CHM432 Chapter 1

Thermochemistry: Energy Flow and

Chemical Change
Thermochemistry: Energy Flow and Chemical Change

1.1 Forms of Energy and Their Interconversion

1.2 Enthalpy: Heats of Reaction and Chemical Change

1.3 Calorimetry: Laboratory Measurement of Heats of Reaction

1.4 Stoichiometry of Thermochemical Equations

1.5 Hess’s Law of Heat Summation

1.6 Standard Heats of Reaction (ΔH0rxn)

Thermodynamics is the study of heat and its transformations.

Thermochemistry is a branch of thermodynamics that deals with

the heat involved with chemical and physical changes.

Fundamental:
When energy, E is transferred from one object to another,
it appears as work and/or as heat.

For our work we must define a system to study; everything else

then becomes the surroundings.

system is composed of particles with their own internal energies (E or U).

Therefore the system has an internal energy. When a change occurs, the
internal energy changes.
 Systems & Surroundings
In thermodynamics, the world is divided into system and its surroundings
A system is the part of the Universe under study, separated from the rest
of the Universe by a well-defined boundary.
The surroundings consist of everything else outside the system – rest of
the universe.

Types of system

SYSTEM System

OPEN ISOLATED Surroundings

CLOSED
A chemical system and its surroundings.

the surroundings

the system
 THREE TYPES OF SYSTEM

Open system Closed system Isolated system

(exchanges energy (exchanges energy) (exchanges nothing)
and mass with
surroundings)
 Internal energy
Internal energy, E = sum of potential energy and kinetic energy for all particles in a system

∆E = E final – E initial = Eproduct – E reactants

Law of conservation of energy:

The energy must be conserved: a change in the energy of a system is accompanied by an opposite
change in the energy.

Case 1: Efinal < E initial - the system lose some energy to the surrounding
initial Energy lost to the
E
Ef < 0 surounding
final

Case 2: Efinal > E initial - the system gain some energy from the surr

E final Energy gain from

the surrounding
initial Ef > 0
 Heat and work : two forms of energy transfer
Energy transfer outward from the system and inward from the surroundings
can be in 2 forms:

1.Heat (q)
2.Work (w)

1.Heat(q)
- energy transferred between a system and its surroundings as a result of a
difference in their temperature only.

Example: energy in a form of heat is transferred from a hot soup (system) to

the bowl, air, table (surrounding) because the surroundings have lower
temperature.

Bowl + air + metal spoon : initial

Energy lost to the
surrounding E
surounding
Ef < 0
Soup:system
final
2.Work (w):
-Defined as the energy transferred when an object is moved by a force.
(other form of energy transfer (mechanical, electrical ans so on) involve
some type of work (w))

Example:

-when u (system) kick a ball (surrounding) – energy is transferred as work

to move a ball.
First Law of thermodynamics

Total change in a system’s internal energy is the

sum of energy transferred as heat / or work.

∆E = q + w ; q=heat ; w=work

q and w can be either + or –ve depend on the

change.

As a rule:
Energy coming into the system = +ve
Energy going out the system = -ve
 ENERGY TRANSFER
1. Energy lost as heat only
- for a system that does no work but transfer energy only as heat; q and w=0

Therefore ; ∆E = q + 0 = q

1.1 heat flowing out from a system

example : hot water in a beaker
system : hot water
surr: beaker + air

For the system: the energy decrease as the heat flows out from system (hot
water) ; ∆E = -ve (heat flows out)

Ice water
(system)
1.2 heat flowing into the system
example : ice water
System (ice) gain s energy (heat) from the surr,
therefore it melts. Final energy of system is higher.
∆E = +ve (heat flows in)
 2. Energy lost as work only
Sometimes, work (w) is involved in chemical processes
work is defined as a force acting over a distance (w = f x d ).
When chemical systems do work, however, it is usually by expanding the
volume of a gas to “push” against something. In this case, w = PV

“P” is the atmospheric or external pressure acting on the system

“V” is the change in volume of the chemical system
In the example shown above, the system (the gaseous chemicals) does work on the surroundings by
expanding the volume of gas inside the cylinder and pushing the piston upward against atmospheric
pressure.
The work (w) done is equal to -PV
2. Energy lost as work only
2 possibilities:
2.1 work done by a system
example: a reaction between Zn and HCl (system: atom that make
up the substance : Zn, H and Cl) the reaction will form hydrogen
gas, which push the piston outward.

In this case energy is lost by a system to do work on the

surrounding and push the piston outward;
w= -ve; ∆E = 0 + (-w) = -w
∆E = -ve

2.2 work is done on the system

- if we increase the external pressure on the piston, the system
gains energy, as work is done on the system by the surrounding;
w=+ve; ∆E = +ve
 2.1 Energy lost as work only : work done by a system

Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)

H2(g) + Zn2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)

Energy, E
Work (w) done on
ΔE<0 surroundings (w < 0)

2.2 Energy lost as work only

: work done on a system
Two different paths for the energy change of a system.

ΔE=q+0
ΔE=q+w
 ΔEuniverse = ΔEsystem + ΔEsurroundings = 0

Units of Energy

Joule (J) 1 J = 1 kg*m2/s2

Calorie (cal) 1 cal = 4.184 J

British Thermal Unit 1 Btu = 1055 J

The Sign Conventions* for q, w and ΔE

q + w = ∆E
+ + +
+ - depends on values of q and w
- + depends on values of q and w
- - -

Total energy of universe is constant, therefore when systems gains

energy, the surr. Lost it and vice-versa. Energy can be transferred
from place to another, can be converted to one kind to another, but
cannot be destroyed

∆E universe = ∆E system + ∆Esurr = 0

 Sample Problem 6.1 Determining the Change in Internal Energy of a
System
PROBLEM: When gasoline burns in a car engine, the heat released causes
the products CO2 and H2O to expand, which pushes the pistons
outward. Excess heat is removed by the car’s cooling system.
If the expanding gases do 451 J of work on the pistons and the
system loses 325 J to the surroundings as heat, calculate the
change in energy (ΔE) in J, kJ, and kcal.

PLAN: Define system and surroundings, assign signs to q and w and calculate
ΔE. The answer should be converted from J to kJ and then to kcal.

SOLUTION: q = - 325 J w = - 451 J

ΔE = q + w = -325 J + (-451 J) = -776 J

kJ kcal
-776 J 3
= -0.776 kJ -0.776 kJ = -0.185 kcal
10 J 4.184 kJ
▪ Standard thermodynamic states are: 1 bar pressure for all gases
and 1 M concentration for aqueous solutions.

▪ A temperature of 25 oC (298 K) is often specified

▪ The standard heat of reaction is the value of the enthalpy

change occurring under standard conditions involving the
actual number of moles specified in the equation coefficients
 Enthalpy
Most chemical reaction happen at constant pressure, not at constant
volume. At constant pressure the sum of the internal energy and
the pressure-volume product of a system is called as enthalpy.
H = E + PV
Change in enthalpy ΔH is the change in internal energy plus the product of
constant pressure and the change in volume.

ΔH = ΔE + PΔV
ΔE = q + w
ΔE = q + w = q + (-P ΔV) = q – PΔV
q = ΔE + P ΔV
Therefore at constant pressure
qp = ΔE + P ΔV = ΔH
 Most of energy change occurs as a transfer of heat:

1.Reactions that do not involve gases. Gases do not appear in many cases (examples:
precipitation, acid-base reactions, redox reaction)

example: 2KOH(aq) + H2SO4 (aq) K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Liquids and solids has very small volume changes,
ΔV ≈ 0, therefore P ΔV ≈ 0 and ΔH ≈ ΔE

2. Reactions in which the amount (mol) of gas does not change. When the total
amount of gaseous reactants equals the total amount of gaseous products,
ΔV = 0, so P ΔV = 0 and ΔH = ΔE
example : N2(g) + O2(g) 2NO(g)

3. Reactions in which the amout (mol) of gas does change. In this case P ΔV ≠ 0.
However, qp is usually larger than P ΔV that ΔH is very close to ΔE.

example : 2H2(g) +O2(g) 2H2O(g)

In this reaction, ΔH = -483.6kJ and P ΔV= -2.5kJ
therefore, ΔE=ΔH – PΔV = -483.6kJ - (-2.5kJ) = - 481.1kJ
Exothermic and Endothermic Reaction
E, P and V are state Function
Means ΔH depends only on the difference between Hfinal and Hinitial.

Enthalpy change of a reaction= heat of reaction,

ΔHreaction = Hfinal – Hinitial = Hproduct – Hreactants

Example : CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) + heat

Exothermic reaction : Hfinal < Hinitial ; ΔH < 0.

Endothermic reaction : Hfinal > Hinitial ; ΔH > 0.
 Energy profile/diagrams for the transfer of internal
energy (E) between a system and its surroundings.

Exothermic reaction Endothermic reaction

ΔE = Efinal - Einitial = Eproducts - Ereactants

 Enthalpy diagrams for exothermic and endothermic processes.

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) H2O(s) H2O(l)

CH4 + 2O2 H2O(l)

Hinitial Hfinal
Enthalpy, H

Enthalpy, H
ΔH < 0 heat out ΔH > 0 heat in

CO2 + 2H2O H2O(s)

Hfinal Hinitial

A Exothermic process B Endothermic process

 ACTIVATION ENERGY DIAGRAM (nonreversible reaction)

Endothermic reactions need a constant input of energy to take place.

Exothermic reactions release energy when they occur, so they can keep going
without any added energy.
ACTIVATION ENERGY DIAGRAM (reversible reaction)

A- - B

A+B

ΔHo C+D
reaction=-ve

reaction coordinate

Reversible reaction: C+D → A+B

In some reactions, the activation energy can be reduced by adding
catalyst/enzyme

exothermic endothermic
 Drawing Enthalpy Diagrams and Determining the Sign of ΔH

PROBLEM: In each of the following cases, determine the sign of ΔH, state
whether the reaction is exothermic or endothermic, and draw
and enthalpy diagram.
(a) H2(g) + 1/2O2(g) H2O(l) + 285.8 kJ
(b) 40.7 kJ + H2O(l) H2O(g)
PLAN: Determine whether heat is a reactant or a product. As a reactant,
the products are at a higher energy and the reaction is
endothermic.
SOLUTION:
(a) The reaction is exothermic. (b) The reaction is endothermic.

H2(g) + 1/2O2(g) (reactants) H2O(g) (products)

ΔH = -285.8 kJ ΔH = +40.7 kJ
H2O(l) (products) H2O(l) (reactants)

EXOTHERMIC ENDOTHERMIC
Some Important Types of Enthalpy Change

heat of combustion (ΔHcomb)

C4H10(l) + 13/2O2(g) 4CO2(g) + 5H2O(g)

heat of formation (ΔHf)

K(s) + 1/2Br2(l) KBr(s)

heat of fusion (ΔHfus)

NaCl(s) NaCl(l)
H2O(s) H2O(l)

heat of vaporization (ΔHvap)

C6H6(l) C6H6(g)
H2O(l) H2O(g)
▪ An enthalpy change for standard condition is
denoted as ∆Ho.

Example:
the thermochemical equation for the production of
ammonia from its elements at standard condition is:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g) ∆Ho = -92.38 kJ
If 2 mol of N2 are involved: ∆Ho = 2 x -92.38 kJ

▪ The physical states are important in a thermochemical equation.

eg: CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) ∆Ho = -802.3 kJ
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) ∆Ho = -890.5 kJ
6.5
▪ Enthalpy is a state function - depends only on initial and final
states, not on the path between them.

example:
one-step path:
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) ∆H=-393.5 kJ

two-step path:
C(s) + ½O2(g) → CO (g) ∆H=-110.5 kJ
CO(g) + ½O2(g) → CO2 (g) ∆H=-283.0 kJ
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) ∆H=-393.5 kJ
 Two paths for the formation
of carbon dioxide.
Each give the same enthalpy
change.

Remember to include the physical states of reactants and products in the

thermochemical equations.
HESS’S LAW OF HEAT SUMMATION
: the enthalpy change of an overall process is the sum of
the enthalpy change of its individual steps.
Because the overall ΔH depends only on the initial and final
states, Hess’s law says that the known ΔH values for the steps
can be added up to find the unknown values.
 Using Hess’s Law to Calculate an Unknown ΔH
example:

Find the standard enthalpy of formation of methane, CH4

C(graphite) + 2H2(g) → CH4(g)

However, the above reaction does not takes place as written, therefore the
enthalpy change cannot be measured directly. The indirect route can be
employed, using Hess law.

C(graphite) + O2(g) → CO2(g) ∆Horxn=-393.5 kJ

2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l) ∆Horxn=-571.6 kJ
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O ∆Horxn=-890.4 kJ

Solution:
C(graphite) + O2(g) → CO2(g) ∆Horxn=-393.5 kJ
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l) ∆Horxn=-571.6 kJ
CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) → CH4(g) + 2O2(g) ∆Horxn= 890.4 kJ

C(graphite) + 2H (g)
2
→ CH4 (g) ∆Horxn= -74.7 kJ
 Using Hess’s Law to Calculate an Unknown ΔH

example: Two gaseous pollutants that form in auto exhaust are CO and
NO. An environmental chemist is studying ways to convert them
to less harmful gases through the following equation:
CO(g) + NO(g) CO2(g) + 1/2N2(g) ΔH = ?

Given the following information, calculate the unknown ΔH:

Equation A: CO(g) + 1/2O2(g) CO2(g) ΔHA = -283.0 kJ
Equation B: N2(g) + O2(g) 2NO(g) ΔHB = 180.6 kJ

plan: Equations A and B have to be manipulated by reversal and/or

multiplication by factors in order to sum to the first, or target, equation.

solution: Multiply Equation B by 1/2 and reverse it.

CO(g) + 1/2O2(g) CO2(g) ΔHA = -283.0 kJ
NO(g) 1/2N2(g) + 1/2O2(g) ½ ΔHB = ½ (-180.6 kJ) = -90.3 kJ

CO(g) + NO(g) CO2(g) + 1/2N2(g) ΔHrxn = -373.3 kJ

 Using Hess’s Law to Calculate an Unknown ΔH
Calculate the standard enthalpy of formation of CS2 (l) given that:
C(graphite) + O2 (g) CO2 (g) ΔH0rxn= -393.5 kJ
S(rhombic) + O2 (g) SO2 (g) ΔH0 = -296.1 kJ
rxn
CS2(l) + 3O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2SO2 (g) ΔH0 = -1072 kJ
rxn
1. Write the enthalpy of formation reaction for CS2

C(graphite) + 2S(rhombic) CS2 (l)

2. Add the given rxns so that the result is the desired rxn.

C(graphite) + O2 (g) ΔH0 = -393.5 kJ

CO2 (g)
rxn
2S(rhombic) + 2O2 (g) 2SO2 (g) ΔH0 = -296.1x2 kJ
rxn
+ CO2(g) + 2SO2 (g) CS2 (l) + 3O2 (g) ΔH0 = +1072 kJ
rxn

C(graphite) + 2S(rhombic) CS2 (l)

ΔHo = -393.5 + (2x-296.1) + 1072 = 86.3 kJ
▪ Hess law can be restated in terms of standard enthalpies of
formation:
∆H oreaction = sum of ∆Hf of all - sum of ∆Hf of all
the products the reactants

Examples:

Calculate the enthalpy of reaction for: SO3(g) → SO2(g) + ½ O2 (g)

Solution:
From table, ∆Hof SO2(g)=-296.9 kJ/mol;
∆Hof SO3 (g)=-395.2 kJ/mol;
∆Hof O2=0kJ/mol
∆Ho = [∆Hof SO2(g) + ∆Hof O2 (g) ] – [∆Hof SO3 (g)]
= 98.3 kJ/mol
 Calculating the Heat of Reaction from Heats of Formation

PROBLEM: Nitric acid, whose worldwide annual production is about 8 billion

kilograms, is used to make many products, including fertilizer, dyes,
and explosives. The first step in the industrial production process is
the oxidation of ammonia:
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)

Calculate ΔHorxn from ΔHof values.

Look up the table standard ΔHof values and use Hess’s Law to find ΔHrxn.

SOLUTION: ΔHrxn = Σ mΔHof (products) - Σ nΔHof (reactants)

ΔHrxn = [4(ΔHof NO(g) + 6(ΔHof H2O(g)] - [4(ΔHof NH3(g) + 5(ΔHof O2(g)]

= (4 mol)(90.3 kJ/mol) + (6 mol)(-241.8 kJ/mol) -

[(4 mol)(-45.9 kJ/mol) + (5 mol)(0 kJ/mol)]

ΔHrxn = -906 kJ
Some Important Types of Enthalpy Change

heat of combustion (ΔHcomb)

C4H10(l) + 13/2O2(g) 4CO2(g) + 5H2O(g)

heat of formation (ΔHf)

K(s) + 1/2Br2(l) KBr(s)

heat of fusion (ΔHfus)

NaCl(s) NaCl(l)

heat of vaporization (ΔHvap)

C6H6(l) C6H6(g)
 Enthalpy of solution
Enthalpy change when 1 mole of substance is completely
dissolved in water

Examples:
NaOH (s) + H2O (aq) → Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
∆H = - 40 kJmol-1

NH4NO3(s) + H2O (aq) → NH4+ (aq) + NO3- (aq)

∆H = 26 kJmol-1
 The Solution Process for NaCl

ΔHsoln = Step 1 + Step 2 = 788 – 784 = 4 kJ/mol

 Enthalpy of neutralization
• The heat released when 1 mole of water is formed during the
neutralization of strong acid by an alkali.
• The enthalpy change of neutralization of a strong acid by a
strong base is always constant; -57.3 kJ/mol of water formed.

HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → Na+Cl- (aq) + H2O (l)

H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq) → Na+(aq) + Cl- (aq) + H2O (l)

H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) → H2O (l) ∆H=-57.3 kJ/mol

 Enthalpy of neutralization of weak acid and
weak base

• The heat of neutralization of a weak acid such as

ethanoic acid by a strong base such as NaOH is
less than -57.3 kJ/mol. This is because weak acids
are only partially ionized in aqueous solution and
energy is required to break bonds to released
hydrogen ions.

• The heat of neutralization of a weak base such as

ammonia by a strong acid such as HCl is less than
-57.3 kJ/mol.
 Standard molar lattice enthalpy
The lattice energy , ∆H lattice of an ionic compound is the
energy released when one mole of the compound is formed
from its gaseous ions. The same amount of energy is absorbed
when one mole of the ionic compound is completely separated
into its gaseous ions.
Na+ (g) + Cl- (g) → NaCl (s) ∆Hlattice= -788 kJ/mol

large –ve values indicates that ions are strongly attracted to

each other in the crystal lattice. This strong interactions
resulted in most ionic compound to be hard, brittle, with high
melting points.
 CALORIMETRY :
MEASUREMENT of HEAT OF REACTION
 The Law of Conservation of Energy states:

Heat Lost (by system) = Heat Gained (by surroundings)

the water
the chemicals reacting

However, we can't measure "heat" directly (in Joules)...

Instead of measuring the actual "heat" being transferred, we will just
measure the temperature change (in degrees Celsius) and relate it to heat.

The specific heat (s) of a substance is the amount of heat (q) required to raise the
temperature of one gram of the substance by one degree Celsius.

The heat capacity (C) of a substance is the amount of heat (q) required to raise the
temperature of a given quantity (m) of the substance by one degree Celsius (or 1
kelvin).

The heat capacity per mole of substance is called the "molar heat capacity"
Table 6.2 Specific Heat Capacities of Some Elements,
Compounds, and Materials (at 298 K)
Substance Specific Heat Substance Specific Heat
Capacity (J/g*K) Capacity (J/g*K)

Elements Solid materials

aluminum, Al 0.900 wood 1.76
graphite,C 0.711 cement 0.88
iron, Fe 0.450 glass 0.84
copper, Cu 0.387 granite 0.79
gold, Au 0.129 steel 0.45
Compounds

water, H2O(l) 4.184

ethyl alcohol, C2H5OH(l) 2.46
ethylene glycol, (CH2OH)2(l) 2.42
carbon tetrachloride, CCl4(l) 0.862
What does the specific Heat Capacity tells us?
At the beach the sun shines equally on both the water and the sand. In other
words, the water and sand receive the same amount of heat.
However - the sand gets much hotter than the water.
This is because the sand has a low heat capacity.
Therefore -It doesn't take much heat to raise the temperature of sand by several
degrees.
Think of heat capacity this way:
-If big temperature increase, object has low
heat capacity (like sand).
-If small temperature increase, object has
high heat capacity (like water).
 Finding the Quantity of Heat from Specific Heat Capacity

PROBLEM: A layer of copper welded to the bottom of a skillet weighs 125 g.

Calculate the heat needed to raise the temperature of the
copper layer from 25oC to 300oC?
specific heat capacity of Cu is 0.387 J/g*K.

SOLUTION: 0.387 J 4
q= x 125 g x (300-25)0C = 1.33x10 J
g*K
 Determining Enthalpy by Calorimetry

H values are determined experimentally by measuring the heat flow

between the system and surroundings at constant pressure (as
determined by changes in temperature).

requires an equipment called a calorimeter:

Since the calorimeter is operating under

constant pressure (it doesn't have a lid with
an airtight seal), there is no work being
done and all the energy transferred from
the system to the surroundings is in the
form of heat. Therefore we are measuring
the enthalpy of the reaction.

The styrofoam cup is partially filled with water.

Reactions are performed in the water and the
resulting temperature change of the water is
measured. Remember, the reacting chemicals are
the system, but the water they are in is
considered to be the surroundings.
Constant-volume calorimeter : bomb calorimeter.

The reaction chamber

has a constant volume
so no work is done. The
heat released by the
combustion is absorbed
by the “bomb” and
surrounding water.
in order to calculate H values experimentally, we measure the temperature
change (T) and relate it back to the actual heat transferred (q).

energy is conserved, so the heat lost by the reaction must equal the heat
gained by the water solution of the calorimeter.

qsolution = -qreaction
qsolution = mass solution x c(solution) x ΔTsolution

For reactions in dilute aqueous solutions,

just use the “c” for water (4.18 J/gK)
 Determining the Heat of a Reaction

PROBLEM: 50.0 mL of 0.500 M NaOH is placed in a coffee-cup calorimeter at

25.00oC and carefully add 25.0 mL of 0.500 M HCl, also at 25.00oC.
After stirring, the final temperature is 27.21oC. Calculate qsoln (in J) and
ΔHrxn (in kJ/mol). d = 1.00 g/mL and c = 4.184 J/g*K

SOLUTION: Mass(25.0 + 50.0) mL x 1.00 g/mL= 75.0 g of water

ΔT = (27.21 – 25.00)oC = 2.21oC = 2.21 K q = mass x specific heat x ΔT
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) = 75.0 g x 4.184 J/g*K x 2.21 K
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)
= 693 J
NaOH 0.500 M x 0.0500 L = 0.0250 mol OH-
(693 J/0.0125 mol H2O)(kJ/103 J)
HCl 0.500 M x 0.0250 L = 0.0125 mol H+ = 55.4 kJ/ mol H2O formed

HCl is the limiting reactant, so 0.0125 mol H2O.

 Calculating the Heat of Combustion

PROBLEM: A manufacturer claims that its new dietetic dessert has “fewer
than 10 Calories per serving.” To test the claim, a chemist at
the Department of Consumer Affairs places one serving in a
bomb calorimeter and burns it in O2 (the heat capacity of the
calorimeter = 8.151 kJ/K). The temperature increases 4.937oC.
Is the manufacturer’s claim correct?
PLAN: - q sample = qcalorimeter

SOLUTION: qcalorimeter = heat capacity x ΔT

= 8.151 kJ/K x 4.937 K

= 40.24 kJ

40.24 kJ kcal = 9.63 kcal or Calories

4.184 kJ

The manufacturer’s claim is true.

Example: Heat of Neutralization:
100 cm3 1.0 M HCl and 100 cm3 of 1.0 M NaOH are mixed. Both solutions were
originally at 24.6oC. After the reaction has completed, the final temperature is
31.3oC.
Calculate the enthalpy change for the neutralization of HCl by NaOH. (Assume
that the solution has a density of 1 g/cm3 and specific heat capacity of 4.18
J/goC.
Solution:
Heat released, q=mc∆T
=(100+100) x 4.18 x6.7
=5601.2 J
Mol of acid used = (1.0 mol/dm3 x 0.1 dm3)
= 0.1 mol
Enthalpy of neutralization = q/mol
= 5601.2/0.1
= 56012 J
= 56.01 kJ
 STANDARD MOLAR LATTICE ENTHALPY

▪ Lattice energy cannot be measured directly

-Born-Haber cycle: which relates lattice energy of ionic compound to
ionization energies, e affinity etc.; based on Hess’s law.

Example:

U:ΔH lattice