Aerospace Dimensions

INTRODUCTION
TO FLIGHT

1
MODULE

Civil Air Patrol

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama
 Aerospace Dimensions
INTRODUCTION TO FLIGHT

1
MODULE

WRITTEN BY
DR. BEN MILLSPAUGH

DESIGN
BARB PRIBULICK

COVER PHOTO
WALT BROWN, ALBUQUERQUE NM

ILLUSTRATIONS
PEGGY GREENLEE

EDITING
BOB BROOKS
SUSAN MALLETT
DR. JEFF MONTGOMERY
E. J. SMITH

NATIONAL ACADEMIC STANDARD ALIGNMENT

JUDY STONE

PUBLISHED BY
NATIONAL HEADQUARTERS
CIVIL AIR PATROL
AEROSPACE EDUCATION DEPUTY DIRECTORATE
MAXWELL AFB, ALABAMA 36112

SECOND EDITION
SEPTEMBER 2010
 INTRODUCTION
The Aerospace Dimensions module, Introduction to Flight, is the first of six modules, which
combined, make up Phases I and II of Civil Air Patrol's Aerospace Education Program for cadets.
Each module is meant to stand entirely on its own, so that each can be taught in any order. This en-
ables new cadets coming into the program to study the same module, at the same time, with the other
cadets. This builds a cohesiveness and cooperation among the cadets and encourages active group
participation. This module is also appropriate for middle school students and can be used by teachers
to supplement STEM-related subjects.
Inquiry-based activities were included to enhance the text and provide concept applicability. The
activities were designed as group activities, but can be done individually, if desired. The activities
for this module are located at the end of each chapter.

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CONTENTS
Introduction .............................................................................................ii

Contents...................................................................................................iii

National Academic Standard Alignment ..............................................iv

Chapter 1. Flight ......................................................................................1

Chapter 2. To Fly By the Lifting Power of Rising Air ........................31

Chapter 3. Balloons - They Create Their Own Thermals ..................38

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National Academic Standard Alignment

iv
Learning Outcomes
1
- Describe the relationship between Bernoulli’s Principle and Newton’s Laws of Motion and how
they were used to develop a machine that could fly.
- Describe the coefficient of lift and the parameters involved.
- Identify the parts of an airplane and an airfoil.
- Describe the four forces affecting an airplane in flight.
- Define the three axes, movement around those axes, and the control surfaces that create the motion.

Important Terms
aero – pertaining to air
aerodynamics – relating to the forces of air in motion
aeronautics – the science of flight within the atmosphere
aerospace – a combination of aeronautics and space
air – a mixture of gases that contains approximately 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% other gases
aircraft – any machine that is capable of flying through the air; included are ultralights, airplanes,
gliders, balloons, helicopters, hangliders, and parasails
airplane – an aircraft that is kept aloft by the aerodynamic forces upon its wings and is thrust for-
ward by a means of propulsion
airfoil – a component, such as a wing, that is specifically designed to produce lift, thrust, or direc-
tional stability
airport – a place on either land or water where aircraft can land and take off for flight
altitude – height above sea level or ground level expressed in units
aviation – the art, science, and technology of flight within the atmosphere
aviator – a person who operates an aircraft in flight
camber – the curved part of an airfoil from its leading to trailing edge
chord – a line drawn through an airfoil from its leading to trailing edge
downwash – the downward movement of air behind a wing in flight
drag – a force which slows the forward movement of an aircraft in flight
dynamic – forces in motion
gravity – the natural force pulling everything to Earth
leading edge – the front part of a wing or airfoil
lift – the upward force that opposes gravity and supports the weight of an aircraft
relative wind – the flow of air which moves opposite the flight path of an airplane
thrust – the force which moves an aircraft forward in flight
upwash – the upward movement of air ahead of the wing in flight
vortex – a spinning column of air that is created behind the wingtip as a result of air moving from an
area of high pressure on the bottom to an area of low pressure on top
wind – air in motion

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 The labeled parts of the airplane will be useful in this chapter.

GODS, ANGELS, PRISONERS, AND BALLOONS

Pure mechanical flight involves using some kind of force to lift a machine upward away from
the Earth, thus opposing gravity. A bird is a “living machine” that gets lift by flapping its wings.
Once airborne, a glider is lifted by rising column of air, known as thermals. A balloon is lifted by
a large bubble of warm air. In flight, an airplane is lifted by the dynamic energy forces of the air
upon its wings. But, how did it all begin?
From the beginning of recorded time, there have been myths and legends about flying gods, an-
gels, and other supernatural beings. One of the earliest recorded accounts of manned flight is an
ancient Greek myth that tells of a father and son who were imprisoned on the island of Crete.
They decided that the only way to escape the prison was to fly. Secretly, they collected feathers
from sea birds and wax from bees to make wings
for their arms. When the time came, the father,
Daedalus, and his son, Icarus, quietly melted the
wax onto their arms and mounted the bird feathers
to make wings. When the wax was cool, they
started flapping their wings and took off over the
Aegean Sea in hopes of reaching freedom.
Daedalus warned his son not to fly too high or
the Sun would melt the wax on his arms. Icarus
was having too much fun and disregarded his fa-
ther’s warning, flying closer and closer to the Sun.
The heat from the Sun eventually melted the wax

2
on the wings of Icarus, and he plunged to his death in the sea.
Around 1299 A.D., it was written that the great explorer,
Marco Polo, saw Chinese sailors attached to kites being used
as military observers. This could be considered the first
“manned aircraft.”
Historians agree, however, that the first true powered flight
with humans on board was in a hot air balloon and the event
occurred in France during the Eighteenth Century. Brothers,
Joseph and Etienne Montgolfier, created a manned hot air bal-
loon. On November 21, 1783, pilots Pilatre d’Rozier and Fran-
cois d’Arlandes made a historic 25-minute flight over Paris . . .
But, let’s start from the very beginning . . .

Then and Now

Balloons were the first known powered Gliders were the first aircraft that
aircraft with humans on board. actually had directional control.
Experimental Aircraft Association (EAA)

Airplanes evolved around power Jet engines provide high speed and great reliability. Although
and propellers. (EAA) now retired, the Concorde, when in service, could carry passen-
gers across the Atlantic Ocean at twice the speed of sound. (EAA)

3
 Early man studied birds, watched them fly,
and even gave names to their parts … but
never quite figured out how they flew.

NATURE’S FLYING MACHINE

In the book The Fantasy and Mechanics of Flight, the author, Paul Fortin, explains how birds
fly: “There are two phases of bird flight: a ground phase and a lift phase. The ground phase allows
the bird to get started moving forward in order for the wings to provide the necessary lift. To be lifted
by its wings, a bird … must be moving forward fast enough to make air pass over its wings. A bird
can move forward by flapping its wings. Most of the flapping is done by the outer wing The flight
feathers work like the propeller of a plane; i.e., they push downward and backward, thereby driving
the air backward and moving the bird forward. Once the bird’s speed is adequate, lift over the wing
is generated by the same principle as the flow of air over the wing of an airplane.”
A bird’s wing is shaped somewhat like an airplane’s wing. The upper surface is curved more than
the under surface. Basically, the same principles of lift that apply to an airplane apply to a bird; how-
ever, the wings of a bird also act as its propeller. Once again, referring to the Fantasy and Mechanics
of Flight, the author says, “…Slow motion pictures of birds in flight show that the wings move down-
ward rapidly. The wing tips trace a figure eight as
they move though the air. The downward beat of
the wings moves the bird forward as the outer tips
push against the air. Wing feathers are arranged
much like shingles on a roof. They change posi-
tion when the bird is flapping. On the downbeat
of the wing, the feathers are pressed together so
little air can pass through them. On the up stroke
the feathers open.” The down stroke of the feath-
ers provide a strong lifting force and the opening,
upward action provides a smooth energy-saving
return motion. You will soon learn that airplane
flight is based upon two laws and bird flight uti-
lizes these laws as well.
Like an airplane’s wing, there is a pressure dif-
ference between the upper and lower areas of a
bird’s wing. This creates a form of “Bernoullian

4
lift.” Also, when the bird changes its body
angle slightly upward to its flight path,
Newton’s Third Law of Motion takes effect
and this is an example of dynamic lift or
“Newtonian lift.” Like airplanes, birds
need to approach and land slowly. A bird
uses it tail feathers and its wing feathers to
steer, brake, and produce drag, as well as
lower speed lift. This greater lift, at a lower
speed, allows the bird to land without get-
ting hurt. The bird is a fascinating, natural flying machine and further study into its mechanism of
flight is encouraged.

TWO GREAT SCIENTISTS NEVER FLEW, BUT . . .

Although they never attempted to fly, Dutch-born Daniel Bernoulli and Englishman, Sir Isaac
Newton, are very important in the history of aerospace. The laws and principles they discovered laid
the groundwork for the science of manned flight both in air (aviation) and in space. These laws
helped develope many aeronautic accomplishments using the science of aerodynamics.

Daniel Bernoulli
Not as well known as Isaac Newton, but certainly one who holds an honored place in the history
of aerospace science, is Daniel Bernoulli. His discovery of the relationship between pressure and flu-
ids in motion became the cornerstone of the theory of airfoil lift. He found that a fluid, like air in
motion, has a constant pressure. However, when that fluid is accelerated, the pressure drops. Using
this principle, wings are designed to make air flow go faster over the top. This, in turn, causes the
pressure to drop and the wing moves upward, against gravity.

Bernoulli found that the pressure of a fluid, like air, drops

when it is accelerated. An example of this can be shown
when air passes through a tube that has a restriction.
This tube, known as a venturi tube, causes the air to ac-
celerate when it passes through the middle. The pressure
at the restriction drops. Notice the two gauges — the ve-
locity gauge shows an increase and the pressure gauge
shows a decrease. This is the secret of lift for flight that Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782) Courtesy of
eluded mankind for centuries. the Royal Society, London, England

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SIR ISAAC NEWTON
Isaac Newton received the highest honor when he was “knighted” for his work in science. That is
why we call him “Sir” Isaac Newton today. He not only gave
the world a mathematical explanation of gravity, he figured out
how forces and motion are related to matter. He gave the world
three laws that are still very much in use to this day:

1. An object at rest will remain at rest unless acted upon by

an unbalanced, outside force.
2. A force acting upon a body causes it to accelerate in the
direction of the force. Acceleration is directly
proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the
mass of the body being accelerated.
3. For every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction.

Newton’s Third Law is used to explain how an aircraft is

lifted against the force of gravity. An example of this can be
shown by sticking your hand out the window of a car traveling
at highway speeds. Pointing your fingers forward (toward the di-
rection the car is going) with your hand tilted slightly upward,
your hand should rise. The oncoming wind becomes the action
Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727)
and the upward movement of your hand is the reaction. An air-
Courtesy of the Royal Society,
plane’s wing acts like your hand. When it is angled slightly up- London, England
ward, it, too, receives some of its lift from the oncoming air. The
airflow is the action and the reaction provides lift.

CAP Cessna 172 Skyhawk ready for lift-off – Photo courtesy of CAP member Alex McMahon

6
A NEW LOOK AT LIFT
For years, there has been a
widely accepted explanation on
how a wing creates lift and makes
the airplane take flight. Many text-
books, including ground school
manuals for pilot training, ex-
plained the theory of lift like this:
The upper surface of an airplane’s
wing (airfoil) is designed with a
greater curvature or camber on the
topside. This curved line causes
the oncoming air to flow much
faster over the upper surface.
Using Bernoulli’s Law for proof, it
There is an on-going argument concerning the role of Newton’s
was stated: as the airflow speeds
Laws of Motion and the pressure differential theory of Daniel
up, the pressure drops, and it cre- Bernoulli. This illustration, by cartoonist, Robrucha, is presented
ates a lower pressure as it passes here with permission from the artist and KITPLANES Magazine.
over the top of the wing. With a
lower pressure above, there has to be a higher pressure on the underside. Subsequently, the wing has
nowhere to go but upward toward the lower pressure.
It was also taught that when the molecules of oncoming air split at the front of wing, they traveled
over and under this airfoil and met at the back (trailing edge) of the wing at exactly the same time.
This is known as the theory of equal transit time. Keep this in mind as it will be discussed later.
Newton’s Third Law was also used in the explanation of how an airplane is lifted against the
force of gravity. A classic example is this: When the airplane’s wing is angled slightly upward, it re-
ceives some of its lift from the oncoming air. This example was explained in the text next to New-
ton’s picture on page 6.
Both Newton’s and Bernoulli’s scientific laws have been used to explain how a wing lifts. These
explanations were basically simple and something any elementary science book could handle. There
was only one thing wrong. An explanation where Bernoulli’s Law creates the lift, based on the shape
of the airfoil, is not quite right. And— any explanation where Newton’s Laws create most of the lift is
also not quite right. The actual process of creating lift is very complicated. In the world of aerody-
namic science, there is an ongoing argument about how lift really occurs!
Most every textbook cor-
rectly shows all of the parts
of a wing. These include the
leading edge, upper camber,
lower camber, trailing edge,
and chord. The actual shape
of a wing (airfoil) has a beau-
tiful, graceful form known as
a tear-drop. Most airfoil de-
signs are relatively flatter on
the bottom.

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THE COMPONENTS OF A STANDARD AIRFOIL
Even when the air is calm around the airport,
as an airplane moves forward on takeoff, it cre-
ates a “wind” that goes in the opposite direction.
This air-in-motion is called the relative wind. At
the beginning of this whole lifting process a lot
of power is needed. This is provided by the pro-
peller or a jet engine.
As air flows toward the wing, it splits at the
leading edge and flows backward to join the un-
derside air. Most traditional textbooks will say
that the upper and lower air molecules will meet
at the trailing edge at
precisely the same mo-
ment. This is wrong.
This explanation is
based on the theory of
equal transit time. In re-
ality, the air traveling
over the upper surface
of the wing goes much
faster and much farther
than the underside air-
flow. Subsequently, the
air flowing over the top
goes beyond and down-
This illustration shows how the upper airstream goes beyond and ward. This is called
downward compared to the airflow below the wing. Pick the two points downwash and creates
just ahead of the leading edge and follow them backward.
a huge amount of dy-
namic force.

THE WING CREATES A HUGE AMOUNT OF

DOWN FORCE ON THE SURROUNDING AIR
When you look at a wing in cross-section, you will see the same tear-drop shape that was men-
tioned before. If you study it for a moment and imagine the air flowing around the wing during
flight, you can readily see that the oncoming molecules of air at one point have to split. The upper
flow has to bend upward and the lower flow bends to pass under the wing as shown in the diagram
above.
Something else happens — the air flow tends to hug the wing. Air is a fluid like water and the
flow tends to stick to the wing. As shown, on the following page, take a spoon and hold it under a
flow of water from a faucet. Turn the bottom side of the spoon to the water flow and notice how the
water hugs the spoon and then when it “exits” the tip of the spoon, it bends toward the center. This is
called the Coanda effect.
In the drawing, above, that shows the streamlines of airflow around the wing, look at the mole-
cules that are about to split. Now, follow the upper and lower molecules comparing both with your

8
eyes, and it will soon occur to you that the top
flow is really “outrunning” the lower flow. Be-
cause of the higher speed of the top flow, and sub-
sequent “back and down” action, the air passes the
trailing edge wing and starts downward. This is
where the Coanda effect comes into play. This
“downwash” creates a huge amount of force and
the subsequent reaction is what lifts the aircraft
upward. The dynamic downwash force presses
down so hard on the air, it causes the wing to lift.
This enormous energy can be seen in the picture,
below, of a Cessna Citation flying over a fog
bank. The aircraft has actually pushed hard
against the surrounding air and the reaction of the
air is to lift the airplane. A vortex is visible behind
each wingtip. This demonstrates the Coanda effect. The blue line
is the direction the water would flow normally.
The dynamics of total lift are complicated, and
When the spoon is inserted into the flow, the water
it is almost impossible to make it “elementary “sticks” to the spoon and bends toward the tip.
simple” for this module. If you want to really get
into the math and theoretical science of how lift occurs check out the following Internet sites, which
are recommended for further aerodynamic study: www.grc.nasa.gov.www/k-12/airplane/down
wash.html and http://adamone.rechomepage.com/index4.htm.
An article entitled “A Physical Description of Flight; Revisited”© by David Anderson & Scott
Eberhardt can be “googled” on the internet and will give an excellent, in-depth coverage of flight
science.

This picture dramatically shows airplane down- This is the Civil Air Patrol Gippsland GA-8. When you
wash. The Cessna Citation has just flown above look at this photograph, imagine what the plane is
a fog bank shown in the background. The down- doing to the surrounding air. As the air passing over
wash from the wing has pushed a trough into the wing speeds up, it passes behind the wing and cre-
the cloud formation. The swirling flow from ates a downwash. This puts a force against ALL of the
wingtip vortices is also evident. The picture was air surrounding the wing … and the airplane flies.
taken by Paul Bowens and the image was pro-
vided courtesy of Cessna Airplane Company.

9
THE IMPORTANCE OF ANGLE OF ATTACK
When a pilot, or aviator, pulls
back on the control stick, or yoke,
the nose goes upward. In aeronauti-
cal terminology, it goes like this:
when the pilot pulls back on the
stick, the elevator goes upward and
this causes the airplane to rotate
around the lateral axis (the one that
goes through the airplane wingtip to
wingtip). The nose pitches upward
and this subsequently causes the
wing to also rotate around the lateral
axis. The pilot of this Canadair CRJ-700 has increased the angle of
attack prior to takeoff. Angle of attack is also increased just
It is easy to see that this upward
before landing to slow the aircraft and provide an additional
movement of the leading edge causes amount of control at low speed. Image courtesy of Adam Wright,
the airflow coming toward the wing First Officer, Atlantic Southeast Airlines.
to make a much more dramatic “flow
change.” This also increases the dy-
namic forces against the underside of
the wing. As a result of the higher
“angle,” or “angle of attack,” a
greater downwash is created as the
flow exits the back of the wing.
Thus, it can be stated that an increase
in the angle of attack causes a sub-
stantial increase in the amount of lift
created.
This increase in angle of attack
explains how an airplane can fly up-
side down. Although the curvature of
the wing is greatest (now) on the bot-
tom of the wing, an increase in the The Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II has the ability to take off
angle of attack still creates the down- and land vertically (STOV/L), or use an increase in the angle of at-
tack in a conventional takeoff (CTOL). Image by Lockheed Martin.
wash and lift is maintained.
In everyday flying, angle of attack
is changed many times during the course of a flight. It all begins
at takeoff when a pilot has reached enough speed and then pulls
back on the stick (or yoke). This causes the nose to pitch upward.
This is shown in the images of the Canadair CRJ – 700 pictured.
The Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II Joint Strike Fighter
(JSF) is a transformational weapon system that provides advanced
survivability and lethality to a fighter-weapons platform.
This is the pilot’s helmet for a Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II. An
Australian Air Force pilot “models” this version. This helmet
is needed because the JSF does not have a traditional heads-up
display. Instead, the computerized symbology is displayed
directly onto the pilot’s visors, providing the pilot with cues
for flying, navigating, and fighting with the aircraft.

10
THE FOUR FORCES ACTING UPON AN AIRPLANE IN FLIGHT
There are four forces acting upon an airplane in flight. They are lift, gravity, thrust, and drag.
Each of these forces has an opposing force. The word “oppose” means to work against. Therefore,
lift opposes gravity and drag opposes thrust. We will expand on these terms for better understanding.

GRAVITY
(WEIGHT)
Lift = Gravity (Weight)
Thrust = Drag
Look at the diagram of the four forces, then imagine you can see them working on the Vixen airplane. (EAA)

The Two Natural Forces

• Drag - The best way to understand drag is to imagine walking waist deep in a swimming pool.
Now imagine what it’s like to walk faster. It is difficult because of the drag of the water on your
body. A similar resistance occurs when riding a bicycle against a strong head wind. Like water,
air creates drag. Drag is a natural force that is common throughout all of nature, and is espe-
cially evident in flight.
• Gravity - There is a natural force which pulls everything toward the center of the Earth. This is
the force of gravity, and, on Earth, we speak of that force as being one “G.”

The Two Artificial Forces

• Thrust - This is a force that pulls or pushes an airplane forward through the air, and it opposes
drag. In some airplanes, thrust is provided by a propeller; in others, it is provided by a jet en-
gine. This force is artificial because it takes a mechanical device, like an engine and propeller, to
generate it.
• Lift - This, also, is an artificial force because it requires a mechanical device to create the pres-
sure changes discussed in Bernoulli’s Law. Pressure differential creates lift. To put this into
practical terms, when an airplane is ready for takeoff, the pilot adds power and the machine
moves forward. The relative wind starts to flow under and over the wings. The wings ( a me-
chanical device) are being forced to move through air (a fluid).

11
THE THREE AXES
Imagine that you are an aeronautical engi-
neer and one of your jobs is to suspend an air-
plane from a cable so that it will hang
perfectly level in all directions. For the sake of
illustration, let’s say that you are going to do
this experiment in a large building area, like a
hangar or a gymnasium. Somewhere up high,
you would hook the cable to one of the ceiling
supports. The other end would be hooked to
the airplane at precisely the right point where
it would hang level. This cable line would be
known as its vertical axis (the red line).
Now, visualize a line that goes from The Three Axes of an Airplane
wingtip to wingtip and passes through the
center where the cable suspends the airplane. This side to side line is called the lateral axis (the pur-
ple line). Imagine yet another line that passes through the nose and ends at the tail. This line also
passes through the cable that is suspending the airplane. This nose to tail line is known as the longi-
tudinal axis (the green line).
If you hooked your cable at the point where all three of these “axes” come together, that point is
called the center of gravity (denoted by gold arrow). Refer to these axes, as we will continue to dis-
cuss them. (See associated Activity One at the end of the chapter.)

Airplanes Can Only Move In Three Directions

In flight, an airplane can only move in three
directions; i.e., nose right/nose left, roll
right/roll, and left nose up/nose down. An ex-
ample: if you walked out to the end of the
wing of this suspended airplane and pushed up
or pulled down on its wingtip, it would rotate
around the longitudinal axis. Rotation around
this axis is called roll. (See associated diagram
on page 14.) If you went back to the tail and
moved it up and down, the airplane would ro-
tate around its lateral axis, as shown in the il-
lustration to the right. This motion is called
pitch. If you moved the tail from side to side,
this would be a rotation around the vertical Rotation around the lateral axis is called pitch and
axis and is called yaw. (See associated diagram the elevator causes this motion. When the
on next page.) Thus, flight is said to be three elevator moves up, the nose pitches up. When
dimensional. So, how does a pilot get the air- the elevator moves down, the nose pitches down.

plane to move in these three dimensions? It’s

done by manipulating the moving parts on the plane with the inside control stick (yoke) and the rud-
der pedals. By using the dynamic forces of the air as they rush over the control surfaces of the air-
plane, the airplane flies. (Refer to labeled airplane parts on page 2, and the descriptions of these parts,
as follow on the next page.)

12
The Elevator Is Hinged To The
Horizontal Stabilizer
The horizontal stabilizer is fixed and
doesn’t move. It gives the airplane stability.
The elevator is attached to the horizontal sta-
bilizer and moves up and down. Movement of
the elevator pitches the nose up or down in a
rotation around the lateral axis.
Elevator assembly

The Stabilator
On some aircraft, the horizontal stabilizer
and the elevator are one. Engineers call this a
“stabilator,” and it works by changing the
angle of attack. The stabilator is a very effec-
tive method of controlling pitch. When the
pilot pulls back on the control yoke (or stick),
the stabilator’s leading edge goes down. This
creates a “negative” angle of attack and the
low pressure increases on the bottom. When Stabilator assembly
the stabilator is moved, it causes a rotation
around the lateral axis and the nose is pitched
up or down.

Nose Right, Nose Left

When the pilot wants the nose to go left or
right, he/she has to move the rudder pedals
located on the floor of the cockpit. When the
right rudder pedal is pushed forward, this
moves the rudder to the right. The dynamic
force of the air causes the tail of the airplane Vertical stabilizer and rudder assembly
to move left and the nose to go to the right.
This movement is around the vertical axis.
The nose right, nose left motion is called yaw.

Vertical Axis

Rudder pedals used to created vertical stabilizer

movement in the rudders create yaw rotation.

13
Wingtip Up, Wingtip Down (to roll)
If a pilot wants the wings to
move up or down, he/she rotates
the control yoke to the right or left.
Out on the ends of the wings are
located control “surfaces” called
ailerons. When one aileron moves
downward, the other one, on the
opposite wing, moves upward and
vice versa. The airplane then ro-
tates around the longitudinal axis.
This movement around the longitu-
dinal axis is known as roll. (to roll)

Flaps And What Are They Used For

When a control surface is moved, especially
on a wing, some people will say that the pilot is
“moving the flaps.” In fact, many uninformed
people think that any moveable control surface
on an airplane is called a “flap.” So what are the
real flaps and what do they do?
In the photograph of the Fowler Flaps,
below, notice that the trailing edge of the wing
is down. It looks somewhat like the whole
backside of the wing has dropped. This is
The Fowler Flaps on a Cessna Skyhawk
somewhat true — the inboard portion of this air-
plane's wing did go down. From an aerodynamic point
of view, study the photograph and visualize the upper
camber of the wing, starting at the leading edge and
going all the way back to the trailing edge. With the
flaps down, the curvature of the upper camber is dra-
matically increased and so is the wing area. The flaps
shown on this Cessna are known as Fowler Flaps.
When the flaps are down, it causes an increase in
Right aileron and flap of a Cessna
both the upper camber and wing area. This will sub-
stantially increase lift. So there you have the answer.
The flaps actually increase lift so that an airplane can fly slower and still maintain flight. Flaps are
especially useful in landing, where it is desirable to touch the ground at a minimum speed. Flaps are
also used during takeoff and this allows the pilot to decrease takeoff distance. And, finally, flaps in-
crease drag. They act like big "doors" that open into the airstream. During one of your orientation
flights, ask the pilot to demonstrate the use of flaps. Note the airspeed when the flaps come down.
You will also feel a change in the airplane and hear the air rumble around the flaps. The airplane will
rise (increase lift) and the wind will buffet (drag) the flaps. They are very effective in what they do.
(See associated Activity Two at the end of the chapter.)

14
THE AERODYNAMICS OF A PROPELLER
When you examine a propeller closely, you soon discover that it is
shaped like a wing on each side of the center, or hub. The reason for this air-
foil shape is obvious, it is a wing. It is a wing designed to "lift" forward cre-
ating a force called thrust.
As the propeller rotates, its leading edge moves through the air and this
motion creates a relative wind. As this rotational relative wind moves
around the curved surface of the propeller blade, a low pressure is created.
This low pressure is a "forward lift," and given enough power, the entire air-
plane will move forward into this area of lower pressure.
The numbers on the propeller
photograph to the right are signifi-
cant points in the aerodynamics of a
propeller. (1) This is the hub. Bolts
go through this hub and fasten the
propeller to the engine. (2) Notice
that this part of the blade is thick
and narrow. Note also that the angle,
called the angle of incidence, is
quite high. If you can imagine this
propeller going round and round at a
certain speed, other than the hub,
this point will be the slowest. Low Starting at the hub, you can see how
the blade changes in angle, chord, and
pressure, or lift, is created by a high
area on this restored Piper Cub. Just
angle of incidence and greatly like a wing, the rotating propeller
curved camber. (3) The blade has a harnesses the energy of the air and
The propeller blade
longer chord and greater area. The converts it to thrust.
angle of incidence has slightly de-
creased and, at this point, the speed
is much greater. (4) The angle of in-
cidence is considerably less than
near the hub. The chord is longer
and the speed is higher. (5) Out at
the tip, the speed is tremendous so
there is a smaller chord, smaller
angle of incidence, and a smaller
area. If you think in terms of the
four methods of increasing lift, the
shape of the propeller begins to Once the engineers figured out the right propeller to harness the
make sense. power of its engine, this WWII P-47M Thunderbolt became one of
the fastest fighters in the war.
In the history of one of America’s
most important World War II air-
craft, the P-47 Thunderbolt, it tells how engineers at Republic Aircraft had a difficult time getting the
right propeller for the huge Pratt & Whitney R2800 engine. Eventually they found the right combi-
nation and the “M” version of this aircraft reached almost 500 miles per hour.

15
UAV – UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLES
They look a bit strange,
and it becomes immedi-
ately apparent that no one
is at the controls when a
UAV passes by on takeoff.
These “UAVs,” stand for
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles.
In a combat zone, if the
enemy spots one, it is
probably already too late
to react. Pilots sitting in a
control center 7,000 miles
away know exactly who
the enemy is and where
they are. The pilot control-
ling the UAV only has to Two Predators are being launched from
acquire the target and de- Creech Air Force Base near Indian Springs, Nevada

stroy it. These incredible

machines have just come
into a position of high re-
gard by the U.S. military
and they are feared by our
enemies.
One of the centers for
UAV operation and control
is at Creech Air Force Base
in Indian Springs, Nevada.
For several years, the
UAVs were used mostly MQ-9, Reaper UAV
for reconnaissance (a pre-
liminary, or exploratory survey of an area to collect information), but as conflicts escalated, they
have taken on a combat role. Of these predators, one version is known as the Reaper MQ-9, and is
one of the most effective combat aircraft ever to go to war. CAP uses the “surrogate predator” for in-
creasingly important missions for non-combat reconnaissance missions. (CAP does not do surveil-
lance. Local authorites do surveillance, as described on the next page.)
In 2006, the USAF announced that it had a UAV capable of hunting and destroying enemy activ-
ity. It was a modification of an earler UAV series and was designed to carry as many as 14 Hellfire
anti-tank missiles. The MQ-9 UAV can carry bombs and precision-guided missiles to the battle zone.
The aircraft has a ceiling of 50,000 feet and a cruise speed of 260 knots. One of the most notable fea-
tures is its ability to “loiter” in the target area for as much as 14 hours.
In order to give the reader a better understanding of the UAV and its role in the U.S. Air Force
inventory, the following will focus on the role of the MQ-9 as it currently exists.

16
 The MQ-9 is a vari-
ant of the original UAV
used by the Air Force
MQ-9 Predator. It is
manufactured by the
General Atomics Aero-
nautical Systems and is
used as a high-altitude,
long range, long en-
durance combat air-
craft. The primary
mission is that of sur- With smoke from Lake Arrowhead, CA, fires in the background,
veillance (a close the NASA Ikhana UAV heads out on a wildfire imaging mission.
watch, or supervision,
of an area after reconnaissance, or “recognition” of something in the area).
The MQ-9 has a 950 horsepower (hp) turbopropeller engine. There are several terms used in this
new aerospace technology and they include: UAV - Unmanned Aerial Vehicle; UAS - Unmanned
Aerial System; and RPV - Remotely Piloted Vehicle. All of these terms are used in basically the
same context.
Although the MQ-9 can fly on pre-programmed flight plans by itself, it is constantly controlled by
flight crews located at Air Force installations known as GCS, or Ground Control Stations. By the end
of 2009, the U.S. Air Force had a total of 195 Predators and 28 Reapers in its inventory.
NASA has also been using a UAV in its continuing research efforts. One example, the Ikhana, has
been extensively used in combating wild fires in California. This demonstrated that UAV’s are ex-
tremely valuable in the private sector, as well as in military service. (See associated Activity Three at
the end of the chapter.)

THE BIG BIRD –

GLOBAL HAWK
Another UAV that has been
used in the combat arena is
the Global Hawk. The image
shown is a Grumman RQ-4 in
route to record intelligence,
surveillance, and reconnais-
sance data. Because of its
large coverage area, the re-
motely-piloted aircraft has be-
come a useful tool for
recording data and sending it
to warfighters on the ground.
The Global Hawk is built A ground control station crew performs post takeoff checks after
by Northrop Grumman and is launching an earlier Predator MQ-1 from Ballad Air Base in Iraq.
primarily used by the USAF USAF image by Master Sergeant Steve Horton

17
as a surveillance aircraft. It is equipped with Synthetic Aperture Radar that penetrates heavy weather,
including sand storms. It has the ability to survey over 40,000 square miles in a day. Specifications
include:

• Empty weight is 9,200 lbs

• Payload is 1,900 lbs for the RQ-4 and 3,000 lbs for the RQ-4B
• Maximum gross take-off weight is 25,600 lbs (the RQ-4B version weighs 32,250 lbs)
• Engine is a Rolls Royce North American AE3007H turbofan
• Loiter on station is 24 hours
• Loiter velocity is 343 knots TAS
• Maximum altitude is 65,000 ft
• Wingspan is 116.2 ft (RQ-4B - 130.9 ft)
• Length is 44.4 ft (RQ-4B - 47.6 ft)
• Height is 15.2 ft
• Length is 44.4 ft
• Wing area is 540 ft²
• Wing aspect ratio is 25:1

(See associated Activities Four, Five, and Six at the end of the chapter.)

The deadly-looking Global Hawk is on an Air Force

mission somewhere in the world. USAF photo.

18
Activity One -
The Soda Straw Three Axis Demonstrator
1
Purpose: This activity will demonstrate how the three axes of flight in an airplane works.

Materials: 3 soda straws and a hand-held, single-hole, paper punch

Procedures:
1. Punch 2 holes in the center of one of the straws. These holes should be near the center and per-
pendicular to each other.
2. Pull 1 soda straw through 1 of the holes. You now have two axes.
3. Insert the third soda straw into the remaining hole. What you now have is a three axis demon-
strator. Refer to top illustration on page 2, which displays labeled airplane parts. Now, imagine
that your three axis demonstrator is an “airplane.” If you hold one straw on each end, that’s
your “wings.” If you rotate the straw, you are pitching the demonstrator around the lateral axis.
If you grab the vertical straw and rotate it, you are “yawing” the demonstrator to the left and
right. And finally, if you grab the “nose” and “tail” ends of the straw, and rotate it, you are
“rolling” the demonstrator, such as tilting from side to side.
(Note: You can also attach your axis demonstrator to a balsa, paper, or other model airplane for
the procedures above.)

Summary: The three axes of flight in an airplane pass through the airplane’s center of gravity, which
is that point located at the center of the airplane’s total weight. The longitudinal axis (green straw in
diagram) extends lengthwise through the fuselage from the nose to the tail. Movement of the air-
plane around the longitudinal axis is known as roll and is controlled by movement of the ailerons.
The lateral axis (blue straw in diagram) extends crosswise from wingtip to wing tip. Movement of
the airplane around the lateral axis is known as pitch and is controlled by movement of the elevators.
The vertical axis (red straw in diagram) passes vertically through the center of gravity. Movement of
the airplane around the vertical axis is yaw and is controlled by movement of the rudder.

vertical axis

lateral
longitudinal axis
axis

The three-axis soda straw demonstrator was developed by Dee Ann Mooney,
Civil Air Patrol member and math teacher at Big Sky High School, Missoula, Montana.

19
Activity Two -
Folding, Flying, and Controlling the Flight of a Paper Airplane

Purpose: This activity teaches, 1. First, a sheet of standard

by modeling, about a delta wing printer paper is folded in half,
configuration airplane and the "hot dog style." Then it is folded
control surfaces of this paper back, as shown. The two upper
edges fold to the center.
airplane by using experimenta-
tion and the inquiry method.

Materials: a sheet of standard

printer paper and scissors 2. A portion of the outer edge is
folded to the center. Make sure
Procedures: Follow the in- the both sides are equally folded.
structions as outlined in the
diagrams

3. The wings are folded outward

and the two halves are held to-
gether either by a staple or tape.

4. Make small cuts, as shown, to manipulate the

“control surfaces” which will control direction of flight.

Small cuts on solid lines for elevons

(combination of elevators and ailerons)

Small cut for rudder

Fold on dashed lines to
make control surfaces

5. Fly your airplane to create the three directions of flight: nose up/nose down, nose right/nose
left, roll right/roll left. How do you accomplish this? Refer to the directions in chapter 1, found
on pages 12-14, to adjust movable control surfaces. Also, refer to further directions on pages
21-22. The questions at the end are suggestions on how to expand this activity.

Summary: The control surfaces of this paper airplane are the elevons (a combination of a conven-
tional elevator and ailerons) and the rudder (which causes the airplane to yaw left or right). When the
maneuvers are correctly performed, the conclusion can be reached that the paper airplane is similar
to a real airplane.

20
Components of a Paper Airplane
The paper airplane has components just like a real one. The wings of our activity model have a
“delta” shape; i.e., they come to a point at the nose like an arrowhead. At the back of the delta wing
you were asked to make two cuts and to become control surfaces known as “elevons.” This is a
combination of conventional elevators and ailerons. Since the elevator makes the airplane's nose go
up and down, both of the paper airplane's elevons in the up position will make the nose pitch up
when you throw it. If one elevon is down and the other is up, the actions of the ailerons are enacted
and the aircraft will spiral through the air when thrown. This motion is called roll.

Don't throw a sharp-nosed The paper airplane has a delta wing configuration.
paper airplane at anyone The famous Concorde had the same design.
(might want to fold and tap
the point inward for safety).

The Three Axes of a Paper Airplane

Now, let's mark the paper airplane to match a real one. A line drawn from nose to tail going
through the center is called the longitudinal axis. A line drawn from side to side passing through the
center is called the lateral axis. A line drawn down through the center from top to bottom is called
the vertical axis. All of these lines (axes) will pass through the exact center of the paper airplane;
this point is called the center of gravity. To find the center of gravity, get a piece of thread, some
household tape, and see if you can make it hang perfectly level in all directions.

21
Making It Roll
The first paper airplane flight maneuver is an easy one.
Simply put one elevon up and the other elevon down.
Throw the paper airplane and it should spiral through the
air rolling several times.

Making It Pitch
You can make the nose of the paper airplane pitch up
or down by adjusting the elevons. If you put both elevons
up to a 40 degree angle, it should fly forward, pitching
upward, and then stall. Once it stalls, the nose will pitch
downward and it will head for the floor. You can experi-
ment with various elevon settings so that the aircraft will
stall several times before hitting the floor. These multiple
stalls are called secondary stalls.
One of the more difficult maneuvers is to make the
paper airplane land gently. Try this experiment with various elevon settings. Put the elevons up
maybe 10 degrees and give it a toss. It may glide forward or roll slightly. If this happens, adjust each
elevon until it flies straight. Then fold the elevons a few more degrees and, eventually, your paper
airplane should glide in for a very smooth landing.
Make a “runway” on the floor using masking tape or a piece of cardboard. This runway should
be about 4 feet long and 1 foot wide. Stand about 20 feet from one end of the runway and try to
“land” your paper airplane on the surface. If you find this too easy, back away another 20 feet and
give it a try.

Be A Paper Airplane Test Engineer With These Suggested Activities

1 What is the length of your paper airplane in inches and centimeters?
2. What is its exact wingspan?
3. Can you determine the chord of a delta wing?
4. How much does your plane weigh in milligrams, grams, kilograms, and ounces?
5. Where is the exact center of gravity?
6. Measure the greatest distance it will fly in meters and feet.
7. At what carefully measured point in its flight does it stall?
8. Can you make it fly in a long, wide turn?
9. In competition with another person, “Calling Your Shot” is a fun activity.
a. Call for a spot landing.
b. Call a pitch and make the aircraft descend into a trash can.
c. Call a roll and make it fly through a hoop.
d. Call a stall to a spin.
10. Develop a computer program for the flight test of a paper airplane.

22
Activity Three -
MQ-1 Predator

Purpose: Build a Predator and observe how it flies.

Materials: foam board or meat trays, hot glue gun, spray glue, snap knife, pennies, and copy of
Predator cut outs (template) on the next page

Procedures:
1. Attach the page of cut outs with spray glue to the foam board or meat tray.
2. Cut out the designs.
3. Use the red-dashed lines that indicate where to put glue or hot glue used to bond together the
pieces of the aircraft.
4. Fly your airplane.
5. Experiment with different nose weights until the plane flies, as desired.

Notes: Foam works very well for making flying models. It is strong, very light weight, and inexpen-
sive. Styrofoam meat trays from the grocer work well, and are free! The following recommendations
work well for a group activity:
• It is recommended that you use a low-tack spray glue, such as 3M Spray Mount™ to bond the
template to the foam board or styrofoam meat tray.
• Use a hobby knife or a “snap knife” to cut out your foam pieces. (Adult supervision needed.)
• Hot glue guns have an adhesive that works very well on foam board for attachment of wings and
stabiliser elevators.
• There is also foam “glue” that is available in craft stores like Hobby Lobby™ and some hobby
shops. This works well, but takes longer to dry. You might ask for “Helmar” foam glue if you
need a brand name. (It also works well on cardstock, for other activites.)
• It is recommended that you build one complete side of the model first. Get it perfect and then at-
tach the opposite pieces for alignment.
• Foam flyers also need nose weight to better stabilize or balance the plane for better control.
Using hot glue, you can experiment with pennies, dimes, or gem clips until the desired stabiliza-
tion point is achieved.

Summary: The General Atomics Aeronautical Systems MQ-1 Predator is an unmanned aerial ve-
hicle (UAV) which the United States Air Force (USAF) describes as a MALE (medium-altitude,
long-endurance) UAV system. More information was discussed on page 17 to describe its purpose
in use. Learning to fly this model, while experimenting with nose weights and amount and direction
of thrust use to fly it, can aid in better understanding of the complexities of maintaining proper bal-
ance to achieve and maintain flight.

23
MQ-1 Predator Template
(Manufactored by General
Atomics Aeronautical Systems)

MQ-1 Predator

24
Activity Four -
Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk

Purpose: Build a Global Hawk and observe how it flies.

Materials: foam board or meat trays, hot glue gun, spray glue, snap knife, pennies, and copy of the
Global Hawk cut outs on the next page

Procedures:
1. Use spray glue to attach the cut outs (templates) on your foam board or meat tray.
2. Cut out the designs.
3. Use the red-dashed lines that indicate where to put glue or hot glue used to bond together the
pieces of the aircraft.
4. Fly your airplane.
5. Experiment with different nose weights until the plane flies, as desired.

Notes: Foam works very well for making flying models. It is strong, very light weight, and inexpen-
sive. Styrofoam meat trays from the grocer work well, and are free! The following recommendations
work well for a group activity:
• It is recommended that you use a low-tack spray glue, such as 3M Spray Mount™ to bond the
template to the foam board or styrofoam meat tray.
• Use a hobby knife or a “snap knife” to cut out your foam pieces. (Adult supervision needed.)
• Hot glue guns have an adhesive that works very well on foam board for attachment of wings and
stabiliser elevators.
• There is also foam “glue” that is available in craft stores like Hobby Lobby™ and some hobby
shops. This works well, but takes longer to dry. You might ask for “Helmar” foam glue if you
need a brand name. (It also works well on cardstock, for other activites.)
• It is recommended that you build one complete side of the model first. Get it perfect and then at-
tach the opposite pieces for alignment.
• Foam flyers also need nose weight to better stabilize or balance the plane for better control.
Using hot glue, you can experiment with pennies, dimes, or gem clips until the desired stabiliza-
tion point is achieved.

Summary: The Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk, as

discussed on page 17, is a remotely-piloted aircraft used by
the United States Air Force and Navy as a surveillance air-
craft. Learning to fly this model, while experimenting with
nose weights and amount and direction of thrust use to fly it,
can aid in better understanding of the complexities of main-
taining proper balance to achieve and maintain flight.

25
Northrop
Grumman
RQ-4
Global
Hawk
Template
RQ-4 Global Hawk

26
Activity Five -
The Race to the Top!
Purpose: This activity is a contest between the flying models built in activities 3 and 4, the Global
Hawk and the Predator, to learn about different aircraft ad how their designs and performance are
different.

Materials: pre-prepared airplane models for contest

Procedure:
1. This is a contest using the pre-built Global Hawk and Predator foam models.
2. Divide the participants into two groups; one group using the Global Hawk model, and the other
group using the Predator model.
3. Test Flight Phase- Each participant gets 5 minutes to “test and tweak” their foam models. This
can be done in any open area, such as a gym or outdoors. Weights can be added and/or ad-
justed, as needed, to prepare for the contest.
4. Contest Phase- Each participant flies his/her foam model to determine and record the following
on the Contest Form on the next page:
a. Longest distance
b. Spot landing accuracy
c. How much of a circle made when flying with angular degrees
d. How to fix the elevators so it causes the nose to go up and stall the aircraft
5. To determine team winner of contest, compare 2 categories: distance (part a above) and sum
total of parts b, c, and d above. If one team is highest in both categories, there is a clear team
winner. If each team wins in one category, winners could be declared for each category. Or,
there could be a “fly off” between the top distance scorer on each team with the longest dis-
tance winner “breaking the tie.”

Summary: In this activity the contest provided ways to test the construction of the models from Ac-
tivities 3 and 4. This activity will also promote the inquiry method to solve problems based on de-
sired results and the variables that can cause such results.

Activity Six -
Build the SR-71 Blackbird
Purpose: This activity teaches how to build a model of the SR-71 Blackbird, fly it as a foam glider,
and demonstrate an understanding of the words fuselage (the body of the plane) and nacelle (the en-
closed portion covering the engine outside the fuselage).

Materials: piece of 1¾” outside diameter foam pipe tubing cut to a length of 14 inches (found at
local hardware or super center stores), two pieces of foam tubing cut to 4 inches, a foam meat tray, a
#64 rubber band, a nylon cable tie, a metal washer, tape, spray-on glue, hot glue gun, Exacto knife or
other cutting device (adult supervision needed), and copy of SR-71 Blackbird template found on
page 29

27
Procedure:
1. Cut out paper cones on template sheet and hold for later use.
2. Attach the remaining template to the meat tray with spray-on glue.
3. Cut out the wings and fins templates.
4. Hot glue the wings and fins to the long foam tubing (fuselage) and the 2 shorter foam tube
pieces (nacelles), as shown in the illustration on page 38. (* It works best to use hot glue on the
wings and fins, as opposed to on the foam tubing, as the hot glue melts the foam tubing.)
5. Roll the paper cones pieces into a cone shape that will fit inside the nacelles and tape shut. Hot
glue these to the nacelle, as shown in the illustration on page 30.
6. Tie the rubber band in and through the hole of the washer to “lock” in place.
7. Insert the washer/rubber band into the top of the fuselage, letting about an inch of the rubber
band hang out the top (which will become the nose section of the aircraft).
8. Pull a cable tie around the nose and cinch it down as tight as possible. Clip the remaining tail
of the cable tie. Put a drop of hot glue on the sharp cut edge of the cable tie to avoid being cut
by the sharp edge.
9. To launch, put one thumb in the tail pipe and stretch the rubber band with the other hand and
let it fly!

Summary: This chapter discussed reconnaissance aircraft, albeit unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs)
used for surveillance and reconnaissance. Thus, it was logical to add another fun aircraft to make
and fly, the SR-71 Blackbird, which was unofficially named the “Blackbird.” The Blackbird was de-
veloped as a long-range strategic reconnaissance aircraft capable of flying at speeds over Mach 3.2
and 85,000 feet. The first SR-71 to enter service was delivered in 1966 and was retired in 1990.
However, the USAF still kept a few SR-71s in operation up until 1998, after a few were brought
back to service in 1995. NASA Drysden’s Center at Edwards AFB, CA flew the SR-71 from 1991
until the program was cancelled in 2001. On 15 December 2003, SR-71 #972 went on display at the
Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly, Virginia.

Since 1976, the Blackbird has held the world record for the fastest air-breathing manned aircraft.
Thus, it is a unique and noteworthy aircraft to continue to share with young people who it is hoped
will take part in the design of future aircraft that can surpass the flying feats of the SR-71. Blackbird.

28
 SR-71 A Blackbird Template
The red dashed lines show where to put the hot glue used to bond the tray foam to the black insu-
lation tubing used to make the fuselage.

Note:
This is a paper
cone that is to
be mounted in
the nacelle.
Cut both of these
out before the tem-
plate page is glued
to the meat tray.

29
 SR-71 Blackbird Assembly Diagram

The wing is glued to the

The outer wing fuselage at 90 O to the seam.
piece is glued
to the foam
nacelle.

Cones are glued

to the front of
the nacelle.

Outer Wing
Piece

The foam nacelle

Drinking is glued to the
Cup Cone (or cone outer edge of the
made from paper) wing.

Cable Tie

Cinch as tight as possible C B. Millspaugh

Rubber Band

30
Learning Outcomes
- Describe how gliders use the environment
2
to obtain altitude.
- Describe why gliders look different than
powered airplanes.
- Discuss how gliders can achieve great
distances without power.

EAA Photograph

Important Terms
altitude – the height or distance above a reference plane (The most common planes of reference
used in aviation are heights above sea level and ground level. If it’s above average sea level, it’s
referred to “MSL,” or Mean Sea Level, and if it’s above ground level, it’s referred to as “AGL.”)
convection – fluid motion between regions of unequal heating
density – mass in a given volume (example: 12 eggs in a basket)
glide ratio – a mathematical relationship between the distance an aircraft will glide forward to the
altitude loss (If an aircraft has a glide ratio of twenty to one, and it is one mile above the Earth, it
should glide 20 miles before landing.)
lapse rate – the average rate at which temperature decreases with an increase in altitude (The aver-
age lapse rate is 3 1/2°F per 1000 feet increase in altitude.)
soaring – the art of staying aloft by exploiting the energy of the atmosphere
stability – the atmosphere's resistance to vertical motion
thermal – a column of air that moves upwards
tow plane – usually a single-engined airplane that will pull a glider from the ground to an altitude
where it can be released
wave – a waving action with strong up and down motions started as air moves across mountain
ranges (Sailplane pilots can use the motion of this wave to gain altitude.)

31
RISING AIR CAN MAKE THINGS FLY
Rising air can have enough energy to provide lift for an aircraft. That's what soaring flight is all
about. Normally, we think of air moving parallel to the Earth and, of course, we call this "wind."
But, there are other factors involved, and one of the most important is the influence that the Sun has
upon our environment. From 93,000,000 miles away, the Sun provides energy that causes our atmos-
phere to move both horizontally and vertically. The vertical motion provides lifting power for
sailplanes.
When the surface of the Earth gets warmed by the Sun, the surrounding atmosphere is heated and
this causes the air to rise. This vertical motion happens because of a change in the density of the air.
As the air becomes less dense, it tends to get lighter and this lighter air wants to rise upward until it
cools. This cooling with an increase in altitude is called the lapse rate. Normally, the temperature
will drop at a rate of 3 1/2° F for every 1000 feet of altitude gained. The Celsius equivalent of this is
2° C per 1000 feet of altitude.
When warm air rises into the colder air at higher altitudes, it cools and then stops rising. After a
period of "hanging around," the air begins to sink back toward the Earth. This up and down move-
ment results in a circulation known as convection. Sometimes the atmosphere strongly resists this
convective circulation and is said to be stable.
Two other things happen to air when it is heated; it expands and the pressure drops. Here is an ex-
ample: In early morning, the air is cool due to low overnight temperatures. The molecules are close
together and the atmosphere is more dense when it is cold. When the Sun comes up, it warms the
Earth, and this warms the surrounding atmosphere. The molecules start bouncing around at a higher
rate due to heat energy. Because they are bouncing around faster and faster, they spread out. This
means any given parcel of warm air will be lighter than an equal parcel of cold air. As a result of a
decrease in density and a lighter weight, the warm air rises. This upward flow has energy in it and
given enough power, it can lift a flying machine!

During daylight hours, the Sun

heats the Earth's surface. Some
areas absorb this energy while
others tend to reflect it back into
the atmosphere. This reflected
energy heats the surrounding
atmosphere and causes rising
columns, or even bubbles of air,
called thermals. It's these thermals
that provide lift for sailplanes.

32
GLIDERS AND SAILPLANES - Aircraft Designed to Ride the Rising Air
When the air moves upward, this thermal can provide enough lift and glide ratio to keep a com-
petition sailplane up for hours. By technical definition, a glider is an aircraft that is towed to a certain
altitude and then it glides back to Earth due to the pull of gravity. A sailplane, on the other hand, ac-
tually soars on the energy of the environment. The pilot of a sailplane uses every method possible to
find lift and then to ride the wave to a greater height. (More information about the air environment
glider and sailplane pilots use to their advantage for flight is found in Module 3.)
During World War II, the Allies used gliders to haul soldiers into battle. They were towed aloft by
transport airplanes and then released over designated drop zones. Once released from the tow plane,
the skilled glider pilots would try to get the gliders safely back on the ground so the troops could be
in a better combat position. In later wars, the glider was replaced by troop-carrying helicopters and
this proved far more effective in the combat environment.

The United States Air Force Academy Sailplane

It is the dream of many
CAP cadets to someday enter
the United States Air Force
Academy in Colorado
Springs, Colorado. One of the
outstanding programs at the
Academy is their sailplane
training and many cadets get
the opportunity to take flight
training in a Schweizer TG-4A
sailplane. After being towed to altitude by a powered aircraft, modern sailplanes
The sailplane has dual flight are released. The sailplane pilot searches for rising thermals in the at-
controls. The flight control sur- mosphere and these provide lift. (Illustration by Dekker Zimmerman.)
faces are actuated by control
sticks and rudder pedals
through a push rod and cable
system. Aileron and elevator
control is accomplished
through push rods connected to
both control sticks. Rudder
control is accomplished
through cables attached to both
sets of rudder pedals.
The USAF Academy TG-
4A sailplanes are equipped
with instruments which include
an airspeed indicator, an al-
timeter, a vertical velocity indi-
cator, a sensitive variometer,
and compass. Parts of a sailplane

33
THE CIVIL AIR PATROL CADET GLIDER PROGRAM
The Civil Air Patrol offers yearly
flight encampments on a nationwide
basis. These are called “Flight Acade-
mies” and provide each participating
cadet at least 10 hours of flight instruc-
tion with an FAA certificated Flight In-
structor. This is called “dual” for
one-on-one instruction. Because a
cadet is eligible by federal aviation reg-
ulation to solo a glider at age 14, this is
an outstanding entry-level opportunity
for future pilots to acquire important,
basic flying skills. Once a cadet has
soloed a glider, he/she can then move
on to powered flight training at another Cadets receive a pre-flight briefing on a CAP Blanik L23 glider.
encampment. The eventual goal is to
achieve the coveted Private Pilot’s Cer-
tificate, which allows a pilot to carry
passengers and to fly under visual
flight regulations (VFR) virtually any-
where within the Continental United
States air space system.
Civil Air Patrol offers all cadets an
opportunity to participate in an orienta-
tion flight program. This program is
designed to give each cadet nine flights
during the course of his/her cadet expe-
rience. These flights are flown by CAP
senior (adult) members who meet spe-
cific experience and training require-
ments as well as through personal
background clearance standards. This
is by far the best opportunity for a
cadet to find out if he/she “really likes If you find out you “love it,” you’ll be
hooked for life with the “flying bug!”
flying.” It involves “altitude, attitude,
and aptitude.” (See associated Activity
Seven at the end of the chapter.)

Thousands of military, commercial, and

general aviation pilots had their career
start with Civil Air Patrol’s glider
program. Now it’s your turn. If
not already a CAP cadet, contact
www.capmembers.com to find out
how you and your friends can join!

34
2

35
Activity Seven -
Zia Glider

Purpose: Build a Zia glider and observe how a glider flies.

Materials: cardstock, hobby knife, ruler, glue, paper clips, a little clay, and glider pattern (cutouts)
on the following page (use this one or a color copy of it)

Procedures:
1. Glue the entire pattern page to the piece of cardstock (a file folder is excellent for this project).
2. Cut out the designs from the attachments.
3. Use ruler to help fold movable parts.
4. Glue the pieces together to build the glider.
5. Fly your glider, experimenting with different positions of the control (movable) parts.
6. Add a small piece of clay to the nose area (experimenting to get the accurate amount) for “stabi-
lization” (better control stability of flight).

Notes: The following recommendations make building a cardstock glider much more successful.
• It is recommended that a hobby knife be used to cut out cardstock models. Scissors are accept-
able, but a knife, like the X-Acto® #11, can make more precise cuts. (adult supervision sug-
gested.)
• Use a ruler to score long bends, like the point where the fuselage of the ZIA is folded.
• A high quality white or carpenter’s glue, or spray glue, works well on these models. Be patient,
paper glue takes longer to dry.
• Super glue also works, but there’s always the problem of getting your fingers glued together.
Have an adult help when working with super glues.
• All gliders, whether they are cardstock or balsa, usually require a little nose weight to make
them fly. Use the clay for this step, trying different amounts until your glider flies as desired.

Summary: In this activity, cardstock is used to copy a pattern of the Zia Glider and techniques are taught
to put together a quality model and to learn to fly it effectively as a glider. The Zia Glider is a high-wing
design with no dihedral (the upward angle of a fixed-wing aircraft’s wings) and tends to go unstable if the
trim (the cuts and folds for movable parts) is not set exactly. One possible class exercise might include
how dihedral works to make aircraft stable and then problem solve how the airplane design could be mod-
ified to improve stability.

36
Zia Glider Template

Optional horizontal
stabilizer placements

fold under, glue optional and

cut from leading edge to marks cut out straight slot
if you want to give
the wing a dihedral
or cut out curved
slot for a design
with no dihedral

Depending on your design, you

may want to cut out the “V” notch or
OPTIONAL Fold first and glue
leave the horizontal stabilizer flat
Nose Stiffener into nose.
across the trailing edge.

37
Learning Outcomes
3
- Define the principle of buoyancy and how this relates to the flight of a balloon.
- Describe the components of a balloon and how each works in the flight profile.
- Describe the history of the balloon and why it’s recognized as the first powered, manned flight.

Important Terms
altimeter – instrument to provide the height of the balloon above sea level
balloon – an aircraft that uses lighter-than-air gas for its lift, with no built-in means of horizontal
control
burner – the heat source for filling the envelope with hot air
buoyancy – to rise or float on the surface of water or within the atmosphere
crown – the top of the hot air balloon's envelope
envelope – the main body of the balloon, usually made of nylon, that is filled with lighter-than-air gas
gondola – a wicker basket, hanging below the envelope, used to transport passengers and propane
tanks
gore – one of several vertical panels
that make up the envelope
Montgolfier – the name of the two
French brothers who created the
first successful, manned, hot air
balloon in 1783
parachute panel – located in the top
of the balloon's envelope that al-
lows it to be deflated (When a
larger area of deflation is needed,
some balloons are equipped with a
rip panel.)
propane – a lightweight, low carbon
fuel used in hot air balloon burners
thermistor – an instrument which
measures the temperature within the
envelope
variometer – an instrument to deter-
mine the rate of climb or descent;
sometimes referred to as vertical
velocity indicator

38
BALLOONS WERE FIRST
Two brothers, Joseph and Etienne Montgolfier, were well-educated Frenchmen who enjoyed re-
searching science and flight. In 1782, after having read scientific papers about the properties of air,
they noticed sparks and flames rising in their fireplace. So, they took a small bag of silk, lit a fire un-
derneath it, and watched it rise. They soon began experimenting outdoors with larger bags made of
paper and linen.
In 1783, their earlier experiments led to a demonstration with a balloon. Then, in September 1783,
in a demonstration before King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, they attached to a balloon a cage with
a sheep, a roster, and a duck inside. All of the “passengers” were carried aloft and landed safely.
Then on November 21,1783, the first successful manned, powered flight was made in a Mont-
golfier balloon. Two Frenchmen, Pilatre d'Rozier and the Marquis Francois d'Arlandes, flew their
way into history aboard a balloon launched in Paris. The flight lasted about 25 minutes and it landed
approximately five miles from the launch point. The race toward the skies had begun! (Note: The
Wright Brothers are credited with the first manned, controlled, powered flight. Since hot air balloons
can not be completely controlled, due to the unpredictability of the wind, the Wright Brothers’ status
was achieved when the brothers made their historic flight December 17, 1903.)

How They Fly

A balloon operates on the princi-
ple of buoyancy. It all happens be-
cause hot air is lighter, or more
buoyant, than cold air. Imagine that
you have two parcels of air the same
size. If the air in one parcel is hot
and the other is cold, the warm-air
parcel will be lighter. If you could
insert the hot parcel of air inside a
very lightweight balloon, it would
rise into the surrounding colder air.
With enough hot air, a balloon will
lift not only itself, but passengers,
instruments, fuel, and all of the
equipment needed for a flight. The
large container that holds this hot air
is called the envelope. There are
strips of very strong material along
the vertical length of a balloon that
attach the envelope to the basket.
These are known as load tapes.
These are also horizontal load tapes,
as shown on page 40.
Power for the balloon is provided
by a propane burner that quickly A replica of the Montgolfier balloon is on display
heats the air inside the envelope. in the US National Air and Space Museum.
The propane, in liquid form, is
stored in tanks carried in the basket, called the gondola. When the pilot pulls a cord, the liquid

39
propane rushes through a series of vaporizing coils and is ignited by a pilot flame at a jet in the
burner. During ascent, it is quite common to have temperatures inside the envelope reach 212°
Fahrenheit. To get this kind of heat, burners need to produce several million BTU's/ hour. For clarifi-
cation, A BTU is a "British Thermal Unit" and by definition it is a measure of heat. It is defined as
the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water, one degree Fahrenheit.
The metric equivalent of the BTU is a Calorie. A Calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one Kilogram of water, one degree Celsius.
A balloon floats on the wind and directional control is minimal. At various altitudes, wind direc-
tion can change and pilots take advantage of this by climbing or descending to get the balloon to
change direction.

The Mathematics Of A Balloon's Lifting Power

In the excellent book, Ballooning, A Complete Guide To Riding The Winds, by Dick Wirth and
Jerry Young, an explanation is given for the lifting power of a balloon. “Typically, a (hydrogen) gas
balloon will derive about 60 lbs. of lift per 1,000 cu. ft., whereas a hot-air model will develop only
17-20 lb. per 1,000 cu.
ft. (at 100-120 degrees
Vent Opening
Celsius). Thus, a Parachute
77,000 cu. ft. balloon Envelope
will lift: 77 x 17 =
1,309 lbs. gross lift.”
The authors state
that the envelope will Horizontal
Load Tape
weigh about 160 lbs.,
the burner and basket
will weigh collectively
150 lbs., and four gas
tanks will weigh 290
lbs. This gives a total
aircraft weight of 600
pounds. If the balloon
has a gross lifting Vertical
Load Tape
power of 1,309
pounds, that means it
will carry 709 pounds
under standard condi-
tions. Divide 709 by Skirt Burner
the weight of an aver-
age human at 170
pounds and the balloon
will carry 4.17 per-
sons, or three passen-
gers, one pilot, and Basket
some miscellaneous To ascend, or go up, the pilot lights the burner to create hot air
equipment. inside the envelope. To descend, or go down, the pilot can pull down
on the parachute control and this allows hot air to escape out the
vent opening at the top of the envelope, called the crown.

40
Construction Of A
Balloon's Envelope
A large volume of lightweight air is best contained in a sphere. If you study a hot air balloon
closely, as shown on page 40, you will notice that the general shape of the envelope is spherical. To
make the shape of a balloon, a series of panels are sewn together. These panels are called gores. The
fabric most widely used is nylon and dacron, a form of polyester. There are advantages to both of
these fabrics. Dacron will withstand higher temperatures, but nylon is lighter and stronger. The fab-
rics are coated with polyurethane and other additives to give it longer wear and greater resistance to
ultraviolet sunlight damage. Most fabrics weigh between 1.2 and 2.4 ounces per square yard.

The Basket – A Balloon Pilot's Cockpit

The basket of a balloon is its cockpit. The fuel for the burners is liquid propane and is carried
along in cylindrical tanks. When the liquid propane passes through the coils on top of the burner, it
vaporizes. A small pilot flame ignites the propane and a much larger flame shoots up through the
skirt into the envelope.
A balloon pilot's control system is the ascent and descent power of the burner. There is a panel in-
side of a hot air balloon that
allows some of the hot air to
escape. It's called the para-
chute panel and looks some-
what like a conventional
parachute only it fills a hole
in the top of the balloon,
called the crown. This hole
is known as a vent. The vent
varies from 6-18 feet across.
The parachute is held in
place by cords inside the en-
velope. The hot air pressure
inside the balloon keeps the
parachute in place; however,
when the pilot wants to re-
lease some of the hot air, a
cord is pulled which draws
the parachute downward
thus opening the vent hole.
When the cord is released,
the parachute is pushed back
into the vent, closing it so
the rest of the hot air is not
allowed to escape.

41
Cockpit Instrumentation
Generally, the pilot has only three instruments on the instrument panel. One of the most important
is the vertical velocity indicator, or variometer. This gives the pilot an indication of the rate of climb
and descent. Next, the pilot has an instrument that gives a measurement of the temperature at the top
of the balloon and it is known as a thermistor. This is an electronic warning instrument that shows
the pilot when the temperature is dropping and a descent is about to occur. The optimum temperature
inside the crown is around 100 degrees Celsius. Finally, an altimeter is installed that provides the
height of the balloon above sea level.

Flying in a Hot Air Balloon

If you ever have the opportunity to fly in a hot air balloon, do it! This flight is one of the most
peaceful and beautiful flights you’ll ever experience. Being so close to the balloon pilot and the con-
trol equipment will enable you to get a very good idea of how the balloon actually flies. Observing
the pilot’s continued attention to both ground and aerial structures, to the need for greater or lesser
altitude, and to the safety in
using the propane tanks will
place you directly in the on-
going action of balloon flight. It
is a wondrous thing to behold.
(See associated Activity Eight at
the end of the chapter.)

Balloons have priority over all other aircraft in flight when flight plans
have been submitted. If you look under the balloon, you’ll see the
crew in a tiny basket. They’re doing what pilots do best—having fun!

42
Activity Eight -
Hot Air Balloon
3
Purpose: Construct a model hot air balloon and help reinforce the understanding of how a hot air
balloon works.

Materials:
- dry cleaner plastic film bags or very thin garbage bag liners (Select the type of bag with the
thinnest possible plastic and have several on hand. You may have to experiment with bags of
different thicknesses.)
- several small paper clips
- cellophane tape
- blow dryer (with hot temperature setting)

Safety: If the bag starts to crumple and melt from the heat, set
the blow dryer on a lower setting or hold the bag farther from
the heat source.

Procedures:
1. Seal any openings and tears in the upper end of the bag
with a minimum of cellophane tape.
2. Turn on the blow dryer (or other hot air source). Spread
the bag opening wide to capture the rising hot air while
supporting the upper end with your hand. It is best to
have assistance in keeping the bag open so that it does not
melt.
3. When the bag is inflated with hot air, test its buoyancy by
letting it go for a moment. If it rises quickly, stand back
and let it lift. Otherwise, continue heating it for a little
while longer.
4. Attach several paper clips to the plastic around the lower
opening. Have students experiment with the number of
paper clips that are needed to keep the balloon from rising too high, but that are needed for the
balloon to stay afloat.
5. Release the balloon for its flight. If the bag tips over and spills its hot air before it reaches the
ceiling, add a few more paper clips to slightly weigh down the bottom. If the bag will not rise
at all, remove a few clips.

43
Summary:
Hot air is less dense than cold air. Heat accelerates the motion of the air molecules causing fewer
molecules to occupy the same space as a much greater number of molecules do at a lower (cooler)
temperature. With fewer molecules, the hot air has less mass, weighs less, and, therefore, is buoyant.
Placing the dry cleaner bag over the heat source captures the hot air and forces out the cooler air
in the bag. The bag becomes a mass of low-density air which floats upward in the cooler denser air
surrounding it. The paper clips are placed at the bottom of the bag to keep the open end downward in
flight to prevent it from prematurely spilling the hot air and terminating the flight.
As this chapter closes with this last activity, your group may want to build or purchase a larger
tissue paper balloon to have an outdoor launch. For information about purchasing a hot air balloon,
go to Edmund Scientific at http://scientificsonline.com or Pitsco at http://catalog.pitsco.com.
For information about building and launching a hot air balloon, go to the CAP AE website at
www.capmembers.com/ae. Click on the lessons and other resources box to find the hot air balloon
section which includes full directions for building a tissue paper hot air balloon.

44