Introduction to Design of Foundation Lab

List of Experiments
1. Design of isolated shallow footings, combined footings, raft foundations.
2. Design of pile foundations.
3. Design of wells and cassions.
4. Design of machine foundation.
5. Design of retaining structures etc.

Foundations: Their Importance and Purpose

All engineered construction resting on the earth must be carried by some kind of interfacing element
called a foundation. The foundation is the part of an engineered system that transmits to, and into, the
underlying soil or rock the loads supported by the foundation and its self-weight.

Foundation Engineering
The title foundation engineer is given to that person who by reason of training and experience is
sufficiently versed in scientific principles and engineering judgment (often termed "art") to design a
foundation. We might say engineering judgment is the creative part of this design process. The
necessary scientific principles are acquired through formal educational courses in geotechnical (soil
mechanics, geology, foundation engineering) and structural (analysis, design in reinforced concrete
and steel, etc.) engineering and continued self-study via short courses, professional conferences,
journal reading, and the like.

The following steps are the minimum required for designing a foundation:

1. Locate the site and the position of bad. A rough estimate of the foundation load(s) is usually
provided by the client or made in-house. Depending on the site or load system complexity, a
literature survey may be started to see how others have approached similar problems.
2. Physically inspect the site for any geological or other evidence that may indicate a potential
design problem that will have to be taken into account when making the design or giving a
design recommendation. Supplement this inspection with any previously obtained soil data.
3. Establish the field exploration program and, on the basis of discovery (or what is found in the
initial phase), set up the necessary supplemental field testing and any laboratory test program.
4. Determine the necessary soil design parameters based on integration of test data. scientific
principles, and engineering judgment. Simple or complex computer analyses may be
involved. For complex problems, compare the recommended data with published literature or
engage another geotechnical consultant to give an outside perspective to the results.
5. Design the foundation using the soil parameters from step 4. The foundation should be
economical and be able to be built by the available construction personnel. Take into account
practical construction tolerances and local construction practices. Interact closely with all
 concerned (client, engineers, architect, contractor) so that the substructure system is not
excessively overdesigned and risk is kept within acceptable levels. A computer may be used
extensively (or not at all) in this step.

The foundation engineer should be experienced in and have participation in all five of the preceding
steps in practice this often is not the case.

Foundations: Classifications

1.) Shallow foundation: The foundation in which the depth of foundation is less than or equal to its
width. Generally, it is less than 3m.

Classification of Shallow Foundation:

On the basis of design, the shallow foundation are classified as:

• Isolated column or Column Footing

• Combined Footing
• Cantilever (Strap) Footing
• Mat (Raft) Foundation

2.) Deep foundation: The foundation in which the depth of foundation is greater than its width.
Generally, it is greater than 3m.

Classification of Deep Foundation:

• Pile Foundation
• Pier Foundation
• Well (Caissons) Foundation
 Design of Foundation Lab
Exp 1: Design of Pile Foundation

Pile Foundation Introduction

When the soil at or near the ground surface is not capable of supporting a structure, deep foundations
are required to transfer the loads to deeper strata. Deep foundations are, therefore, used when surface
soil is unsuitable for shallow foundation, and a firm stratum is so deep that it cannot be reached
economically by shallow foundations. The most common types of deep foundations are piles, piers
and caissons. The mechanism of transfer of the load to the soil is essentially the same in all types of
deep foundations.

A deep foundation is generally much more expensive than a shallow foundation. It should be adopted
only when a shallow foundation is not feasible. In certain situations, a fully compensated floating raft
may be mom economical than a deep foundation. In some cases, the soil is improved by various
methods to make it suitable for a shallow foundation.

A pile is either driven into the soil or formed in-situ by excavating a hole and filling it with concrete.

Necessity of Pile Foundations:

Pile foundations are used in the following conditions:

(1) When the strata at or just below the ground surface is highly compressible and very weak to
support the load transmitted by the structure.
(2) When the plan of the structure is irregular relative to its outline and load distribution. It would
cause non-uniform settlement if a shallow foundation is constructed. A pile foundation is
required to reduce differential settlement.
(3) Pile foundations are required for the transmission of structural loads through deep water to a
firm stratum.
(4) Pile foundations are used to resist horizontal forces in addition to support the vertical loads in
earth-retaining structures and tall structures that are subjected to horizontal forces due to wind
and earthquake.
(5) Piles are required when the soil conditions am such that a wash out, erosion or scour of soil
may occur from underneath a shallow foundation.
(6) Piles am used for the foundations of some structures, such as transmission towers, off-shore
plateforms, which are subjected to uplift.
(7) In case of expansive soils, such as black cotton soil, which swell or shrink as the water
content changes, piles are used to transfer the load below the active zone.
(8) Collapsible soils have a breakdown of structure accompanied by a sudden decrease in void
ratio when them is an increase in water content. Piles am used to transfer the load beyond the
zone of possible moisture changes in such soils.
 Design of Foundation Lab
Exp 2: Design of Retaining Wall

Introduction
Retaining walls are relatively rigid walls used for supporting the soil mass laterally so that the soil can
be retained at different levels on the two sides. The lateral earth pressures acting on the retaining walls
have been discussed in the preceding chapter. The types of retaining walls and their design features
are explained in this chapter. However, the design is limited to the determination of the shear forces
and bending moments. Actual structural design is outside the scope of this text.

Types of Retaining Walls

The most common types of retaining walls are classified as under:
(1) Gravity Retaining Walls: These walls depend upon their weight for stability. The walls are
usually constructed of plain concrete or masonry. Such walls are not economical for large heights.
(2) Semi-Gravity Retaining Walls: The size of the section of a gravity retaining wall may be
reduced if a small amount of reinforcement is provided near the bade face. Such walls are known as
semi-gravity walls.
(3) Cantilever Retaining Walls: Cantilever retaining walls are made of reinforced cement concrete.
The wall consists of a thin stem and a base slab cast monolithically. This type of wall is found to be
economical upto a height of 6 to 8 m.
(4) Counterfort Retaining Wails: Counterfoil retaining walls have this vertical slab, known as
counterforts, spaced across the vertical stem at regular intervals. The counterforts tie the vertical stem
with the base slab. Then the vertical stem and the base slab span between the counterforts. The
purpose of providing the counterforts is to reduce the shear force and bending moments in the vertical
stem and the base slab. The counterfort retaining walls are economical for a height more than 6 to 8
m.
 Design of Foundation Lab
Exp 3: Design of Well and Caissons

Introduction
Caisson:
A caisson is a type of foundation of the shape of a hollow prismatic box, which is built above the
ground level and then sunk to the required depth as a single unit. It is a watertight chamber used for
laying foundations under water, as in rivers, lakes, harbours, etc.
The caissons are of three types

(i) Open caissons

(i) Pneumatic caissons, and
(ii) Floating caissons.

Open caissons are hollow chambers, open both at the top and the bottom. The bottom of the caisson
has a cutting edge. The caisson is sunk into place by removing the soil from the inside of the shaft
(chamber) until the bearing stratum is reached. Well foundations are special type of open caissons
used in India.

Pneumatic caissons are closed at the top, but open at the bottom. A pneumatic caisson has a working
chamber at its bottom in which compressed air is maintained at the required pressure to prevent entry
of water into the chamber. Thus, the excavation is done in dry.

Floating caissons are open at the top but closed at the bottom. These caissons are constructed on land
and then transported to the site, and floated to the place where these are to be finally installed. These
are sunk at that place by filling them with sand, ballast, water or concrete to a levelled bearing
surface.
Well Foundation:
Well foundation have their origin in India. Well foundations have been used in India for hundreds of
years for providing deep foundations below the water level for monuments, bridges and aqueducts.
Taj Mahal at Agra (India) has got well foundations.

A well foundation is similar to an open caisson. Well foundations can be constructed on the dry bed or
alter making a sand island. At locations where the depth of water is greater than 5 m to 6 m and the
velocity of water is high, wells can be fabricated on the river bank and then floated to the final
position and grounded. Great care is to be exercised while grounding a well to ensure that its position
is correct. Once the well has touched the bed, sand bags are deposited around it to prevent scour. The
well may sink into the river bed by 50 to 60 cm under its own weight. Further sinking operation is
similar to the sinking of wells on dry bed. The well is sunk into the ground to the desired level by
excavating through the dredge holes.
 Design of Foundation Lab
Exp 4: Design of Machine Foundation

Introduction
In some cases, the foundations are subjected to dynamic loads. These loads may result from various
uses such as vibratory motion of machines, movement of vehicles, impact of hammers, earthquakes,
winds, waves, nuclear blasts, mine explosions, and pile driving. The dynamic loads transmitted to the
foundations and their effect on the strata below can be determined using the principles of soil
dynamics and theory of vibrations. The analysis is, however, very complex.

Machine foundations are subjected to the dynamic forces caused by the machine. These dynamic
forces are transmitted to the foundation supporting the machine. Although the moving parts of the
machine are generally balanced, there is always some unbalance in practice which cause an
eccentricity of rotating pans. This produces an oscillating force.

Types of Machine Foundations:

The following 4 types of machine foundations am commonly used.

(1) Block Type: This type of machine foundation consists of a pedestal resting on a footing [Fig
(a). The foundation has a large mass and a small natural frequency.
(2) Box Type: The foundation consists of a hollow concrete block [Fig. (b)]. The mass of the
foundation is less than that in the block type and the natural frequency is increased.
(3) Wall Type: A wall type of foundation consists of a pair of walls having a top slab. The
machine rests on the top slab [Fig. (c)].
(4) Framed Type: This type of foundation consists of vertical columns having a horizontal frame
at their tops. The machine is supported on the frame [Fig. (d)].
 Design of Foundation Lab
Exp 5: Design of isolated shallow footings, combined footings, raft
foundations.

Introduction
A shallow foundation, according to Terzaghi, is one whose width is greater than its depth (ie. D/B ≤
1).
Footings are structural members, made of brick work, masonry or concrete, that are used to transmit
the load of the wall or column such that the load is distributed over a large area. In fact, a footing is an
enlargement of the base of the column or wall it supports. The footings are of the following types:

1) Strip footing: A strip footing is provided for a load-bearing wall (Fig. a). A strip footing is
also provided for a row of columns which are so closely spaced that their spread footings
overlap or nearly touch each other. In such a case, it is more economical to provide a strip
footing than to provide a number of spread footings in one line. A strip footing is also known
as continuous footing.

2) Strip Footing: A spread (or isolated or pad) footing is provided to support an individual
column (Fig. b). A spread footing is circular, square or rectangular slab of uniform thickness.
Sometimes, it is stepped or haunched to spread the load over a large area.

3) Combined footing: A combined footing supports two columns (Fig. c). It is used when the
two columns are so close to each other that their individual footings would overlap. A
combined footing is also provided when the property line is so close to one column that a
spread footing would be eccentrically loaded when kept entirely within the property line. By
combining it with that of an interior column, the load is evenly distributed.

A combined footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal in plan.

4) Strap or cantilever footing: A strap (or cantilever) footing consists of two isolated footings
connected with a structural strap or a lever, (Fig. d). The strap connects the two footings such
that they behave as one unit. The strap simply acts as a connecting beam and does not take
any soil reaction. The strap is designed as a rigid beam.
A strap footing is more economical than a combined footing when the allowable soil pressure
is relatively high and the distance between the columns is large.

5) Mat or raft foundations: A mat or raft foundation is a large slab supporting a number of
columns and walls under the entire structure or a large part of the structure. A mat is required
when the allowable soil pressure is low or whom the columns and walls are so close that
individual footings would overlap or nearly touch each other (Fig. e).
Mat foundations are useful in reducing the differential settlements on non-homogeneous soils
or where there is a large variation in the loads on individual columns.