Cambridge University Press

978-1-107-00700-0 - Urban Ecology: Science of Cities

Richard T. T. Forman
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Urban Ecology
Science of Cities
How does nature work in our human-created city, suburb, and exurb/peri-
urb? Indeed how is ecology – including its urban water, soil, air, plant, and ani-
mal foundations – spatially entwined with this great human enterprise? And
how can we improve urban areas for both nature and people?
Urban Ecology: Science of Cities explores the entire urban area: from streets,
lawns, and parks to riversides, sewer systems, and industrial sites. The book
presents models, patterns, and examples from hundreds of cities worldwide.
Numerous illustrations enrich the presentation. Cities are analyzed, not as
ecologically bad or good, but as places with concentrated rather than dis-
persed people. Urban ecology principles, traditionally adapted from natural-
area ecology, now increasingly emerge from the distinctive features of cities.
Spatial patterns and flows, linking organisms, built structures, and the physical
environment highlight a treasure chest of useful principles.
This pioneering interdisciplinary book opens up frontiers of insight, as a
valuable source and text for undergraduates, graduates, researchers, profes-
sionals and others with a thirst for solutions to growing urban problems.

Richard T. T. Forman is the PAES Professor of Landscape Ecology at Harvard

University, where he teaches ecological courses in the Graduate School of Design and
in Harvard College. His research and writing include landscape ecology, road ecology,
urban ecology, land-use planning and conservation, the netway system, and linking
science with spatial pattern to mesh nature and people on the land. His previous title,
Urban Regions: Ecology and Planning Beyond the City, was published by Cambridge
University Press in 2008.

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Richard T. T. Forman
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Urban Ecology
Science of Cities
Richard T. T. Forman
Harvard University, USA

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Richard T. T. Forman
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University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom

Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.
It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

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© Cambridge University Press 2014
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2014
Printed in the United Kingdom by TJ International Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data
Forman, Richard T. T.
Urban ecology : science of cities / Richard T. T. Forman.
  pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-107-00700-0 (hardback) – ISBN 978-0-521-18824-1 (paperback)
1.  Urban ecology (Biology)  I.  Title.
QH541.5.C6F67 2014
577.5′6–dc23
2013032913
ISBN 978-1-107-00700-0 Hardback
ISBN 978-0-521-18824-1 Paperback
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URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication,
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Dedicated to Adrian William Forman

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Contents
Foreword  ix
Preface  xii
Acknowledgments  xiv

Part I – Framework Energy and radiation  129

Urban heat  133
1 Foundations  1 Diverse airflows  139
Urban ecology concept  2 Air pollutants and effects  143
Routes to the present  4
Urban attributes and ecological assays  11 6 Urban water systems  149
People and their activities  16 Urban flows in the water cycle  150
Using urban ecology for society’s solutions  26 Groundwater  151
Clean water supply  158
2 Spatial patterns and mosaics  31 Sewage and septic wastewater  160
Scale, human, and nature patterns  32 Stormwater and pollutants  170
Urban–rural gradient as spatial model  38
Patch–corridor–matrix and other spatial 7 Urban water bodies  175
models  44 Urban wetlands and ponds  175
Neighborhood mosaics and their linkages  49 Constructed basins, ponds, wetlands,
Urban regions, metro areas, cities  58 biofilters  179
Urban streams  182
3 Flows, movements, change  65 Urban rivers  186
The nature of flows and movements  65 Flooding by river and stream  193
Flows around boundaries and mosaics  69 Urban coastal zones  197
Change-over-time principles  73
Urbanization  76 8 Urban habitat, vegetation, plants  205
Rates and trajectories of ecological change  83 Urban vegetation and habitat  205
Urban plants  208
Urban plant biology  215
Part II – Ecological features Trees and shrubs  223
Plant community structure and
4 Urban soil and chemicals  91 dynamics  230
The essence of urban soil  91 Plants and urban habitat fragments  238
Key natural and human processes  97
Soil texture and associated properties  101 9 Urban wildlife  241
Life in the soil  105 Species types  242
Urban soil chemicals  113 Vertical structures, vegetation layers, and
The urban underground  119 animals  255
Spatial habitat patterns and animals  259
5 Urban air  125 Wildlife movement  264
Microclimate  126 Changing urban wildlife and adaptation  268

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Contents

Part III – Urban features 12 Green spaces, corridors, systems  343

Urban agriculture  344
10 Human structures  275 Parks  349
Railways  276 Diverse large greenspaces  353
Roads and associated features  279 Green corridors and networks  362
Hard surfaces and cracks  287 Integrated urban greenspace system  366
House plots, gardens, lawns  292
Buildings  306

11 Residential, commercial, industrial areas  314 Epilogue  372

City residential areas  315 Appendix A: Positive and negative attributes
Suburban and peri-urban/exurban residential of an urban region  379
areas  321 Appendix B: Equations  381
City center  326 References  386
Commercial sites dispersed across the urban Index  444
area  332
Industrial areas  336

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The term “urban revolution” was introduced by specific places on Earth along with all the organisms
Gordon Childe in 1936 to highlight the powerful pro- that live there and the associated nutrient and energy
cess of transforming agricultural societies to large flows. The ecosystem concept implies a complex sys-
complex urban centers. His model describes how com- tem of interacting components with discernible feed-
munities, beginning around 9000 years ago, grew from backs between components. Thus, the vegetation in a
tens or hundreds to thousands of people. In 3100 BC, city park can influence energy use in adjacent buildings
Memphis, Egypt was the largest city in the world with and the wellbeing of the residents and workers in the
over 30 000 residents. Today, the Cairo metropolitan neighborhood. Ecosystem boundaries are not fixed but
area has over 17 million inhabitants and ranks 15th on depend on the questions or problems being addressed.
the list of the world’s largest cities. Mega-cities such as Therefore, an entire city can be viewed as an ecosys-
Tokyo, Seoul, Mexico City, and New York have over tem or its smaller components such as lake ecosystems,
20 million urban dwellers and continue to grow. The woodland ecosystems, and residential community
scale and complexity of the urbanization process origi- ecosystems can be legitimate units of study and man-
nally depicted by Childe has little resemblance to what agement. Ecologists propose that a healthy ecosystem
is happening today. is one that is stable and sustainable while maintaining
In the short history of humans on our planet, the its organization and autonomy over time and its resil-
number, population size, spatial extent, rate of growth, ience to stress. Hence, a key tool to achieving the goals
and degree of environmental impact of cities are of this new “urban revolution” is the incorporation of
unprecedented. Today, cities and towns face a myriad ecological knowledge and principles into the manage-
of formidable environmental challenges concerning ment and creation of cities in order to develop healthy,
food production, energy, water, waste management, liveable, sustainable, and resilient urban ecosystems.
and pollution, as well as social challenges in regard to In the 1980s, Richard Forman’s ideas and research
jobs, poverty, and human health and wellbeing. I pro- on landscapes started another revolution, in this case
pose that as a result of the current rate and magnitude a “landscape ecology revolution” in the way we see,
of urbanization around the globe, we are on the cusp manage, develop, and use our world. His groundbreak-
of a new “urban revolution.” The goal and rallying ing papers and books on landscape and road ecology
call of this revolution is “We Want Healthy, Liveable, changed my view of the world and I don’t think I am
Sustainable, and Resilient Cities and Towns.” alone. When I ride in a car, bus, or plane, or even when I
Modern cities have developed primarily based look out the windows of very tall buildings, I no longer
on the best planning, engineering, architectural, and see only static views of vegetation, waterways, build-
design standards of the day and have been driven by ings, and roads; I now see a dynamic, multidimen-
societal and economic requirements and constraints. sional landscape powered by the actions of humans
This resulted in cities having largely been built and and ubiquitous ecological processes. Richard has pro-
managed as distinct entities where people, buildings, vided us with the terminology, tools, and methods to
roads, rails, nature, water, energy, and money were describe and analyze the towns and cities in which we
studied, planned, and managed separately in profes- live and work; the farmlands that produce our food;
sional, academic, and administrative silos. the forest, lake, and mountain regions in which we
Over the past 25  years, human settlements have take our vacations; and the remote regions of the world
increasingly been regarded and treated as complex where humans rarely tread. His pioneering patch–cor-
ecosystems. Ecosystems can be simply defined as ridor–matrix, and subsequent land mosaic model of

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Foreword

landscape structure has passed the test of time and has is because they have primarily been focused on sin-
been adopted throughout the world in order to achieve gle cities or single organisms and have been primar-
more positive environmental outcomes. While the use ily funded and designed to advance the basic science
of an ecosystem perspective appropriately represents of urban ecology, rather than to address the applied
cities as complex adaptive systems and provides the research questions being asked by practitioners. To be
tools to assess levels of sustainability and resilience, fair, there are urban ecologists working in cities around
the adoption of Richard’s land mosaic model provides the world, especially in Europe, who have been actively
the tools to create sustainable and resilient cities and addressing applied research questions. Recently, there
towns. have been calls within the discipline of urban ecology
Richard’s seminal book Land Mosaics summarizes to bridge the gap between basic and applied urban ecol-
the ecology of heterogeneous landscapes and includes ogy research by increasing the interactions between
comprehensive discussions of how landscape structure scientists and practitioners, by adopting a comparative
and composition (i.e., the land mosaic) affect the flows approach to the study of cities and towns, and by iden-
of water, nutrients, animals, wind, and people. A recent tifying more general principles regarding the effects of
search of Google Scholar revealed that this book has urbanization on ecological patterns and processes.
been cited in over 4000 publications. Thus, Richard’s As a result of this current state of affairs, there has
“landscape ecology revolution” has had far-reaching been no urban ecology textbook published to date for
global effects that have influenced how ecological students, planners, designers, and policy makers inter-
and social scientists conduct their research, how pol- ested in the practical aspects of creating healthy, livable,
icy makers and land managers conserve plants and sustainable, and resilient cities and towns. Of course
animals, and how planners, designers, and landscape that is until I began reading the book in your hand. I am
architects create more sustainable human settlements. very impressed with the content and approach of this
The current worldwide interest in creating sustain- volume and feel it will no doubt make a significant con-
able and resilient cities has resulted in an increasing call tribution to the future development of the study and
for locally relevant ecological information and princi- practice of the discipline of urban ecology. As I have
ples to guide urban development and management. written in a recent history of urban ecology, Richard
Unfortunately, there has been a mismatch between approaches the study and practice of urban ecology
the questions that planners, designers, and decision- from a different perspective than the mainstream aca-
makers are asking urban ecologists, and the questions demics in the field.
that urban ecologists are asking to advance the science Richard has utilized his extensive ecological
of urban ecology. Planners, designers, and managers knowledge and experience, as well as his two decades
are asking questions that are relevant to their day-to- of teaching suburban and urban ecology at Harvard
day decision-making such as: How much green space University in the Graduate School of Design to bring
is necessary to reduce the impacts of climate change? the full force of this revolutionary landscape scale
What design and construction techniques can be put approach to the study, design, and management of cit-
into practice to minimize energy consumption? How ies and towns. He has carefully chosen the appropri-
much connectivity is required in an urban landscape to ate topics for chapters to provide his readers with both
support diverse plant and animal communities? How the basic principles of his unique landscape mosaic
can we design cities to improve human wellbeing? In approach to urban ecology and practical examples of
contrast, most urban ecologists are conducting basic how they can be applied. As with Richard’s previous
research designed to attain a better understanding of books, the number of references he cites is indica-
the structure and function of urban ecosystems. tive of the extent of his scholarship. I am certain that
Over the past 25 years, urban ecologists have pro- both students and professionals alike will find these
duced a large body of studies from cities around the references a valuable resource for years to come. The
world that provide important insights into how urban- breadth of the subject matter and examples presented
ization is affecting ecological and social patterns and in the book no doubt came from the many scientists,
processes. However, the results of these studies have landscape architects, planners, designers, engineers,
proven to be somewhat lacking when called upon to and policy makers that Richard has worked with in
address the pressing questions from practitioners. This cities around the world.

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In conclusion, I would have to say that Richard healthy, livable, sustainable, and resilient cities and
Forman has had the unique education, university envi- towns in the future.
ronment, and international experience to write the Mark J. McDonnell
first comprehensive urban ecology text book that will Director, Australian Research Centre for
guide the new urban revolution. This innovative book Urban Ecology
provides the foundation and inspiration for creating Associate Professor, University of Melbourne

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Most of us call urb our home. Today’s giant urban areas water, and air comprise the physical environment.
grow upward in population, with a fast-march outward. Cities, towns, and adjacent built areas are the prime
Now urban footprints, the agricultural and natural human concentrations.
lands needed to sustain us, more than cover the globe. Of course, many other interactions highlighted
This great urban enterprise thoroughly interacts with in sister disciplines, professions, and human activi-
ecology, reflecting a yet more powerful force. Nature ties are important in urban areas. For instance, public
molds our urban world, from “natural disasters” and health, urban agriculture and bird watching emphasize
resource scarcities to treasured plants and wildlife human–organism interactions. Architecture, engi-
around us. Even pollutant and waste accumulation, neering, and construction link humans and built struc-
green marketing, and natural landscapes pictured on tures. Water supply, flood disasters and meteorology
our walls and in our dreams highlight the ecological link humans and the physical environment. Sociology,
dimension. The clashing and collaborating of these two employment, and retail shopping highlight human–
giants – urb and ecology – lead to this book. human interactions. Adding “interactions with built
My lens focuses on spatial pattern, how it molds and structures” and “where people are concentrated” to the
responds to flows/movements, and how they all change. traditional core of ecology pinpoints urban ecology as
The pattern and process of mosaics, now a centerpiece a basic science, promising a diversity of highly useful
of ecology from which most other components nicely applications. This intriguing subject offers challenge,
follow, are central. Indeed, spatial pattern emerges as discovery, and societal solutions now.
an especially useful handle for planners, engineers, The perspective is global. Limiting our view to a sin-
landscape architects, park managers, pollution experts, gle nation or region feels like a Mozart symphony with
architects, transportation specialists, hydrologists, and most of the orchestra missing. But using models, data,
more. All can easily use the principles of urban ecology examples, and figures from a breadth of cities world-
to build more-promising futures. wide, we gain understanding, and discover great pat-
Although other sciences underpin cities  – chem- terns for our own places. I have lived in urban regions
istry, soil science, meteorology, microbiology, and of ten nations, and while writing, visited numerous
more – ecological science fills the core. Indeed, ecol- US cities, five Chinese cities, five Spanish cities, four
ogy incorporates key features of these fields. Ecology Brazilian cities, three English cities, two Mexican cit-
as metaphor, marketing, sociology, or motherhood ies, Calgary, Dublin, Berlin and Paris. To feel my
receives bare mention. Ecologists use the central con- subject, I lived temporarily in a balconied old-narrow-
cept of ecology – interactions among organisms and street apartment at the heart of several million people,
the environment – to study and understand the ecol- observing street trees change, birds in a courtyard, suc-
ogy of forests, lakes, populations, ecosystems, soils, cessional habitats, scores of industrial sites, soil under
whole landscapes, even regions. Tying this core theme streets, plenty of parks, water flows, restaurant wastes,
to urban areas produces the highly useful concept of spatial patterns galore, even cracks underfoot. I became
urban ecology used in this book: a keen city watcher.
For convenience, the general term “urban area” is
Interactions of organisms, built structures, and the physical used for all scales, from megalopolis and city to neigh-
environment, where people are concentrated.
borhood and housing development. The chapters ahead
Plants, animals, and microbes are the organisms, roads include parks and other greenspaces, but ecologically
and buildings the predominant built structures. Soil, explore essentially the entire urban area – streets, walls,

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lawns, industrial sites, sewer systems, artifact-rich soil, and to professionals improving the built areas around us.
aerial components, roofs, commercial centers, parks, Moreover, the informed public can gain “eurekas,” while
dumps, and much more. Also, rather than outlining pursuing a better future in ever-more-crowded urban
the newest hypotheses, I emphasize patterns and pro- living space. Discovery and delight pop off the pages.
cesses with reasonable evidence and broad application. In 1992 I began teaching a Harvard course on urban
Together, these approaches open up frontiers of insight and suburban ecology. From the outset we attempted
and provide dependability for users. to discover or develop an intellectual core of urban
High winds, scorching sun, frigid nights, big floods, ecology. Landscape ecology emerged as a key integra-
insect outbreaks, and the seasonal flower explosion tive ingredient, along with fine-scale urban pattern,
periodically highlight the power of nature. Meanwhile, process and, change. Gradually that core coalesced.
the day-to-day expression of urban nature – pleasant Urban ecology principles, traditionally adapted from
temperatures, pouring rain, tree shading, venerable natural-area ecology, now increasingly emerge from
trees, birds singing, flies flying, soil growing grass, the distinctive features of cities.
stormwater running off, microbes decomposing, Broadening the perspective from city to urban region,
clouds moving over us – permeates the city. People and another key step, was catalyzed by an analysis-and-plan-
nature are thoroughly intertwined in cities. ning project for the Barcelona urban region (Mosaico ter-
Most urban residents like the nature around them. ritorial para la region metropolitana de Barcelona; Forman
In contrast, most ecologists consider urban nature and 2004b). That challenge convinced me, an ecologist, that
ecological conditions to be severely degraded, bulging urban regions are really important globally for natural
with bad contaminants, invasive weeds, waste sites, systems and their human uses, and especially as cities
sewage overflows, traffic pollutants, pigeons, pests, and expand outward in the years just ahead. So, to help jump-
pathogens. While I cannot eradicate my own tiltings, start our understanding of urban ecology, I analyzed the
cities and ecological conditions are inherently neither spatial ecological and human patterns in urban regions
good nor bad. Rather than judging urban nature, I of 38 small-to-large cities worldwide (Urban Regions:
attempt to objectively analyze and portray the distinc- Ecology and Planning Beyond the City; Forman, 2008).
tive ecological dimensions. Occasionally, urban areas Using scores of spatial analyses, this effort highlighted
are compared with natural or agricultural landscapes patterns and principles, plus the importance of the ring-
mainly to enhance our understanding of urban pat- around-the-city to the city, and vice versa.
terns. The book is urbanocentric rather than natural- The book in your hand is the essential complement
land-centric. to the urban region work. In effect, peeling back our
Urban ecology has roots in many related fields, familiar human layer reveals the fundamental natu-
and benefits from the obvious goal of improving con- ral and built patterns of a city, how it works, and how
ditions for people packed together. Two recent salu- it changes. Lots of lucid patterns and processes appear.
tary trends have been especially important. In one, a The world of eternal flows, especially in urban networks,
few integrated studies, notably in and around Berlin, emerges. Plenty of principles based on these are artic-
Baltimore, Phoenix, Melbourne, Seattle, and Sheffield/ ulated. Worldwide forms of repeated spatial patterns,
London, have combined multi-investigator, multi- such as road network, city center, building plot, even
disciplinary, and relatively long-term study. In the sec- cracks in a surface, are compared ecologically. Lacunae
ond, several edited books and an occasional authored and research frontiers galore are evident. Scores of solu-
one on urban ecology have appeared, each containing tions for human application are mentioned, but left for
useful information and insights, and together suggest- applied experts and professionals to develop and use.
ing a rich promising picture. Publications with strong Today urban regions are the place for most of us,
applied dimensions provide additional perspectives. “Homo sapiens urbanus,” and for many more in the
The time has arrived to pull the science together in years just ahead. Cultural and natural resources within
a coherent and comprehensive form, pinpointing syner- the region enrich us. It is our annual home range; over
gies where pieces of the picture are juxtaposed. The pages years we become familiar with and care about it. Our
ahead attempt to catalyze urban ecology as accessible and sense of place is increasingly the urban region. Here
appealing to students who will carry the field to greater ecology is in our heart, and on our lips. The pages ahead
heights, to research scholars pushing exciting frontiers, move urban ecology to the forefront of our mind.

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Acknowledgments

I am immensely grateful to the following colleagues time. I also thank the Zofnass Program for Sustainable
and students for important contributions to this book: Infrastructure at Harvard University and Spiro Pollalis
Anita Berrizbeitia, Michael W. Binford, Anthony J. for funding support. It is a special pleasure to thank the
Brazel, Stephan Brenneisen, Mark Brenner, Peter Del talented editors of Cambridge University Press for this
Tredici, Sarah W. Dickinson, Matthew Girard, Gary R. and two previous books, which were of highest quality
Hilderbrand, Michael C. Hooper, Stephanie E. Hurley, and well marketed.
Jason J. Kolbe, Jonathan Losos, Mary E. Lydecker, Mark Once again it has been a joy to work with Taco I.
J. McDonnell, Steward T. A. Pickett, Peter G. Rowe, Matthews, whose thoughtful approach, communica-
Hashim Sarkis, Hilary Swain, John C. Swallow, Jianguo tion skill, and enormous talent created the superb art-
(Jingle) Wu, my treasured colleagues in Barcelona, work for this book.
and the impressive teaching fellows in Harvard’s ESPP I deeply appreciate Andrew F. Bennett, Jose Vicente
Ecology and Land-Use Planning course. I salute the de Lucio, Jessica M. Newman, Daniel Sperling, and
remarkable students in my classes who were encour- Michael T. Wilson, who played especially important
aged to improve the world; we learned together, even roles. Lawrence Buell and Barbara L. Forman have been
shared eurekas. catalytic forces throughout, helping me intellectually
I thank the Harvard University Graduate School transform energized ponderings and paper scribblings
of Design, the Harvard Forest, the Harvard University into the sequence of ideas and discoveries ahead.
Center for the Environment, and the Universidad Cover photograph: Sao Paulo aerial view courtesy
de Alcala-Madrid for milieus of ideas and reflection and with permission of Silvio Soares Macedo.

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