for this thesis uses PEM fuel cell

and electrochemical double layer capacitor (supercapacitor), the impedance modeling of

a PEMFC and supercapacitor are dealt with in this chapter.

PEMFC devices and supercapacitors have been the focus of significant research

over the past few years, targeting a better understanding of the factors that influence

their performance, ways to improve their operation and arrive at optimal operating

conditions. Many ways for impedance modeling have been looked into and among those,

frequency impedance spectroscopy has been the most informative and widely used.

This chapter presents the development of an equivalent impedance model of the

fuel cell and supercapacitor using frequency impedance spectroscopy along with some

experimental results for the verification of the model.

2.2 Equivalent circuit of fuel cell

Several models of PEM fuel cells based on Electrochemical Impedance

Spectroscopy have been proposed in the recent years [10]-[17] which vary in complexity

and accuracy. Most of these models only give the steady state model of the fuel cell
 30

stack whereas the analysis of their performance in dynamic conditions is imperative.

Also, some of the proposed models are characterized by partial differential equations

which make them complex and cause difficulties in identifying the various model

parameters. Consequently, a simple but fairly accurate model based on the chemical-

physical knowledge of the phenomena occurring inside the cell has been used [17].

The PEM fuel cell is portrayed by the reactions at the anode and the cathode

given by,

H 2 → 2 H + + 2e − (4)

O2 + 4 H + + 4e − → 2 H 2 O (5)

A curve of cell voltage variation with respect to the current density is also plotted

as shown in Figure 11. The voltage drop seen the figure is due to below mentioned

conditions:

1. Limited cathode interfacial dynamics

2. Limited protonic conductivity

3. Anode interfacial kinetics

4. Limited cathode mass transport

5. Cathode flooding
 31

Figure 11. Typical cell voltage vs. current density plots for PEM fuel cells and a common
interpretation for volatge drop

Based on many assumptions as given in [15], the cell voltage versus current

density diagram, the characteristic chemical reactions and the fuel cell model is derived

as shown in Figure 12 [17].

Figure 12. Equivalent circuit for PEM fuel cell

This equivalent circuit consists of the resistance of the membrane Rm, which is

related to the electrolyte resistance. Also the model contains two parallel R-C blocks,

Rp1-C1 and Rp2-C2, which are related to the time constant of each electrode. Specifically

these time constants are related to the electron transport phenomena in the anode and

cathode. These parameters can be calculated in terms of the fuel cell chemical
 32

parameters, but this information is rarely available for the power electronics designer.

Hence, frequency based impedance spectroscopy is used to determine the parameter

values of the given equivalent model. The test setup used is explained below.

The test setup used to obtain the equivalent model of the fuel cell is as shown in

Figure 13. The setup consists of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell Stack

(PEMFCS), Programmable Electronic Load (PEL, Chroma 63201), Frequency

Response Analyzer (FRA, Venable Model 260), current/voltage probes (Tektronix

AM503B Current Amplifier and A6303 Current Probe, Tektronix P5205 Differential

Voltage Probe), and a computer with the (Venable) analysis software. The test setup is

used to perform both DC and AC tests described in the next sections.

Figure 13. Test setup for measuring the frequency respond of the PEM fuel cell

The test is repeated for a wide frequency range in order to obtain the frequency

response of the fuel cell. Figure 14 shows a Nyquist plot of a 300 W Nexa fuel cell for

different load conditions obtained experimentally by using this method. This figure
 33

shows the resistance and reactance of the fuel cell stack for three different load

conditions (light, medium and full) and for frequencies ranging from 0.2 Hz to 20 kHz.

0.1

0.05
Reactance [Ohm]

Full load 0.2Hz

20kHz Half load

Light load
-0.05

-0.1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Resistance [Ohm]

Figure 14. Nyquist plot for 1200W fuel cell stack

From this plot it is simple to identify the main elements of the equivalent circuit

model and to synthesize the parameters of the circuit model if the chemical data is not

known. Each semi circle in the graph corresponds to one R-C time constant and its

diameter is proportional to its resistive value while the vertex corresponds to its

characteristic frequency. The value of the membrane resistance can be obtained from the

graph at the point were the reactance becomes zero. The equivalent circuit parameters of

the fuel cell whose response is shown in Figure 14 are listed in Table IV.

It can be observed from Table IV and from the Nyquist plot from Figure 14 that

the fuel cell equivalent circuit parameters are a function of the output load.
 34

Table IV Fuel Cell equivalent circuit parameters

Load
Rm[mΩ] Rp1[mΩ] C1[mF] Rp2[mΩ] C2[uF]
Condition

Light Load 16.8 139.03 64.54 188.28 475.36

Half Load 16.8 111.41 95.44 229.05 376.92

Full Load 16.8 78.65 258.96 218.75 556.85

The resistance values determined using impedance spectroscopy can be easily verified

using the V-I (polarization) curve. This curve is obtained by plotting voltage versus

current at constant power load as shown in Figure 15. The slope of this curve

corresponds to the sum of the resistances of the equivalent model (= Rm + Rp1 + Rp2)

shown in Figure 12.

Figure 15. V-I curve for 1200W PEM fuel cell for power up to 200W
 35

2.3 Non-linear model of supercapacitor

Supercapacitors, also known as electrochemical double layer capacitors (EDLC),

have their capacitance varying non-linearly with the voltage to which they are charged

and their operating temperature. The internal impedance of the supercapacitor varies

with the surface area of the carbon electrodes, the distance between them and the type of

dielectric material and hence has to be modeled accordingly with different time

constants and voltage dependent capacitive terms. The modeling of supercapacitor is

important as it helps in analyzing the terminal behavior of the supercapacitor with

respect to the power electronic circuits. Also, the modeling aids in understanding the

interaction between the fuel cell and the supercapacitor bank thus facilitating the

stability analysis.

Figure 16. Non-linear model of a supercapacitor

Various models for double layer capacitors have been proposed [18]-[21]. The

transmission model (Miller model) shown in Figure 16 has been chosen, in which the

moment matching algorithm is used to assign the weights for each capacitor branch. This

model accounts for the RC time constants of the electrodes and the leakage resistance

present in this model accounts for the discharge in voltage over time. The parameters of
 36

this model can be determined the same way as the fuel cell by using the impedance

spectroscopy.

In impedance spectroscopy, a small ac ripple superimposed with a dc bias

voltage. But a difficulty that is faced here is that the capacitance of the supercapacitor

under test is so high (140F) that the ac ripple has no effect and only parasitic values are

reflected. Hence, sixteen supercapacitors are connected in series in order to reduce the

capacitance by a factor of nine (to ≈ 8.75F). Also across each supercapacitor, a 10MΩ

high precision resistor is connected to balance the voltage across the capacitors. The

Nyquist plots were obtained only for 0 to 10V because of the limitation in dc bias

voltage of the frequency spectrometer used. Each of these voltages can be divided by

sixteen to obtain the dc bias of each individual supercapacitor. The Nyquist plot for

sixteen supercapacitors in series for different voltage levels have been shown in Figure

17.

From Figure 17, it can be observed that the Nyquist plot can be divided as three

sections [20]-[21]. The vertical asymptote at low frequencies corresponds to capacitive

and equivalent series resistive behavior. At lower frequencies the equivalent series

resistance value reaches its maximum (ESR_DC) and includes the resistance of the

terminals, electrodes and electrolyte. At the intermediate frequencies, the oblique

asymptote is seen and the equivalent series resistance decreases with frequency and

reaches a minimum (ESR_HF) at a higher resonant frequency. At frequencies higher

than the resonance frequency, the supercapacitor behavior becomes inductive and can be

expressed by a resistor ESR_HF in series with a low serial inductor. This behavior is due
 37

to the very porous nature of the electrodes and the manufacturing process when using

wounded technology. It can be seen that the results for ESR_DC and ESR_HF (for 1

kHz) in Table V are in agreement with values found in manufacturer’s datasheet [22].

Figure 17. Nyquist plot for sixteen Maxwell BCAP0140 supercapacitor

Looking at the results, the supercapacitor model in Figure 16 and its parameters

can be extracted from the Nyquist plots. By construction, the wide electrode-electrolyte

interface is obtained by using porous electrodes implying that it is distributed in space.

Hence a single capacitor is not enough to model the supercapacitor; distributed resistors

and capacitors is required along with a series inductor to account for the nonlinear

charge/discharge process [18]-[20].

 38

Table V Supercapacitor equivalent circuit parameters

L1 R1 C1 R2 C2 R3 C3 R4 C4
U
(uH) (mOhm) (mF) (mOhm) (F) (mF) (F) (Ohm) (F)
0 2.632 360.620 99.342 20.717 1.276 73.573 3.582 3.151 1.726
1 2.679 338.750 91.184 18.313 1.253 67.931 3.592 3.873 1.206
2 2.716 327.120 70.487 14.285 0.826 38.043 2.496 0.159 1.706
3 2.733 321.920 81.635 15.288 1.073 50.883 3.103 0.475 0.954
4 2.743 318.970 70.751 13.863 0.760 33.303 2.174 0.111 2.127
5 2.751 316.220 72.209 13.481 0.791 37.447 2.477 0.156 1.837
6 2.871 319.050 77.462 13.906 0.824 37.975 2.483 0.140 1.805
7 2.880 314.400 79.911 13.064 0.773 33.940 2.192 0.102 2.289
8 2.890 311.610 84.061 12.966 0.789 33.902 2.344 0.105 2.203
9 2.909 310.380 81.901 13.118 0.790 34.428 2.309 0.112 2.307
10 2.923 305.940 85.836 13.180 0.882 37.553 2.388 0.115 2.152

Table V gives the parameters of the equivalent model shown in Figure 16. It can

be observed that the R-C values vary with the state of charge i.e. the voltage up to which

the supercapacitor is charged. Also, the Nyquist plots show a shift along the x and the y

axis with change in the dc bias voltage applied. This shift can be attributed to charge

dependency of at least one resistor and capacitor.

Table VI Nonlinear variation of supercapacitor equivalent model parameters

L1 R1 C1 R2 C2 R3 C3 R4 C4
U
(uH) (mOhm) (mF) (mOhm) (F) (mF) (F) (Ohm) (F)
0 2.793 322.271 81.344 14.744 0.913 43.543 2.649 0.434 2.910
1 2.793 322.271 81.344 14.744 0.913 43.543 2.649 0.349 1.886
2 2.793 322.271 81.344 14.744 0.913 43.543 2.649 0.223 1.527
3 2.793 322.271 81.344 14.744 0.913 43.543 2.649 0.191 1.506
4 2.793 322.271 81.344 14.744 0.913 43.543 2.649 0.139 1.451
5 2.793 322.271 81.344 14.744 0.913 43.543 2.649 0.141 1.451
6 2.793 322.271 81.344 14.744 0.913 43.543 2.649 0.133 1.497
7 2.793 322.271 81.344 14.744 0.913 43.543 2.649 0.070 1.585
8 2.793 322.271 81.344 14.744 0.913 43.543 2.649 0.000 1.634
9 2.793 322.271 81.344 14.744 0.913 43.543 2.649 0.000 1.677
10 2.793 322.271 81.344 14.744 0.913 43.543 2.649 0.000 1.677
 39

This has been shown in Table VI and the graphs below (Figure 18-Figure 19)

which tell us how the capacitance and resistance vary with voltage. This is given by the

quadratic equations:

R4 = −0.0006U 3 + 0.0127U 2 − 0.1105U + 0.4305 (6)

C4 = 0.0013U 4 − 0.0346U 3 + 0.3171U 2 − 1.163U + 2.8629 (7)

Figure 18. Resistance, R4 vs. charge voltage

Figure 19. Capacitance, C4 vs. charge voltage

 40

2.4 Conclusions

In this chapter, the test setup for fuel cell impedance modeling has been

explained. Further, the equivalent circuit model for the fuel cell has been derived from

the results obtained from the impedance model. Also, the modeling of supercapacitor has

bee shown in detail. The Nyquist plots have been plotted from which the proposed

equivalent model parameters are extracted. The variation of the supercapacitor

capacitance and internal resistance with respect to voltage has been shown. Once the

impedance modeling of the supercapacitor bank and fuel cell stack are done, the effect of

interfacing them with the power converter circuits and the entire system can be analyzed

using the Middlebrook’s extra element theorem [23]. This analysis along with the results

is shown in the coming chapter.

 41

CHAPTER III

PROPOSED FUEL CELL BASED BATTERY-LESS UPS SYSTEM

3.1 Introduction

As previously discussed, conventional UPS system uses battery as the short

energy storage/backup system and engine generators for long term backup to ensure

power reliability and continuity for critical loads. Due to the obvious disadvantages of

generators and batteries, as mentioned earlier, other ways of energy storage and

generation have been explored such as flywheels, supercapacitors, fuel cells and their

combinations.

For the past few years, fuel cells, especially PEMFC, have been the main focus as

the back up power source because of their various advantages over batteries and

generators such as longer operating times, higher power capacity, lower maintenance,

lower cost and mainly – environmental friendliness. But the major drawbacks of fuel

cells are long startup time and slow dynamics. This can be easily overcome by

connecting a supercapacitor bank in parallel providing power during the startup of the

fuel cell and during peak power demands [7]-[8].

Hence, based on the above conditions, this chapter looks into the design

considerations for a 350VA/200W, fuel cell powered 1-φ offline UPS with one hour of

backup power employing modular (fuel cell & power converter) blocks as shown in

Figure 20. The motive is to use a battery based off-the-shelf UPS system and design

power converter modules to accommodate for the fuel cell unit and the supercapacitors.
 42

Interactions between the internal impedance of the fuel cell and supercapacitor along

with their steady state and transient stability are also considered. The supercapacitor

sizing, boost converter design and supercapacitor charging circuit has also been

elaborated on.

3.2 Block diagram of the proposed topology

The block diagram of the proposed fuel cell powered battery less UPS system has

been shown in Figure 20. The proposed topology has a standard module online UPS

system and instead of the battery bank at the dc link, a fuel cell stack along with a

supercapacitor bank, supercapacitor charging circuit and a buck converter (to match the

supercapacitor and fuel cell voltage to dc link voltage) are connected as shown.

When the utility power is available, the supercapacitor bank is charged from the

ac source through the supercapacitor charging circuit (a flyback converter, explained

later in this chapter). When the supercapacitor bank reaches the full state of charge, the

charging circuit stops operating and power to the supercapacitor bank is cut off.

Meanwhile, power is supplied to the load through the UPS system while the fuel cell

supplies for 10% of the power. This arrangement (continuous operation of fuel cell) is

made so that in case of power outage, the startup time is reduced and the supercapacitor

bank has to supply power only for the time taken for the fuel cell to ramp up from

supplying 10% load to 100% load instead of ramping from zero to full load. In case of

power outage or other long term disturbances, the fuel cell operates to provide the

average output power to the load. Incase of transient and peak power requirements, the
 43

supercapacitor bank satisfies this peak power demand. Also, the supercapacitor bank can

be used to supply power during short term power disturbances.

Normally, the supercapacitor bank satisfies the energy and power requirement

but the voltage level might not be appropriate for the dc link of the UPS. Also, there

might be some voltage and charge fluctuations in the bank. Hence, a buck converter is

added between the supercapacitor bank and the dc link to provide stable dc power.

Figure 20. Block diagram of the proposed topology

The main advantage of this topology over battery powered UPS is that it is

environmentally friendly and produces only green house gases as by-products. Also,

they require minimal maintenance because it is not dependent on the floating charge (in

case of batteries) or moving parts (in case of engine generators). When the battery

discharges, the only way to use it again would be after charging the batteries, but in case

of fuel cells, while they are running, the hydrogen cylinders can be switched [29]. Also,

the supercapacitor connected in parallel to the fuel cell has various advantages such as:
 44

120 Hz ripple suppression, absorbing/providing peak currents thus smoothening out the

glitches in the power to the load (helps in improving the power quality) and finally this

hybrid setup helps in improving the fuel economy of the fuel cell.

3.3 Design example

3.3.1 Specification of UPS system

Table VII shows a typical specification of the proposed fuel cell powered UPS

system. The fuel and emission specifications correspond to Nexa fuel cell stack [30]

shown in Figure 21. Table VIII shows the specifications of the Nexa fuel cell stack.

Performance ratings are largely determined by the power conditioning unit design along

with the associated size of the energy storage.

Table VII Specification of proposed fuel cell powered UPS

Performances
Power Rating VA/W 350 VA/200 W
Technology Offline, 1-phase
Output Voltage/Frequency 120V± 3%, 50/60 Hz ± 0.5 %
Backup capacity 200W for 17.5 seconds
Energy required 200W*17.5 seconds = 3500 J
Overload capacity >100% & <=150% for 11.67 seconds
Up to 200% for 8.75 seconds
Current Ripple 120 Hz, 24.7% RMS 35% peak-peak
Fuel
Composition 99.99% dry gaseous hydrogen
Consumption Rate 900 standard liters of hydrogen/kWhr
Supply Pressure 75 PSIG
Emissions (Water and Heat)
Water Exhaust Rate 750 ml/kWhr
Heat Exhaust Rate 1.5 kW/1 kW electricity produced
 45

Table VIII Specifications of the Nexa fuel cell stack

Performance : Rated net power 1200 watts

Rated current 46 Amps
DC voltage range 26 to 50 Volts
Operating lifetime 1500 hours
Fuel : Composition 99.99% dry gaseous hydrogen
Supply pressure 10 to 250 PSIG
Consumption ≤ 18.5 SLPM
Operating Ambient temperature 3°C to 30°C (37°F to 86°F)
Environment : Relative humidity 0% to 95%
Location Indoors and outdoors
Physical : Length x width x height 56 x 25 x 33 cm (22 x 10 x 13 in)
Weight 13 kg (29 lbs)
Certification : CSA, UL
Emissions : Liquid water 0.87 liters (30 fluid oz.) maximum per hour2
Noise ≤ 72 dBA @ 1 meter
Integration : Fuel interface 45° flared tube fitting for 1/4" OD tubing – metallic
Electrical interface #8 AWG electrical wire
Control interface Full duplex RS 485

3.3.2 Fuel cell capacity

In this section a method to calculate the amount of hydrogen required to supply

0.2 kWh is shown. The [31]-[33] detail an approach from the chemical engineering point

of view. However, a more simplistic approach is presented here with some assumptions.

Figure 21. Ballard Nexa 1200W PEM fuel cell

 46

The required output power = 0.2 kW

The hydrogen density is = 0.09 kg/m3

Specific heating value of hydrogen is = 120 MJ/kg

This is the energy that we can get by burning the hydrogen, which is its theoretical

maximum. Only part of this energy can be utilized to produce the electricity via fuel cell

due to other losses as explained below. Typical PEM fuel cell efficiency can be

calculated as follows:

PEM Fuel cell efficiency

Actual fuel cell output voltage Net power produced
= * ( Fuel utilization) * ( ) * 100
Theoretical output voltage Total power produced

Assuming:

The actual fuel cell voltage = 0.7 V/per-cell

Theoretical fuel cell voltage = 1.25 V/per-cell

Hydrogen fuel utilization = 95%

(i.e. 5% of hydrogen fuel is wasted during purging)

Net power produced

= 0 .9
Total power produced

(i.e. 10% of the energy is used to power the balancing plant)

0 .7
PEM Fuel cell efficiency = * (0.95) * (0.9) * 100 = 48%
1.25

Since,

0.2 kWh = 200 Wh = 200*3600 Ws = 0.72 MJ (mega-joules)

 47

Weight of the required hydrogen =

0.72 MJ 1
*
Specific heating value of hydrogen PEM Fuel cell efficiency

0.72 MJ
= = 0.0125 Kg
(120 MJ ) * (0.48)

Since 0.09 kg of hydrogen needs 1000 liters,

Now, 0.0125 kg of hydrogen needs = 1000*0.0125/0.09 = 138.88 liters at 1 bar or 2.899

lbf/in2

At 150 bar, the volume of hydrogen is: 138.88/150 = 0.925 liters

Therefore, 0.925 liters of hydrogen fuel at 150 bar is required for powering a 0.2 kWh

load.

3.3.3 Supercapacitor sizing

The supercapacitor sizing must be such that the energy stored in it is sufficient to

supply for the start up power and the peak power demand. The design procedure for

supercapacitor sizing is given in [33]. This has been shown below:

Basic system parameters:

Nominal working voltage = Vw = 40 V

To increase the life of the supercapacitor, the voltage discharge is allowed only till 1/√2

times the nominal cell voltage,

Maximum voltage = Vmax = 40 V

Minimum voltage = Vmin = 28.28 V

Power to be supplied = 350VA or 200W

Time for which the power must be supplied = t = 5 s

 48

The change in voltage during the discharge of the capacitor is

dV = Vw − Vmin
= 40.0 − 28.28
= 11.72 V

Hence, the maximum, minimum and average currents (using apparent power

rating) are given by,

power 350
imax = = = 12.38 A
Vmin 28.28
power 350
imin = = = 8.75 A
Vmax 40.0
imax + imin 12.38 + 8.75
iavg = = = 10.57 A
2 2

Discharge time = dt = 5 s

The voltage discharge has two components namely, resistive voltage drop and

capacitive voltage drop and this is given by:

dt (8)
dV = i + i⋅R
C

Assuming the RC time constant of the supercapacitor to be 1.1 seconds,

RC = 1.1 s

Hence,

1 .1
R=
C
 49

Substituting this in (8),

dt i
dV = i + 1 .1
C C
i
C= (dt + 1.1)
dV
10.57
= (5 + 1.1)
11.72
= 5 .5 F

The capacitance calculated here is the total stack capacitance. As a voltage drop

of 1/√2 is allowed, the optimum value of capacitance would be √2*C. Assuming that

Maxwell BCAP0140 supercapacitor is used whose capacitance is 140 F and voltage is

2.5 V, the number of capacitors required in parallel

# in parallel
Ctotal * 2 = Ccell
# in series
5 .5 * 2
# in parallel = × 16
140
= 0.88 ≈ 1

Hence the configuration is: one branch with sixteen capacitors in series in each.

The energy stored in the supercapacitor for this configuration is:

2
1 1  V 
E = C ⋅V 2 − C ⋅  
2 2  2
1
= C ⋅V 2
4
1  1 2
= ⋅ 140  ⋅ (40 )
4  16 
= 3500 J

3500
During full load, the power supplied for = 17.5 s
200
 50

3500
For 150% load power, the time for which power is supplied is = 11.67 s
1.5 ⋅ 200

3500
For 200% load power, the time for which power is supplied is = 8.75 s
2 ⋅ 200

The amount of capacitance calculated to provide power during overload conditions is

sufficient to ensure that the impedance inequalities are met which will be elaborated on

in the coming sections. The Table IX shows the detailed specifications for

supercapacitor sizing.

Table IX Specification of supercapacitor, BCAP0140 E350 (Maxwell Technologies,

2000)

Capacitance 140 Farads (±20%)

Maximum ESR(25°C) 7.2 mOhm
Specific Power Density 3500 (W/kg)
Voltage(Cont.) 2.5 V
Maximum Current 530 A
Dimensions 51.0 x 26.0 mm
Weight 29 g
Volume 0.027 l
Temperature (Operating & Storage) -40°C to 65°C
Leakage Current (12 hours, 25°C) 0.1 mA

3.3.4 Design of buck converter

The output voltage of the fuel cell and supercapacitor bank has variations in the

output voltage due to purging of fuel cell and discharge of supercapacitor bank. Hence,

the buck converter has to be designed for input range in accordance to the voltage

variation of the fuel cell and supercapacitor bank and the output must satisfy the

requirements of the dc bus of the UPS module.

 51

The specifications are as below:

Supercapacitor bank/Fuel cell power output Pout = 200 W/350 V A and the nominal input

voltage, Vin = 40 - 35 V. An output voltage, Vo = 12 V is generated using a simple buck

converter as shown in Figure 22. The switching frequency, f, is set at 100 kHz (T =

1/100k s). The supercapacitor current is calculated for its lowest voltage condition (Vin

=28.28 V) as

350 350
I in = = 12.38 A and I out = = 29.17 A
28.28 12

VOUT 12
The duty cycle of the boost converter is, D = = = 42.43%
VIN 28.28

Figure 22. Buck converter

The output filter is designed such that the current ripple is 20% and voltage

ripple is minimal. The inductor calculation is:

 52

VOUT (V IN − VOUT )
L=
∆I ⋅ f ⋅ V IN
12(28.28 − 12)
=
0.3 ⋅ (200 / 12) ⋅ 100k ⋅ 28.28
= 13.81 µH ≈ 18 µH

The output capacitor is so chosen so that the output voltage ripple is < 1%. Using

the formula,

VoutTD
C=
2∆Vout Rload
12 ⋅ (1 / 100k ) ⋅ 96%
=
2 ⋅ (0.2% ⋅ 12) ⋅ (122 / 200)
= 3333.33 µF

Hence, two electrolytic 2200 µF capacitors are used in parallel as output capacitor.

The single controller chip, LT1339 is used. The finer details of design procedure

followed are as given in the datasheet of the controller chip [35].

3.3.5 Design of supercapacitor charging circuit

The charging of supercapacitors requires certain behavioral considerations [36]-

[37]. As a capacitive element, the ultracapacitor has no charge/discharge memory effects

allowing charging and discharging hundreds of thousands of cycles without any effect

on the storage capacity. Also with its very low equivalent series resistance (ESR), these

components can be charged and discharged at rates far greater than the best of battery

technologies. Low ESR and lack of any current limiting mechanism poses a problem for

the system integrator - standard battery charging systems usually do not operate well

with ultra-capacitors because these components appear as a virtual short circuit to the
 53

charging system. To solve this problem, a dc power supply that will operate into a short

circuit must be selected.

Also, the RC time constant of passive charging networks is usually too long.

Therefore, linear regulators are inefficient components for ultracapacitor charging. There

are many recommended methods of charging supercapacitors such as constant current

charging, constant power charging, and AC line charging.

Here, constant current charging has been chosen as it is the simplest method of

active charging of the supercapacitor bank. This has been implemented in two steps –

simple diode bridge rectifier followed by flyback converter as shown in Figure 23.

Figure 23. Supercapacitor charging circuit

The diode bridge rectifier has been implemented with the MB88 rectifier. The

output filter inductor and capacitor have been chosen as 10 µH and 100 µF respectively.

The input of the rectifier is the ac mains while the output voltage variation is 95 – 115 V.

This is the input for the flyback converter. The flyback converter is controlled using

LT1725 controller chip. The design procedure is followed as given in [38]-[39]. The

current sensing resistor controls the charging current of the supercapacitor bank and the

voltage limit is set to the maximum bank voltage level.

 54

3.4 Losses in supercapacitor

There are significant losses in the supercapacitor during the charge/discharge

cycles mainly due to the equivalent series resistance (ESR) of the capacitor. In order to

quantify these losses, a constant power discharge cycle as shown in Figure 24 below is

considered. The voltage is assumed to discharge from Vmax to Vmin and current rises

from Imin to Imax so that a constant power, P is maintained i.e. these satisfy the condition

shown below.

P = Vmin I max = Vmax I min

Figure 24. Supercapacitor discharge profile

From the above figure, the current can be expressed as a function of time as shown

below:
 55

t −T i − I max
=
0 − T I min − I max
t (9)
i = ( I max − I min ) + I min
T
The power loss due to ESR is:

T
1
Ploss = ∫ i 2 R dt (10)
T 0

Where

R is the ESR and

T is the discharge time.

Substituting for i from (9) in (10),

T 2
1  t 
Ploss = ∫ ( I max − I min ) + I min  R dt
T 0 T 

Therefore, simplifying the above equation, power loss during discharge of a

supercapacitor can be calculated as:

R 2 2 (11)
Ploss = [ I max + I max I min + I min ]
3

It can be shown that the above equation holds true for charging cycles also.

3.5 Steady state stability analysis

In the given topology the fuel cell connects to a dc link from which an inverter

supplies the power required for the load. In this configuration, from the fuel cell

terminals point of view, the buck converter can be considered as constant power dc load.

This is because regardless of the voltage being produced by the fuel cell stack the output
 56

voltage of the converter is maintained at a constant voltage. In general for a fuel cell

powered system to be stable in steady state, the V-I characteristic of the fuel cell and the

constant power locus of the inverter have to intersect at one point, which sets the

operating condition of the system. If the two curves do not intersect the source is not

able to meet the power demanded by the load.

Figure 25. Fuel cell V-I characteristic and load power locus

Figure 25 shows the V-I characteristic of the commercial 1200 W Nexa fuel cell

whose parameters were obtained in the previous chapter (here it is shown only for up to

200W as the UPS is rated for 200W only). This figure also shows the constant power

locus of a 350 W DC-DC converter operating at full and half load. As can be observed

from Figure 25 the constant power locus intersects the V-I characteristic of the fuel cell,

and therefore the power requirements of the load are met. However, if the voltage

produced by the stack experiences variations due to a reduction in its fuel pressure the

curves may not intersect, especially for loads close to full power where voltage
 57

characteristic of the fuel cell drops quickly as the load current increases. If the curves do

not intersect there is a mismatch between the power demanded by the load and the power

that the stack can produce. Moreover, if the voltage at the input of the DC-DC converter

drops, its controller will increase the input current which results in an additional drop in

the fuel cell voltage. In other words, a positive feedback takes place which leads to

system instability.

To avoid this problem an energy buffer such as a supercapacitor is required to

ride through transient voltage disruptions in the fuel cell output.

3.6 Transient state stability analysis

The interaction of the DC-DC converter with the stand-alone fuel cell as well as

with the hybrid source has been analyzed in order to investigate dynamic response as

well as the stability of the overall system. The power converter controller is generally

designed to provide appropriate amount of phase and magnitude margins in order to

meet the stability criteria. But once the fuel cell is connected to the input terminals of the

power converter, as shown in Figure 26 the output impedance of the fuel cell alters

system behavior.
 58

Figure 26. Fuel cell DC-DC converter system

If the internal impedance of the fuel cell stack is considered, Middlebrook’s extra

element theorem [23] can be used to analyze the effect of the fuel cell onto the dynamics

of the converter. Application of this theorem results in the system shown in Figure 27,

where the fuel cell output impedance is modeled as an extra element in the system.

Figure 27. Modeling of fuel cell impedance effect

It can be found that the control to output transfer function of the converter when

fuel cell is considered is given by (12).

 59

Zo( s )
1+
ZN(s)
G vd ( s ) =  G vd ( s ) Z = 0 
 o  Z (s) (12)
1+ o
ZD( s )

Where G vd ( s ) Z =0
is the converter transfer function when the supply is an ideal
o

voltage source, ZN(s) is the input impedance of the converter under the condition that the

feedback controller operates ideally, ZD(s) is the input impedance of the converter under

the assumption that d̂ ( s ) = 0 , and Zo(s) is the output impedance of the fuel cell. It is

obvious that the transfer function of the converter is modified by the output impedance

of the fuel cell. Moreover, it can be shown that by connecting the fuel cell to the DC-DC

converter all the transfer functions are modified including the control-to-output and the

line-to-output, and the converter output impedance. In order to minimize the effect in the

dynamics of the converter it has been shown [23] that the following impedance

inequalities have to be met.

Zo << Z N (13)

Zo << Z D (14)

Similarly the converter output impedance of the converter is not affected if

Z o << Z e (15)

Z o << Z D (16)

where Ze is the converter input impedance when its output is shorted. Due to the high

output voltage of the fuel cell the converter of choice for this kind of applications is a

buck converter. The small signal model for a buck converter is shown in Figure 28a. If
 60

the fuel cell equivalent circuit model is added to the circuit the small signal equivalent

shown in Figure 28b is obtained. From Figure 28b the converter transfer function when

the supply is an ideal voltage source Gvd(s), and input impedances of the system, ZN(s)

and ZD(s) are given by:

D ⋅Vo
G vd ( s ) = (17)
L
1 + s + s 2 LC
R

R (18)
Z N (s) = −
D2

L
1+ s + s 2 LC
R R (19)
Z D (s) = 2
D 1 + sRC

where Vo is nominal output voltage, D is the converter duty cycle, L and C are the

inductor and capacitor of the converter, and R is a load resistance.

Figure 28. Small signal model of a) buck converter b) when fuel cell is connected

From the fuel cell equivalent circuit discussed in 2.2 its output impedance is

given by (20).
 61

s 2 ( Rm R p1R p 2C1C2 ) + s( Rm ( R p1C1 + R p 2C2 ) + R p1 R p 2 ( C1 + C2 )) + Rm + R p1 + R p 2 (20)

Zo =
s 2 ( R p1R p 2C1C2 ) + s( R p1C1 + R p 2C2 ) + 1

By plotting the magnitudes of the converter input impedances and fuel cell output

impedance (18)-(20) for the fuel cell parameters shown in Table IV and for a 350 W

buck converter designed to operate in continuous conduction with a 20 mH inductance

and 4400 mF output capacitance, the graph in Figure 29 is obtained.

Figure 29. Impedances for fuel cell buck converter system

It can be seen from Figure 29 that the magnitudes of the converter input

impedance and the fuel cell output impedance are of comparable magnitudes. From (13)

in order to minimize the effect of the fuel cell on the dynamics of the system the

impedance inequalities (13)-(14) have to be met. Normally the “much greater than”

condition (>>) can be considered to be true if there exist at least 6dB of difference
 62

between the magnitude of the converter and fuel cell impedances. As can be seen from

Figure 29 the inequalities may not be satisfied for low frequencies and at the resonant

frequency of the buck inductor and output capacitor. Therefore it is important to verify

the stability of the system as part of the system designing. At low frequencies the

inequalities (13)-(14) are met as long as the DC-DC converter input power is less or

equal to the rated power of the fuel cell. On the other hand to meet the design criteria at

the resonant frequency of the input impedance of the buck converter either the converter

or the fuel cell impedances have to be modified.

A method of modifying the output impedance of the fuel cell is by connecting a

supercapacitor in parallel to form a hybrid source. Small signal equivalent model of the

portable system powered by hybrid source is formed by combining the equivalent model

of the fuel cell and equivalent model of the supercapacitor derived in Section 2.3, and is

shown in Figure 30. The effect of the parallel capacitor is displacement of the output

impedance of the fuel cell to the left as shown in Figure 31, which increases the distance

between the output impedance of the fuel cell and the input impedance of the buck

converter. This helps satisfying the impedance inequalities. The modified output

impedance of the hybrid source system Zo_HS can be calculated by solving ladder R-C

form:
 63

1
Z o _ sc = sL sc + R1 +
1
sC 1 +
1
R2 +
1
sC 2 +
1 (21)
R3 +
1
sC 3 +
1
R4 +
sC 4

Z o _ hybrid _ source = Z o _ sc // Z o _ fc (22)

where C1-C4, R1-R4 and Lsc are parameters of the supercapacitor and Zo is output

impedance of the fuel cell (20).

Figure 30. Small signal representation of fuel cell and supercapacitor powered system

Figure 31 shows the fuel cell output impedance for the full load condition (20),

and DC-DC input impedance frequency responses for five BCAP0140 supercapacitors

connected in series in order to match fuel cell operating voltage range. Supercapacitors

charge state is calculated assuming that the nominal fuel cell voltage (full load

condition) is divided equally between the supercapacitors, and the parameters are given

in Table V . As can be observed from this figure the capacitance needed to modify the

output impedance of the fuel cell in order to satisfy (13)-(16) is relatively small. In
 64

general the amount of capacitance calculated to compensate for the voltage drop during

the purging period is sufficient to ensure that the impedance inequalities are met.

3.7 Conclusions

This chapter started out with description of the block diagram of the proposed

UPS system topology. A design example has been shown which gives the specifications

of the proposed UPS system along with detailed specification of the Ballard Nexa fuel

cell. A complete design example illustrating the amount of hydrogen storage required for

1 hour power outage and sizing of supercapacitors for transient load demand has been

presented for a 200 W/350 VA UPS. A method to size the supercapacitor module was

incorporated to overcome the load transients such as instantaneous power fluctuations,

Figure 31. Effect of forming hybrid source

 65

slow dynamics of the fuel preprocessor and overload conditions. It was shown that the

supercapacitor values calculated for overload conditions were sufficient to enhance

stability and improve dynamic response of the fuel cell. The design of the buck converter

used has been explained hence arriving at the output inductor and capacitor values. In

addition, the necessity of the supercapacitor charging circuit and its topology has bee

depicted. A mathematical approach to analyze the interactions between the internal

impedance of the fuel cell and the dc-dc converter closed loop control to verify steady

state and transient stability has been presented. Design inequalities have been reviewed

to better understand the interaction between the DC-DC converter and fuel cell and, as

well, potential instability conditions.

 66

CHAPTER IV

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

4.1 Introduction

This chapter compares the various experimental results that were obtained from

battery based UPS system and the proposed system. Furthermore, the transient and

steady state responses when having just the fuel cell as the power source and while

having the hybrid power source (fuel cell and supercapacitor in parallel) have been

shown.

4.2 Experimental results for proposed UPS system

4.2.1 Transient response comparison of fuel cell and hybrid power source

It has been discussed in Section 2.3 that the supercapacitor’s capacitance

increases as a function of the voltage applied across it and its internal resistance

decreases as a function of the voltage. This implies that when the voltage is higher, the

energy stored in the supercapacitor is higher than that stored at lesser voltage levels.

Also, it implies that the charge/discharge cycles will incur more losses at lower voltage

levels than at higher voltage levels. The increased energy storage capacity at higher

voltage level is advantageous when connected in parallel with the fuel cell during

transient response. This is because, at lighter loads (lesser power demand) the voltage is

higher and hence the energy stored in the supercapacitor is higher. When a step load

change is applied from lighter load to a higher load, there is more energy available to

supply during the step load change.

 67

32 a) 32 b)

32 c) 32 d)
Figure 32. Transient behavior of fuel cell and hybrid (fuel cell in parallel with supercapacitor)
power sources for step change in load between 20 W and 200 W a) 20 W to 200 W with fuel cell
power source; b) 200 W to 20 W with hybrid power source; c) 20 W to 200 W with hybrid power
source; d) 200 W to 20 W with hybrid power source

Tests were performed to compare energy storage capability of the supercapacitor

at different voltage levels. Hence, step load change between 20W (light load) and 200W

(full load) was applied with fuel cell alone as the power source and with hybrid power

source (supercapacitor connected in parallel with the fuel cell) and the response times

were measured. This gave higher response times for hybrid source when compared to the

fuel cell alone as the source. Similar results were seen for step change between 100 W

and 200 W. These results have been shown in Figure 32, Figure 33 and Table X.
 68

33 a) 33 b)

33 c) 33 d)
Figure 33. Transient behavior of fuel cell and hybrid (fuel cell in parallel with supercapacitor)
power sources for step change in load between 100 W and 200 W a) 100 W to 200 W with fuel cell
power source; b) 200 W to 100 W with hybrid power source; c) 100 W to 200 W with hybrid power
source; d) 200 W to 100 W with hybrid power source

From the result obtained in Section 2.3, it is seen that the energy stored at 20 W

is 1.198 times higher than that stored at 200 W while the ratio of energy stored at 100 W

to 200 W is 1.081 only. Hence, the transition from 100 W to 200 W is seen to take a

longer time compared to the transition form 20 W to 200 W.

 69

Table X Response times for step load changes for fuel cell and hybrid power source

Power Source
Fuel cell alone as power source Hybrid power source
Step change
20 W to 200 W 388 ms 23.1 s
200 W to 20 W 384 ms 23 s
100 W to 200 W 394 ms 25 s
200 W to 100 W 384 ms 23 s

4.2.2 Fuel consumption

The Ballard Nexa Fuel Cell is monitored using the Nexamon software which

monitors various parameters of the fuel cell such as it stack power, current and voltage,

fuel cell temperature, air pressure, air flow, fuel consumption etc. The fuel consumption

data was collected from this software to compare the fuel consumed when stand alone

fuel cell is used power source and when hybrid power source is used. From the results

(Figure 34), it can be seen that hybrid source utilizes lesser fuel as against fuel cell

power source. The test was performed only for 10 minutes and hence the fuel saved was

only around 0.2 liters. It is expected that when the UPS is run for one hour, more than 5

liters of fuel can be saved. Figure 34 shows fuel consumption data for half load (100 W)

and full load (200 W).

4.2.3 Temperature rise

The UPS system was run with only the fuel cell as the source as well with the

hybrid source. Temperature rise for both the cases were compared for half load (100 W)

and full load (200 W) conditions. It was noticed that there was slightly smaller
 70

34 a)

34 b)
Figure 34. Fuel consumption of a) 100 W load and b) 200 W load

35 a)

35 b)
Figure 35. Temperature rise curve for a) 100 W load and b) 200 W load
 71

temperature rise when the hybrid power source was used. This test was done only for 10

minutes and has been shown in Figure 35. It is expected that even when the prolonged

for few hours, the difference in temperature rise will not be much.

4.2.4 Performance of battery based and the proposed UPS systems

36 a) 36 b)

36 c) 36 d)
Figure 36. Transfer time for a) battery based UPS system with 20W load b) battery based UPS
system with 100 W load c) proposed UPS system with 20 W load and d) proposed UPS system with
100 W load

The performance of the proposed UPS system is important and it must at least

meet that of the battery based UPS system. One the important parameter is the transfer
 72

time from the utility power to the back-up power. This comparison was done and the

results are shown in Figure 36. It can be seen from the results that the transfer for both

battery based UPS system and the proposed UPS system are almost the same. The UPS

mainly being for residential applications (like computers), less than 8 ms transfer time is

lesser than the ride through time for the SMPS of a computer (10-20 ms).

The primary use of the proposed UPS system being for residential, mainly for

computer back up, it must be ensured that there’s no flickering of the monitor during the

transfer from utility to back-up power source. This was also experimented on and it was

observed that there was no flickering of the monitor when the source switched from the

utility to the hybrid power source.

Figure 37. CBEMA - ITIC curve showing the region of operation of the proposed UPS system
 73

Another important result from these tests is that the region of protection of the

proposed UPS system when supercapacitor bank is used as the backup power source has

been increased as shown in Figure 37. This ensures that quality power is supplied to the

load at all times. Also, this region of operation can be further reduced to ±10% of the

rms voltage throughout the time of operation if a On-line UPS was used instead of the

Stand-by UPS (which has been used here).

4.3 Conclusions

This chapter focuses on experimental verification of the proposed UPS system

and verification of its performance. The chapter starts out with the verification of the non

linear model of the supercapacitor by applying step load changes and measuring the

response times. It was proven that the capacitor energy storage capacity varies as a

function of the voltage and hence proves to be advantageous during transients. Further,

the advantage of having a hybrid source (supercapacitor in parallel with fuel cell) over

just a stand alone fuel cell source was shown through fuel consumption data and

temperature rise data. Finally, the transfer times for the proposed UPS system and the

battery based UPS system were measured and were found to be satisfactory. Overall, the

proposed system was found to satisfy the required performance specifications.

 74

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS

The increasing dependence on electric power and the demand for not just

continuous power supply also for quality power requires a power conditioner system.

While aiming towards a reliable and quality backup system, another major factor to be

considered is achieving this while remaining environmentally friendly; this cannot be

realized with batteries and engine generators. Among various viable technologies the

fuel cells have emerged as one of the most promising sources for both portable and

stationary applications.

In this thesis, a new battery less UPS system configuration powered by fuel cell

is discussed. The proposed topology utilizes a standard offline UPS module and the

battery is replaced by a supercapacitor. The system operation is such that the

supercapacitor bank is sized to support startup and load transients and steady state power

is supplied by the fuel cell. Further, the fuel cell runs continuously to supply 10% power

in steady state. In case of power outage, it is shown that the startup time for fuel cell is

reduced and the supercapacitor bank supplies power till the fuel cell ramps up from

supplying 10% load to 100% load. A detailed design example is presented for a

200W/350VA 1-phase UPS system to meet the requirements of a critical load. The

equivalent circuit and hence the terminal behavior of the fuel cell and the supercapacitor

are considered in the analysis and design of the system for a stable operation over a wide
 75

range. Experimental results along with stability analysis and efficiency calculations

using a prototype is also shown for performance verification.

In this chapter, the test setup for fuel cell impedance modeling has been

explained. Further, the equivalent circuit model for the fuel cell has been derived from

the results obtained from the impedance model. Also, the modeling of supercapacitor has

bee shown in detail. The Nyquist plots have been plotted from which the proposed

equivalent model parameters are extracted. The variation of the supercapacitor

capacitance and internal resistance with respect to voltage has been shown. Once the

impedance modeling of the supercapacitor bank and fuel cell stack are done, the effect of

interfacing them with the power converter circuits and the entire system can be analyzed

using the Middlebrook’s extra element theorem.

Chapter III started out with description of the block diagram of the proposed UPS

system topology. A design example has been shown which gives the specifications of

the proposed UPS system along with detailed specification of the Ballard Nexa fuel cell.

A complete design example illustrating the amount of hydrogen storage required for 1

hour power outage and sizing of supercapacitors for transient load demand has been

presented for a 200W/350 VA UPS. A method to size the supercapacitor module was

incorporated to overcome the load transients such as instantaneous power fluctuations,

slow dynamics of the fuel preprocessor and overload conditions. It was shown that the

supercapacitor values calculated for overload conditions were sufficient to enhance

stability and improve dynamic response of the fuel cell. The design of the buck converter

used has been explained hence arriving at the output inductor and capacitor values. In
 76

addition, the necessity of the supercapacitor charging circuit and its topology has bee

depicted. A mathematical approach to analyze the interactions between the internal

impedance of the fuel cell and the dc-dc converter closed loop control to verify steady

state and transient stability has been presented. Design inequalities have been reviewed

to better understand the interaction between the DC-DC converter and fuel cell and, as

well, potential instability conditions.

Finally, Chapter V focuses on experimental verification of the proposed UPS

system and verification of its performance. The chapter starts out with the verification of

the non linear model of the supercapacitor by applying step load changes and measuring

the response times. It was proven that the capacitor energy storage capacity varies as a

function of the voltage and hence proves to be advantageous during transients. Further,

the advantage of having a hybrid source (supercapacitor in parallel with fuel cell) over

just a stand alone fuel cell source was shown through fuel consumption data and

temperature rise data. Finally, the transfer times for the proposed UPS system and the

battery based UPS system were measured and were found to be satisfactory. Overall, the

proposed system was found to satisfy the required performance specifications.

 77

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 81

VITA

Mirunalini Venkatagiri Chellappan received her Bachelors of Engineering degree

in 2006 from College of Engineering, Guindy, Anna University, Chennai, India in

Electrical and Electronics Engineering. She joined her Masters of Science degree in

Electrical Engineering at Texas A&M University, specializing in Power Electronics, in

August 2006 and graduated in August 2008.

Her interests include power electronics especially UPS systems, converters for

fuel cells, solar cells and energy storage devices.

She can be reached at vcmirunalini@gmail.com or vcm@numericups.com or

through Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Texas A&M University,

College Station, Texas 77840, mail stop 77843-3128.

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