1

Level: Secondary 2 (IP)

Subject: Lower Secondary Science
Theme: Interaction
Topic: Ecology
Duration: 3 Weeks

At the end of the chapter, you should be able to:

1) explain the terms 'population' and 'community'
2) identify a habitat and some of the organisms associated with the habitat
3) explain the importance of various physical factors like air, water, temperature, light,
minerals and acidity/alkalinity, to the life of organisms
4) show an understanding of the interrelationship among the various organisms in a
community
5) show an understanding that the habitat together with the organisms living in it forms
an ecosystem
6) explain the importance of conserving the physical environment
7) predict the consequences of selective addition or removal of an organism from an
environment
8) state that the Sun is the principal source of energy input to biological systems
9) describe the non-cyclical nature of energy flow
10) establish the relationship of the following in food web:
producer; consumer; herbivore; carnivore; decomposer; food chain

Introduction

Ecology is the study of interactions or relationships of organisms with one another

and with the living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) environment.

- Habitat: place where an organism lives

Population: group of organisms of the same species living in a particular habitat
Community: All populations of organisms living and interacting with one another in a
particular habitat
Ecosystem: a community and its abiotic environment
- organisms are interdependent
- energy is transferred from one organism
to another mainly through feeding
- The Sun is the main source of energy for
Planet Earth
- solar energy from the Sun is absorbed by
plants and passed on to other organisms as
chemical energy
- most of this energy is eventually lost as heat
- energy flow is non-cyclical

Hwa Chong Institution

Prepared by Tanky and Nada 2011
 2

Abiotic Environment
- Listed below are examples of some abiotic factors that may influence the livelihood of
organisms in a community or ecosystem:

Factor Examples of how factor influences life

Affects the proper functioning of enzymes. Extreme temperatures
Temperature
and pH disrupts the hydrophobic, hydrophilic and ionic interactions
pH in enzymes, causing them to lose their shape and functionality.

Oxygen is required for aerobic respiration. Lack of oxygen slows

Oxygen content down metabolism.

High humidity slows down the rate of transpiration in plants but is

also critical to the survival of epiphytes and organisms living in arid
Humidity
places.

Affects number and locations of flora and fauna. Dependent on rain

Amount of water pattern

Prevents marine organisms from settling down and feeding.

Wave action
High wind speed may break the stems of certain plant species and
Wind speed may dissipate humidity.

Low light intensity retards plant growth, but high light intensity may
bleach chlorophyll and impairs the ability of plants to
Light intensity
photosynthesize.

Affects osmotic balance in many aquatic animals and coastal plant

Salinity species.

Clayey, sandy or rocky substratum influences ability of plants and

Type of
sessile organisms to anchor themselves.
substratum

Biotic Environment

- Biotic factors arise from interactions between organisms.

- The outcomes of these interactions may increase (+), decrease (-) or makes no
difference (0) to the fitness (or the ability to grow, survive and reproduce successfully) of
either or both organisms.
- We may hence classify these interactions according to the outcomes. The table below
provides the terms used to describe the interactions between two hypothetical organisms,
A and B, given various outcomes. “+” represents a fitness advantage to that particular
organism; “-“ represents a fitness disadvantage; “0” represents neutrality.

Hwa Chong Institution

Prepared by Tanky and Nada 2011
 3

Organism Organism Example

Interaction
A B
Mutualism + + Lichen

Commensalism + Remora fish and

0
Shark
Exploitative Relationships Snake and Rabbit
+ -
(Predation, Parasitism, Herbivory)

Snake and Eagle

Competition - - have similar feeding
habits
Ammensalism - 0

- These biotic influences may limit the distribution and abundance of organisms and are
hence crucial elements that shape an ecosystem.

Feeding relationship

A food chain is a sequence of organisms, starting with a photosynthesizing organism

(usually a green plant), through which energy is passed as one organism is eaten by the
next in the sequence.

- Below are some examples of food chains found in a freshwater pond community:

Pondweeds  Mayfly Larvae  Stickleback  Kingfisher  Sparrow Hawk 

Decomposers

Green Algae  Water Fleas  Water Boatman  Stickleback  Kingfisher 

Sparrow Hawk  Decomposers

Pondweeds  Water Snails  Dragonfly Larvae  Kingfisher  Sparrow Hawk 

Decomposers

- From the above example, it may be observed that one species of organism have a few
feeding relationships within an ecosystem. Thus, food chains may be interconnected to
form a more complex food web.

A food web comprises interlinked food chains involving organisms from the same
ecosystem.

Hwa Chong Institution

Prepared by Tanky and Nada 2011
 4

- Using the food chains above, we may construct a food web found in a freshwater pond
community.

Sparrow Hawk
Decomposers

Kingfisher

Stickleback (fish) Water Boatman (insect) Dragonfly Larvae Beetle Larvae

Water flea Mayfly Larvae Common Pond Snail Lesser Water Boatman

Green Algae Pond Weeds Detritus

Figure 11.1 A freshwater pond community foodweb

- The food web above shares certain common features with food webs of other
communities:
1. The bottom of the food web consists of autotrophic organisms. These are also
the primary producers in the ecosystem. (Eg. Green algae and pond weed)
2. Each level in the food web may be occupied by more than one organism. (Eg.
The primary consumers include water flea, mayfly larvae, common pond snail etc.)
3. Each organism may occupy a few levels in a food web. (Eg. The stickleback is
both a secondary consumer (consumes water flea) and a tertiary consumer
(consumes water boatman))
4. When organisms die, they are eventually decomposed by decomposers or
saprotrophic organisms, such as bacteria and fungi.

- The table below explains some of the terms used in the above description of the food
web:

Terms Definition Example

Autotrophs are organisms that are capable of
synthesizing organic molecules (such as glucose) using
inorganic molecules (such as carbon dioxide) and
Autotrophs Green algae, Pond weeds
energy derived from either sunlight (photoautotrophs) or
other inorganic molecules (such as hydrogen sulphide)
(chemoautotrophs).

Hwa Chong Institution

Prepared by Tanky and Nada 2011
 5

Primary producers are autotrophic organisms that supply

energy to all other organisms in the food chain/ food
web.
Note: Since autotrophs are the only organisms that are
capable of harnessing energy directly from their
Primary environment, they are also primary producers because
Producers all other organisms in the respective ecosystems depend
on them for energy. Essentially all primary producers
are autotrophic but not all autotrophs are primary
producers (albeit this is extremely unlikely because
almost all the time, consumers have evolved to exploit
autotrophic organisms).
Heterotrophs are organisms which use organic
molecules both as a source of carbon and as a source of
Heterotrophs
energy, and acquire these molecules by feeding on other
organisms.
Consumers are heterotrophic organisms that depend
Common pond snail,
ultimately on the producers as energy sources.
stickleback, sparrow hawk
Note: All consumers must be heterotrophic, and all
Consumers heterotrophs must be consumers. While this is true, the
terms “heterotroph” and “consumer” have very
different meanings and should be used in the
appropriate context
Organisms with a strict diet consisting of plant matter
Herbivores
only.
Mosquito larvae
Primary Organisms that feed directly on producers.
Consumers
Secondary Consumers which feed on the herbivore/primary
Water flea, mayfly larvae
Consumers consumer
Tertiary Consumers which feed on the secondary consumer
Stickleback
consumers
Organisms with a strict diet consisting only of other
Carnivores animals. The dominant consumer in an ecosystem is Sparrow hawk, kingfisher
usually a carnivore.
Organisms that feed on both plant matter and on other
Omnivores
animals.
Organisms which release enzymes to break down large
Decomposers molecules in dead organic matter into smaller ones Bacteria, fungi
which can then be recycled.

Hwa Chong Institution

Prepared by Tanky and Nada 2011
 6

Conservation

Why should Man be concerned with conserving natural resources and biodiversity?
- Man exploits the natural environment for fossil fuel, wood and other forms of natural
resources. Through this process, Man has greatly altered natural habitats.
- As highlighted earlier, ecosystems are in a delicate state of balance. Disturbances to this
natural balance may result in increased rates of species extinction as organisms are
unable to adapt fast enough to rapid changes.
- As species go extinct, food webs become destabilized and an entire ecosystem may
collapse.
- This in turn affects mankind as we obtain our food and resources from the natural
environment.
- Therefore, conservation is important for the following reasons:

1) prevent extinction of plant and animal species

2) maintain a stable and balanced ecosystem, prevents disruption of natural cycles such as
water and carbon cycles; also prevents global warming

3) maintain large gene pool, preserve favourable genes; helps to improve agricultural
produce or crops with better resistance to diseases

4) conserve marine life as a food source

5) scientific value – study of evolution

6) nature appreciation – recreational purposes such as hiking, fishing, skiing

7) maintain biodiversity – economical (rice, pineapple and banana are food plants
developed from rainforest plants), medical (Quinine, an anti-malarial drug is found from
the bark of Cinchona), industrial (latex is tapped from rubber trees and used to make
tyres) purposes

Effects of selective addition/removal of species

- The dynamic flow of energy, nutrients and intricate interactions between organisms and
their environment establishes a state of delicate balance in the ecosystem, which changes
only gradually over time.
- This state of balance gives stability and self-sustainability to an ecosystem.
- Such stability and self-sustainability requires:
1) A constant input of energy.
2) Presence of producers which are able to harness this source of energy, converting it
into chemical energy required to power the rest of the food chain.
3) A continuous circulation of matter between the biotic and abiotic components of an
ecosystem.

Hwa Chong Institution

Prepared by Tanky and Nada 2011
 7

- By altering any of the above requirements, the stability of an ecosystem may be

disrupted.
- An example is the addition or removal of species from a habitat, such as use of
biological pest control.

Natural predators of the pest may be introduced to effectively control the pest
population. However, care must be taken when selecting the natural predator so that they
may not offset the local ecological balance. This may happen if the natural predator target
unintended prey, and compete with the indigenous species.

- When there is a sudden increase in the population of predators, populations of primary

consumers may decrease drastically due to overfeeding. Other predators that feed on the
same food will face more competition and their population size may decrease too. When
the number of primary consumers is not sufficient to sustain the energy needs of the
secondary consumers, the food chain may collapse.

Hwa Chong Institution

Prepared by Tanky and Nada 2011
 8

Level: Secondary 2 (IP)

Subject: Lower Secondary Science
Theme: Cycles
Topic: Nutrient Cycles
Duration: 2 Weeks

At the end of the chapter, you should be able to:

1) describe the importance of the carbon cycle
2) show an understanding of the new concept of recycling of nutrients trapped in living
organisms and explain the role of decomposers in these processes
3) describe briefly the carbon cycle
4) discuss the role of the carbon cycle in helping to maintain a balance in the ecosystem

Carbon Cycle

- Carbon is found in all ecosystems, because all living things on Earth are composed of
carbon compounds.
- Just as the Sun is the main source of energy for an ecosystem, the atmosphere is the
main source of carbon for all ecosystems (“main source” does not mean having the most
amount of carbon stored. Carbon is only very readily obtained from the atmosphere).
- ensures continuous supply of carbon dioxide for plants to carry out photosynthesis
- enables energy to flow through the ecosystem

Hwa Chong Institution

Prepared by Tanky and Nada 2011
 9

- Carbon exchanges between the atmosphere and the biosphere occur via the following
processes:

Photosynthesis:
 Carbon is absorbed in the form of CO2 and converted to glucose which may then be
used for respiration and for the building of protoplasm in plants.
 Plants are then consumed by primary consumers and the carbon is then transferred
into the body tissues of animals.
 Through successive feeding, carbon compounds move up the trophic levels in the
ecosystem.

Respiration:
 Plants and animals respire, converting glucose into CO2 which is released back into
the atmosphere.

Excretion and Egestion:

 Microorganism ferment carbon-rich food in the stomachs of cattle and releases
carbon back into the atmosphere in the form of natural gas or methane, CH4.
 Undigested food removed as faeces contains much of the carbon that was initially
ingested.

Decomposition:
 As dead organisms decay and become decomposed they release carbon dioxide into
the atmosphere.

Destruction of vegetation:
 Bush fires or slash-and-burn agriculture may burn away large areas of forests which
release large quantity of carbon dioxide from plant material.

Sedimentation and Mineralization:

 When organisms die and are very quickly buried, they do not undergo decomposition,
but may be compacted by layers of mud and rock. Overtime these dead organisms
may become fossil fuels. Much of the carbon in the tissues of these organisms thus
becomes stored in the form of fossil fuel.
 Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere dissolves in the sea in the form of bicarbonate
ions or carbonate ions. Marine organisms use carbonate ions to produce hard shells
and support structures. When these organisms die, their hard shells will settle down to
the bottom of the ocean (sedimentation) and become compacted. This becomes
limestone (calcium carbonate) over a long period of time, storing the carbon in
limestone.

Dissolution (Chemical weathering):

 Precipitation may dissolve limestone structures, thus releasing the carbonate ions
back into rivers and streams.

Hwa Chong Institution

Prepared by Tanky and Nada 2011
 10

Burning of fossil fuel (Combustion):

 When fossil fuel is removed from deep underground, and burnt for energy, the carbon
in the fossil fuel is released as large quantities of carbon dioxide.

Figure 11.6Carbon exchanges between atmosphere and biosphere.

Hwa Chong Institution

Prepared by Tanky and Nada 2011