Chapter 32 Physics 340, Winter 2020

The physics of electromagnetism is described by the Maxwell’s equations and

the Lorentz force law.

Maxwell Equations:
Integral forms: Differential forms:
  Qenc  ρ
∫ ⋅ da =ε0
E ∇ ⋅E = ( Gauss )
ε0

  d    ∂B
∫ E ⋅ d  = − ∫ B ⋅ da ∇×E = − (Faraday )
dt  ∂t
 
∇ ⋅ B =0
∫ ⋅ da =
B 0 
  d     ∂E 
 ∇ × B = µ0  J + ε0 ( Ampere-Maxwell)
∫ B ⋅ d  = µ I
0  enc

+ ε 0
dt ∫ E ⋅ da 
 

∂t 
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ xˆ
= + yˆ + zˆ ( Cartesian coordinates )
∂x ∂y ∂z
Lorentz Force
force on a charge in an electromagnetic field
   
F q ( E + υ× B )
=

Everything else, including the prediction of electromagnetic waves, can be derived

from these equations.
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 Chapter 32 Physics 340, Winter 2020

(ρ
Maxwell Equations in Free Space =

0,=J 0)

 ρ  ∂B   ∂E
∇ ⋅E = , ∇×E = − , ∇ ⋅ B = 0, ∇ × B = µ0 ε0
ε0 ∂t ∂t
Taking curls of two curl equations:
 2

  ∂B    ∂   ∂E
∇×∇×E = −  ⇒ ∇ ( ∇ ⋅ E ) − ∇2E = − ( ∇ × B ) ⇒ ∇2E = µ 0 ε 0 2
 ∂t  ∂t ∂t
 2

  ∂E    ∂   ∂B
 ⇒ ∇ ( ∇ ⋅ B ) − ∇ B = µ0 ε0 ( ∇ × E ) ⇒ ∇ B = µ0 ε0 2
2 2
∇ ×  ∇ × B = µ0 ε0
 ∂t  ∂t ∂t
 
which leads to wave equations for E and B field:
 
 1 ∂ 2
E  1 ∂ 2
B
= ∇ 2E 2 2
and
= ∇ 2
B 2 2 Note:
  
c ∂t c ∂t ∇ × ( ∇ × V ) = ∇ ( ∇ ⋅ V ) − ∇2V

These are wave equations with a wave speed ∂2 ∂2 ∂2

∇=2
+ + (Laplacian operator )
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
1
= c = 299,792,458 m s ≈ 3 × 108 m s
µ0ε0

The disturbances of the electromagnetic fields propagate in space as waves,

the electromagnetic wave, with a wave speed c , the speed of light.

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 Chapter 32 Physics 340, Winter 2020

Electromagnetic Spectrum
Encompasses electromagnetic waves of all frequencies (or wavelengths).
Visible light is a tiny slice of the spectrum.
AM radio: f ( 0.54 − 1.6 MHz ) ⇒ λ ( 550 m − 190 m )
FM radio: f ( 88 − 108 MHz ) ⇒ λ ( 3.4 m − 2.8 m )
Microwaves: f ( 300 MHz − 300 GHz ) ⇒ λ (100 cm − 0.1 cm )
Visible: ( )
f 4.3 × 1014 − 7.5 × 1014 Hz ⇒ λ ( 700 nm − 400 nm )
X-rays: ( )
f 3 × 1016 − 3 × 1019 Hz ⇒ λ (10 nm − 0.01 nm )

Microwave applications: communication, navigation, radar, heating ….

As the wavelength gets shorter, the particle nature becomes more prevalent

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 Chapter 32 Physics 340, Winter 2020

Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

completely determined by the Maxwell’s equations!

 The electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular

 
to each other: E ⊥ B
 
 The wave is transverse, both E and B are
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
 The wave propagates with a speed c in vacuum
and requires no medium for propagation.

Introducing the wave vector k :
magnitude = wave number,
direction = direction of propagation
  
Thus E ⊥ B ⊥ k and they obey the Right-Hand-Rule (RHR).

The electric and magnetic fields are related

 
 k ×E E
B
= ⇒ = B or =E cB
  ω c
E and B are in phase, i.e., oscillates in sync!

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 Chapter 32 Physics 340, Winter 2020

Plane Waves
Waves in which the fields are uniform (constant
amplitude and direction) over any plane perpendicular
to the direction of propagation.

Wave fronts
a surface of constant disturbance (electric or
magnetic fields)

Wavefront of
a plane wave

 
As a transverse wave in space, the direction of the fields E and B has two degrees
 
of freedom. The field direction is called polarization. A wave with E or B parallel to
a fixed axis is said to be linearly polarized.

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 Chapter 32 Physics 340, Winter 2020

Fields of a Sinusoidal Wave

Unit vectors of coordinate axes:
ˆ y,
x, ˆ z,
ˆ pointing to the x-, y- and z-axis
Linearly polarized sinusoidal wave traveling
in + x direction:

= E ( x , t ) Emax cos ( kx − ωt ) yˆ

= B ( x , t ) Bmax cos ( kx − ωt ) zˆ
Linearly polarized sinusoidal wave traveling
in − x direction:

= E ( x , t ) Emax cos ( kx + ωt ) yˆ

B ( x , t ) = −Bmax cos ( kx + ωt ) zˆ
   
The − sign in B ( x , t ) is to ensure E , B and k
follow the RHR.
Emax , Bmax : amplitudes
ω
k : wave number = Emax cB
=max and c
k
ω : angular frequency

E and B oscillate in sync, i.e., E is maximum when B is maximum,

E is minimum when B is minimum.
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 Chapter 32 Physics 340, Winter 2020

Energy and Momentum Densities

Electromagnetic waves carry both energy and momentum
Energy density
1 1 2  E 
u =uE + uB = ε0E 2 + B =ε0E 2  B = = µ0 ε0 E 
2 2µ0  c 
Momentum density

    S ε0E 2 u
pEM =ε0 ( E × B ) =µ0 ε0 S = 2 ⇒ pEM =ε0EB = =
c c c

Poynting Vector
Magnitude = energy transferred per unit time per unit area (power per unit area)
Direction = direction of propagation
 1   EB
S = E × B ⇒ S = =c ε0E 2 =
µ0 µ0
( )
uc
 1 
ε0 c = 
µ0c 


Intensity I
Time-average energy transferred per unit time per unit area: I = S

Since the electromagnetic waves oscillate with very high frequencies, almost all
measurements lead to time-average values. So time-averaged values are considered
unless otherwise stated.
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 Chapter 32 Physics 340, Winter 2020

Radiation Pressure Prad

When electromagnetic waves are absorbed or reflected on a surface,
they exert pressure on the surface: radiation pressure
1 dpEM 1 I
Prad= = ( EM ) EM
p  Ac = p c= u= ( full absorption)
A dt A c
I
Prad = 2 ( full reflection)
c
Electric and Magnetic Forces on a Charge q
Fe qE E c
= = =
Fm qυB υB υ
Unless the particle is relativistic, the electric force dominates. Almost all detectors
sensitive to EM waves respond to the electric force, not the magnetic one. Thus
most of the discussion will be on the electric field.

Electromagnetic Wave in Matter

Modifications to the wave equations:
1 1 1 c
ε0 → ε and µ0 → µ ⇒
= υ = ⋅ =
µε µ0 ε0 µr εr n
µr : relative permeability, εr : relative permittivity
n : index of refraction, n ≥ 1
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 Chapter 32 Physics 340, Winter 2020

Example: Linearly polarized sinusoidal wave traveling in +x direction


E ( x , t ) Emax cos ( kx − ωt ) yˆ
=

B ( x , t ) Bmax cos ( kx − ωt ) zˆ
=

The energy density

u ( x , t ) = ε0E 2 ( x , t ) = ε0Emax
2
cos2 ( kx − ωt )

Poynting vector:
 1   E B
= S ( x ,t ) E ( x ,t ) =
× B ( x , t ) max max cos2 ( kx − ωt ) xˆ
µ0 µ0

Because of typical frequencies are very high, almost all measurements lead to
time-average values:
1
2
u = ε0Emax cos2 ( kx − ωt ) = ε0Emax
2
2
E B 1 2
I= S = Sav= max max = ε0cEmax
2µ 0 2

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 Chapter 32 Physics 340, Winter 2020

Standing Electromagnetic Waves

Suppose a plan wave traveling in − x direction and is
reflected back by a perfect conducting surface at x = 0.
The boundary condition requires that there should be
no electric field parallel to the surface, leading to an
inverted reflected wave:
= E y ( x , t ) Emax cos ( kx + ωt ) + cos ( kx − ωt + π ) 
= Emax cos ( kx + ωt ) − cos ( kx − ωt ) 

The boundary condition for the magnetic field is that there should be no field
perpendicular to the surface, leading to
Bz ( x=
, t ) Bmax  − cos ( kx + ωt ) − cos ( kx − ωt ) 
The superposition of the incident and reflected waves lead to standing waves
Ey ( x , t ) =
−2Emax sin ( kx ) sin ( ωt )
Bz ( x ,t ) =
−2Bmax cos ( kx ) cos ( ωt )

The electric and magnetic fields no longer oscillate in sync. When the electric
field is maximum, the magnetic field is minimum, or vice versa.
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 Chapter 32 Physics 340, Winter 2020

Standing Electromagnetic Waves (continued)

 λ
Nodal planes
= of E : x n= with n 0,1,2,3,...
2
  1λ
Nodal planes of B: x = n +  with n = 0,1,2,3,...
 22

Standing Waves in a Cavity

If there is a second conducting plane at x = L, both planes must be nodal planes
of E, the standing wave can exist only for certain wavelengths:
2L
= λn =( n 1,2,3,...)
n
with corresponding frequencies
c c
=fn = n (=
n 1,2,3,... )
λn 2L
These are normal modes of the cavity, each with a characteristic frequency.

A typical microwave operates with standing wave with a wavelength of 12.2 cm,
a wavelength that is strongly absorbed by the water in food.

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