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Distributed Energy Resources
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1. Write down the current status and future trends of DG Technology.

Ans: With the world’s growing energy demand and the growing shortage of traditional fossil
energy resources in addition to consequent environmental pollution, the rapid development of
micro-power energy generation technology, distributed generation technology and storage
energy technology as the representative of new energy and renewable energy has been taking
place. Distribution generation generally means small power units based on the new energy and
renewable energy which is installed near load. Distributed energy includes renewable energy
sources such as hydropower, wind energy, solar energy, biological energy, geothermal energy
and ocean energy. Distributed Renewable energy system (DREs) includes power, cooking,
heating, and cooling systems that generate and distribute services independently of any
centralized system, in both rural and urban areas of the country. DREs can serve as a
complement to centralized energy generation system or as a substitute. They offer an
unprecedented opportunity to accelerate the transition to modern energy services in remote and
rural areas, while also offering co-benefits. Such co-benefits include improved health, a
contributions to climate change mitigation as well as positive effects on income growth,
women’s empowerment and distributive equity. They can provide affordable lighting, enhance
communications and facilitate greater quality and availability of education. DREs as well as
hybridization of existing min-grids may also reduce dependence on fossil fuel imports. DREs
constitute a variety of technologies, some with more market experience and penetration than
others and some in the stages of more rapid development than others. More traditional
technologies include internal and external combustion engines and Combined Heat and Power
(CHP). CHP has seen enhancements in recent years, but costs have generally not come down
as rapidly as other technologies like PV and energy storage. However, the market for CHP is
expected to grow with an increased focus on resiliency and continued financial and educational
outreach and support provided by the government programs. PV has seen rapid development
over the past two decades in terms cost reduction and performance as has energy storage.
Expectations are that these trends will continue. While micro-grids have existed on ships for
decades, their implementation in the electricity grid are relatively recent phenomenon. Today
however commercial applications are developing. Fuel cell technology is being under research
for development in many applications in the future. Various types of renewable energy
resources are discussed below:
a) Biomass energy: Biomass consists of all organic material originating from plants, trees and
crops and is essentially the collection and storage of the sun’s energy through
photosynthesis. Biomass energy is the conversion of biomass into useful forms of energy
such as heat, electricity and biofuels. Biomass from bioenergy comes either directly from
the land, such as from dedicated energy crops or from residues generated in the processing
of crops for food and other products. Biomass energy is renewable and sustainable but
shares characteristics will fossil fuels. A recently emerging biorefinery and
biotransformation technology is used to convert biomass feedstock into clean energy fuels.
The utilization of biomass derived fuels will greatly mitigate current energy security and
trade balance issues, and foster socio-economic developments for many nations. In contrast
to the benefits, there are significant barriers to biomass energy facilities. Biomass fuels
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have low energy densities and collection and transformation costs are very high. Globally,
installed biomass plant capacity rose from 66GW in 2010 to 72 GW by the end of 2011
and annual average growth rate of about 5% in 2012, the accumulated capacity reached 76
GW. In the long term, biomass and waste power generation could grow from62GW in 2010
to 270 GW in 2030. (Source: www.irena.org. Biomass for power generation, 2012, June).
b) Geothermal energy:
Geothermal energy is a powerful and efficient way to extract renewable energy from the
core of earth by natural processes. It can be used on a small scale to provide heat for resident
unit or a large scale for energy production through geothermal power plant. Geothermal
systems occur in different geological environments where the temperatures and depths of
the reserviours vary accordingly. Geothermal energy resources have been used directly for
heat or CHP in cogeneration applications and electrical power generation. The US has the
largest geothermal capacity with installed capacity of 3.6 GW followed by Philippines
(1.9GW), Indonesia (1.6 GW) and New Zealand (1 GW) (Source: Global Status report
2016).
c) Solar energy:
Solar energy generations involves the use of the sun’s energy to provide hot water via solar
thermal energy systems or electricity via solar photovoltaic (PV) and concentrating solar
power (CSP) systems. Solar PV leads power generating capacity and is considered a cost
competitive source of new generation in many emerging markets across the world. Solar
photovoltaic generation is divided into isolated photovoltaic and grid connected
photovoltaic system. At the end of 2015, approximately 70 countries worldwide had some
off-grid solar capacity installed or programs in place to support off-grid solar applications
(Source: Global status report 2016, REN21). The smallest solar PV systems are pico-PV
systems (1-10Wp) which can power small lights, low power appliances or mobile phone
charging stations. They replace kerosene lamps and battery powered flashlights. Solar
Home System (SHS) provide electricity to off grid households for lightening, radio,
television, refrigeration and access to the internet. For larger systems, larger solar panels,
higher battery capacity and inverters to supply ac power are used. Bangladesh has the
largest market for SHS in the world with the average growth rate of 60% annually over the
past decade with 60,000 households being connected to SHS every month. As of early
2015, India, China, Nepal had installed over 2 million systems collectively. Concentrating
solar power system ranges from small distributed system of tens of KW to large centralized
power stations of hundreds of MW. The biggest hurdle at present is the high price of solar
cells which accounts over 60% of the price of the whole solar PV generation system. Many
research works haven been undergoing for technologies with cheap price, high efficiency,
high reliability, high stability and long lifetime ad focus subjects.
d) Wind power generation technology:
Wind power is one of the most important emerging renewable technologies. It started in
the 1980s with a few tens of Kilowatt production power to today with multi- MW size wind
turbines that are being installed. It has been divided into two broad categories:1) constant
speed constant frequency(CSCF) and 2) variable speed constant frequency(VSCF). VSCF
power generation has gradually become the mainstream technology of the current wind
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power generation as it has the merits of capturing the maximum limit wind power, wide
rotational speed movement scope, flexible adjustment of the system active and reactive
power as well as advanced PWM control. Small scale wind turbine (≤ 100 KW) often are
used to produce electricity for farms, home and small business; off-grid applications
include rural electrification, telecommunication and hybrid systems with diesel and solar
PV. As of the end of 2016, the worldwide total cumulative installed electricity
generation capacity from wind power amounted to 486,790 MW, an increase of 12.5%
compared to the previous year.
e) Micro hydro power technology:
Micro and pico-hydro power stations as small as 1KW are constructed to provide local
communities with affordable electricity. It is estimated that in 2015, in Nepal around 1,300
micro-hydro plants 1,600 pico-hydro systems were in operation for the combined capacity
Of 27.7 MW.
Apart from above described distributed technologies, other technologies such as fuel cell,
gas turbine, micro-turbines are also developed and are further progress works are being
studied.
In recent years, distributed generation system of PV, wind power, fuel cell, storage systems
has been studied further and different technical analysis and issues have been presented for
the future development. Research works have been carried out for the power quality
improvement and energy management of DREs. There are issues in the operation control
of micro-grid and grid integration of distributed energy system. The development of new
technologies are required for the optimal operation and control of micro-grid operation
during isolated or utility connected mode. The development of new hybrid distributed
energy systems and smart grid have been carried out for further progress and
implementation.
Globally, distribution power installations and investments are on the rise. By 2020, $ 206
million will be invested annually. Distributed power applications will account for 42% of
global capacity additions (Source: General Electric, Diesel and Gas Turbine Worldwide
European PV Industry Association).
2. In a recent year Distributed Generation Penetration (DG) in distribution system is

increased rapidly. Optimal placement of DG reduces losses and improves voltage profiles of
the power system. But at the same time there are several issues related to DG penetration.
As an electrical power engineer point out different issues related to DG and at least explain
one of them in detail.
Ans: Distribution system are generally designed to operate without any generation at customer
loads position. The introduction of generation sources on the distribution system can
significantly impact the flow of power and voltage conditions at customers and utility
equipment. These impacts may manifest themselves either positively or negatively depending
on the distribution system operating characteristics and the DG characteristics. The positive
impacts of DG are:
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 Voltage support and improved power quality

 Loss reduction
 Transmission and distribution capacity release
 Improved utility system reliability
Achieving above benefits is in practice much more difficult than is often realized. The DG
sources must be reliable, dispatchable, of the proper size and at the proper location. They
must meet various other operating criteria. The power system operations may be adversely
impacted by the introduction of DG if certain minimum standards for maintained. The
issues of penetration of DG in distribution system can be divided as technical issues and
commercial issues. Various technical issues that arise due to DG penetration in distribution
system are given below:
 Voltage regulation
 Voltage flicker
 Harmonic distortion
 Islanding
 Grounding compatibility
 Overcurrent protection
 Capacity limits
 Reliability
 Change in power flow
 Power conditioning
 Power quality
 Stability
 Losses
 Change in short circuit capacity
 Regulatory issues
Issues on voltage regulation:

Radial distribution systems regulate the voltage by the aid of load tap changing
transformers (LTC) at substations, additionally by line regulators on distribution feeders
and shunt capacitors on feeders or along the line. Voltage regulation is based on one way
power flow where regulators are equipped with line drop compensation.
The connection of DG may result in changes in voltage profile along a feeder by changing
the direction and magnitude of real and reactive power flows. Nevertheless, DG impact on
voltage regulation can be positive or negative depending on distribution system and
distributed generator characteristics as well as DG location.
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Figure: Example of DG unit interfering with voltage regulation on a distribution feeder.
In above figure, the DG is installed downstream the LTC transformer which is equipped with a
line drop compensator (LDC). It is shown that the voltage becomes lower on the feeder with DG
than without the DG installed in the network. The voltage regulator will be deceived, setting a
voltage lower than is required for sufficient service. The DG reduces the load observed from the
load compensation control side, which makes the regulator to set less voltage at the end of the
feeder. This phenomenon has the opposite effect to which is expected with the introduction of DG
(voltage support).
There are two possible solutions facing this problem: the first solution is to move the DG unit to
the upstream side of the regulator, while the second solution is adding regulator controls to
compensate for the DG output.
The installation of DG units along the power distribution feeders may cause overvoltage due to
too much injection of active and reactive power. For instance, a small DG system sharing a
common distribution transformer with several loads may raise the voltage on the secondary side,
which is sufficient to cause high voltage at these customers [3]. This can happen if the location of
the distribution transformer is at a point on the feeder where the primary voltage is near or above
the fixed limits; for instance: ANSI (American National Standards Institute) upper limit 126+ volts
on a 120 volt base.
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During normal operation conditions, without DG, voltage received at the load terminals is lower
than the voltage at the primary of the transformer. The connection of DG can cause a reverse power
flow, maybe even raising the voltage somewhat, and the voltage received at the customer´s site
could be higher than on the primary side of the distribution transformer. For any small scale DG
unit (< 10MW) the impact on the feeder primary is negligible. Nonetheless, if the aggregate
capacity increases until critical thresholds, then voltage regulation analysis is necessary to make
sure that the feeder voltage will be fixed within suitable limits.
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3. Discuss about the challenges and opportunities regarding Distributed Generation

development in Nepal.
Ans: Nepal is rich in renewable energy resources. In Nepal, with an increase in population,
agricultural and industrial activities, the demand of energy is also increasing. The energy demand
is increasing not only due to population growth but also due to the people’s access to new utilities
in the market. However, Nepal has one of the lowest per capita energy consumption rates
(14.06GJ) in the world. Despite endowed with huge natural resources, Nepal has not been able to
tap its vast energy resources for the benefit of the country. According to recent report of the Asian
Development Bank (ADB), the demand for power in Nepal has increased steadily with an annual
average growth rate of 8.5 % over the past decade, and is estimated to grow at least by 7.5%
annually until 2020. However, the current energy generation trend shows that meeting this
anticipated energy demand is likely impossible. It is reported that approximately 10% of the total
energy demand in Nepal is met at present by imported petroleum products at a cost of over 40%
of Nepalese total merchandise export. Despite great potential for hydropower development, power
sector development has been constrained due to lack of visionary leadership, inefficient
bureaucracy, insurgency, and most profoundly the corrupt mentality of the political stakeholders.
Nepal has one of the most expensive power tariffs in the world despite having the huge free water
resources, favorable terrain for its production and all kinds of human resource available in the
country. There is need of more diversification of energy sources. Distributed energy generation is
essential to provide energy to the people of rural areas who are derived from utility power and are
reliant on traditional energy resources. Moreover, DREs will also help to meet the increased energy
demand and improve the power quality in urban areas. Some specific opportunities associated with
distributed generation in Nepal are:
 The rapid and unmanageable growth of major urban centers to some extent is linked to
availability of various forms of energy. Migration toward urban areas provides people with
a better quality of life through energy interventions. By providing energy services to
smaller towns and rural areas, the urban migration could be controlled to a considerable
extent in Nepal.
 Increasing the private sector participation in the renewable energy development and
dissemination, and promoting competition in the service provision could help in enhancing
the accessibility of technology to the consumers, reducing the cost and improving the
quality of service.
 Widespread application of alternative energy technologies like biogas, micro/pico-hydro,
solar, wind power and biofuels/bioenergy has tremendous potential in utilizing local
resources and reducing GHG emission by developing countries; thereby creating
possibilities of carbon trading in the global market. The revenue generated could be
deployed for further research, development and dissemination of renewable energy
systems in the developing countries.
 Neighboring countries-China and India are emerging global economic superpowers. China
will become the number one energy consumer over the next quarter-century and its energy
demand will increase by 75% between 2008 and 2035. India will also face increasing
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energy demands. Nepal with its enormous potential for hydropower generation could
become a major energy exporter to its neighbors.
 Moreover, development of indigenous energy resources and the diversification of the
energy supply can reduce long-term dependence on imported petroleum fuels and likely to
lower national debts, thereby improving the national economy.
The implementation of distributed energy system still remains a big challenge for the
decentralization of energy system in the country. There are economical, social and
technical challenges for the development of DG in Nepal. Based on the analysis of the
current situation of the country, some of the major challenges for the development and
dissemination of DG are given below:
 Policy barrier:
•Low priority given to DREs in national planning and weak implementation framework
•Weak environmental regulations
•Fossil fuel subsidies
•Absence of feed-in tariff structure
•Lack of incentives for private sector involvement and inconsistent policies
 Economic barrier:
•Small economies of scale, high initial capital costs, and long payback periods
•High perceived risks and uncertainties
•High installation costs at the end user level
•Lack of access to credit and insufficient government financial support
•Limited knowledge on market potential
 Technical barrier:
•Lack of standardized technology
•Limited local manufacturing of specialized equipment
•Limited technical capacity to design, install, operate, manage and maintain renewable
based modern energy system
•Technological constraints for reliable and comprehensive mapping
 Information barrier:
•Lack of quality information about DRE resources and technologies, equipment suppliers,
and potential financiers
•Inadequate training and capacity building
•Insufficient information available on DREs and EE for policy making and mobilizing civil
society
 Human Resource Barrier:
•Insufficient expertise in business management and marketing skills
•Limited in-country capacity for RE data collection, analysis, and project development
•Lack of expertise and services in system design, installation, operation and maintenance
of DREs and EE technologies
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 Political barrier:
•Political instability in the country has greatly constrained the development of energy
sector.
•Frequent changes in the political system and subsequent changes in the governments have
adversely affected long term planning and policy formulation for the development of
nation.
4. Define:
 Sun:
Sun is the ultimate energy source for the earth. It is an everlasting renewable energy source
that pours life-giving light, heat, and energy on Earth. Sun is mostly compose of 70%
Hydrogen and 28% Helium. Deep in the sun's core, nuclear fusion reactions convert
hydrogen to helium, which generates energy. In addition to light, the sun radiates heat
and a steady stream of charged particles known as the solar wind. Photovoltaic and solar
thermal technologies harvest some of that energy now and will grow in both usage and
efficiency in the future. The Sun’s energy warms the planet’s surface, powering titanic
transfers of heat and pressure in weather patterns and ocean currents. The resulting air
currents drive wind turbines. Solar energy also evaporates water that falls as rain and builds
up behind dams, where its motion is used to generate electricity via hydropower. The
source of insolation, 1.4 million kilometer diameter, thermonuclear furnace fusing
hydrogen atoms into helium. The resulting loss of mass is converted into about
3.8×1020MW of electromagnetic energy that radiates outward from the surface into space.
 Solar Spectrum:
The energy in solar irradiation comes in the form of electromagnetic waves of a wide
spectrum. Longer wavelengths have less energy (for instance infrared) than shorter ones
such as visible light or UV. The spectrum can be depicted in a graph, the spectral
distribution, which shows the relative weights of individual wavelengths plotted over all
wavelengths, measured in W / m (wavelength). The diagram displays the spectrum of a sun
ray just outside the entry into the earth’s atmosphere. The peak of the spectrum is within
the visible spectrum, but there are still significant amounts of shorter and longer
wavelengths present.
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Figure: solar radiation spectrum
Some important facts about solar spectrum:

 About half of the energy is in the visible wavelengths below 0.7 μm.
 O3 and O2 absorb much of the UV irradiance below 300nm high in the atmosphere.
 About 70% of the visible irradiance makes it all the way to sea level.
 O3 absorbs a little of the visible irradiance.
 A significant fraction of the visible irradiance is scattered by clouds and aerosol. Some is
reflected back out into space so that this portion never deposits energy in the Earth system.
 There are large wavelength bands in which water vapor, CO2, and O3 absorb infrared
irradiance.
 Spectrum solar impedance:

Impedance measurements of solar cells are performed over a wide range of frequencies
which typically cover 1 MHz to < 0.1Hz. The impedance is complex number and hence
are presented in Nyquist plot and Bode plot.
 Declination angle:
The angle formed between the plane of the equator and line drawn from the center of the
sun to the center of the earth is called the solar declination. The declination angle, denoted
by δ, varies seasonally due to the tilt of the Earth on its axis of rotation and the rotation of
the Earth around the sun. The maximum declination is on summer solstice (June 22nd,
23.45°), the minimum on winter solstice (December 21st, -23.45°), and is equal to 0 during
two equinoxes (March 21st and September 22nd). Angle of declination is given by:
360
δ = 23.45𝑠𝑖𝑛 [365 (𝑛 − 81)]
Where, n=number of days
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Figure: angle of declination variation throughout the year
 Hour angle:
The Hour Angle converts the local solar time (LST) into the number of degrees which the
sun moves across the sky. By definition, the Hour Angle is 0° at solar noon. Since the Earth
rotates 15° per hour, each hour away from solar noon corresponds to an angular motion of
the sun in the sky of 15°. In the morning the hour angle is negative, in the afternoon the
hour angle is positive.
Hour angle, H=150 (LST-12)
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑧
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐻 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠δ
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿𝑠𝑖𝑛ϕ
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐻 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿𝑐𝑜𝑠ϕ
H = hour angle
α = altitude angle
Az = azimuth angle
δ = declination angle
ϕ = observer’s angle
 Local apparent time:

Local apparent time is taken as reference or the calculation of angles. It is also local noon
time or solar time. It is the time at which sun becomes overhead at a given location.
Apparent solar time is measured upon the basis of the apparent motion of the real
Sun. This is why we use the term apparent when we measure time using the apparent Sun.
When the Sun is directly over our local meridian (directly overhead), we say that
it is noon, local apparent time. When it is directly over the meridian that is 180° (on the
opposite side of Earth) away from ours, it is mid night local apparent time. If Earth
remained stationary in space, all the days reckoned by apparent time would be of the same
length. But Earth travels in an elliptical orbital round the Sun, and its speed relative to the
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Sun varies with its position in its orbit. Consequently, the time required
for a complete revolution of Earth on its axis, although constant as applied to points on
Earth, varies regarding Earth relative to the Sun. The length of a day measured by a
complete revolution of Earth with regard to the Sun, also varies. For this reason it is
impractical for man-made time pieces to keep apparent time; another solution had to be
figured to account for these unequal lengths of time.
Twelve noon local solar time (LST) is defined as when the sun is highest in the sky. Local
time (LT) usually varies from LST because of the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit, and
human adjustments such as time zones and daylight saving. Local mean time is a form of
solar time that corrects the variations of local apparent time, forming a uniform time scale
at a specific longitude. Its uniformity depends only on the accuracy of the clocks used to
measure it.
 Surface azimuth angle:
The azimuth angle (ϕs) is the compass direction from which the sunlight is coming. The
azimuth angle varies throughout the day. At the equinoxes, the sun rises directly east and
sets directly west regardless of the latitude, thus making the azimuth angles 90° at sunrise
and 270° at sunset. In general, the azimuth angle varies with the latitude and time of the
year. The location of the sun at any time of day can be described in terms of its altitude
angle b and its azimuth angle fs. By convention, the azimuth angle is positive in the morning
with the sun in the east and negative in the afternoon with the sun in the west. The azimuth
angle uses true south as its reference.
The altitude angle β and azimuth angle ϕs are related by:

Sin β= cosL cosδ cosH + sinL sinδ
𝑐𝑜𝑠δsinH
𝑠𝑖𝑛ϕ𝑠 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽
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 Average daily global radiation:

The total energy received from sun in a unit surface area in a day on the earth is daily global
radiation.
The monthly average daily global radiation on a horizontal surface Hga is given as:
𝐻𝑔𝑎 𝑆𝑎
= 𝑎 +𝑏𝑆
𝐻0𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑎
Where, H0a is a monthly average extraterrestrial solar radiation at horizontal

surface, Sa and Smax a are the monthly average daily sunshine hours and maximum
possible sunshine hours at a given location. Here, a and b are constants.
For a given day of month average global solar radiation is given by:
24 360𝑛
𝐻0 = 𝑆 [(1 + 0.033𝑐𝑜𝑠 ] (𝜔𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑠 )
𝜋 365
If S is in W/m2, H0 will be in W-h/m2. Here, ωs is the sunset and sunrise hour angle.
 Solar constant:
The total power radiated by black body is given by Stefan-Boltzman law:
P = σꜪT4
Ꜫ = emissivity of black body
σ = Stefan-Boltzman constant
T= temperature of sun’s surface in Kelvin
If T=5760 K, total power emitted by sun is about 3.8×1030 W or 6.25×1011 W/m2. As the
distance between sun and earth is very large, the amount of solar radiation that reaches just
outside the earth’s atmosphere is quite low. It is only 1367 W/m2. This number is called
solar constant. The solar constant, is the energy from the sun per unit time, received on a
unit area of surface perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the radiation at the
earth's mean distance from the sun outside the atmosphere.
 Irradiance:
Irradiance refers to the rate of energy received by a surface per unit area. It is the flux of
solar energy. Its unit is W/m2.
5. What are the major components of a photovoltaic system? Explain with a neat diagram the
working of a solar cell?
Ans: PV system consists of different components functioning differently. Its major components
functions are described below:
Solar Arrays
Photovoltaic cells are the basic fundamental power units which converts the solar irradiation to
electricity using the semiconductor technologies. Usually, these photovoltaic cells are small in size
and power about 1W to 2W of power. These photovoltaic cells are connected together to form
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larger units called modules. Modules, in turn, are connected in parallel and series to form larger
units called panels and arrays to produce electric power that meets almost any electric need. Solar
arrays are tilted to a certain angle from the horizontal level to capture more solar irradiation. This
titled angle varies with season and location. In context of Kathmandu, Nepal, the tilted angle varies
from 10o in summer to 46o in winter and in annual yield, the tilted angle is 30o. (Source: PVsyst
software). This map shows the amount of solar energy in hours, received each day on an optimally
tilted surface during the worst month of the year.
Battery Bank
Battery Bank is a storage medium of PV system which makes energy available at nights and no
sun day (days of autonomy). Usually the lead-acid batteries are used in PV system because of their
high performance, long life time and cost effectiveness. Good deep-cycle batteries (lead-acid
batteries) can be expected to last for 5 to 15 years.
Charge Controller
Charge controller is electronics device which primary function is to regulate the power form solar
arrays to charge in the batteries. Its purpose is to keep batteries properly fed and safe for the long
term. Charge controllers block reverse current and prevent battery from overcharged. Most of
charge controllers have DC load connection where, the DC load can be connected to it as shown
in figure 2.1. It also prevent battery over discharge, protect from electrical overload, and/or display
battery status and the flow of power
Inverters
Inverters are the power electronics devices which converts the low DC voltage to usable AC
voltage. There are mainly two types of inverters depending upon the output wave form: square
wave inverters and pure sine wave inverters. Square wave inverters are generally used for the
resistive load like heater and filaments bulbs whereas pure sine wave inverters are used for any
type of lead. The efficiency of the inverters is up to 93%.
Solar
Irradiation
Solar Arrays Charge DC

Controller Load
Battery Bank
Inverter
AC
Figure: Standalone PV System
Load
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Working of a Solar cell:

A simple solar cell is a pn junction diode. The schematic of the device is shown in figure 1. The n
region is heavily doped and thin so that the light can penetrate through it easily. The p region is
lightly doped so that most of the depletion region lies in the p side. The penetration depends on
the wavelength and the absorption coefficient increases as the wavelength decreases. Electron hole
pairs (EHPs) are mainly created in the depletion region and due to the built-in potential and electric
field, electrons move to the n region and the holes to the p region. When an external load is applied,
the excess electrons travel through the load to recombine with the excess holes. Electrons and holes
are also generated with the p and n regions, as seen from figure 5.4. The shorter wavelengths
(higher absorption coefficient) are absorbed in the n region and the longer wavelengths are
absorbed in the bulk of the p region. Some of the EHPs generated in these regions can also
contribute to the current. Typically, these are EHPs that are generated within the minority carrier
diffusion length, Le for electrons in the p side and Lh for holes in the n side. Carriers produced in
this region can also diffuse into the depletion region and contribute to the current. Thus, the total
width of the region that contributes to the solar cell current is Wd + Le + Lh, where Wd is the
depletion width. This is shown in figure 5.2. The carriers are extracted by metal electrodes on
either side. A finger electrode is used on the top to make the electrical contact, so that there is
sufficient surface for the light to penetrate. The arrangement of the top electrode is shown in figure
5.3. Consider a solar cell made of Si. The band gap, Eg, is 1.1 eV so that wavelength above 1.1 µm
is not absorbed since the energy is lower than the band gap. Thus any λ greater than 1.1 µm has
negligible absorption. For λ much smaller than 1.1 µm the absorption coefficient is very high and
the EHPs are generated near the surface and can get trapped near the surface defects. So there is
an optimum range of wavelengths where EHPs can contribute to photocurrent, shown in figure
5.2.
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Figure 5.1: Principle of operation of a pn junction solar cell. Radiation is absorbed

in the depletion region and produces electrons and holes. These are separated by
the built-in potential. Depending on the wavelength and the thickness different parts
of the device can absorb different regions of the solar spectrum.
Figure 5.2: Photogenerated carriers in a solar cell due to absorption of light.

W is the width of the depletion region, while Lh and Le are minority carrier
diffusion lengths in the n and p regions. The amount of absorption reduces
with depth and hence the depletion region must be close to the surface to
maximize absorption. This is achieved by having a thin n region.
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Figure 5.3: Finger electrodes on a pn junction solar cell. The design consists of a single bus
electrode for carrying current and finger electrodes that are thin enough so that sufficient
light can be absorbed by the solar cell.
Figure 5.4: (a) pn junction solar cell under illumination with an external load. The
equivalent circuit (b) without and (c) with an external load. The illumination causes a
photocurrent to flow through the external circuit. When an external load is applied the
potential drop across it creates a forward bias current that opposes the photocurrent.
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6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of photovoltaic solar energy conversion?
Ans: Solar energy has become the trending topics in energy sector in 21st century. The
technology has been improved considerably, turning into significantly efficient source of
clean energy. There are advantages and some demerits of solar PV system which are given
below:
Advantages of solar energy conversion:
1) Renewable energy source:
Among all the benefits of solar PV, the most important thing is that solar energy is a truly
renewable energy source. It can be harnessed in all areas of the world and is available every
day. We cannot run out of solar energy, unlike some of the other sources of energy. Solar
energy will be accessible as long as we have the sun.
2) Reduces Electricity Bills:

Since you will be meeting some of your energy needs with the electricity your solar
system has generated, your energy bills will drop. How much you save on your bill will be
dependent on the size of the solar system and your electricity or heat usage. Moreover, not
only will you be saving on the electricity bill, but if you generate more electricity than you
use, the surplus will be exported back to the grid and you will receive bonus payments for
that amount (considering that your solar panel system is connected to the grid). Savings
can further grow if you sell excess electricity at high rates during the day and then buy
electricity from the grid during the evening when the rates are lower.
3) Diverse Applications:
Solar energy can be used for diverse purposes. You can generate electricity (photovoltaics)
or heat (solar thermal). Solar energy can be used to produce electricity in areas without
access to the energy grid, to distill water in regions with limited clean water supplies and
to power satellites in space. Solar energy can also be integrated into the materials used for
buildings. Transparent solar energy windows haven been made.
4) Low Maintenance Costs:

Solar energy systems generally don’t require a lot of maintenance. You only need to keep
them relatively clean, so cleaning them a couple of times per year will do the job. Most
reliable solar panel manufacturers give 20-25 years warranty. Also, as there are no moving
parts, there is no wear and tear. The inverter is usually the only part that needs to changed
after 5-10 years because it is continuously working to convert solar energy into electricity
(solar PV) and heat (solar thermal). Apart from the inverter, the cables also need
maintenance to ensure your solar power system runs at maximum efficiency. So, after
covering the initial cost of the solar system, you can expect very little spending on
maintenance and repair work.
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5) Technology Development:
Technology in the solar power industry is constantly advancing and improvements will
intensify in the future. Innovations in quantum physics and nanotechnology can potentially
increase the effectiveness of solar panels and double, or even triple, the electrical input of
the solar power systems.
6) Solar power provides energy reliability: The rising and setting of the sun is extremely
consistent. All across the world, we know exactly when it will rise and set every day of the
year. While clouds may be a bit less predictable, we do also have fairly good seasonal and
daily projections for the amount of sunlight that will be received in different locations. All
in all, this makes solar power an extremely reliable source of energy.
7) Solar power provides energy security: On top of the above reliability benefit, no one can
go and buy the sun or turn sunlight into a monopoly. Combined with the simplicity of solar
panels, this also provides the notable solar power advantage of energy security.
8) Solar power creates jobs: As a source of energy, solar power is a job-creating
powerhouse. Money invested in solar power creates two to three times more jobs than
money invested in coal or natural gas.
Disadvantages of solar energy conversion are:
1) Cost:
The initial cost of purchasing a solar system is fairly high. Nevertheless, solar technologies
are constantly developing, so it is safe to assume that prices will go down in the future.
2) Weather Dependent:
Although solar energy can still be collected during cloudy and rainy days, the efficiency of
the solar system drops. Solar panels are dependent on sunlight to effectively gather solar
energy. Therefore, a few cloudy, rainy days can have a noticeable effect on the energy
system. You should also take into account that solar energy cannot be collected during the
night. On the other hand, if you also require your water heating solution to work at night
or during wintertime, thermodynamic panels are an alternative to consider.
3) Solar Energy Storage Is Expensive:

Solar energy has to be used right away, or it can be stored in large batteries. These batteries,
used in off-the-grid solar systems, can be charged during the day so that the energy is used
at night. This is a good solution for using solar energy all day long but it is also quite
expensive.
4) Uses a Lot of Space:

The more electricity you want to produce, the more solar panels you will need because you
want to collect as much sunlight as possible. Solar panels require a lot of space and some
roofs are not big enough to fit the number of solar panels that you would like to have. An
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alternative is to install some of the panels in the yard or fields but they need to have access
to sunlight.
5) Associated with Pollution:

Although pollution related to solar energy systems is far less compared to other sources of
energy, solar energy can be associated with pollution. Transportation and installation of
solar systems have been associated with the emission of greenhouse gases. There are also
some toxic materials and hazardous products used during the manufacturing process of
solar photovoltaics, which can indirectly affect the environment.
7) Draw the schematic layout of solar local grid to supply AC loads along with stand by
inverter. Also explain the operating phenomena.
Ans: The solar PV system to supply ac loads with standby inverter is shown in the diagram
and the operation of different components are given below:
Battery Bank
PV arrays Charge Inverter

Controller
Standby Distribution AC
Inverter board Load
PV arrays Charge
Controller Inverter
Battery Bank Figure: Stand-alone Solar PV system
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The solar PV system consists of PV generator, charge controller, battery bank and inverter. PV
generator consists of PV arrays formed by the series and parallel connection of solar cells. The
operating point of solar cells are chosen in such a way that maximum power is delivered to the
load. PV generator converts solar radiation into dc electricity. Battery bank is used to store the
excess energy generated during day to meet the load demand during night period. Controller circuit
is used fully charge a battery without permitting overcharge or reverse current flow. The charge
controller is a control element that manages the energy flow to PV system, batteries, and loads by
collecting information on the battery voltage and knowing the maximum and minimum values
acceptable for the battery voltage. Maximum power point tracking controllers are more efficient
to track maximum power. The dc power generated form PV arrays is converted into ac power by
inverter to supply ac loads. An inverter is dc/ac converter which takes input dc voltage and
produces output ac voltage. The standby inverter is also used which comes in operation when any
of the inverter is damaged or capacity is limited to supply ac loads making service more reliable.
8. How solar home system can be connected to 3-phase grid supply? Explain with a suitable
schematic diagram.
Ans: The schematic of PV connected to grid is shown in figure 8.1. The principal components in
a grid-connected, home size PV system consists of the array itself with the two leads from each
string sent to a combiner box that includes blocking diodes, individual fuses for each string, and
usually a lightning surge arrestor. Two heavy-gauge wires from the combiner box deliver dc power
to a fused array disconnect switch, which allows the PVs to be completely isolated from the system.
The inverter sends ac power, usually at 240 V, through a breaker to the utility service panel. By
tying each end of the inverter output to opposite sides of the service panel, 120-V power is
delivered to each household circuit. Additional components not shown include the maximum
power point tracker (MPPT), a ground-fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) that shuts the system down
if any currents flow to ground, and circuitry to disconnect the PV system from the grid if the utility
loses power. The system may also include a small battery bank to provide back-up power in case
the grid is down. The inverter, some of the fuses and switches, the MPPT, GFCI, and other power
management devices are usually integrated into a single power conditioning unit (PCU). An
alternative approach to the single inverter system shown in figure 8.2 is based on each PV module
having its own small inverter mounted directly onto the backside of the panel. These ac modules
allow simple expansion of the system, one module at a time, as the needs or budget dictate. Another
advantage is that the connections from modules to the house distribution panel can all be done
with relatively inexpensive, conventional 120- or 240V ac switches, breakers, and wiring.
Currently available module-mounted inverters are designed to work with individual 24-V modules,
or with pairs of 12-V modules wired in series. For large grid-connected systems, strings of PV
modules may be tied into inverters in a manner analogous to the individual inverter/module
concept as shown in figure 8.3. By doing so, the system is modularized, making it easier to service
portions of the system without taking the full array off line. Expensive dc cabling is also minimized
making the installation potentially cheaper than a large, central inverter. Large, central inverter
systems providing three-phase power to the grid are also an option.
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Figure 8.1: Principal components in a grid-connected PV system using a single inverter
Figure 8.2: AC modules each have their own inverters mounted on the backside of the
collector, allowing simple system expansion at any time.
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Figure 8.3: (a) Large grid connected system may use an individual inverter for each string
or (b) may incorporate a large, central inverter system to provide three-phase power.
9. Discuss on different wind turbines.

Ans: Wind turbines are usually classified into two categories, according to the orientation
of the axis of rotation with respect to the direction of wind.
i) Vertical-axis turbines ii) Horizontal-axis turbines
i) Vertical-axis wind turbine (VAWT): The first wind mills were built based on the vertical-
axis structure. This type has only been incorporated in small-scale installations. Typical
VAWTs include the Darrius rotor. The axis of rotation of vertical axis wind turbine
(VAWT) is vertical to the ground and almost perpendicular to the wind direction. The
VAWT can receive wind from any direction. Hence complicated yaw devices can be
eliminated. The generator and the gearbox of such systems can be housed at the ground
level, which makes the tower design simple and more economical. Moreover the
maintenance of these turbines can be done at the ground level. For these systems, pitch
control is not required when used for synchronous applications. Advantages of the VAWT
are:
• Easy maintenance for ground mounted generator and gearbox
• Receive wind from any direction (no yaw control required)
• Simple blade design and low cost of fabrication
Disadvantages of a vertical-axis wind turbine are:
• Not self-starting, thus, require generator to run in motor mode at start
• Lower efficiency (the blades lose energy as they turn out of the wind)
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• Difficulty in controlling blade over-speed

• Oscillatory component in the aerodynamic torque is high
Darrieus rotor:
Darrieus rotor, named after its inventor Georges Jeans Darrieus, works due to the lift force
generated from a set of airfoils. In the original design the blades are shaped like egg beaters
or troposkein (turning rope) and are under pure tension while in operation. This typical
blade configuration helps in minimizing the bending stress experienced by the blades.
There are several variations in the Darrieus design of which some are with straight vertical
blades, usually called Giromills. Darrieus rotor usually works at high tip speed ratio which
makes it attractive for wind electric generators. However, they are not self-starting and
require external ‘excitation’ to cut-in. Moreover, the rotor produces peak torque only twice
per revolution.
Savonius rotor:
The Savonius wind turbine, invented by S.J. Savonius, is a vertical axis machine consisting
of two half cylindrical (or elliptical) blades arranged in ‘S’ shape. Convex side of one of
the half cylinder and the concave side of the other are facing the wind at a time as shown
in. The basic driving force of Savonius rotor is drag. The drag coefficient of a concave
surface is more than the convex surface. Hence, the half cylinder with concave side facing
the wind will experience more drag force than the other cylinder, thus forcing the rotor to
rotate. Sometimes two or more rotors fixed one over the other at 900 offset may be used to
smoothen the torque fluctuations during rotation. Another way to improve the performance
is to attach deflector augmenters with the rotor. The augmenter shades the convex half
facing the wind and directs the flow to the concave half thus enhancing the performance.
Being drag machines, Savonius rotors have relatively lower power coefficient. However,
some experimental rotors have shown power coefficient upto 35 per cent. These rotors
have high solidity and thus high starting torque.
They work at low tip speed ratios, with the maximum of about 1. They are very simple in
construction-even can be made from oil barrels cut in two halves lengthwise. Hence they
are preferred for high torque-low speed applications like water pumping.
ii) Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT): The most common design of modern turbines
is based on the horizontal-axis structure. Horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWT) have their
axis of rotation horizontal to the ground and almost parallel to the wind stream. Horizontal-
axis wind turbines are mounted on towers. The tower’s role is to raise the wind turbine
above the ground to intercept stronger winds in order to harness more energy. Depending
on the number of blades, horizontal axis wind turbines are further classified as single
bladed, two bladed, three bladed and multi bladed. Single bladed turbines are cheaper due
to savings on blade materials. The drag losses are also minimum for these turbines.
However, to balance the blade, a counter weight has to be placed opposite to the hub. Single
bladed designs are not very popular due to problems in balancing and visual acceptability.
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Two bladed rotors also have these drawbacks, but to a lesser extent. Most of the present
commercial turbines used for electricity generation have three blades. They are more stable
as the aerodynamic loading will be relatively uniform. Machines with more number of
blades (6, 8, 12, 18 or even more) are also available. The ratio between the actual blade
area to the swept area of a rotor is termed as the solidity. Hence, multi-bladed rotors are
also called high solidity rotors. These rotors can start easily as more rotor area interacts
with the wind initially. Some low solidity designs may require external starting.
Advantages of the HAWT:
• Higher efficiency
• Ability to turn the blades
• Lower cost-to-power ratio
Disadvantages of the horizontal-axis:
• Generator and gearbox should be mounted on a tower, thus restricting servicing.
• More complex design required due to the need for yaw or tail drive.
The HAWT can be classified as upwind and downwind turbines based on the direction of
receiving the wind. In the upwind structure the rotor faces the wind directly, while in
downwind structure, the rotor is placed on the lee side of the tower. The upwind structure
does not have the tower shadow problem because the wind stream hits the rotor first.
However, the upwind needs a yaw control mechanism to keep the rotor always facing the
wind. On the contrary, the downwind may be built without a yaw mechanism. However,
the drawback is the fluctuations due to the tower shadow.
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Figure: various types of wind turbines
10. What is BETZ limit? Explain it with necessary mathematical aids.

Ans: The maximum theoretical power efficiency of rotor of horizontal axis wind turbine
is 59.3%. This limit for the efficiency of rotor is called BETZ limit.
Consider the upwind velocity of the undisturbed wind is v, the velocity of
the wind through the plane of the rotor blades is vb, and the downwind velocity
is vd. The mass flow rate of air, say ṁ, within the stream tube is same everywhere.
The power extracted by the blades Pb is equal to the difference in
kinetic energy between the upwind and downwind air flows:
1
𝑃𝑏 = 2 ṁ (𝑣 2 − 𝑣𝑑2 ) [1]
Figure: Wind turbine extracts the kinetic energy of from approaching wind to form
stream tube as shown.
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The easiest spot to determine mass flow rate is ṁ at the plane of the rotor where
we know the cross-sectional area is just the swept area of the rotor A. The mass
flow rate is given as:
ṁ = ρAvb [2]
If we now make the assumption that the velocity of the wind through the plane of the rotor
is just the average of the upwind and downwind speeds (Betz’s derivation actually does
not depend on this assumption), then we can write
1 𝑣+𝑣𝑑
𝑃𝑏 = 2 𝜌𝐴 ( ) (𝑣 2 − 𝑣𝑑2 ) [3]
2
To help keep the algebra simple, let us define the ratio of downstream to upstream
wind speed to be λ:
𝑣𝑑
𝜆= [4]
𝑣
Substituting equation 4 into 3 gives,
1 𝑣 + 𝑣𝑑
𝑃𝑏 = 𝜌𝐴 ( ) (𝑣 2 − 𝜆2 𝑣 2 )
2 2
1 1
= 2 𝜌𝐴𝑣 3 [2 (1 + 𝜆) (1 − 𝜆2 )] [5]
Equation 5 shows that the power extracted from the wind is equal to the
upstream power in the wind multiplied by the quantity in brackets. The quantity
in the brackets is therefore the fraction of the wind’s power that is extracted by
the blades, i.e. it is the efficiency of the rotor, denoted as Cp.
1
Rotor efficiency, 𝐶𝑝 = 2 (1 + 𝜆)(1 − 𝜆2 ) [6]
The power delivered by the rotor is:

1
𝑃𝑏 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 3 . 𝐶𝑝 [8]
2
To find the maximum possible rotor efficiency, we take the derivative of [6] with respect
to λ and set it equal to zero:
𝑑𝐶𝑝 1
= 2 [(1 + 𝜆)(−2𝜆) + (1 − 𝜆2 )] = 0 [9]
𝑑𝜆
1
⇒ [(1 + 𝜆)(−2𝜆) + (1 + 𝜆)(1 − 𝜆)] = 0
2
1
⇒ 2 [(1 + 𝜆)(1 − 3𝜆)] = 0
Which has solution

𝑣𝑑 1
𝜆= = [10]
𝑣 3
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It show that the blade efficiency will be a maximum, if it slows the wind to one-third of its
undisturbed, upstream velocity.
If we now substitute λ =1/3 into the equation for rotor efficiency [6], we find that the
theoretical maximum blade efficiency is
1 1 1 16
Maximum rotor efficiency = (1 + ) (1 − ) = 27 = 0.593=53.9%
2 3 32
This conclusion, that the maximum theoretical efficiency of a rotor is 59.3%, is called the
Betz efficiency or, sometimes, Betz’ law. Wind turbine can approach 80% of this limit
under the best operating conditions. A plot showing this maximum occurring when the
wind is slowed to one-third its upstream rate, is shown in figure.
0.7
0.6
0.5
Blade efficiency
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Vd/V
Figure: The blade efficiency vs Vd/V graph shows efficiency reaches a maximum
when the wind is slowed to one-third of its upstream value.
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11. What are the factors affecting wind and Turbine performance?
Ans: The factors affecting wind turbine performance are given below:
1. Annual Average wind speed:
It is an important factor determining annual energy output. In general, if the wind speed is
higher, the rotor speed will become faster, so the output energy will be increased. On the
contrary, when wind speed is lower, the rotor will become slower.
2. Tower Height:
If the tower is taller, the wind speed will be higher and so as the energy output. If the tower
is shorter, the wind speed will be lower and the same is to the energy output.
3. Air Density:
When air density is lower, the strength of the wind will be weaker, and the starting wind
speed and rated wind speed will be increased, and as a result the annual energy output will
be less. On the contrary, when air density is higher, the annual energy output will be more.
4. Wind shear exponent:
It is a parameter that can measure the wind speed and installing height. The best hub height
can be chosen depending on it. If the wind shear exponent is too big, the wind load on the
swept area of the blade will be imbalanced, which will lead the blades and nacelle to a
shorter life span and operating security problems.
5. Installing Height:
The turbine can be installed on the ground or on the roof, which can also affect the output
energy. So the turbine installed on the roof can operate better with the help of the height of
the building than on the ground at the same condition.
6. Swept area of the turbine:

The larger the swept area (the size of the area through which the rotor spins), the more
power the turbine can capture from the wind. Since swept area is πD2 /4, where D =
diameter of the rotor, a small increase in blade length results in a larger increase in the
power available to the turbine.
7. Annual valid operating period:
As is known to all, when the operating period is longer, the annual energy output will be
more. By contrast, when the operating period is shorter, the output energy will be also less.
8. External Temperature:
Within the temperature range from -20 degrees to 50 degrees, the wind turbine can operate
regularly. However, when the temperature is beyond this range, it will influence the output
energy. If the temperature is too high, the air density will be low, which will lessen the
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energy output. If the temperature is too low, the blades and other parts might be frozen,
and the wind turbine will stop working.
12. What is wind rose? What information can be drawn from this? Explain.
Ans: Wind rose is a chart which indicates the distribution of wind in different directions.
The chart is divided into 8, 12 or even 16 equally spaced sectors representing different
directions. Wind roses provides information about the velocity and direction of wind. Three
types of information can be presented in a wind rose. (1) The percentage of time for which
we receive wind from a particular direction. This can show us the direction from which we
get most of our wind. (2) The product of this percentage and the average wind velocity in
this direction. This tells us the average strength of the wind spectra. (3) The product of
time percentage and cube of the wind velocity which helps us in identifying the energy
available from different directions. Typical wind roses for a location are shown in figure
12.1.
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Figure 12.1: Wind roses showing the distribution of frequency, velocity and
energy in different directions
This shows the frequency with which the wind direction falls within each direction sector.
The wind direction and changes in it are determined by geography, global and local
climatic conditions and by the rotation of earth. Locally, the wind direction will vary with
the lateral turbulence intensity and for coast near locations; in particular, the wind direction
can vary between day and night. Though the yaw system of the wind turbine will hold the
rotor in the direction of the mean wind direction, short-term fluctuations in the wind
direction give rise to fatigue loading. At high wind speeds sudden changes in the wind
direction during production can give rise to extreme loads.
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Figure 12.2: Wind speed frequency using Weibull distribution
13. What is Tip Speed Ratio? Discuss the effect of number of rotor blades on the TSR.
Ans: The ratio between the velocity of the rotor tip and the wind velocity is termed as the
tip speed ratio. It is given by
𝑅Ω 2Π𝑁𝑅
Tip speed ratio (λ) = = [1]
𝑉 𝑉
Where Ω is the angular velocity and N is the rotational speed of the rotor. The power
coefficient and torque coefficient of a rotor vary with the tip speed ratio. There is an
optimum λ for a given rotor at which the energy transfer is most efficient and thus the
power coefficient is the maximum (Cpmax).
Now, let us consider the relationship between the power coefficient and the tip speed ratio.
2𝑃𝑇
𝐶𝑝 = [2]
𝜌𝑎 𝐴𝑇 𝑉 3
2𝑇𝑇
We have, 𝐶𝑇 = [3]
𝜌𝑎 𝐴𝑇 𝑉 2 𝑅
Divide [2] by [3], we get
𝐶𝑇 𝑅Ω
= = 𝜆
𝐶𝑝 𝑉
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Thus, the tip speed ratio is given by the ratio between the power coefficient and torque
coefficient of the rotor.
Number of blades in a rotor is directly related to the design tip speed ratio. The higher the
tip speed ratio, the lower would be the number of blades. Figure below gives a guideline
for choosing the number of blades based on the design tip speed ratio.
Figure: Number of blades and design tip speed ratio
The optimal TSR depends on the number of rotor blades, n, of the wind turbine. The smaller
the number of rotor blades, the faster the wind turbine must rotate to extract the maximum
power from the wind. For an n-bladed rotor, it has empirically been observed that s is
approximately equal to 50 percent of the rotor radius. Thus by setting:
2𝜋 𝑟 4𝜋
𝜆𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 = ( )≈
𝑁 𝑠 𝑛
For n = 2, the optimal TSR is calculated to be 6.28, while it is 4.19 for three-bladed rotor,
and it reduces to 3.14 for a four-bladed rotor. With proper airfoil design, the optimal TSR
values may be approximately 25 – 30 percent above these values. These highly-efficient
rotor blade airfoils increase the rotational speed of the blade, and thus generate more power.
Using this assumption, the optimal TSR for a three-bladed rotor would be in the range of
5.24 – 5.45. Poorly designed rotor blades that yield too low of a TSR would cause the wind
turbine to exhibit a tendency to slow and stall. On the other hand, if the TSR is too high,
the turbine will rotate very rapidly, and will experience larger stresses, which may lead to
catastrophic failure in highly-turbulent wind conditions.
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14. What are the environment impacts of wind turbines?

Ans: Although wind is one of the cleanest sources of energy and does not pollute the
environment with harmful gases during its energy conversion process, wind energy
systems pose some environmental problems. The environmental impacts of wind turbines
are explained below:
i) Avian issues:
Birds and bats may collide with wind turbines, as they do with any structures on their route.
It is by the late 1980’s that the impact of wind turbines on avian population has become an
issue of concern. Studies conducted at the large wind resource area at the Altamont pass,
located 90 km east of San Francisco, California, indicated high levels of bird mortality due
to collision with wind turbines. The species at stake were raptors and golden eagles, which
are present round the year at this area. Reports of this avian mortality from the Altamont
pass has raised serious concerns to both the environmentalists and wind farm developers,
in the ensuing years. Experiences from the Altamont pass was exaggerated and
extrapolated. As a result, even the proposals for wind energy projects at other sites were
guarded, fearing that the proposed future developments may also have similar impacts on
the ecosystem. Several studies on the effect of wind turbines on avian population.
Once the site for a wind plant is identified, the potential effect of the proposed wind farm
development on the birds of concern should be systematically studied. If the available
information in this regard is not sufficient to establish the biological suitability of the site,
we should conduct onsite monitoring and surveys using appropriate methods and metrics.
All the bird groups of special concern, including the breeding, migrating and wintering
species, should be included in such studies. Apart from the mere number of birds and its
distribution in the wind farm area, the functional behavior of the species in the region
should also be included in the analysis.
ii) Noise emission:
Wind turbines also create some noise during their operation like any other rotating
mechanical systems. The noise was a severe problem with the turbine designs in the 80’s.
During that time, environmental impacts of wind energy was not a matter of concern as it
is today. Some of the turbines constructed during this period was quite noisy and could
annoy people even at far away distance. In the later years, the noise emission from wind
turbines has attracted more attention form the environmental groups, regulatory authorities
and the wind turbine industry. A number of design modification followed in the preceding
years and as a result, the modern wind turbine is a much quieter piece of machinery. Any
unwanted sound can be considered as noise. The noises generated by a wind turbine may
be tonal, broad band, low frequency or impulsive. Tonal noises have discrete frequencies
whereas the broad band noises have continuous frequency above a level of 100 Hz. The
turbine may also produce noises with low frequency ranging from 20-100 Hz along with
those due to momentary acoustic impulses. The magnitude of noise can be expressed either
in terms of sound power level or sound pressure level. The sound power level indicates the
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acoustic power with which the noise is emitted from the source whereas the sound pressure
tells us the intensity of noise experienced by the listener located at a given point.
ii) Visual impact:
Another environmental concern of wind farm development is its impact on scenic beauty
of the landscapes. Wind turbines are tall structures installed in open areas which make them
visually prominent in the landscape. The turbines may dominate our sight up to 2 km or
even more. They are often felt to be an important element in the landscape even up to a
distance of 5 km. As “beauty lies in the viewer’s eyes”, some may like the sight of a wind
turbines, generating energy in an environment friendly way near to their area. However,
we must not forget that there may be some people who might consider the turbine as ‘a box
on a long stick’ erected to ruin the scenic beauty of the landscape. Hence, the turbines
should be naturally integrated to the landscape to make them visually attractive and
acceptable. The value that one assign to the landscape and its surroundings is an important
factor in molding his opinion on the wind farm. The aesthetics value of a landscape is
judged in terms of its visual, historical, ecological, socio-cultural, religious and
mythological importance. Hence it is advisable to assess the sensitivity of the landscape
towards these factors, before going for a wind farm project. There are several methods to
establish the aesthetic sensitivity of a landscape. Use of these techniques in conjunction
with the public opinion surveys can give us an indication on the appropriateness of a site
for wind farm installation. Many local permitting authorities have already quantified the
sensitivity of their landscapes using these methods, which are available for the developers
for assessing the suitability of their project.
During its rotation, blades of the turbine may cast shadows intermittently, which results in
flickering effect on the surrounding areas. This ‘disco’ effect may cause annoyance to the
people residing very close to the farm. The intensity of shadow casting depends on the
rotor speed and direction, number of bright sunshine hours and the geographical location
of the installation. Estimating the shape, location and time of the shadow, based on all these
factors is a tedious process for which computer programmes are being used. Shadow
casting is not a very serious problem in wind farm management as this will affect only a
small area, very close to the turbine. Interference with TV and radio signals was a problem
with earlier turbines with metallic blades. However, with the introduction of composite
blade materials such as fiber glass and plastics, this problem is minimized in modern
turbines.
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15. What is cut in speed and cut out speed? Describe wind power curve.
Ans:
Cut in speed: The minimum wind speed at which wind turbine will generate usable power
is called cut in speed. The cut-in velocity varies from turbine to turbine, depending on its
design features. However, in general, most of the commercial wind turbines cut-in at
velocities between 3 to 5 m/s.
Cut out speed: The wind turbine will be stopped at high wind speeds above, say 25 m/s,
in order to avoid damaging the turbine. The stop wind speed is called the cut out wind
speed or furling speed. At very high wind speeds, typically between 45 and 80 mph, most
wind turbine ceases power generation and shut down. Having cut out speed is the safety
feature which protects the wind turbine form damage.
Wind Power Curve:
The wind power curve is shown below:
Figure: Ideal power curve of a pitch controlled wind turbine

One of the major factors affecting the performance of a WECS is its power response to
different wind velocities. This is usually given by the power curve of the turbine. The
power curve of the machine reflects the aerodynamic, transmission and generation
efficiencies of the system in an integrated form.
Figure above shows the typical power curve of a pitch controlled wind turbine. The
rated power of the turbine is 1 MW. The given curve is a theoretical one and in practice we
may observe the velocity power variation in a rather scattered pattern. We can see that the
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important characteristic speeds of the turbine are its cut-in velocity (VI), rated velocity (VR)
and the cut-out velocity (VO). The cut-in velocity of a turbine is the minimum wind velocity
at which the system begins to produce power. It should not be confused with the start-up
speed at which the rotor starts its rotation. The cut-in velocity varies from turbine to turbine,
depending on its design features. However, in general, most of the commercial wind
turbines cut-in at velocities between 3 to 5m/s. Due to technical and economical reasons,
the wind turbine is designed to produce constant power-termed as the rated power (PR)
beyond its rated velocity. Thus, the rated velocity of a turbine is the lowest wind velocity
corresponding to its rated power. Usually the system efficiency is maximum at VR. From
VI to VR, the power generated by the turbine increases with the wind velocity. Between VR
and V0, the turbine is restricted to produce constant power PR corresponding to VR,
irrespective of the changes in velocity. This power regulation is for better system control
and safety. Hence PR is the theoretical maximum power expected from the turbine. At wind
velocities higher than VO, the machine is completely shut down to protect the rotor and
drive trains from damage due to excessive loading. Some times V0 is also termed as the
furling velocity, as in the earlier sail type machines the canvas was rolled up to protect the
mill from strong winds. Hence, the turbine has four distinct performance regions as
indicated in Table below. The power produced by the system is effectively derived from
performance regions corresponding to VI to VR and VR to V0. Let us name these as region
1 and 2. The velocity-power relationship in the region 1 can be expressed in the general
form:
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑎𝑉 𝑛 + 𝑏 [1]
where a and b are constants and n is the velocity-power proportionality. Now

consider the performance of the system at VI and VR. At VI, the power developed
by the turbine is zero. Thus
𝑎𝑉𝐼𝑛 + 𝑏 = 0 [2]
At VR power generated is PR. That is:
𝑎𝑉𝑅𝑛 + 𝑏 = 𝑃𝑅 [3]
Solving Eqs. [2] and [3] for a and b and substituting in Eq. [1] yields
𝑉 𝑛 −𝑉 𝑛
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑃𝑅 𝑉 𝑛−𝑉𝐼𝑛 [4]
𝑅 𝐼
Eq. [4] gives us the power response of the turbine at wind velocities falling under the region
1. Obviously, the power corresponding to the region 2 is PR.
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Table: Performance regions of wind turbine
Velocity range Power

0 to VI No power as the system is idle
VI to VR Power increases with V
VR to V0 Constant power PR
Greater than V0 No power as the system is shut down
16. What are wind power control strategies beyond rated wind speed? Describe their
features and operating curves.
Ans: There are three aerodynamic methods to control the capture of power for large wind
turbines: passive stall, active stall, and pitch control.
Passive-Stall Control: In passive-stall-controlled wind turbines, the blade is fixed onto the
rotor hub at an optimal (rated) angle of attack. When the wind speed is below or at the rated
value, the turbine blades with the rated angle of attack can capture the maximum possible
power from the wind. With the wind speed exceeding the rated value, the strong wind can
cause turbulence on the surface of the blade not facing the wind. As a result, the lifting
force will be reduced and eventually disappear with the increase of the wind speed, slowing
down the turbine rotational speed. This phenomenon is called stall. The stall phenomenon
is undesirable for airplanes, but it provides an effective means to limit the power capture
to prevent turbine damage. The operating principle of the passive-stall control is illustrated
in figure1 below, where the lift force produced by higher than rated wind, which is the stall
lifting force Fw,stall, is lower than the rated force Fw,rated.
Figure16.1: Passive stall with rated and above rated wind speeds
The blade profile is aerodynamically designed to ensure that stall occurs only when the
wind speed exceeds the rated value. To ensure that the blade stall occurs gradually rather
than abruptly, the blades for large wind turbines are usually twisted along the longitudinal
axis by a couple of degrees. The passive-stall-controlled wind turbines do not need
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complex pitch mechanisms, but the blades require a complex aerodynamic design. The
passive stall may not be able to keep the captured power PM at a constant value, as shown
in figure 16.2(a). It may exceed the rated power at some wind speeds, which is not a
desirable feature.
Active-Stall Control: In active-stall turbines, the stall phenomenon can be induced not
only by higher wind speeds, but also by increasing the angle of attack of the blade. Thus,
active-stall wind turbines have adjustable blades with a pitch control mechanism. When
the wind speed exceeds the rated value, the blades are controlled to turn more into the wind,
leading to the reduction of captured power. The captured power can, therefore, be
maintained at the rated value by adjusting the blade angle of attack. A qualitative example
of the active-stall principle is illustrated in Figure 16.3. When the blade is turned
completely into the wind, as shown in the dashed blade, the blade loses all interaction with
the wind and causes the rotor to stop. This operating condition can be used above the cut-
out wind speed to stop the turbine and protect it from damage. With active-stall control, it
is possible to maintain the rated power above the rated wind speed, as can be appreciated
in Figure 16.2(b). Active-stall controlled large megawatt wind turbines are commercially
available.
Figure 16.2: Typical turbine mechanical power versus wind speed curves with
stall and pitch control.
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Figure 16.3: Active-stall control with rated and above-rated wind speeds.
Pitch Control:
Similar to the active-stall control, pitch-controlled wind turbines have adjustable blades on
the rotor hub. When the wind speed exceeds the rated value, the pitch controller will reduce
the angle of attack, turning the blades (pitching) gradually out of the wind. The pressure
difference in front and on the back of the blade is reduced, leading to a reduction in the
lifting force on the blade. The operating principle of the pitch control is illustrated in Figure
16.4. When the wind is below or at the rated speed, the blade angle of attack is kept at its
rated (optimal) value αR. With higher than the rated wind, the angle of attack of the blade
is reduced, causing a reduction in lift force, Fwpitch. When the blade is fully pitched, the
blade angle of attack is aligned with the wind, as shown by the dashed blade in Figure 4(b),
and no lift force will be produced. The turbine will stop rotating and then be locked by the
mechanical brake for protection. The performance of the pitch control is given in Figure
4(b), where the mechanical power of the turbine operating at above the rated wind speed
can be tightly controlled. Both pitch and active-stall controls are based on rotating actions
on the blade, but the pitch control turns the blade out of the wind, leading to a reduction in
lift force, whereas the active-stall control turns the blades into the wind, causing
turbulences that reduce the lift force. The passive-stall technology was mainly used in the
early fixed-speed wind turbines. This technology was further developed into the active-
stall technology. The pitch control reacts faster than the active-stall control and provides
better controllability. It is widely adopted in today's large wind energy systems.
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Figure 16.4: Aerodynamic pitch-control principle.
17. How to track maximum power point in wind energy generation?

Ans: The control of a variable-speed wind turbine below the rated wind speed is achieved
by controlling the generator. The main goal is to maximize the wind power capture at
differenct wind speeds, which can achieved by adjusting the turbine speed in such a way
that the optimal tip speed ratio λT,optm is maintained. Figure 17.1 shows the typical
characteristics of a wind turbine operating at different wind speeds, where P M and ωM are
the mechanical power and mechanical speed of the turbine, respectively. The PM versus ωM
curves are obtained with the blade angle of attack set to its optimal value. For a given wind
speed, each power curve has a maximum power point (MPP) at which the optimal tip speed
ratio λT,optm is achieved. To obtain the maximum available power from the wind at different
wind speeds, the turbine speed must be adjusted to ensure its operation at all the MPPs.
The trajectory of MPPs represents a power curve, which can be described by
PM α ωM3 [1]
The mechanical power captured by the turbine can also be expressed in terms of the torque
PM = TM ωM [2]
Where TM is the turbine mechanical torque. Substituting (1) into (2) yields
TM α ωM2 [3]
The relations between the mechanical power, speed, and torque of a wind turbine can be
used to determine the optimal speed or torque reference to control the generator and achieve
the MPP operation. According to the power curve illustrated in Figure 17.1, the operation
of the wind turbine can be divided into three modes: parking mode, generator-control
mode, and pitch-control mode.
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Figure 17.1: Wind turbine power-speed characteristics and maximum

power point (MPP) operation.
i) Parking mode: When the wind speed is below cut-in speed, the turbine system
generates less power than its internal consumption and, therefore, the turbine is kept
in parking mode. The blades are completely pitched out of the wind, and the
mechanical brake is on.
ii) Generator-control mode: When the wind speed is between the cut-in and rated
speed, the blades are pitched into the wind with its optimal angle of attack. The
turbine operates with variable rotational speeds in order to track the MPP at
different wind speeds. This is achieved by the proper control of the generator.
iii) Pitch-control mode: For higher than rated wind speeds but below the cut-out limit,
the captured power is kept constant by the pitch mechanism to protect the turbine
from damage while the system generates and delivers the rated power to the grid.
The blades are pitched out of the wind gradually with the wind speed, and the
generator speed is controlled accordingly.
Several control schemes have been developed to perform the maximum power point
tracking (MPPT) which are described below:
a) MPPT with Turbine Power Profile: One of the maximum power point tracking methods
is based on the power versus wind speed curve provided by the manufacturer for a given
wind turbine. The power curve defines the maximum power that can be produced by the
turbine at different wind speeds. A simplified control block diagram with this method is
illustrated in Figure 17.2. The wind speed is measured in real time by a wind speed sensor.
According to the MPPT profile provided by the manufacturer, the power reference P* is
generated and sent to the generator control system, which compares the power reference
with the measured power Pm from the generator to produce the control signals for the power
converters. Through the control of power converters and generator, the mechanical power
Pm of the generator will be equal to its reference in steady state, at which the maximum
power operation is achieved. It is noted that the power losses of the gearbox and drive train
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in the above analysis are neglected and, therefore, the mechanical power of the generator
Pm is equal to the mechanical power PM produced by the turbine.
Figure 17.2: Maximum power control with wind turbine power profile
b) MPPT with Optimal Tip Speed Ratio: In this method, the maximum power operation
of the wind turbine is achieved by keeping the tip speed ratio to its optimal value λT,optm.
The principle of this control scheme is shown in Figure 17.3, where the measured wind
speed νw is used to produce the generator speed reference ωm* according to the optimal tip
speed ratio λT,optm. The generator speed ωm is controlled by the power converters and will
be equal to its reference in steady state, at which the MPPT is achieved.
Figure 17.3: Optimal TSR control of wind turbine.

Mathematical expression:
A wind that passes through the circular area of the turbine blades has an aerodynamic
energy that is represented by
1
𝑃= 𝜌𝐴𝑣 3 [4]
2
Where A is the circular area of the blade, ρ is the air density, and ν is the wind speed.
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This aerodynamic energy is transformed into kinetic energy depending on the power
coefficient (Cp) by blades as
1
𝑃= 𝜌𝐴𝑣 3 . 𝐶𝑝 [5]
2
The power coefficient is determined by a TSR (λ) and the mechanical conditions, such as
the length and pitch angles of the blades. The TSR corresponds to the ratio of the
aerodynamic wind energy to the blade kinetic energy, as shown below:
𝜔𝑅
Tip speed ratio (λ) = [6]
𝑉
Where ω is the angle speed of the blade and R is the radius of the blade.
Figure below shows the variation of Cp according to the λ. The power coefficient only
depends on the TSR. When λ is optimized (λopt) and Cp becomes a maximum value (Cp_max),
the kinetic energy gained from the wind is also maximized. The blade torque (T) that is
delivered to the generator can be calculated by
𝑃
𝑇=𝜔 [7]
Figure 17.4: Power coefficient curve

In order to generate the maximum power under a variable wind speed, the TSR has to be
optimized with variable blade torque. Thus, the reference torque (Te*) of the generator is
calculated for the MPPT by:
1 𝑅
𝐾𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒 = 𝐴𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑚𝑎𝑥
2 𝜆𝑜𝑝𝑡
𝑇𝑒∗ = −(𝐾𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝜔2 − 𝐵𝜔) [8]
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Where Kblade and B are a blade constant and a friction coefficient of the revolution system,
respectively. When the generator generates the opposite reference torque to the blade
torque, the generated energy is at a maximum value as shown in figure below.
Figure 17.5: MPPT control under the variation in wind speed

The reference current (iL*) of the machine side converter is calculated by:
3
𝐾𝑡 = 𝑃𝜙
4 𝑓
𝑇𝑒∗
𝑖𝐿∗ = [9]
𝐾𝑡
Where Kt is a torque constant.

c) MPPT with Optimal Torque Control: The maximum power operation can also be
achieved with optimal torque control according to Equation (3), where the turbine
mechanical torque TM is a quadratic function of the turbine speed ωm. For a given gear ratio
and with the mechanical power losses of the gearbox and drive train neglected, the turbine
mechanical torque TM and speed ωm can be easily converted to the generator mechanical
torque Tm and speed ωm, respectively. Figure 17.6 shows the principle of the MPPT scheme
with optimal torque control, where the generator speed tom is measured and used to
compute the desired torque reference Tm*. The coefficient for the optimal torque Kopt can
be calculated according to the rated parameters of the generator. Through the feedback
control, the generator torque Tm will be equal to its reference Tm* in steady state, and the
MPPT is realized. It is noted that there is no need to use the wind speed sensors in this
scheme.
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Figure 17.6: MPPT with optimal torque control of wind turbines.

18. Explain fuel cells with its necessity and classification.
Ans: Fuel cells are electrochemical devices that convert chemical energy in fuels into
electrical energy directly. Fuel cell assures power generation with high efficiency and low
environmental impact. Because the intermediate steps of producing heat and mechanical
work typical of most conventional power generation methods are avoided, fuel cells are
not limited by thermodynamic limitations of heat engines such as the Carnot efficiency. In
addition, because combustion is avoided, fuel cells produce power with minimal pollutant.
However, unlike batteries the reductant and oxidant in fuel cells must be continuously
replenished to allow continuous operation. Fuel cells bear significant resemblance to
electrolyzers. In fact, some fuel cells operate in reverse as electrolyzers, yielding a
reversible fuel cell that can be used for energy storage. They convert hydrogen, or
hydrogen-containing fuels, directly into electrical energy plus heat through the
electrochemical reaction of hydrogen and oxygen into water. The process is that of
electrolysis in reverse.
Overall reaction: 2 H2(gas) + O2(gas) → 2 H2O + energy
Most fuel cell power systems comprise a number of components:

• Unit cells, in which the electrochemical reactions take place
• Stacks, in which individual cells are modularly combined by electrically connecting the
cells to form units with the desired output capacity
• Balance of plant which comprises components that provide feedstream conditioning
(including a fuel processor if needed), thermal management, and electric power
conditioning among other ancillary and interface functions.
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Figure: Schematic of an individual fuel cell

Fuel cells can be used in a wide range of applications, including transportation, material
handling, stationary, portable, and emergency backup power applications. Fuel cells have
several benefits over conventional combustion-based technologies currently used in many
power plants and passenger vehicles. Fuel cells can operate at higher efficiencies than
combustion engines, and can convert the chemical energy in the fuel to electrical energy
with efficiencies of up to 60%. Fuel cells have lower emissions than combustion engines.
Hydrogen fuel cells emit only water, so there are no carbon dioxide emissions and no air
pollutants that create smog and cause health problems at the point of operation. Also, fuel
cells are quiet during operation as they have fewer moving parts. The necessity of fuel cells
are pointed below:
 Due to energy crisis all over the world.
 Due to the issue of global warming.
 Due to the unavailability of different renewable sources at each and every place due
to geographic condition.
 Fuel cell provides an alternate efficient non-polluting power source that produces
no noise and has no moving parts.
 It is expected that by 2050 the global energy demand is going to rise by 2 to 3 times.
 This calls for optimization of generation of energy through well- known sources,
preferably renewable energy for commercial exploitation.
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There are five primary classes of fuel cells, identified by their electrolyte, which have
emerged as viable systems. Although the most common classification of fuel cells is by the
type of electrolyte used, there are always other important differences as well. Each fuel cell
class differs in the materials of construction, the fabrication techniques, and the system
requirements. The potential use for different applications is inherent in the main
characteristics of each fuel cell class. They are described below:
a) Solid Oxide Fuel cells (SOFC):
The solid oxide fuel cell operates between 500-1000°C. The electrolyte in this fuel cell is
a solid, nonporous metal oxide and the charge carriers are oxygen ions. The electrolyte
always remains in a solid state adding to the inherent simplicity of the fuel cell. The solid
ceramic construction of the cell, can minimize hardware corrosion, allows for flexible
design shapes, and is impervious to gas crossover from one electrode to the other. Due to
the high temperature operation, high reaction rates are achieved without the need for
expensive catalysts and also gases such as natural gas can be internally reformed without
the need for fuel reforming. Unfortunately the high operating temperature limits the
materials selection and a difficult fabrication processes results. In addition the ceramic
materials used for the electrolyte exhibit a relatively low conductivity, which lowers the
performance of the fuel cell.
b) Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel cells (PEMFC):
The polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell operates at 50- 100°C. The electrolyte in this
fuel cell is a solid ion exchange membrane used to conduct protons. Hardware corrosion
and gas crossover are minimized as a result of the solid electrolyte and very high current
densities as well as fast start times have been realized for this cell. However due to the low
temperature operation, catalysts (mostly platinum) are needed to increase the rate of
reaction. In addition heat and water management issues are not easily over come in a
practical system, and tolerance for CO is low.
c) Alkaline Fuel cells (AFC):

The alkaline fuel cell operates between 50-250°C. The electrolyte in this fuel cell is KOH,
and can be either mobile or retained in a matrix material. Many catalysts can be used in
this fuel cell, an attribute that provides development flexibility. The ACF has excellent
performance on hydrogen and oxygen compared to other candidate fuel cells. The major
disadvantage of this fuel cell is that it is very susceptible to CO2 and CO poisoning and
hence its use with reformed fuels and air is limited.
d) Phosphoric Acid Fuel cells (PAFC):
The phosphoric acid fuel cell operates at 200°C with phosphoric acid (100%) used for the
electrolyte. The matrix universally used to retain the acid is silicon carbide, and the catalyst
is Platinum. The use of concentrated acid (100%) minimizes the water vapour pressure so
water management in the cell is not difficult. The cell is tolerant to CO2 and the higher
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temperature operation is of benefit for co-generation applications. The main limitation of

the PAFC is the lower efficiency realized in comparison with other fuel cells.
e) Molten Carbonate Fuel cells (MCFC):

The molten carbonate fuel cell operates at 600°C. The electrolyte in this fuel cell is usually
a combination of alkali carbonates retained in a ceramic matrix. At the high temperature of
operation the alkali carbonates form a highly conductive molten salt, with carbonate ions
providing ionic conduction. The high reaction rates remove the need for noble metal
catalysts and gases such as natural gas can be internally reformed without the need for a
separate unit. In addition the cell can be made of commonly available sheet metals for less
costly fabrication. One feature of the MCFC is the requirement of CO2 at the cathode for
efficient operation. The main disadvantage of the MCFC is the very corrosive electrolyte
that is formed, which impacts on the fuel cell life, as does the high temperature operation.
In addition to the five primary fuel classes, there are two more classes of fuel cells that are
not distinguished by their electrolyte. These are the Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC),
distinguished by the type of fuel used, and the Regenerative Fuel Cell (RGF) distinguished
by its method of operation.
19. Write short notes on each fuel cell technology with some chemical reaction.
Ans: The fuel cell is an electrochemical devise, which converts chemical energy of the fuel
to electricity by combining gaseous hydrogen with air in the absence of combustion.
However, unlike batteries, with non-stop supply of fuels, fuel cell can run forever and
produce steady supply of electrical energy. The two basic components used to run a fuel
cell are hydrogen and oxygen. They react inside the fuel cell to generate electricity, heat
and water. This new energy source will never be used up as we have unlimited supply of
oxygen on Earth. Hydrogen can be produced from water, gasoline, natural gas, landfill gas,
coal based gas, methane, methanol and ethanol.
A fuel cell consists of two electrodes, the anode and the cathode, separated by an
electrolyte. Thin layer of platinum or other metals, depending on the type of the fuel cell,
is coated on each electrode to activate the reaction between oxygen and hydrogen when
they pass through the electrodes.
At the anode, the reaction releases hydrogen ions and electrons whose transport is crucial
to energy production
H2 → 2 H+ + 2 e‐
The hydrogen ion on its way to the cathode passes through the polymer membrane while
the only possible way for the electrons is through an outer circuit. The hydrogen ions
together with the electrons of the outer electric circuit and the oxygen which has diffused
through the porous cathode combines to form water.
2H+ + ½ O2 + 2e- →H2O
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The water resulting from this reaction is extracted from the system by the excess air flow.
The reaction is:
H2 + ½ O2→ H2O
This process occurs in all types of fuel cells.
Figure: PEM Fuel cell
Because hydrogen and oxygen gases are electrochemically converted into water, fuel cells
have many advantages over heat engines. These include: high efficiency, virtually silent
operation and, if hydrogen is the fuel, there are no pollutant emissions. If the hydrogen is
produced from renewable energy sources, then the electrical power produced can be truly
sustainable. There are many benefits of fuel cells. Fuel cells: are clean energy source; have
high efficiency, 40-50% of the chemical energy being converted to electrical energy; use a
variety of fuels e.g. hydrogen or natural gas or methanol or hydrocarbons; are reliable,
maintainable and durable
There are five major types of fuel cells being known or used in the market. They all have
the same basic design as mentioned above, but with different chemicals used as the
electrolyte. These fuel cells are: a)Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC) b) Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell
(PAFC) c) Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC) d)Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) e)Proton
Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC). All the above fuel cells require fairly pure
hydrogen fuel to run. However, large amount of hydrogen gas is difficult to transport and
store. Therefore, a reformer is normally equipped inside these fuel cells to generate
hydrogen gas from liquid fuels such as gasoline or methanol. Among these five types of
fuel cell, PEMFC has the highest potential for widespread use. PEMFC is getting cheaper
to manufacture and easier to handle. It operates at relatively low temperature when
compared with other types of fuel cell. Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC) has the highest efficiency
and is therefore being used to generate electricity in space craft for more than thirty years.
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However, it requires very pure hydrogen and oxygen to operate and thus the running cost
is very expensive. As a result, AFC is unlikely to be used extensively for general purposes,
such as in vehicles and in our homes. In contrast, the Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)
and the Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) are specially designed to be used in power stations
to generate electricity in largescale. Nevertheless, there are still a lot of technical and safety
problems associated with the use of these fuel cells (MCFC and SOFC) in the long term.
Apart from the five of types fuel cell mentioned above, there is a new type of fuel cell
called Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC) which is being under vigorous on-going
research. This type of fuel cell has the same operating mechanism as PEMFC, but instead
of using pure hydrogen, it is able to use methanol directly as the basic fuel. A reformer is
therefore not essential in this fuel cell system to reform complex hydrocarbons into pure
hydrogen. Several companies around the world are presently working on DMFC to power
electronic equipments. The DMFC appears to be the most promising alternative electric
source to replace the battery used in portable electronics such as mobile phones and laptop
computers.
There are various applications of fuel cells. Fuel cell powered vehicles have been
developed. Fuel cell power plants in the MW range are well suited for the distributed
generation of electricity at locations near demand. Fuel cell technology is also used in space
shuttles and the new international space station. Electrical power for NASA's Space Shuttle
Orbiter is provided by fuel cells. In the near future, it will be of no surprise that miniature
fuel cell power generators suitable for use in portable electronics such as PDAs, notebook
computers and cellular phones will be pervaded in the electronic world. Researchers have
been trying to invent fuel cells that are small, lightweight, refillable, low operating
temperature and having higher energy density to replace the lithium batteries that are now
being used in notebook computers and cellular phones. The most promising fuel cell type
for portable applications is the direct methanol fuel cells (DMFC). These fuel cells have
been estimated by scientists to have energy storage that is ten times that of the lithium
batteries.
Although the development of fuel cell is fast, fuel cell has not yet reached its potential level
of commercial success due to high material costs (Pt electrode) and market barriers. To
tackle the electrode problem, platinum or platinum-based nanoparticles are coated on the
surface of carbon black. This porous electrode used in fuel cells can give higher current
densities than geometric plate electrode. More importantly, it can reduce the quantity of
platinum used. To be successful in the marketplace, fuel cells have to attain a number of
requirements. Firstly, its cost of investments must not be too high. According to a report,
current fuel cell power plants cost about $3000/kW. Therefore, to increase the
competitiveness of the fuel cells in the market, it is necessary for this price to be reduced
to $1500/kW or less in order to fit in the utility and commercial on-site market. Secondly,
better designs including size and weight are essential to fit the actual market needs. Other
factors, such as efficiency, high power output, ease of use and maintenance etc, are also
important.
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20. Explain phosphoric acid fuel cells with necessary diagram and chemical reaction.
Ans: A phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) consists of an anode and a cathode made of a
finely dispersed platinum catalyst on carbon and a silicon carbide structure that holds the
phosphoric acid electrolyte. In phosphoric acid fuel cells, protons move through the
electrolyte to the cathode to combine with oxygen and electrons, producing water and heat.
Cell reaction:
The reactions at the anode are: H2 → 2H+ + 2e–
The reaction at the cathode is: ½O2 + 2e– → 2H+H2O
Combining the anode and cathode reactions, the overall cell reaction is:
H2 + ½O2 → H2O
Figure: Phosphoric acid fuel cell
Phosphoric acid fuel cells operate at about 300 to 400 ºF (150 to 205 ºC) and a pressure of
about 15 psig (1 barg). Each cell can produce up to about 1.1 VDC.
This is the most commercially developed type of fuel cell and is being used to power many
commercial premises. Phosphoric acid fuel cells use liquid phosphoric acid as an
electrolyte— the acid is contained in a Teflon-bonded silicon carbide matrix—and porous
carbon electrodes containing a platinum catalyst. The phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) is
considered the "first generation" of modern fuel cells. It is one of the most mature cell types
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and the first to be used commercially, with over 200 units currently in use. This type of
fuel cell is typically used for stationary power generation, but some PAFCs have been used
to power large vehicles such as city buses.
They are 85 percent efficient when used for the co-generation of electricity and heat, but
less efficient at generating electricity alone (37 to 42 percent). PAFCs are also less
powerful than other fuel cells, given the same weight and volume. As a result, these fuel
cells are typically large and heavy. PAFCs are also expensive. Like PEM fuel cells, PAFCs
require an expensive platinum catalyst, which raises the cost of the fuel cell. The
advantages of phosphoric acid fuel cells are that they:
• are tolerant of carbon dioxide (up to 30%). As a result, phosphoric acid fuel cells can
use unscrubbed air as oxidant, and reformate as fuel.
• operate at low temperature, but at higher temperatures than other low-temperature

fuel cells. Thus, they produce higher grade waste heat that can potentially be used in
co-generation applications.
• have stable electrolyte characteristics with low volatility even at operating

temperatures as high as 392 ºF (200ºC).
Following are the disadvantages of PAFC. They:
• can tolerate only about 2% carbon monoxide.
• can tolerate only about 50 ppm of total sulfur compounds.
• use a corrosive liquid electrolyte at moderate temperatures, resulting in material

corrosion problems.
• have a liquid electrolyte, introducing liquid handling problems. The electrolyte slowly
evaporates over time.
• allow product water to enter and dilute the electrolyte.
• are large and heavy.
• cannot auto-reform hydrocarbon fuels.
• have to be warmed up before they are operated or be continuously maintained at their

operating temperature.
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21. Classify Electrical Energy Storage System. Why EES is required?

Ans: A number of electric storage technologies have been developed which serve various
electric applications. They can be classified as given below:
Electric Energy Storage System
Mechanical Electric Thermal Chemical Electrochemical
Pumped Capacitors Molten Hydrogen Conventional

Storage Salts batteries
Superconducting Chillers Methane High

Flywheel
Magnets Temperature
batteries
Compressed
Flow
Air batteries
Some energy storage techniques are described below:

Pumped Hydro Storage: Pumped hydro storage (pumped storage), is the most prevalent
and mature energy storage technology, with 129 GW of installed capacity worldwide.
Pumped storage is a very versatile technology capable of providing valuable benefits from
intra-hour through multiple-day time periods. Pumped hydro stores energy by using
electricity to pump water from a lower reservoir to an upper reservoir and recovering the
energy by allowing the water to flow back through turbines to produce power. Pumped
storage technology is very similar to traditional hydro power plants, and the first pumped
storage plant was constructed in 1929. Pumped storage technology has a long economic
life span typically more than 50 years, low O&M and lack of cycling degradation. Pumped
hydro requires very specific siting requirements. Initial investment costs tend to be high.
The 22 GW of installed capacity in the US has historically been used primarily as an energy
management technology, ideal for load leveling and peak shaving. Round trip efficiency
variously reported between 70 and 85%, with most references falling in the 75-82% range.
Costs are highly situational, depending on size, siting and construction. Pumped storage’s
low O&M, long life, and lack of cycling degradation sets it apart from other energy storage
technologies.
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Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES): In compressed air energy storage (CAES),
energy is stored by running electric motors to compress air into enclosed volumes. The
electrical energy is recreated when the stored compressed air is fed into the inlet of a
combustion turbine. The combustion turbine consumes some fossil fuel in its operation,
but the compressed air at its inlet reduces the work of the combustion turbine that can
generate almost three times the energy of a similarly sized conventional gas turbine.
There are two utility-scale CAES systems in existence, the first built in Germany in 1978
(60 MW compressor, 321 MW generator, 4 hour discharge), and the Alabama Electric
Cooperative McIntosh plant built in 1991 (50 MW compressor, 110 MW generator, 26
hour discharge). Both resources rely on burning some fossil fuel in the generation phase.
Pacific Gas and Electric, in collaboration with EPRI and support from the US Department
of Energy, is working on siting, designing and demonstration testing of a 300 MW CAES
plant with 10-hour storage capability.
The energy efficiency of CAES units ranges from 40-75%. Units require five to 15 minutes
to start up, and then can ramp up at a rate of 10% every 3 seconds in discharging mode and
20% per minute in charging mode.
When air is compressed it heats up. In conventional CAES the compression energy that
goes to heating the air is lost to the atmosphere. A second generation CAES technology is
under development that captures the heat energy during compression and returns it by
heating the air as passes to the combustion turbine inlet. Another approach to improving
CAES efficiency involves compressing and expanding the air slowly such that it nearly
maintains the same temperature.
Storage of air can be done in underground caverns or in above ground storage tanks.
Underground storage can be relatively less costly, but is dependent on the availability of
specific geological conditions at site.
Flywheels: Flywheels store electrical energy by speeding up inertial masses (rotors).
Typically rotating masses rest on very low friction bearings (e.g., magnetic) in evacuated
chambers designed to reduce friction as much as possible. Energy is transferred in and out
using a motor-generator that spins a shaft connected to the rotor. The rotor is the main
component of the flywheel. Rotor characteristics such as, inertia and maximum rotational
rate, determine the energy capacity and density of the devices. The motor-generator and
associated power electronics determine the maximum power of the flywheel, allowing for
power and energy capacities to be decoupled.
Flywheels used for power applications range from 100 kW to 2 MW with discharge times
from 5 seconds to 15 minutes. Energy storage flywheel modules store 0.5 to 1 kWh of
energy. Flywheels have round trip efficiencies of 70 to 80% with 1 to 2% of rated power
standby losses.
Flywheels are generally considered short discharge duration devices with instantaneous
response time, making them a common choice for uninterruptible power supplies as well
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as power quality applications. As frequent cycling and continuous operation wear down
mechanical components, life expectancy of flywheels is a concern. Flywheels have an
expected life cycle of 100,000 charge-discharge cycles, limited by mechanical wear.
Flow Batteries: Flow batteries use similar electrochemical reactions to conventional and
high temperature batteries, but the electrolyte material is stored in external tanks. During
charge and discharge cycles the electrolyte is pumped into the cell stack. This construction
allows for a decoupling of power and energy as well as eases chemically managing or
replacing the electrolyte. However this construction method increases the cost and
maintenance of flow batteries, as well as efficiency losses associated with pumps and other
ancillary equipment.
There are two types of flow batteries: hybrid and redox. Hybrid flow batteries use electro-
active components deposited as a solid layer, then the battery cell contains one battery
electrode and one fuel cell electrode, with the energy limited by the size of the battery
electrode. Redox flow batteries are a reversible fuel cell with the electro-active components
dissolved in the electrolyte. The energy is related to electrolyte volume and power is related
to the electrode area in the cells. Common redox flow battery chemistries are zinc bromine
and vanadium.
Vanadium redox batteries have demonstrated their compatibility with PV and wind
generation, load leveling, and power quality and reliability, including spinning reserve. In
conjunction with a supply driven generating facility they can be used for time shifting as
well as forecast hedging. Current commercial units are around 5 kW in size, although some
demonstration units are around 250 kW and expected rated power is between 100 kW and
10 MW. Each liter of electrolyte provides 20 to 30 Wh at full charge. Size is a concern, as
a flow battery generally has twice the footprint of a similar electrochemical storage device.
Supercapacitors: These components have both the characteristics of capacitors and
electrochemical batteries, except that there is no chemical reaction, which greatly increases
cycling capacity. Energy storage in supercapacitors is done in the form of an electric field
between two electrodes. This is the same principle as capacitors except that the insulating
material is replaced by electrolyte ionic conductor in which ion movement is made along
a conducting electrode with a very large specific surface (carbon percolants grains or
polymer conductors). The energy/volume obtained is superior to that of capacitors (5
Wh/kg or even 15 Wh/ kg), at very high cost but with better discharge time constancy due
to the slow displacement of ions in the electrolyte (power of 800-2000 W/kg). The direct
consequence is that the maximum operational voltage is limited to a few volts per element
(2.5-3 V, modules up to 1500 F). Serial connection, as opposed to capacitors, is required
to reach normal voltages in power applications and form modules with 50-100 kW of
storage capacity. Supercapacitors generally are very durable, that is to say 8-10 years, 95%
efficiency, and 5% per day self-discharge, which means that the stored energy must be used
quickly.
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Electrical energy storage system stores generated electrical energy so that it can be used
when necessary. The efficient energy storage technologies are being developed that assures
reliability, productivity and the use of renewable energy. Energy storage can balance the
fluctuations in supply and meet the ever growing demand of electricity. For short duration
requirements battery storage can bring about frequency control and stability and for longer
duration requirements they can bring about energy management or reserves. Storage also
can be used to complement primary generation as they can be used to produce energy
during off peak periods and this energy produced can be stored as reserve power as shown
by the following graph. Storage can play a multi-function role in the electric supply
network to manage the resources effectively.
The need of electric energy system can be summarized below:
 Energy storage can bring about a reduction in operating costs or capital
expenditures when used as a generation resource in the utility sector.
 When used with renewable resources, energy storage can increase their
usability of photovoltaic and wind generated electricity by making this
generation coincident with peak load demand. Energy storage may facilitate
the inclusion of wind and solar energy into the electric grid.
 Energy storage can increase the existing transmission and distribution
equipment and eliminate the need for expensive T & D additions. Energy
storage can be used to reduce the load on peaking transmission lines. Therefore
summing up some of the T & D benefits are (a) deferral of the construction of
new transmission lines, transformers, capacitor banks, substations or their
subsequent upgrade (b) transmission line stability preventing possible system
collapse (c) increasing power quality of the service which would result in
protection of customer equipment.
 Energy storage has been used in stand-alone application since a long time,
where it serves as uninterruptible power supply (UPS) unit. UPS units are
basically used for back-up power whereas energy storage today can serve a
number of online applications. EES adds to the regulation and stabilization of
renewable energy generation system.
 It helps to make renewable energy sources such as wind and solar generation
into dispatchable sources of power. Both wind and solar generation are
somewhat erratic in their expected output depending on the weather. Solar
generation definitely will not provide any power at night. Without electric
energy storage, the power they generate must be consumed at the instant
generated. Otherwise it is lost: they are non-dispatchable sources of power. A
properly sized and configured electric energy storage system can accept power
from the solar and wind generation when they produce it, save it for later use,
and then release it upon command (dispatch it as requested) when needed,
making the energy produced by the renewable energy generation dispatchable
power.
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 Spinning reserve: Regional power systems are required to keep significant

amounts of generators running, but not producing power. This is so that they
can take over, quite literally in the blink of an eye, in the event of a sudden
emergency such the failure of a major power plant. This is quite expensive.
One or more large power plants have to be operated, which uses fuel and
personnel and creates wear and a need for maintenance and service on the
equipment. Electric energy storage can be used to defer the need to keep that
machinery running. The utility still needs the extra generation capability but
can now operate it as “cold standby.” It is not started or running but is available
to start in a short amount of time - a period less than that over which the energy
storage unit can provide the required power.
 Peak reduction and load flattening: Energy storage is often used to store power
during times of low usage and to output that power to meet power needs when
demand is high.
 Regulation and Stabilization: Energy storage can be used to inject, or draw out,
power from the grid to even out fluctuations, and/or to keep voltage and
frequency at a highly regulated level. Generally electric energy storage units
designed for these purposes are “all about the control and power electronics”:
the focus of design is mostly on the characteristics of the control system and
the ultimate performance and value of the device is a function of those
characteristics.
 Reduced emissions: In many cases, not only efficiency but emissions of
generators vary one from the other. Again, the best units are run most often.
By flattening the load curve, energy storage permits the utility to run its least
emitting units more and its most emitting units less.
22. Which Energy storage technology will be best for the context of Nepal? Comment
your opinion.
Ans: Different energy storage technology have their own features and merits. Nepal is rich
in water resources and has higher possibility for hydro power development. I think Pumped
Hydro Storage plant will be best for Nepal. Nepal is gifted with many fast flowing rivers
and lakes. The site and water resources are available for Pumped Hydro Storage. The
energy will be stored in gravitational form. Two reservoirs, one more elevated than the
other, and a system of tunnels and pipes connecting them are needed. When demand is low
and electricity is cheap the plant uses energy to pump water from the lower reservoir to the
upper reservoir. When demand is high and electricity is more expensive water from the
upper reservoir is released back into the lower reservoir through the same system of pipes
or tunnels, this time the turbines acting as they would in a traditional hydroelectric plant
generating electricity. This type of plant once operational can quickly respond to energy
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demands. Large amount of energy can be generated from pumped storage plant. There will
be no problem to synchronize the generated ac power with the utility grid. Battery storage
system is useful only for small systems. It will be expensive, unreliable and inefficient for
large system. Additional power electronics interfaces should be developed to integrate with
utility power. For future applications, it will not be good choice for large loads. Fuel cell
technology is still being under research and development. It is very expensive and
applications are limited for special purposes up to now. The efficiency of Pumped Storage
Hydro system is typically between 70 per cent and 85 per cent, making it one of the more
efficient methods for storing energy. The Department of Electricity Development (DoED)
has planned to develop Sunkoshi-II (1,110 MW) and Sunkoshi-III (536 MW) projects as
pumped-storage projects for the first time in Nepal. As per the plan, water will be pumped
from the reservoir of Sunkoshi III, which will remain below the Sunkoshi River, to
Sunkoshi III during the off-peak hour and release the stored water during the peak hour
Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA) has planned for the construction of Rupatal-Begnas Tal
pumped storage project in mid-western part of Nepal. According to preliminary survey, the
project will generate about 100 to 300 MW of power utilising the natural head of 57 metre
that exists between Begnas Tal and Rupa Tal. The project is designed to generate peak
power for four hours during peak time. A reasonable number of pumped storage plants will
help deliver energy security in the long term, besides enhancing system reliability. Pumped
storage projects require significant capital for development. Choosing the right location is
a matter of identifying a site with ideal topography, a source of water and good proximity
to and location within the transmission network. To repay heavy capital investment, the
power purchase price should be over and above the break-even cost of pumping. In the
case of severe drought, the upper reservoirs thus constructed, can be used for drinking
water, irrigation, hydropower, etc.
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23. How BESS and Wind energy system can combinedly be tied with grid? Describe that
hybrid system configuration.
Ans: Wind energy system generates fluctuating power. Nowadays, an energy storage
system (ESS) has been integrated with renewable sources that are connected to the power
grid to maintain safe operation of the grid and to balance supply and demand. The ESS can
meet the requirement for increasing the reserves to manage the uncertainty of wind
generation. This can increase the system operation efficiency, enhance power absorption,
and reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Among ESS, use of Battery Storage System (BESS)
has focused attention on the reduction of adverse effects involving frequency deviations.
Moreover, combining a BESS with a WECS will improve the system availability and
increase the amount of wind power that can penetrate the power grid without endangering
system reliability. BESS can offset the daily and seasonal intermittency of the primary
energy, smooth-out load fluctuations, damp out utility transients, and facilitate islanding
operation.
The figure below shows hybrid wind energy and BESS system connected to utility grid.
Figure: Hybrid System configuration with wind energy and BESS system
The ac power generated by wind turbine is converted into dc by rectifier. The battery is
integrated into the DC bus of the wind system by using a bidirectional DC-DC converter.
A three phase voltage source inverter is used to integrate hybrid BESS and wind energy
system to the utility grid. MPPT control and FACTS devices can also be used to improve
power quality.
The main objectives of operating the active power charge/discharge using the BESS are to
stabilize WECS operation and create suitable management of energy storage, thereby
maintaining a balance between the wind power and load demand. Reliable BESS operation
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is required such that the battery should be neither completely discharged nor overcharged.
Thus, the BESS must be kept within the proper SOC levels to ensure the battery lifetime.
According to the load profiles, BESS operation can be divided into discharging, charging,
and float modes. If the generated power is larger than the load demand, the extra energy is
stored in the battery for future use. On the other hand, when the generated power is smaller
than the load demand, the battery discharges the stored energy to the power system.
24. Describe the power electronics and control topology of BESS Connected to utility.
Ans: It can be observed that the most generalized form of power electronics topologies for
the battery energy storage systems is the bidirectional DC-DC converter cascaded with the
DC-AC three-phase inverter as shown in Figure. There are different modes of operation
for the BESS connected to the utility. The BESS can either send power to the utility by
discharging or it can receive power from the utility to charge itself (Chiang et al. 1998).
The operation mode control block, as shown in Figure below, decides
charging/discharging operation for the BESS. The control design for power electronic
systems is different for charging and discharging modes. Based on the mode in which the
battery is operating, the control signals from charging or discharging blocks are connected
to the power electronics system by the selector switches Sw1 and Sw2.
The operation mode control block is designed based on a simple charge-discharge schedule
of the BESS. The BESS can send the power to the utility during the peak-load period (i.e.,
from 6 p.m. to 10 p.m.) only if the voltage of BESS is greater than the nominal value
(Vb,nom). During the discharge mode-based on the present voltage (Vb) and the state-of-
charge (SOC) of the BESS-the Pref signal determines the amount and rate of discharge to
be generated. The BESS can be charged any other time, provided the SOC of the battery is
smaller than the maximum storage capacity (SOCmax). The switch control signal is
generated based on a lookup table. According to the design, the signal “0” means no
charge/discharge, “1” means discharging, and “2” indicates charging. This signal
simultaneously controls switches Sw1 and Sw2. Based on the status of this signal, the
power electronics converters are either connected to the charging block or the discharging
block. Other charge-discharge schedules can also be programmed in the operation mode
control depending on the application. When the mode of operation for the BESS is
charging, the power flows from the utility to the battery system through power electronic
converters. The DC-DC converter determines the voltage at the battery terminals (Vb)
based on which the battery is charged. The battery voltage regulator generates the PWM
pattern based on the reference battery voltage (Vb*) (coming from operation mode control)
such that the (Vb) follows this reference voltage. For the proper control, the DC-DC
converter requires a constant DC input. The DC-AC converter works as the controlled
rectifier and the controller maintains the DC bus voltage (Vdc) at a preset value. This control
design is a variation of the constant power control (Ye et al. 2006). Instead of using the
active power reference, a DC bus voltage is regulated while the input to the inverter acts
as a constant power source to represent the prime mover. In this case, the output of the DC
bus regulator is proportional to the active power.
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During discharge mode, the power flows from the BESS to the utility. In this mode, the
DC-DC converter maintains the DC bus voltage for the inverter, and the grid connected
inverter controls the active and reactive power flow. The control of the utility connected
inverter, as shown in Figure, provides constant power control (Ye et al. 2006). Many
control functions to deal with practical issues are not shown in the diagram, such as the
negative sequence regulation, DQ decoupling, etc. The inner control loop regulates current,
and the outer control loop regulates power. In some cases, the reactive power reference,
Qref, could be a power factor reference. By controlling this reference, the injected current
to the utility can be maintained at unity power factor. The output of the control system is
the high-frequency sine PWM signals for the voltage source inverter switches. When the
active power reference is increased, the inverter draws more power from the DC bus,
thereby decreasing the DC bus voltage. The DC-link voltage regulator, as shown in Figure,
tries to maintain the constant DC voltage by changing PWM switching pattern for the three-
phase controller rectifier switches.
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Shear Example
• If the wind was measured at 10 meters with an

annual average speed of 4 m/s, what would be
the speed at 30 meters, if the wind shear
exponent was .25 ?
» S= So X (H/Ho)α
» S = 4 m/s x (30/10) .25

» S = 4 x 1.3
» S = 5.2 m/s
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Average power in wind

Compare the energy at 15◦C, 1 atm pressure, contained in
1 m2 of the following wind regimes:
a.100 hours of 6-m/s winds (13.4 mph),
b.50 hours at 3 m/s plus 50 hours at 9 m/s (i.e., an
average wind speed of 6 m/s)
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Problem:
Find the optimum tilt angle for a south-facing photovoltaic
module in Dhulikhel (latitude 27.61°) at solar noon on March 1.
Solution:
March 1 is the sixtieth day of the year so the solar declination is
The altitude angle of the sun

N = 90°- L +  = 90° – 27.61° - 8.3° = 54.09°
The tilt angle = 90° - N = 90° - 54.09° = 35.91°
Tilt = 35.91°
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Problem:
Find the altitude angle and azimuth angle for the sun at 3:00 P.M. solar time
in Boulder, Colorado (latitude 40) on the summer solstice.
Solution:
Since it is the solstice we know, without computing, that the solar declination
δ is 23.45. Since 3:00 P.M. is three hours after solar noon
H = (15/h). (hours before solar noon) = (15/h).(-3h) = -45
The altitude angle is

sin = cosLcos δ cosH + sinLsin δ
= cos 40 cos 23.45cos(−45) + sin40 sin23.45 = 0.7527
 = sin-1(0.7527) = 48.8
The sine of the azimuth angle is
= -0.9848
s= sin-1(−0.9848) = −80 (80west of south)
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• Problem: Find Eastern Daylight Time for solar noon in

Boston (longitude 71.1W) on July 1st.
• Solution:
• From July 1 is day number n = 182.
• B = (360/364)(n − 81) = (360/364)(182 − 81) = 99.89°
• E = 9.87 sin 2B − 7.53 cosB − 1.5 sinB
• = 9.87 sin[2 · (99.89)] − 7.53 cos(99.89) − 1.5 sin(99.89) =
−3.5 min
• For Boston at longitude 71.7° in the Eastern Time Zone with

local time meridian 75°
CT = ST − 4(min /)(Local time meridian − Local longitude) −
E(min)
CT = 12:00 − 4(75 − 71.1) − (−3.5) = 12:00 − 12.1 min
= 11:47.9 A.M. EST
• To adjust for Daylight Savings Time add 1 h, so solar noon

will be at about 12:48 P.M. EDT
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Problem:
• Find the time at which sunrise (geometric and
conventional) will occur in Boston (latitude 42.3°)
onJuly1(n = 182). Also find conventional sunset
Solution:
• The solar declination is
• the hour angle at sunrise is
• Solar time of geometric sunrise is
• to adjust for refraction and the upper-limb definition

of sunrise gives
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• The upper limb will appear 5.5 minutes sooner than

our original geometric calculation indicated, so
• on this date in Boston, local clock time is 12.1 min

earlier than solar time, so sunrise will be at
• Similarly, geometric sunset is 7.524h after solar

noon, or 7:31.4 P.M. solar time. The upper limb will
drop below the horizon 5.5 minutes later. Then
adjusting for the 12.1 minutes difference between
Boston time and solar time gives
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Problem:
Find the direct beam solar radiation normal to the sun’s
rays at solar noon on a clear day in Atlanta (latitude 33.7°)
on May 21.
Solution:
• May 21 is day number 141.
• The apparent extraterrestrial flux, A, is
• the optical depth is
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• May 21 solar declination is 20.1° so the

altitude angle of the sun at solar noon is
• The air mass ratio is
• Finally, using the predicted value of clear sky

beam radiation at the earth’s surface is
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Problem
At solar noon in Atlanta (latitude 33.7°) on May 21 the
altitude angle of the sun was found to be 76.4° and the
clear-sky beam insolation was found to be 902 W/m2. Find
the beam insolation at that time on a collector that faces
20° toward the southeast if it is tipped up at a 52° angle.
Solution:
• The cosine of the incidence angle is
• The beam radiation on the collector is
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Problem:
• Find the diffuse radiation on the panel. It is solar
noon in Atlanta on May 21 (n = 141), and the
collector faces 20° toward the southeast and is
tipped up at a 52° angle. The clear-sky beam
insolation was found to be 902 W/m2
Solution:
• The diffuse sky factor, C:
the diffuse energy striking the collector is
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Problem
Find the reflected radiation on the panel if the reflectance of the
surfaces in front of the panel is 0.2. It is solar noon in Atlanta on May
21, the altitude angle of the sun is 76.4° , the collector faces 20°
toward the southeast and is tipped up at a 52° angle, the diffuse sky
factor C is 0.121, and the clear-sky beam insolation is 902 W/m2
Solution:
• the clear-sky reflected insolation on the collector is
• The total insolation on the collector is therefore
• Of that total, 84.7% is direct beam, 10.7% is diffuse, and 4.6% is

reflected. The reflected portion is clearly modest and is often
ignored.
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System sizing
Sizing of the array:

Iarray= Total average daily load in Ah @ system
voltage/ (Peak sun x de-rating factor x
columbic efficiency)
Sizing of the battery:

• Capacity of the battery
DAh  DOA
C
DOD  EFF
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System sizing
Sizing of the charge controller:

• The maximum load current capacity,
Imax = {∑ power consumed by appliances}/
system voltage
• Maximum short circuit

charge = current produced
current by the array.
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System sizing
Wire sizing for the individual section

NIPQA has specified the formula for
determining the wire size (in sq.mm)
0.3LI
S m
V
Inverter sizing:
• The surge power for the ac load is
calculated.
• P = AC load(W) x surge times(1-3) /
power factor(0.8)
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Design of
Isolated solar
PV system
for
A Case of
Muktinath
Temple
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Design
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Load Calculation
Block A
It is the temple (5m x 5m x 8m assumed).
The load for this block is
 6W, 12Vd.c lamp, fourteen numbers to be used 12hrs per
day
Block B
It is the block for the priests (3m x 8m assumed).
The loads for this block are
 6W, 12Vd.c lamp, four numbers to be used 8hrs per day
 VHF telecommunication equipment with the following
details
~ Power consumption in talk/receive mode: 50W
~ Power consumption in stand-by mode: 10W
~ System voltage: -48V dc
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Load Calculation
Block C
It is the pilgrims block (10m x 4m assumed).
 6W, 12Vd.c lamp, two numbers to be used 8hrs
per day
 15W, 12V d.c. sound system to be used 24hrs a
day
40W, 220V a.c. color TV to be used 15hrs a day
Block D
It is the block for other purposes (8m x 4m).
 6W, 12Vd.c lamp, two numbers to be used 8hrs
per day
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Load Calculation
Block E
It is the block for 108 bull shaped spouts
(dhara).
 6W, 12Vd.c lamp, three numbers to be used
8hrs per day
Block F
It is the gate of the temple.
The load for this block is
 6W, 12Vd.c lamp, one numbers to be used
12hrs per day
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Load Calculation
Block A:
6 x 12 x 14 = 1008Wh, for 12V dc
Block B:
 6 x 8 x 4 = 192Wh, for 12V dc
50 x 4 + 10 x 20 = 400Wh for 48V dc
Block C:
 6 x 8 x 2 = 96Wh for 12V dc
15 x 24 x 1 = 360Wh for 12V dc
40 x 15 x 1/0.9 = 670Wh for 12V dc eqvt.
Block D:
6 x 8 x 2 = 96Wh for 12V dc
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Load Calculation
Block E:
6 x 8 x 3 = 144Wh for 12V dc
Block F:
6 x 12 x 1 = 72Wh for 12V dc
Total dc load = 1008 +192 + 400 + 96 +
360 + 96 + 144 + 72
= 2638Wh for 12V dc + 400Wh
for 48V dc
The total energy required in Ampere-hour is
A = 2638/12 + 400/48
= 228.16 ≈ 230 Ah
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Array sizing
• array current = 59.7 A

• 150W model of Astropower with Imp =
8.8 A is selected
• number of modules in parallel = 7
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Battery Sizing
• Autonomy day = 7 (assumed)

• Capacity of the battery bank (assumed DOD
80% and charging efficiency 0.8) is
C = (230 x 7)/ (0.8 x 0.8)
= 2515.6Ah, 12v
200Ah, 12V deep cycle batteries are

selected. To meet the required capacity 13
batteries are to be connected in parallel.
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Charge regulator sizing

• The CR to be used must handle the full short
circuit current from the array
Iarray = 7 x 9.8 = 68.6A
A CR with charge handling capacity 70A would
meet the requirement.
• The maximum possible load current is calculated

as,
Imax = (6 x 26 + 50 + 15 + 40)/12
= 21.75 A
CR with 30A load current handling capacity would
meet the requirement.
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Wire Sizing
 Array to load center (allowable voltage drop 3%) = 18m (cable S1)
 Load center to battery bank (allowable voltage drop 1 %) = 2m
(cable S2)
 CR center to inverter (allowable voltage drop 3%) = 2m (cable S3)
 CR to dc to dc converter (allowable voltage drop 3%) = 2m (cable S4)
 CR to loads (allowable voltage drop5%)
- to block A = 40m (cable S5)
- to block B = 30m
- to block C = 10m
- to block D = 10m
-to block E from block A = 30m (cable S5)
- to block F = 4m
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Wire Sizing
• S1 = (0.3 x 18m x Iarray)/3

= (0.3 x 20 x 59.7)/3 = 119.4 sq. mm.
• S2 = (0.3 x 2m x 59.7)/1 = 35.82 sq. mm.
• S3 = (0.3 x 2m x 59.7)/3 = 11.94 sq mm.
• S4 = (0.3 x 2m x 59.7)/3 = 11.94 sq. mm.
• S5 = (0.3m x 50m x 8.5)/5 = 25.5 sq. mm.
• (Length 50m is considered for the largest distance
from CR to block E)
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Inverter Sizing
• The only load for AC is 40W color TV

• The capacity of the selected
inverter is P = (40 x 3)/ 0.8 = 150
VA
• The input dc supply voltage of the inverter is

12V dc.
• Since the load is not very sensitive to the wave

shape of AC, high efficiency (0.9) square wave
inverter is selected
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DC – to – DC Converter sizing
• Output voltage = 48V
• The load current = 50/48 = 1.04A
• maximum output current = 2A
• Efficiency, = 0.9
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Design of Pumping system
• Determine the volume of water to be

pumped each day
• Determine the total head
• Calculate the pump rate from the number
of sunlight hours
• Select the pump
• Select the appropriate solar panels
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Array sizing
The hydraulic energy in kWh/day needed to
pump water at volumetric rate V is given by
Eh = ρVgH/p Joules
 Or Eh = ρVgH/(p x 3.6 x 106 ) kWh 1kWh = 3.6MJ
 Where
• V = total volume required
• H = total dynamic head
• g = acceleration due to gravity
•  = density of water
• p = pump efficiency
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Array sizing
• Array size, P = (Eh)/(S x Fm x Ft) kWp
Where
• S = average daily solar insolation – peak sun in
hours
• Fm = array/load matching factor, generally =
0.8
• Ft = temperature derating factor for array
power loss due to heat; generally 0.8 for warm
climate and o.9 for cool climate
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Storage Tank
Pipe A
Ground Surface
B
Static Water Level
C
Well
Draw down Level
Pump
Total Static Head (TSH) = A + B

Total Dynamic Head (TDH) = A + B + C + Pipe Friction+ pressure head
Schematic diagram of water pumping system
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Head(m) Pump Type Wire to water

efficiency (%)
0-5 Centrifugal 15-25
6-20 Centrifugal with 10-20
Jet
Submersible 20-30
21-100 Submersible 30-40
Jack pump 30-45
>100 Jack pump 35-50
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PV Pumping
System
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A Case of a Village
• Population = 250
• Number of cattle = 50
• Average water consumption (human) =
25litres/day/person
• Average water consumption(cattle) =
40litres/day/cattle
• Monthly average solar insolation = 4.5 kWh/m2/day
• Pipe friction loss = 1m
• Static head = 30m
• Draw down level = 5m
• Water source = dug well
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• Daily water consumption = 250 x 25 + 50 x 40 liters

= 8.25m3
• Total dynamic head = static head + friction loss +
draw down
= 30+1+5 = 36m
• Solar insolation = 4.5
• Ft = 0.8 and Fm = 0.9 taken
• Eh = (1000 x 9.81 x 8.25 x 36)/ 3.6 x 106 = 0.8kWh
• P = Eh/(Fm x Ft x S x ) = 0.8/( x 0.8 x 0.9 x4.5)
= 0.249/ kWp
• For  = 0.7, P = 356 Wp
106

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Distributed Energy Resources

1. Write down the current status and future trends of DG Technology.

2. In a recent year Distributed Generation Penetration (DG) in distribution system is

 Voltage support and improved power quality

Issues on voltage regulation:

Figure: Example of DG unit interfering with voltage regulation on a distribution feeder.

3. Discuss about the challenges and opportunities regarding Distributed Generation

Figure: solar radiation spectrum

Some important facts about solar spectrum:

 Spectrum solar impedance:

Figure: angle of declination variation throughout the year

 Local apparent time:

The altitude angle β and azimuth angle ϕs are related by:

 Average daily global radiation:

Where, H0a is a monthly average extraterrestrial solar radiation at horizontal

Solar Arrays Charge DC

Working of a Solar cell:

Figure 5.1: Principle of operation of a pn junction solar cell. Radiation is absorbed

Figure 5.2: Photogenerated carriers in a solar cell due to absorption of light.

2) Reduces Electricity Bills:

4) Low Maintenance Costs:

3) Solar Energy Storage Is Expensive:

4) Uses a Lot of Space:

5) Associated with Pollution:

PV arrays Charge Inverter

Battery Bank Figure: Stand-alone Solar PV system

Figure 8.1: Principal components in a grid-connected PV system using a single inverter

9. Discuss on different wind turbines.

• Difﬁculty in controlling blade over-speed

Figure: various types of wind turbines

10. What is BETZ limit? Explain it with necessary mathematical aids.

The power delivered by the rotor is:

Which has solution

6. Swept area of the turbine:

Figure 12.2: Wind speed frequency using Weibull distribution

Divide [2] by [3], we get

Figure: Number of blades and design tip speed ratio

14. What are the environment impacts of wind turbines?

Figure: Ideal power curve of a pitch controlled wind turbine

where a and b are constants and n is the velocity-power proportionality. Now

At VR power generated is PR. That is:

Table: Performance regions of wind turbine

Velocity range Power

Figure 16.4: Aerodynamic pitch-control principle.

17. How to track maximum power point in wind energy generation?

Figure 17.1: Wind turbine power-speed characteristics and maximum

Figure 17.3: Optimal TSR control of wind turbine.

Figure 17.4: Power coefficient curve

𝑇𝑒∗ = −(𝐾𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝜔2 − 𝐵𝜔) [8]

Figure 17.5: MPPT control under the variation in wind speed

Where Kt is a torque constant.

Figure 17.6: MPPT with optimal torque control of wind turbines.

Most fuel cell power systems comprise a number of components:

Figure: Schematic of an individual fuel cell

c) Alkaline Fuel cells (AFC):

temperature operation is of benefit for co-generation applications. The main limitation of

e) Molten Carbonate Fuel cells (MCFC):

2H+ + ½ O2 + 2e- →H2O

This process occurs in all types of fuel cells.