DISTILLATION COLUMNS (or TOWERS)

Distillation columns or towers are constructed to behave in the same way as a series of separate
stills as discussed earlier. Each 'still' section consists of a number of 'TRAYS' or contacting
devices arranged vertically above one another in the column. These trays or contactors bring
liquid and vapour into intimate contact in order to obtain the required separation of the mixture.
The height of the tower and the number of trays or contacting devices it contains, depends upon
the purity of the 'Fractions' required.

Columns for the distillation process can be of the following types:

1. The 'PACKED' Tower

2. The 'TRAY' Tower

1. THE PACKED TOWER

As its name implies, the packed tower is a vertical, steel column which contains 'Beds' of
packing material which are used to bring the rising vapours into intimate contact with falling
liquid within the tower. The heat added to the mixture before entering the tower partially
vaporises the mixture and the vapours rise up the tower and begin to cool.

The liquid falls towards the bottom of the tower. At the tower bottom, in general, more heat is
added to the liquid by a 'Reboiler' which may be steam heated or a fuel fired furnace type.

The addition of heat here causes more vapours to rise up the column. As the two phases of the
mixture - falling liquid and rising vapour - come together, light components are stripped out of
the liquid and enter the gas phase while heavy components in the vapour are condensed into the
liquid phase.

In this way, as the vapour rises and gradually cools, it becomes lighter and, as the liquid falls, it
becomes hotter and heavier.

With this type of distillation column there is generally only a top and bottom product. The
quality of the products depends upon the height of the tower, the number of contacting devices,
the tower temperature and pressure and their control, and the velocity of the rising vapours.

The type of packing materials used, also plays a part in the separation process. The packing can
be of such types as:

Ceramic Raschig Rings, Stainless Steel Pall Rings or Ceramic Saddles .. etc. See Figure: 10.
Figure: 10

2. THE TRAY TYPE TOWER

This is also a tall, cylindrical column. Inside, a series of trays are placed, one above the other.
The trays are used to bring the rising vapour and falling liquid into intimate contact. Tray towers
do the same job as packed towers but they are very much more efficient in the separation process
than packed towers and, they are also more costly. There are various types of tray in use and the
type selected depends upon the degree of product purity required, the type of fluids, fluid
velocity and other process parameters of the system.

The types of tray used in distillation columns are as follows:

1. THE SIEVE TRAY is simply a metal plate containing drilled holes through which the
rising vapour can pass into the liquid flowing across the tray. Figure: 11
2. THE VALVE TRAY is similar to the sieve type but, each hole is fitted with a flapper
valve which opens as vapour passes through the hole. This type is used where vapour
velocity is not constant and the valves prevent liquid from dumping through the holes at
times of low gas velocity. Figure: 12
3. THE BUBBLE-CAP TRAY is the most efficient separation device but, is also the most
costly. It consists of a number of 'Chimneys' or 'Risers' (small, short pipes set into the
tray), through which the vapour can pass. Fitted over the riser is a 'Cap' which causes the
rising vapour to turn through 180 °. This forces the gas to 'Bubble' through the liquid
flowing across the tray. The liquid level on the tray is maintained below the top of the
riser to prevent dumping of liquid down the tower. Figure: 13

Each of the above trays also has a 'WEIR' that maintains the liquid level on the tray. As the
liquid flows over the weir, it enters a 'DOWNCOMER' - (a short pipe), that carries the liquid
down to the tray below. The downcomer outlet is below the surface of the liquid on the tray
below, acting as a seal to prevent gas from bypassing the tray above.
Figure: 11

The liquid is prevented from dumping through the perforations by the velocity of the up-flowing
gas passing through them. The 'WEIR' maintains the liquid level on the tray and the gas is forced
to bubble through the liquid. This gives intimate contact between the gas and liquid.

With the 'VALVE' tray, a non-return valve is fitted over each hole. This will close due to the
weight of liquid at times of low gas velocity.

See Figure: 12

OPERATION OF VALVE TRAYS

Figure: 12

OPERATION OF BUBBLE-CAP TRAYS

Figure: 13
Figure: 14

SIMPLE CONTINUOUS DISTILLATION PROCESS

Refer to Figure: 14, as you read on. This represents a basic Crude Oil distillation column where
the feed to, and the products from, the unit is a continuous operation.
In the distillation process, the crude oil feed is first heated by exchanging heat with some of the
hot products leaving the column. This cools the products and, at the same time reduces the fuel
requirements in the main heater - the fuel fired furnace.

The hot feed now enters the tower into the 'Flash Zone'. At this point, due to the greatly
increased volume of the column, the lighter components of the crude oil ' Flash Off ' (vaporise),
and rise up the column. The hot liquid will fall towards the column bottom.

The bottom section of the column, below the Flash Zone, called the 'Stripping Section', contains
trays - generally Bubble-cap or Sieve type. The tower bottom liquid is re-circulated & re-heated
in a steam or fired 'Reboiler' which drives off vapours of light ends and some of the heavy ends
contained in the liquid. These vapours rise upwards through the trays and contact the down-
flowing liquid. This action further removes (strips out), light ends from the liquid.

The top section of the tower, above the flash zone, is called the 'Rectifying Section'. Here again,
the rising vapour passing through the trays, contacts the liquid flowing across them.

Action of the Trays Each tray in the tower is acting like a single still as discussed in 'Batch
Distillation'. As we rise above the flash zone, each succeeding tray is slightly cooler than the tray
below.

The down-flowing liquid, as it passes across the trays is becoming hotter and heavier as light
ends boil off into the vapour phase. Conversely, the rising vapour is becoming cooler and lighter
as heavier ends condense into the liquid on the tray.

The down-flowing liquid is called 'Internal Reflux' and works in the same way as in Figure: 7
(Page 14), where the liquid is returned to the preceding still.

At pre-determined points in the column, the process conditions (mainly temperature and
pressure), are such that, the liquid components are at the required purity to meet the specification
desired as a product - like 'Kerosene' for example. At these points, the tower will contain
'Collecting Pans' from which the desired product can be drawn from the tower.

The lightest components of the crude oil mixture leave the top of the tower as vapour. This is fed
through condensers - generally water-cooled -and the condensate, usually Naphtha and water,
passes into the 'Overhead Receiver or Accumulator'.

In the receiver, light gases also build up. The control of these gases, (to a fuel system or flare),
also controls the pressure on the distillation process at the required level.

The Naphtha liquid forms an interface above the water. The water is drained away under control,
to disposal. The Naphtha, also under level control, is divided into two - some is returned to the
tower top tray as 'External Reflux' which is used to control the tower top temperature and thereby
help to control the naphtha quality.

The remaining naphtha from the receiver is piped to storage and / or to other processes. The
products leaving the side of the column -called 'Side-streams', are usually passed through
'Stripping Towers' where an injection of superheated steam removes final traces of light ends to
meet the specification required for the product. The light ends and steam are passed back into the
tower.

The control of the quality of the side-stream products is generally helped by a controlled flow of
'Intermediate Reflux' of some of the product into the column just above the section producing the
product.

The side-stream products pass from the stripping towers through feed / product exchangers and
water coolers to storage.

The tower bottom product as already mentioned, is reheated in a reboiler to remove light ends
and to provide stripping gases in the tower. The final bottom product, such as heavy fuel oil is
pumped away via feed/product heat exchangers and water coolers to storage. In some distillation
systems, superheated steam may be injected into the tower bottom to assist the stripping process.

Crude oil distillation is often carried out under vacuum conditions. The vacuum is produced by
pulling the overhead vapour from the tower by steam ejectors via surface condensers.

The explanation of crude oil separation given above, is that of a basic system. Crude oils also
produce chemicals, waxes, gasolines, lubricants and many other products in everyday use.

DISTILLATION COLUMN CONTROL

1. REFLUX RATIO
2. TEMPERATURE GRADIENT
1. REFLUX RATIO

The reflux to a tower top is used to control the top temperature thereby controls the purity of the
overhead product.

The amount of reflux compared to the product is known as the 'Reflux Ratio'.

An example of this is as follows:

The overhead liquid from a distillation column is divided into 4 m3 per hour reflux and 2 m3 per
hour product. Therefore:

When reflux ratio is increased, the amount of reflux increases. Reflux represents cooled,
condensed top product returned to the tower top and, as such it is being reprocessed. The top
product will therefore be purer. In general, the higher the reflux ratio, the fewer the number of
trays required for a given separation.

However, too high a ratio may cause flooding in the tower resulting in poor separation and
causing 'off-spec' products throughout the system. The reflux rate is normally controlled by a
temperature controller in the vapour outlet which operates a control valve in the reflux pump
discharge. An increase in tower top temperature will cause the valve to open, increasing the
reflux rate, and vice versa.

2. TEMPERATURE GRADIENT

Temperature (and pressure) control of a distillation tower will govern the purity of the products.
The control of top temperature is as discussed above in 'reflux'. Control of the feed inlet
temperature and that of the reboiler are also very important.

Again, if feed and bottom temperatures are too high, too much heavy vapour will rise up the
tower and put side-stream products off-spec. This condition, combined with high reflux rate will
again lead to flooding and poor separation. Opposite conditions can lead to liquid starvation
across the trays and again, a very upset process will result.

The careful control of top temperature, feed and reboiler temperatures, together with pressure
control, will give the desired temperature profile across the tower.

Remember, changes in pressure will affect the boiling points of the components in the crude oil.
The vapour pressures therefore, will also be affected and again, if the control parameters are
incorrect, the system will be inefficient.

Examples:

 High top temperature will result in heavy components in the overhead product.
  Low top temperature will result in a lighter top product.
 High feed temperature will give heavier side-streams and vice-versa.
 High reboiler temperature will produce heavier bottoms product and pass heavier vapours up
the tower to affect the side-streams.
 Increased pressure in the system will give lighter components in the overhead LIQUID product
and decrease its Initial Boiling Point, whereas the FBP is governed by the tower top
temperature.

It can be seen that careful, accurate control of the variables is very important in order to achieve
the required quality control of the products.

Also, with regard to the purity of the side-streams, control of the stripping towers' steam supply
is very important.

A further point is, that high water content in the crude feed will cause pressure surges as the
water vaporises in the tower. The crude oil should be as water free as possible.

Many modern distillation units are operated under high vacuum. This method, due to the vacuum
decreasing the BP's of the components of the mixture to be separated, also reduces the amount of
heat energy needed to vaporise the components.

VACUUM DISTILLATION TOWER OVERHEADS SYSTEM

Figure: 15

In the above diagram, the surface condenser is a 'Total Condensing' unit. This means that all
fluids that can be condensed are changed to liquid. Due to this, a vacuum is formed in the tower
the level of which depends upon the degree of condensation allowed to take place. This is
governed by the level of distillate and how much of the condensing surface is covered. The
liquid level and therefore the amount of condensing surface available will decide the level of
vacuum (Absolute Pressure) of the system.

The PRC is therefore controlling the available condensing area on the cooling tubes. Increasing
absolute pressure (decreasing vacuum), will open the control valve, the liquid level in the
condenser will fall thus presenting more condensing area to the vapour. More vapour will
condense and therfore the pressure will drop back again - and vice-versa.

A small quantity of uncondensible gases will tend to build up in the tower and the surface
condenser which, if allowed to build up, will slowly destroy the vacuum.

The ejector is used to remove the uncondensibles which are passed into the separator after
passing through the ejector condenser which condenses the ejector steam – thus helping to
maintain the vacuum, while the uncondensed gases are fed via a check-valve or control valve to
atmosphere or flare system. The barometric seal loop holds a head of liquid which will prevent
the vacuum pulling gases back out of the separator.