Natural Resource Conservation and

Development.
Level II

Learning Guide # 49
Unit of Competence: Assist Sustainable Wildlife
Conservation and Development

Module Title: Assisting Sustainable Wildlife

Conservation and Development
LG Code: AGR NRC2 M11 1019.
TTLM Code: AGR NRC2 TTLM111019 V1.

LO2: Establish and manage wildlife conservation

areas
 Instruction Sheet Learning Guide #49

This learning guide is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the
following content coverage and topics –
➢ Indentifying Protected Areas
➢ Characteristics of Wildlife Habitat refuges
➢ Determining Location and Boundaries for wild life refuge
➢ Identifying Time and Resources for mantainance .
➢ Identifying Environmental Risks and Hazards.
➢ Protecting and maintaining Desirable Animal species and habitat refuges
This guide will also assist you to attain the learning outcome stated in the cover page. Specifically,
upon completion of this Learning Guide, you will be able to –

➢ Identify Protected Areas

➢ Identify characteristics of wildlife habitat refuges
➢ Determine location and boundaries for wild life refuge
➢ Identify time and resources for maintenance.
➢ Identify environmental risks and hazards.
➢ Protect and maintain desirable animal species and habitat refuges
Learning Instructions:

1. Read the specific objectives of this Learning Guide.

2. Follow the instructions described in number 3 to 6.
3. Read the information written in the “Information Sheets 1, Information Sheets2,
Information Sheets3, Information Sheets4, Information Sheets5 and Information Sheets 6.
4. Accomplish the “Self-check 1, Self-check2, Self-check 3, Self-check 4, Self-check 5 and
Self-check 6” in page - 5,8,12,15,21and 24 respectively.
5. If you earned a satisfactory evaluation proceed to “Information Sheet 2”.
6. Submit your accomplished Self-check. This will form part of your training portfolio.

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 Information Sheet-1 Identifying Protected Areas

2.1. Identifying Protected Areas

Introduction
IUCN

The enlisting of protected areas is the fundamental strategy being used towards the
conservation of the world's natural environment and biodiversity.

The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has developed the Protected
Area Management Categories System to define, record and classify the wide variety of
specific aims and concerns when categorizing protected areas and their objectives. This
categorization method is recognized on a global scale by national governments and
international bodies such as the United Nations and the Convention on Biological Diversity.

IUCN Categories

1. Strict Nature Reserve

2. Wilderness Area

3. National Park

4. Natural Monument or Feature

5. Habitat/Species Management Area

6. Protected Landscape/Seascape

7. Protected area with sustainable use of natural resources

As elsewhere in the world, modern conservation efforts (Adams, 2004) emerged from the
realization that hunting (both sport and subsistence) was having an impact on wildlife
populations.

Thus, in 1909 Ethiopia passed its first wildlife legislation designed to regulate ‘sport’ hunting
– particularly of elephants. Despite this and up to 1944, the fauna and flora were still largely
viewed as an infinite source of food and other materials, and as a source of sport for the
upper echelons of society and expatriates in the country.
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The Preservation of Game Proclamation of 1944 reinforced earlier legislation to regulate
hunting and to prevent the over-hunting of certain species.

With interest from international conservation organizations, pivotally UNESCO, the Ethiopian

Wildlife Conservation Organization (EWCO) was established in 1964 (see history in Hillman,
1993a) to establish the network of protected areas. Because of a lack of wildlife management
experience (cf. the experience that was built in neighboring Kenya and Uganda through their
colonial pasts) the majority of the early work – the production of legislation and the
designation of protected areas – was largely carried out by expatriates.

Protected/conservation area of Ethiopia.

National Parks: Conservation areas which may include terrestrial land or land
covered by lake, or other wetlands set aside for the purpose of conserving and
protecting wildlife and objects of aesthetic, ecological and scientific interest. The
following activities are prohibited in the national parks. These are hunting, cultivating,
grazing livestock, felling trees, burning vegetation, residing in, or exploiting natural
resources in any manner, unless these activities are for the development and
management of the park.

Sanctuaries: They are set aside to conserve characteristic wildlife communities or to

protect a particularly threatened species or habitat. Prohibited activities in sanctuaries
include grazing of cattle, settling, and hunting of animals, unless acting in accordance
with the conditions of a permit, or written permission of the general manager or a
game warden.

Wildlife reserves or game reserves: These areas are set aside for protecting and
propagating wildlife and its habitat; however, it is not as exclusive as a national park.
Persons are prohibited from residing in game reserves without written permission from
the authority. Persons authorized to reside in game reserves have the right to
cultivate their land and to pasture and water domestic animals therein. Prohibited
activities include possession of firearms and hunting of animals.

Controlled Hunting Areas: The controlled hunting areas come under Extractive
Protected Areas where areas are managed to protect and utilize wildlife species.
Hunting is allowed to those who have permits from the wildlife authority.

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 In Ethiopia there are nine National Parks, of which only two are gazetted (Awash and
Semien Mountains National Park). In addition, there are three sanctuaries and game
reserves, and 17 Controlled Hunting Areas.

Table 1. Summary of the major protected areas in Ethiopia.

Name Status ** = Size sq km Region Importance

Gazetted

Bale Mountains NP 2040 Oromiya Afroalpine, dry montane

woodland, moist montane
forest: Mt Nyala,
Ethiopian wolf.

Afroalpine, walia ibex,

Simien Mountains NP ** 225 Amhara
Ethiopian wolf

Swamps, Woodland,
Gambella NP 5061 Gambella
lechwe, kob

Omo NP 4068 Southern Wood–Scrubland, Large

ungulate assemblage, Elept,

Mago NP 2162 Southern Wood-Scrubland, large

ungulate assemblage, Elept,

Semi-Arid thorn-bush, oryx,

Awash NP ** 156 Oromiya/Afar
gazelle

Abiatta - Shalla NP 800 Oromiya Rift Valley Lakes, avifauna

Yangudi - Rassa NP 4731 Afar Arid

Savannah wildlife;
Nech Sar NP 514 Southern
Swayne’s Hartebeest

(only 2
Total Area NP Gazetted) 19757

NP
Alatish planned 2000 Amhara Woodland Savannah

Bebille Elephant WLS 6982 Afar Semi-Arid Elephants

Senkelle WLS 54 Southern Swayne’s Hartebeest

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Hartebeest

Yebello WLS 2500 Oromiya Scrub and Bush Crow

8 x Wildlife
WR Many regions
Reserve

18 x Hunting
Areas CHA All over, many on

58 x Forest
Priority FPA 13,863 Only those with closed
Areas forest

Self-Check – 1 Written Test

Name: _________________________ Date: _______________

Directions: Answer all the questions listed below. Use the Answer sheet provided in
the next page.

1. Write down at least seven national parks of Ethiopia. (7pts)

Matching (2pts each)

A B
2. Biotic factor A. Temperature
3. National park B. Bebille Elephant
4. Sancuture C. Simien Mountains
5. Physical factors D. Predator.

Note: Satisfactory rating – 8 points Unsatisfactory - below 8 points

Answer Sheet
Score = ___________

Rating: ____________

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 Information Sheet-2 Characteristics of Wildlife Habitat refuges

2.2. Characteristics of Wildlife Habitat refuges

Habitat (which is Latin for "it inhabits") is an ecological or environmental area that is
inhabited by a particular species of animal, plant or other type of organism. It is the natural
environment in which an organism lives, or the physical environment that surrounds
(influences and is utilized by) a species population.
Wildlife habitat is an area that offers feeding, roosting, breeding, nesting, and refuge areas
for a variety of bird and mammal species.
Generally, wildlife habitat can be categorized under:
Terrestrial habitat
Marine habitat
Wetland Habitat
Wildlife refuge, also called a wildlife sanctuary, may be a naturally occurring sanctuary,
such as an island, that provides protection for species from hunting, predation or competition,
or it may refer to a protected area, a geographic territory within which wildlife is protected.
Such wildlife refuges are generally officially designated territories, created by government
legislation, though the land itself may be publicly or privately owned.
The purposes of a wildlife refuge can include:
◼ Recovery of local wildlife species
◼ Restoration of natural environments
◼ Study of wildlife and natural environments
◼ creating simulated natural environments.
Wildlife refuges may contain remnant native vegetation as well as habitat provided by wildlife
corridors, windbreaks, woodlots or farm dams.
Numerous factors of the environment affect wildlife habitat. These factors vary in time and
space and interact in complex ways to favor or hinder the functions of wildlife.

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The place to live is what we mean by habitat; a space where wildlife secures habitat
resources and an environment suited to a particular species. Ecologist often classifies
environmental factors as:
Biotic
• Food quantity.
• Food quality.
• Predation.
• Disease.
Physical
• Temperature
• Precipitation.
• Snow characteristics.
• Humidity.
• etc.
Edaphic (soil).
• Depth.
• Moisture.
• Texture.
• Chemistry.
• etc.
These physical, biotic and edaphic factors are determining characteristics of wildlife habitat.
It is often possible to confuse habitat with ecological niche. One has been described as the
animal’s ‘address’ and the other as its ‘profession’. The two terms are not that easily
separated, since the animal’s ‘profession’ is carried out only at a particular ‘address’.
The term habitat is sometimes also confused with the geographical range. Actually,
geographical range is a broader term indicating the map area in which a species occurs. But
one expects to find a particular species only in suitable habitats within a geographic range.
The particular range or extent of distribution of a species is determined generally by:
• Climate,
• Vegetation and,
• Topography to which the species can become adapted.

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In all habitats there is a limit to the number of animals of any one species that can be
supported. That is known as the carrying capacity of the habitat. The question what
determines carrying capacity is not as easy to answer as it might seem. Certain obvious
factors are involved:

• The right kind of food, and the quantity of it available

• The presence of water, for most animals
• The right kind of soil, for some species
• The necessary topography-mountains, plains, lakes, streams
• Cover-meaning arrangements of land and vegetation suited to nesting, resting, hiding,
flying and all the various activities the species perform.

Self-Check – 2 Written Test

Name: _________________________ Date: _______________

Directions: Answer all the questions listed below. Use the Answer sheet provided in
the next page.

1. what is habitat? (3pts)

2. Mention the purposes of a wildlife refuge (4pts)
3. Mention wildlife habitat categories (3pts)

Note: Satisfactory rating - 5 points Unsatisfactory - below 5 points

Answer Sheet
Score = ___________

Rating: ____________

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 Determining Location and Boundaries for wild life
Information Sheet-3
refuge

2.3. Determining Location and Boundaries for wild life refuge

We should determine location and by what the habitat bounded in accordance with the
vertebrate pest management strategy and monitoring program legal and recognizable
boundary of wildlife habitat should be maintain.

Local Conservation planning area

Create and/or update your area comprehensive plan so it properly plans for
growth, conservation of fish, wildlife, and plant habitat, and recreation. Work with
state agencies, conservation organizations, and land trusts to use available data to
create a landscape vision for your area.
As you update your comprehensive plan look at existing and proposed growth
areas.
Many areas are now being forced to develop additional growth areas. Town
infrastructure policies contribute to the fragmentation, degradation and/or
destruction of habitat.
Inventory all public conservation lands in your area and review the management
plans for these properties. Include publicly owned lands that have conservation
potential but are not yet designated as such. Work with local planners, land
trusts, and state agencies to evaluate the status of habitat protections and
recreational opportunities on these lands and to design corridors that allow
species to move freely between habitats, e.g., between riparian and upland
habitats.
Create an Open Space Plan for your area. Work with a local land trust to
inventory local parcels of land that could, in combination with other private or
public lands, be considered large blocks of habitat. Conduct a public meeting with
residents to identify additional areas of natural resources or open space concern.
Ask residents to identify those areas that are most important including additional
habitat or rare features not currently mapped, geologic features, historical sites,
scenic views, important landscapes, farms, and trail systems.
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 Develop a list of conservation focus areas for resources overlap both the land
trust and habitat of area.
Consider creating trail corridors that serve wildlife and recreation needs.
Create a local planning process to evaluate the accumulated amount of shoreline
development as it relates to habitat loss.
Outreach/Public Information of areas
A. Conduct information and outreach effort to inform landowners of the value of
riparian habitat, high value plant and animal habitats, and large undeveloped
habitat blocks.
B. Develop a database of local property owners who host Significant or
Essential Habitat. Create local support systems that supply these landowners
with information on habitat retention and improvement.
C. Create a local recognition or reward system for landowners who maintain
open space through current use programs.
D. Invite local legislators to tour high value habitats in your area and explain the
connection between the habitats and your community's way of life. Provide a
list of licensed foresters with a working knowledge of how to manage forests
for both habitat and timber.
E. Offer a workshop for forest landowners using Biodiversity in the Forests of
Maine:
F. Invite the local land trust to display newsletters and brochures at the area
hall, library, and public events.
G. Make the Beginning with Habitat maps and documentation readily available to
the public so they can view them easily and become familiar with the
information.
Local Regulations of protected area

✓ After adoption of the comprehensive plan by your area, form an implementation

committee to make any necessary revisions to local regulations.
✓ Require a combination of very low densities and cluster development on
properties with high value habitat so development can be steered away from
those habitats.
✓ Require provisions in local ordinances for review of development applications
by the appropriate regional office when a proposal potentially conflicts with a
mapped resource.
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 ✓ Consider developing and adopting an impact fee program with funds allocated
at least in part to protecting open space.
✓ Promote zoning that allows for multiple uses of farmland or woodlots, including
activities such as educational or recreational services, food sales, hay and
sleigh rides, etc.
✓ Consider how to fulfill the stated criterion, which states that the proposed
subdivision will not have an undue adverse effect on the scenic or natural
beauty of the area, aesthetics, and historic sites, significant wildlife habitat
identified by related organization or rare and irreplaceable natural areas or any
public rights for physical or visual access to the shoreline.
Land Protection Measures
a) Coordinate land trust priorities for land protection with area priorities.
b) If a property with high value habitat is on the market, and especially where the
town has not adequately protected it (allowing reasonable use through very low
density and open space zoning), the select board, planning board, conservation
commission, and local conservation groups can work together to consider and
potentially pursue acquisition of the property.
c) Encourage landowners with high value habitat on their property to enroll in
either the Farmland and Open Space or Tree Growth Tax Programs.
d) Purchase development rights on large undeveloped blocks to manage the land
as fish, plant, and wildlife habitat.
e) Purchase conservation easements that stipulate no development and allow
public access for recreation, if compatible with the land.
f) Explore opportunities to protect habitat via conservation easement or fee
ownership
Regional Coordination of PA

❖ Review maps of high value habitat and/or open space plans with local officials
from neighboring protected area, land trusts, and other conservation
organizations.
❖ Meet cooperatively with neighboring protected area, land trusts, conservation
organizations, and your regional planning commission to discuss the
conservation of large blocks of habitat across political boundaries.
❖ Meet cooperatively with neighboring protected area planning groups to discuss
consistent regulations for shared habitats and waterways.

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 ❖ Meet cooperatively with neighboring protected area, land trusts, and
conservation organizations with mutual watersheds to explore the protection of
water quality and develop watershed protection plans across political
boundaries.

Self-Check – 3 Written test

Name: _________________________ Date: _______________

Directions: Answer all the questions listed below. Use the Answer sheet provided in
the next page.

1. List down monitoring program and recognizable boundary of wildlife habitat

maintenance. (4pts)

a._______________________________________

b._______________________________________

c._______________________________________

d. _______________________________________

Note: Satisfactory rating - 2 points Unsatisfactory - below 2 points

Answer Sheet
Score = ___________

Rating: ____________

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 Information Sheet-4 Identifying Time and Resources for
maintenance.

2.4. Identifying Time and Resources for maintenance.

◼ Human resources
◼ Financial provision
◼ Physical material including trapping materials, firearms, ammunition,
poisons, fencing materials, veterinary products, excavators, front-end
loaders, digging material, Vehicles, others equipment required to
complete the wildlife habitat refuge maintenance job etc.
◼ Land, water and transportation facility
◼ Plant materials (seedling, seed etc...)
◼ Management Tools:

• Prescribed fire.

• Exotic plant control through mechanical biological and chemical

means.

• Education/Interpretation.

• Law Enforcement.

• Partnerships: Division of Forestry, Refuge Friends Group,

National Park
◼ Service, Park Service, Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission.
Estimating time required to complete wildlife habitat maintenance job is useful
Open space planning
✓ Assess whether the existing supply of public-access wildlife conservation lands
in an area is economically optimal, or whether additional areas would provide
net economic gains.
✓ Identify open spaces whose conservation generates the highest benefits, and
direct development to locations that minimize losses in open space
values/maximize gains from open space conservation.
✓ Quantify expected losses in wildlife-associated recreation that result from
changes in land use plans and zoning regulations

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 ✓ Incorporate (increased) preservation of natural areas into development
plans/zoning regulations. Increases in property values translate into increased
property tax revenues after the next reassessment of property values by the
county assessor’s office.
Conservation incentives for private landowners
Estimates of the value of ecosystem services provided by private lands can
help strengthen the case for tax breaks, ecosystem service payments or other
incentive mechanisms for private landowners who dedicate their lands to
conservation uses, or for the introduction of wildlife habitat tax credits for
private lands. The toolkit can help in establish the size of tax breaks or habitat
credits.
the toolkit can help in the justification and appropriate scaling of property tax
exemptions or tax credits for agricultural land that provides wildlife benefits
Prioritization of lands for public conservation spending
The toolkit can help states in the prioritization/ranking of lands that are
competing for limited conservation cost share funds, by providing estimates of
the values generated by the various lands/properties.
The toolkit can help quantify wildlife-associated recreation benefits to help
justify the economic importance of a particular wildlife area or activity in
applications for federal or state wildlife grants and habitat conservation funds
(e.g., USFWS’ Partners Program; various USDA conservation programs)
The toolkit can help calculating the benefit-cost ratios of different and
competing wildlife projects.

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 Self-Check – 4 Written Test

Name: _________________________ Date: _______________

Directions: Answer all the questions listed below. Use the Answer sheet provided in
the next page.

1. Mention resource required for wild life refuge maintenance. (3pts)

2. What is the usefulness of estimating time to complete wildlife habitat
maintenance? (4pts)
3. What management Tools will be used for wild life refuge maintenance(3pts)

Note: Satisfactory rating - 5 points Unsatisfactory - below 5 points

Answer Sheet
Score = ___________

Rating: ____________

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 Information Sheet-5 Identifying Environmental Risks and Hazards.

2.5. Identifying Environmental Risks and Hazards.

1. Habitat destruction

Habitat destruction is the process in which natural habitat is rendered functionally unable to
support the species present. In this process, the organisms which previously used the site
are displaced or destroyed, reducing biodiversity. Habitat destruction by human activity
mainly for the purpose of harvesting natural resources for industry production
and urbanization. Clearing habitats for agriculture is the principal cause of habitat
destruction. Other important causes of habitat destruction include mining, logging,
trawling and urban sprawl. Habitat destruction is currently ranked as the primary cause of
species extinction worldwide. It is a process of natural environmental change that may be
caused by habitat fragmentation, geological processes, climate change or by human
activities such as the introduction of invasive species, ecosystem nutrient d elution and other
human activities mentioned below.

The terms "habitat loss" and "habitat reduction" are also used in a wider sense including
loss of habitat from other factors, such as water and noise pollution.

Natural Causes of habitat destruction

Habitat loss and destruction can occur both naturally and through anthropogenic causes.
Events leading to natural habitat loss include climate change, catastrophic events such as
volcanic explosions and through the interactions of invasive and non-invasive species.
Natural climate change, events have previously been the cause of many widespread and
large scale losses in habitat. For example, some of the mass extinction events generally
referred to as the “Big Five” have coincided with large scale such as the Earth entering an ice
age, or alternate warming events. Other events in the big five also have their roots in natural
causes, such as volcanic explosions and meteor collisions. The Chicxulub impact is one
such example, which has previously caused widespread losses in habitat as the Earth either
received less sunlight or grew colder, causing certain fauna and flora to flourish whilst others
perished. Previously known warm areas in the tropics, the most sensitive habitats on Earth,
grew colder, and areas such as Australia developed radically different flora and fauna to
those seen today.

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The big five mass extinction events have also been linked to sea level changes, indicating
that large scale marine species loss was strongly influenced by loss in marine habitats,
particularly shelf habitats . Methane-driven oceanic eruptions have also been shown to have
caused smaller mass extinction events.

Human Impacts of habitat destruction

Since radiating out from its birthplace in Africa, Homo sapiens has been the cause of many
species’ extinction. Due to humans’ propensity to shape and modify their environment, the
habitat of other species often become altered or destroyed as a result of human actions.
Even before the modern industrial era, humans were having widespread, catastrophic effects
on the environment. A good example of this is found in Aboriginal Australians and Australian
mega fauna . Aboriginal hunting practices, which included burning large sections of forest at
a time, eventually altered and changed Australia’s vegetation so much that many herbivorous
mega fauna species were left with no habitat and were driven into extinction. Once
herbivorous mega fauna species became extinct, carnivorous mega fauna species soon
followed. In the recent past, humans have been responsible for causing more extinction
within a given period of time than ever before. Deforestation, pollution, anthropogenic
climate and human settlements have all been driving forces in altering or destroying habitats.
The destruction of ecosystems such as rainforests has resulted in countless habitats being
destroyed. These hotspots are home to millions of habitat specialists, which do not exist
beyond a tiny area. Once their habitat is destroyed, they cease to exist. This destruction has
a follow-on effect, as species which coexist or depend upon the existence of other species
also become extinct, eventually resulting in the collapse of an entire ecosystem. These time-
delayed extinctions are referred to as the extinction debt, which is the result of destroying
and fragmenting habitats. As a result of anthropogenic modification of the environment, the
extinction rate has climbed to the point where the Earth is now within a sixth mass extinction
event, as commonly agreed by biologists. This has been particularly evident, for example, in
the rapid decline in the number of amphibian species worldwide.

The forces that cause humans to destroy habitat are known as drivers of habitat
destruction. Demographic, economic, sociopolitical, scientific and technological, and cultural
drivers all contribute to habitat destruction.

Demographic drivers include the expanding human population; rate of population

increase over time; spatial distribution of people in a given area (urban versus rural),
ecosystem type, and country; and the combined effects of poverty, age, family planning,
gender, and education status of people in certain areas. Most of the exponential human
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population growth worldwide is occurring in or close to biodiversity hotspots. The boom in
human population and migration of people into such species-rich regions are
making conservation efforts not only more urgent but also more likely to conflict with local
human interests .The high local population density in such areas is directly correlated to the
poverty status of the local people, most of whom lack an education and family planning.

The rapid expansion of the global human population is increasing the world’s food
requirement substantially. Simple logic instructs that more people will require more food. The
impending global food crisis will be a major source of habitat destruction. Commercial
farmers are going to become desperate to produce more food from the same amount of land,
so they will use more fertilizers and less concern for the environment to meet the market
demand. Others will seek out new land or will convert other land-uses to agriculture.
Agricultural intensification will become widespread at the cost of the environment and its
inhabitants. Species will be pushed out of their habitat either directly by habitat destruction or
indirectly by fragmentation, degradation, or pollution. Any efforts to protect the world’s
remaining natural habitat and biodiversity will compete directly with humans’ growing
demand for natural resources, especially new agricultural lands.

2. Habitat fragmentation

Habitat fragmentation as the name implies, describes the emergence of discontinuities

(fragmentation) in an organism's preferred environment (habitat), causing population
fragmentation. Habitat fragmentation can be caused by geological processes that slowly alter
the layout of the physical environment (suspected of being one of the major
causes of speciation or by human activity such as land conversion, which can alter the
environment much faster and causes extinctions of many species.

The term habitat fragmentation includes five discrete phenomena:

▪ Reduction in the total area of the habitat

▪ Decrease of the interior : edge ratio
▪ Isolation of one habitat fragment from other areas of habitat
▪ Breaking up of one patch of habitat into several smaller patches
▪ Decrease in the average size of each patch of habitat

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Human causes

Habitat fragmentation is frequently caused by humans when native vegetation is cleared for
human activities such as agriculture, rural development, urbanization and the creation
of hydroelectric reservoirs. Habitats which were once continuous become divided into
separate fragments. After intensive clearing, the separate fragments tend to be very small
islands isolated from each other by cropland, pasture, pavement, or even barren land. The
latter is often the result of slash and burn farming in tropical forests.

Conservation implications

Habitat fragmentation is often a cause of species becoming threatened or endangered. The

existence of viable habitat is critical to the survival of any species, and in many cases the
fragmentation of any remaining habitat can lead to difficult decisions for conservation
biologists. Given a limited amount of resources available for conservation is it preferable to
protect the existing isolated patches of habitat or to buy back land to get the largest possible
continuous piece of land? This ongoing debate is often referred to as SLOSS (Single Large
or Several Small).

One solution to the problem of habitat fragmentation is to link the fragments by preserving or
planting corridors of native vegetation. This has the potential to mitigate the problem of
isolation but not the loss of interior habitat. In rare cases a Conservation reliant species may
gain some measure of disease protection by being distributed in isolated habitats.

Another mitigation measure is the enlargement of small remnants in order to increase the
amount of interior habitat. This may be impractical since developed land is often more
expensive and could require significant time and effort to restore.

The best solution is generally dependent on the particular species or ecosystem that is being
considered. More mobile species, like most birds, do not need connected habitat while some
smaller animals, like rodents, may be more exposed to predation in open land. These
questions generally fall under the headings of Meta population’s island biogeography.

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 Some hazards associated with the wildlife resources

✓ Disease
✓ Global Warming
✓ Habitat Loss
✓ Invasive Species
✓ Over exploitation
✓ Pollutants

Self-Check – 5 Multiple choice.

Name: _________________________ Date: _______________

Directions: Answer all the questions listed below. Use the Answer sheet provided in
the next page. Choose the correct answer (2pts each)

1. _________is the process in which natural habitat is rendered functionally unable to

support the species present.
A. Habitat destruction C. Habitat management
B. Habitat maintenance D. None
2. Habitat loss and destruction can occur due to,
A. Natural causes C. Human factor
B. Anthropogenic causes D. All
3. Which one of the following is demographic drivers of habitat loss?
A. education status of people in certain areas
B. rate of population increase over time
C. spatial distribution of people in a given area
D. All
4. One is not hazards associated with the wildlife resources
A. Disease
B. Global Warming

C. Invasive Species
D. None.

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 5. Habitat fragmentation includes one of the following except,

A. Reduction in the total area of the habitat

B. Increase of the interior
C. Isolation of one habitat fragment from other areas of habitat
Note: Satisfactory rating - 5 points Unsatisfactory - below 5 points

Answer Sheet
Score = ___________

Rating: ____________

Protecting and Maintaining Desirable Animal

Information Sheet-6 species and habitat refuges

2.6. Protecting and Maintaining Desirable Animal species and habitat refuges

Conserve Existing Habitats

One of the most important ways to help threatened plants and animals survive is to
protect their habitats permanently in national park, nature reserves or wilderness areas.

Approach of wildlife habitat refuge maintenance

Plantation of food source plants in open areas, creating artificial water holes, salt
licks, cover etc.
Prescribed cutting, burning or grazing of vegetation to maintain certain
vegetation/succession stage
Maintaining trails watch tower, hides or cleared look-out point for management
purposes or visitor use.
Maintaining open feeding areas or clearing trail side vegetation to render wildlife
more visit able to visitors.
Enhancing soil (fertilizing and liming)
Restoring streams
Creating nest boxes
Installation of the structures including excluding fencing

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 Monitoring pest occurrence, remove pest habitat and trapping pest

Manipulation of wildlife population

❖ Limit population levels.

❖ Reduce competition
❖ Allow for rang extension
❖ Adjust age and sex ratios
❖ Treat for diseases.
❖ Predator control etc.

Protecting Desirable species from any factors

◼ Stopping habitat alteration, which is a primary cause of wildlife extinction; In practice,

this means enforcing conservation laws, renouncing logging concessions, and
controlling tree felling, collection of other forest produce, forest fires and clearing and
burning new farm land. In certain cases, the habitat may require restoration by
artificial means, i.e. seeding, planting or other propagation methods of vital food
plants, clearing and maintenance of grazing grounds.
◼ Extending or increasing protection to migration corridors, breeding sites or roosts or
nesting sites (e.g. provision of nest boxes)
◼ Developing habitat management: This includes all forms of manipulation of the
vegetation to make it more suitable for the species in question.
◼ Actively protecting the endangered species; This involves improving patrols,
controlling illegal hunting and trapping, and adopting special intensive anti-poaching
measures.
e.g. actually guarding animals by day and enclosing them at night as had to be done
with the introduced white rhinos in Kenya’s Meru National park.
◼ Reducing predation of the young by physically excluding potential predators:
e.g. by fencing turtle nests to prevent egg predation by monitor lizards and wild pigs.
◼ Head-starting: This can include artificial hatching of eggs and rearing of young to
reduce early mortalities, but there may be difficulties in releasing the young again as
many species need to imprint on either their parents or their birthplace.
◼ Provisioning’ providing extra food, water, minerals at salt licks and shelters or by
planting favorite food plants is often quite effective and is usually only necessary for a
short period or critical part of the year.

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 Problems may arise if this results in causing unnatural concentrations of animals,
which render them vulnerable to predation or disease.
◼ Controlling or elimination exotic or non-indigenous animals- which may severely
disturb and compete with the indigenous community; such introduced animals are a
major cause of Island extinction.
◼ Controlling or eliminating feral animals (i.e. domestic animals that have run wild) as
they may kill.
◼ Reducing the levels of predators. This is justifiable only if the predators are exotics.
Indeed, the local predators are often the most threatened species of the ecosystem.
Usually predators are actually helping to maintain optimal density and good health in a
prey species by removing sick animals from the population
◼ Controlling disease- High mortality, whether caused by disease, predation, hunting or
poaching, (except for commercial reasons) has rarely led to extinction of a wild life
species
◼ Relocation part of a population: - Where suitable habitats are available, part of the
population of an endangered species should be moved there to avoid the risks of
having only one, or a few, populations of a particular species.
◼ Restocking -This can be used to re-establish a population in areas where it has
become extinct or is very rear by relocating individuals form wild stock elsewhere or
releasing captive-bred animals.
◼ Breeding in captivity, or from seed and sperm banks: This can be a last means to
save a species from extinction. Captive propagation should be carried out in a safe
place, for instance in zoos of good reputation or institutions especially equipped for
propagation endangered species. Captive breeding may also be done on site, in the
species’ own habitat, under rigorous protection.
There may be some problems in capturing wild animals for breeding stock, e.g. shock,
stress, and mortality during immobilization and transportation. The animals’
physiology and behavior may also change in captivity and adversely affect breeding
success.
◼ Creating new legislation: This may be necessary when existing laws are no longer
appropriate to guarantee survival of the species.

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Relevant legislation and local regulation for wild life habitat maintenance

Environmental protection
Threatened species conservation
Humane treatment of sick animals
Apply wildlife habitat modification techniques
Identification and reporting of suspected outbreaks of exotic disease
OHS regulations
Common law principles relating to property, stock, duty of care and due diligence.

Self-Check – 6 Written Test

Name: _________________________ Date: _______________

Directions: Answer all the questions listed below. Use the Answer sheet provided in
the next page.
1. Write down at least four legislation and local regulation for wild life habitat
maintenance (4pts)
2. Mention the mechanisms of protecting desirable species from negative impacts (3pts)
3. What is the importance of Manipulating wildlife animal (3pts)?

Note: Satisfactory rating - 5 points Unsatisfactory - below 5 points

Answer Sheet
Score = ___________

Rating: ____________

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 List of Reference Materials

1. Young, J. (2012) Ethiopian Protected Areas: A “Snapshot”. Word Press, Addis

Ababa, 23.
2. EBI (2014) Ethiopia’s Fifth National Report to the Convention on Biological
Diversity. Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute, Addis Ababa.
3. Wolff, J.V. (1961) Wildlife in Ethiopia. Ethiopian Forestry Review, 2, 3-13.

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