INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

DEFINITIONS:
1. The process by which information, ideas, attitudes and
emotions are exchanged between one person and another
by the use of a common system of symbols, signs and
behaviour. (Hammond S 1998:19)
2. The giving, receiving or exchange of information, opinions
or ideas by writing, speech or visual means or a
combination of these three- so that the material
communicated is understood by everyone. (Sill
3. 3s the transaction (an exchange) whereby participants
together create meaning through the exchange of symbols.
(Michael Fielding 1993:4)
The definition stresses 4 major points which are:
Communication as a transaction: A transaction involves 2 or
more people who exchange or discuss or construct meaning
together, they have to take one another into account and have
to work together according to a set of rules.People working
together: People are central to communication. They should
pay attention to each other and learn to develop mutual
expectations. The creation of meaning: People need to ensure
that the others understand what they are saying. We create
meaning because of the words that we say or share i.e. sharing
of meaning The exchange of symbols: people exchange
verbal (words) non Verbal Gestures Facial expression and
graphic (table) diagrams and symbols.

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Importance of communicationOne is received.
One is understood.
One is accepted.
One acts (change of behaviour or attitude).
Concepts of communication
Sender/communicator/encoder/transmitter/source/Initiato
r:-one who sends the message or the person responsible for
passing the information.
Receiver/decoder/recipient- one who receives the message
or the person to whom the information is directed maybe an
individual or group’
Barrier- this is anything which cause communication
breakdown or anything which prevents the sender or receiver
from understanding the message.
Channel – This is anything used to convey the message. The
physical means by which the medium incorporating
information is transferred e.g. postal service notice board or
an interview.
Medium – The generic communication which is the
instrument used to transfer the message. Generally speaking,
there are three main forms of medium – written, oral, visual.
Information or message- This is a spoken or a written
communication or the actual data you want to convey to the
recipient it can be a fact, opinion or an idea.
Feedback: - This is the return of information about a product
or message to its supplier or sender or the way in which the
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sender finds out how the message has been decoded and it
relies on the way that the recipient reacts to the message. It
determines whether the message has achieved its aim.
Decoding- the process by which the recipient the meaning of
the message.
Communication Process

Noise
Source Channel Receiver
Encode decode

Feedback

Types of communication

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(a) Interpersonal communication
This is communication between two people. It calls for
good control of language good listening and sensitivity to
non verbal communication and tolerance. It can be spoken
or written. It is easy for people to understand each other
once they agree on symbols to use in their communication.
It is enhanced by non verbal communication in
emphasising points. It can be enhanced by spoken or
written communication, Feedback is quick hence action
takes fast.
(b) Intrapersonal Communication
This is communication that takes place within and to the self.
May result in exhibiting positive or negative self image and
may affect ability to communicate with other people. This
type of communication is less effective as it is one person
centred and this person is the decision maker and interpreter
of all activities he/she thinks about.
Where the self image is negative it can lead to a total collapse
of the organisation as there is no sharing of ideas from other
people. It is only effective when the person is a sole trader
where there is avoidance of bureaucracy, decisions are made
quickly and actions carried out.Negative thinking may lead to
poor motivation hence poor performance for the organisation.

(a) Mass Communication

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 It involves large audiences. There is frequent reproduction
of messages and rapid distribution of messages e.g.
advertisements in newspapers’, radio, television and press
releases. It is very effective when it comes to reaching
many people but defective in forms of feedback. Some
members of the audience may be ignorant and do not get
the messages.

MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION
 Written – Letters, memos,
minutes,reports,notes,telex,advertisements,press
releases,facsimile.
 Oral – Conversation, talks, speeches, conferences,
interviews, meetings, telephone, intercom, video.
 Visual aids and other reinforcing tools- Dictating
machines, tape recorders, graphs, OHPs, film slides,
charts, voice(intonation), facial expression
(reinforcing non-verbal clues), posture.

ORAL COMMUNICATION
 Face to face
 Interviews
 meetings
Advantages Instant feedback
Easier to convince or
direct medium
persuade
Physical proximity
Participation of all present
Instant interchange of
opinions Disadvantages
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Difficult to hold ground in making may be inferior.
face of opposition. Groups Often no written record.
of people more difficult to Disputes may arise.
control. Quality of decision-
NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION (NVC)

These are messages which we convey to others everyday

without any word being uttered. Nonverbal communication is
the message that is transferred between persons by our body
language such as facial expressions, head movements, body
posture and actions, clothing, mannerism, personality
behaviour, the distance between us and others. All those are
aspects of what is termed NVC. An actor for example, dresses
in a particular way which makes the audience immediately
realise that the actor is playing the role of Spiderman in a
movie, A cowboy dresses differently from a pastor in a
religious play.

NVC consists of everything else about a person’s appearance

and behaviour that is in some way informative. Edward
(1980) points out that the sort of information we are talking
about is that conveyed by the speaker’s dress, posture,
hairstyle, facial expressions and body movements. This is
information about people’s identity (who they are, whether
they are male or female, whether they are young or old, where
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they come from, what sort of people they are, e.t.c) their
emotional state (morose, happy, melancholic, distressed or
withdrawn), and their social relationship with whoever they
associate with at a particular time.

In context of the African culture in Zimbabwe it is common to

find that a person would smile even when somebody is
scolding him. The person who is scolding the other might
misconstrue the smile to mean that the person being scolded
does not mind, yet the person will smile to show that he does
not want to be rude in return

NVC can be in the form of;

 Visual
 Charts, Diagrams
 Unconscious signals

You probably heard that 55% of the total impact of our

personal communication is determined by our body language
(nonverbal communication). Another 38% is determined by
the tone of our voice. And only 7% is determined by the
words we use (verbal communication).

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Researchers have found that some specific acts in our body
language have specific meanings.For instance, head, facial
movements and gestures give information about the type of
emotion being expressed; body position and tension reveal the
intensity of the feeling. One body language I notice a lot in
people is the facial grimace when they listen to someone
labouring to express or explain something.

This is quite rude actually, it is as if they are saying, "Come

on can't you tell it fluently", "Why are you having such a hard
time to talk", rather than just patiently waiting and listening
for the person to speak in the best way he/she can.

Another type of body language example is someone dozing

off during a seminar presentation; this says something about
the feelings of that participant toward the seminar, the speaker
or the company -- either the presenter is boring, or the
participant is totally disinterested and disrespectful.

In all of this body language analysis, caution is necessary. Too

many people will read a book or study a course in body
language and begin a post-study exaggerated scrutiny of
others.
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Just because a book says that "crossing the arms over the
chest" is a sign of domineering or uncooperation, it does not
mean that everyone taking that posture is expressing that
message. How many times have you done it and you were not
being uncooperative. Often, this posture is simply because one
is tired of having his/her arms hang down the sides during
someone's long, drawn out speech! It is a comfortable
position. I do it often without any negative meaning
whatsoever.

I have seen in meetings, some of the most positively

responding people, listening intently to a presenter, being
most cooperating and happy about what the presenter was
saying or doing -- all with arms crossed over the chest!

Another common body language topic is about the speaker's

eyes intermittently moving around the room while talking.
This is construed to mean several things. I've even seen
listeners look up to the ceiling because the speaker's eyes were
focused there momentarily.

Some studies have gone to the extent of saying that the

direction of the eyes even tells what information they are

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"fetching" where in the brain (i.e. eyes to the left, searching in
the right brain, eyes to the right, searching in the left, etc.).

I've seen people looking toward one corner of a room while

speaking simply because there happened to be a distraction
there!The right-brain/left-brain mechanism has a lot of truth to
it, but sometimes "experts" can get too carried away. Nobody
understands everything about the brain yet.

Most times, people are just "searching" for their thoughts.

Actually if you observe carefully, you will notice that people
disconnect eye contact intermittently while talking, but focus
steadfastly while listening. Most of us do that.

Neither does disconnecting eye contact with the listener

necessarily mean the individual is hiding something from his
listener -- nor lying as some "expert" will tell you. They may
sometimes do that, but more often they don't. These
conclusions are study results of behavioural extremes.

Rather than saying that the movement or disconnect of the

eyes in a certain way while speaking to another represents
deception, teachers should say, "... it could mean deceiving or
lying, but it usually means the person is searching for words,

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may be shy or uncomfortable in the presence of authority or a
stranger, or simply is not aware of a bad habit.

And there could be a whole list of other reasons. Shyness is

often the cause of such behaviour. My sweet little seventy-
five year old mother is so shy that she can't even look in the
eyes of the cashier at the grocery store!

Someone may have never been taught how to communicate.

Indeed, this habit is eliminated after a person has been made
aware of it and has worked at correcting it -- in other words
after conscientiously reconditioning him/herself.

Politicians or public relations people learn communication

and body language as part of their experience or training. I
watch this all the time and find it most amazing how some can
stay the course of their eyes constant on the listener even
while speaking. Some are born or raised to be able to do it --
it's part of their personality type.

But someone who does not work in a public environment, has

not been taught about it, is not as skilled and may even never
have heard of it! Make it a point to begin to observe this, and
then begin to train yourself. It's not easy. Or you might find

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that you are doing quite well as you are. Then appreciate that
fact and feel good about yourself.

The main kinds of non verbal communication are:

(1) Circumstances-: The situation in which an exchange

takes place has a lot to do with the impression one conveys
and thus the overall message which the other person
receives. Circumstances include factors like the amount of
preparation you have done for the discussion, whether you
arrive punctually and whether the meeting proceeds
without distractions.
(2) Arrangement of the room-: The physical layout of a
room can have a great influence on the communication
which takes place there. If, for, example manager sits
behind her desk throughout a talk with an employee, the
difference in rank between them will be emphasized. If on
the other hand the two sit at a table or in easy chairs in a
different part for the office, an air of equality will be
immediately created.

Gestures- complex messages and meanings can be conveyed

through the use of our legs, hands and arms. Human beings
speak with words as well as gestures. Sign language used by

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the deaf is a good example of human gesture for the
conveying of messages and meanings. Mime in drama also
uses gesture for communication.

Direction This concern the ways in which the body convey

signals about a person’s feelings Body direction can be
divided into four areas-;Orientation-: This is simply the
direction in which the body is facing. Facing the person you
are speaking to suggests involvement, speaking with your
body turned away suggests restlessness or a lack of
commitment. Changes in orientation can convey significant
changes of mood during discussions

Body Posture- Depending on circumstances, how we position

our bodies conveys many meanings. A worker who stands
there and simply stares at the boss who is screaming at him
sends many more messages to the boss than the boss is saying
to him.

PROXIMITY /ZONES OF HUMAN SPACE

Proxemics (use and perception of social and personal space)

behaviour.

Space is a carrier of messages. Proximity or space in this case

means the physical distance that we allow between ourselves
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and others. Much can be understood from how close a person
stands to another person, in business, a friendly relationship
can be shown by walking around from behind your desk to
meet a visitor on equal terms.

How to Communicate Using Space

The study of the communicative aspects of personal space and

territory is called proxemics. Everyone is surrounded by an
invisible zone of psychological comfort that follows us
everywhere we travel. This protective bubble acts as a buffer
zone against unwanted touching and attacks. Our comfort
zone varies depending on who we are talking to and the
situation that we are in. The amount of space that we use
while interacting with others can play a significant factor in
the type of interaction we have with that person.

Why Is Proxemics Important For A Negotiation?

Proxemics gives a lot of nonverbal information to the other

person regarding the level of trust and intimacy that the
person has for them. As cooperation is a key factor in Street
Negotiation, you must be able to read their level of comfort
with you by the amount of distance that they are comfortable
dealing with you at. Your goal in a negotiation is to gain their
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cooperation and by knowing how personal space is internally
regulated, you can foster better communication and
cooperative behaviour from your counterpart. Knowing the
dynamics of personal space will also prevent you from
unknowingly violating your counterpart's personal space and
causing unnecessary tension.

What Is Our Comfort Zone?

In 1959, anthropologist Edward Hall discovered that humans

are distinctly aware of our perception of space and territory
and he conducted numerous studies and experiments in which
he concluded that United States Americans had four distinct
comfort distances, each with their own specific ranges of
comfort, and that these distances were surprisingly universal
to most Americans. He also noted that comfort zones varied
drastically between cultures. The four distances of personal
territory for U.S. Americans are:

Intimate distance (0--18 inches)

Reserved for deep personal relationships. Vision is impaired

at this level and the main senses used are smell and touch.
This distance is used for sexual contact or comforting
someone.Intimate space is reserved for people who are
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intimate to us; especially lovers, friends and social
acquaintances are not for this space.

Personal distance (18 inches--4 feet.)

Reserved for personal conversation. This is distance is used

for having personal conversations with friends, family, or
associates.Personal space is reserved for friends, as friends
talk and whisper secrets to each other, they stand much closer
to each other, within arm’s length of each other. Should a
stranger intrude in this space, we usually either move away or
tell them verbally or otherwise, to get away. We begin to
think they are interfering in our life. But as friends we
appreciate snaring this personal space without any problems.
Anyone else who breaks the barrier of this zone or personal
space is considered an intruder.

Social Space (4 feet--12 feet.)

Reserved for formal interactions such as business meetings or

interviews.When two people, who are not necessarily friends,
stand by the side of the road talking, they tend to stand at a
certain distance from each other. They engage in social talk
about the weather, about general matters of life. There is usual

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nothing unusual about the space between them. The space
they give between their two bodies is called social space’

Public distance (12 feet--line of sight)

Reserved for such things as public speaking and lectures.

NB: These distances apply only to those interactions where

the participants' orientation is face-to-face with each other and
are aware of each other's presence.

Violating Personal Space Is Threatening

The territorial space that people claim as distinctly belonging

to them is their personal space (4 feet). When someone who
has not yet gained our trust enters our personal space, we tend
to feel uncomfortable or even threatened because the intruder
has trespassed onto our own space. This is much the same
way as if a stranger walked into the backyard of your home
without your permission. Entering someone's personal
distance without first establishing some level of trust can
cause conflict and defensiveness to occur. When a violation of
space occurs, it causes the other person to become
uncomfortable and instinctively they will move themselves
away from the person to regain the correct level of personal

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territory. You'll want to pay attention to this behaviour
because it is a sure indication that you have intruded upon
their comfort zone. Police officers are sometimes trained in
the technique of deliberately invading the personal space of
their suspect during an interview to make the suspect feel
uncomfortable and intimidating him into giving up
information.

Proximity Separates the Strong fromthe Weak

Our social use for space can tell us a lot about the status,
confidence, and power of the people around us. Just look at
your own work place and examine who has the biggest office
and who commands the most space while walking around.

The people who possess the most power and authority

command a greater amount of personal space that they can
call their own. They will often distance themselves from other

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people around them. In the workplace, the "important" top-
dog might have their own corner office apart from the rest of
the workers who might be scrunched together in cubicles.

Confident people and people of higher status are comfortable

going straight to the centre of the attention while lower status
or non-confident people tend to hover near the exits or the
back of the room. University studies have shown that the
students who sit front and centre of the classroom received the
highest grades in the class, while those who sat in the back
and at the corners of the room received the worst grades.The
goal is to approach as close as you can to the other person
without making them feel uncomfortable. This will facilitate
better rapport between both parties.

Are They Using Barriers?

Any inanimate object that is placed between you and the

person you are talking with is an indication of defensiveness.
A table, desk, pillows, drinking glass etc. that is set between
you and the other person is an unconscious equivalent of
shielding our body from attack and provides us with a level of
emotional comfort from something that we do not like. A
person who creates barriers between themselves and the other

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person is usually expressing deception, defensiveness, or
ulterior motives.

Using Proxemics for Emotional Emphasis

Proxemics can be used in combination with other behaviours

to add emphasis to the message. For example, if a person is
angry with you and they invade your intimate space, then the
perceived threat of their anger is dramatically increased if
compared with the same person being angry with you from
across the room. If a couple are in love and they are
maintaining eye contact with each other from across a room,
then the impact of that eye contact is much less meaningful
than if they were inches from each other.

Where Should I Sit?

Side-by-side fosters cooperation. If you are trying to

facilitate cooperation, then the best place for you to sit is by
their side (i.e. to their right or left). By sitting to their side, we
enhance cooperative behaviour from them by conveying that
we are not competing against them. It also points both of you
towards the direction of the problem that exists, such as a
report on the table, or research material that needs organizing.

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Opposite sides fosters competition. Sitting directly across
from someone, such as an employer sitting direct across from
a prospective applicant with a table in between them, tends to
foster a competing-type attitude.

Sit at 90° for good conversation. The best seating position at

a table for a cooperative exchange of information is at the
corner of the table. One person takes one side of the corner
and the other person takes the other side. The benefits of this
position are that: (1) it allows for both parties to enter into
each other's personal space, creating a stronger bond than if
they remained distant from each other. (2) It breaks up the
stuffy formalness of the situation by moving you closer to
them. The corner of the table adds a bit of psychological
security for both parties by having a bit of a barrier between
them, but it is not as much of a barrier as if you sat opposite
one another.

Gender differences. A study done by Byrne and Fisher

(1975) showed that American men generally chose to sit
across from people who they considered their friends and
American women chose to sit adjacent to the people that they
considered to be their friends. Additionally, the study showed

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that men did not like strangers sitting across from them and
women did not like having strangers sitting next to them.

Key Points

--Proxemics is the study of the communicative aspects of

space.
--Entering one's personal space can cause them to feel
threatened.
--Sitting side-by-side fosters cooperation. Sitting opposite one
another fosters competition. Sitting 90° to each other fosters
conversation.
--Using inanimate objects as barriers is a sign of anxiety,
defensiveness, or deception.
--Approach as close as you can to the other person without
making them feel uncomfortable. This will increase your
rapport.

Contact -: handshakes can establish good will, most effective

at the start of an interview, and can also be used to signal its
formal conclusion.

Facial expressions- the features of our faces which sends

important messages to others are the mouth, eyes and the
forehead If someone announces something horrible to us ,we
sometimes gape (open our mouths ) in disbelief. So we talk of
a sad face, a happy face, a weary face, an excited face,
because the face is an important carrier of messages as we
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interact with others. We use the face to reveal our mood and
attitudes that means we must pay close attention to the face
whenever we are communicating with someone in order to
read the effect of our communication on them.

Head movement; Nodding and shaking of head are perhaps

the most basic forms of human communication. Nodding
suggest agreement or understanding, a shaking convey
disagreement or disapproval, disbelief, puzzlement. Frown –
concentration or displeasure, boredom.

Dress and otherartefacts

We dress differently for different occasions in order to convey

certain messages about ourselves and others depending on
circumstances. Dress and appearance makes an important
statement, not only about what you think of yourself but also
about how you regard the person or people you are talking to.
Smart, clean clothes will convey efficiency and suggest that
you have taken the trouble to dress formally.

Advantages of NVC

Reinforces oral communicationAdded visual stimuliSimplifies

written and spoken wordQuantifies ideas in number
formProvides simulations of situations
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Sometimes NVC reinforces the meaning conveyed by words,
yet at other times what words communicate can be totally
divorced from what actions convey. This can happen
unconsciously.

Disadvantages of NVC

Difficult in interpretation without written or spoken word

Skills in comprehension and interpretation a prerequisite can
be expensive

There are five key elements that can make or break your
attempt at successful nonverbal communication in business:

 Eye contact
 Gestures
 Movement
 Posture, and
 Written communication

Let's examine each nonverbal element in turn to see how we

can maximise your potential to communicate effectively...

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EYE CONTACT -Good eye contact helps your audience
develop trust in you, thereby helping you and your message
appear credible. Poor eye contact does exactly the opposite.

So what IS 'good' eye contact? - People rely on visual clues to

help them decide on whether to attend to a message or not. If
they find that someone isn't 'looking' at them when they are
being spoken to, they feel uneasy.So it is a wise business
communicator that makes a point of attempting to engage
every member of the audience by looking at them.

Now, this is of course easy if the audience is just a handful of

people, but in an auditorium it can be a much harder task. So
balance your time between these three areas:

 slowly scanning the entire audience,

 focusing on particular areas of your audience (perhaps
looking at the wall between two heads if you are still
intimidated by public speaking), and
 Looking at individual members of the audience for about
five seconds per person.

Looking at individual members of a large group can be 'tricky'

to get right at first.Equally, it can be a fine balancing act if
your audience comprises of just one or two members -- spend
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too much time looking them in the eyes and they will feel
intimidated, stared at, 'hunted down'.So here's a useful tip:
break your eye-to-eye contact down to four or five second
chunks.That is, look at the other person in blocks that last four
to five seconds, and then look away. That way they won't feel
intimidated.

Practice this timing away from others. Just look at a spot on

the wall, count to five, and then look away. With practice you
will be able to develop a 'feel' for how long you have been
looking into your audience member's eyes and intuitively
know when to look away and focus on another person or
object.

When focusing on individual members in a large meeting or

auditorium try and geographically spread your attention
throughout the room. That is, don't just focus your personal
gaze (as distinct from when you are scanning the room or
looking at sections of the room) on selected individuals from
just one part of the room. Unless you are specifically looking
to interact with a particular person at that moment of your
presentation, select your individual eye-contact audience
members from the whole room.

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GESTURES

Most of us, when talking with our friends, use our hands and
face to help us describe an event or object - powerful
nonverbal aids.We wave our arms about, turn our hands this
way and that, roll our eyes, raise our eyebrows, and smile or
frown.Yet many of us also, when presenting to others in a
more formal setting, 'clam up'.Our audience of friends is no
different from our business audience — they all rely on our
face and hands (and sometimes legs, feet and other parts of
us!) to 'see' the bigger, fuller picture.

It is totally understandable that our nervousness can cause us

to 'freeze up', but is in our and our communication's best
interests if we manage that nervousness, manage our fear of
public speaking, and use our body to help emphasise our
point.

MOVEMENTKinesics (body motion)

Ever watch great presenters in action — men and women who

are alone on the stage yet make us laugh, cry and be swept
along by their words and enthusiasm?Watch them carefully
and you'll note that they don't stand rigidly in one spot. No,
they bounce and run and stroll and glide all around the stage.
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Why do they do that?Because they know that we human
beings, men in particular, are drawn to movement.As part of
man's genetic heritage we are programmed to pay attention to
movement. We instantly notice it, whether we want to or not,
assessing the movement for any hint of a threat to us.

This, of course, helps explain why many men are drawn to the
TV and seem transfixed by it. It also helps explain why men
in particular are almost 'glued' to the TV when there is any
sport on. All that movement!

But to get back to the stage and you on it... ensure that any
movement you make is meaningful and not just nervous
fidgeting, like rocking back and forth on your heels or moving
two steps forward and back, or side to side.This is 'nervous
movement' and your nervousness will transmit itself to your
audience, significantly diluting the potency of your
communication and message.So move about the stage when
you can — not just to keep the men in the audience happy, but
to help emphasise your message!

POSTURE

There are two kinds of 'posture' and it is the wise

communicator that manages and utilizes both.
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Posture 1

The first type of 'posture' is the one we think of intuitively-the

straight back versus the slumped shoulders; the feet-apart
confident stance verses the feet together, hand-wringing of the
nervous; the head up and smiling versus the head down and
frowning.

And every one of the positions we place the various elements

of our body in tells a story—a powerful, nonverbal story.For
example, stand upright, shoulders straight, head up and eyes
facing the front. Wear a big smile. Notice how you 'feel'
emotionally.

Now-slump your shoulders, look at the floor and slightly

shuffle your feet. Again, take note of your emotional
state.Notice the difference?Your audience surely will, and
react to you and your message accordingly.

A strong, upright, positive body posture not only helps you

breathe easier (good for helping to calm nerves!) but also
transmits a message of authority, confidence, trust and
power.Posture 2

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The second type of 'posture' comes from your internal mental
and emotional states.You can have great body posture but
without internal mental and emotional posture your words will
sound hollow to your audience.

For example, the used car salesman at 'Dodgy Brothers

Motors' might have great body posture and greet you with a
firm handshake, a steady gaze and a friendly smile. But if in
his heart he is seeing you as just another sucker then sooner or
later his internal conflict between what he says and what he
really thinks will cause him to 'trip up'.

His body will start betraying his real, underlying intentions

and you'll start to feel uncomfortable around him, even if you
can't figure out why.But, if that same used car salesman had a
genuine desire to help you find the right car for you, and he
puts your needs before his own, then his words and actions
will remain congruent (in harmony) with his underlying
intentions and you will trust him, even though you might not
be able to identify why.

I have seen some supposed 'self help' gurus who don't actually
practice what they preach. Consequently their words ring

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hollow to me and their books, cds, DVDs and training
materials remain unpurchased.

I have met salesmen and women who don't actually make the
money they claim to make in their 'fabulous business
opportunity', and while their words are practiced and polished,
and their body posture is 'perfect', their words ooze like
honeyed poison from their lips and I remain unconvinced.This
second type of 'posture' is fundamentally tied to truth and
honesty. It is about 'walking the talk' and being who you say
you are.

It's about not trying to sell something you don't believe in or

use yourself. It's about not trying to pass yourself off as an
expert when all you've ever done is read a book on the
subject.

It's all about making sure that your words and your intentions
are underpinned by truth and honesty. Because all of us, no
matter how polished a presenter we might be, are at the mercy
of our body and its ability to 'tell the truth' in spite of what our
lips might utter. Nonverbal clues rule!

31
Nonverbal communication in a business setting requires not
only recognition of these elements, but confidence in meeting
their challenges.

ParalanguageAs we speak there is a way in which we put

emphasis on words or expressions. We sometimes increase or
lower the volume of the utterance to alter meaning of the
words we have spoken. For example, in a discussion, when
someone raises his voices, we often tend to understand that to
mean the person is angry. But when someone lowers the
voice, we often understand that to mean they are getting more
intimate or persuasive. Paralanguage are those are non verbal
activities we use to accompany the spoken word in conveying
meaning. A sigh, a yell or even the usual eh eh are part of the
message.Dimbleby et al explains that paralanguage help us to
understand ‘a person’s state of mind or their emotions.’The
pace at which the speech is delivered is also equally important
in communication. If a speaker rushes quickly through his
message, the usual conclusion is that they have some kind of
stage fright or they are not sure of what they are talking about.
On the other hand, a speaker who speaks slowly in a well
paced manner is understood to have a sound grip of his
subject.
32
COMMUNICATION MODELSModels represent the relatedness
of elements of a communication situation. It creates a systematic
understanding of a situation under scrutiny.Interpersonal
Communication model
The ideal communication situation consists of the communicator,
the message, the channel of communication the feedback and the
recipient. No one has the monopoly of the message the sender
receiver and the change roles all the time.
Message
Channel/ medium
Sender
Recipient
Channel/ Medium
Feedback

Intrapersonal Communication model

It is viewed in the same manner as interpersonal communication
save for the fact that the communicator of the message is the same
person who is also the recipient. The communicator formulates the
message, sends it and then interprets it in the various roles he takes
in his/her imagination.
Model of dictatorial rule
Very little communication exists between subordinate groups and
the leader or dictator. The closer you are to the dictator, the more
influence will you have with all the other groups.
33
 Ruler
Protectors
Ministers/Praise Singers/Advisor/Businessman
Women/Youths
Professionals/Doctors/Teachers/Academics
Peasants/Worker
Mass Communication model
communicator message medium Massaudience

This is one way of communication.The formulator of the message

decides the contents of the message and the way in which it should
be sent. The communicator also has the power to decide in which
way he/she will want feedback to be. There is monopoly of
information (information centred on one person only without
telling other people). The communicator has a message and has the
machinery to formulate transmit the message, influence the
audience and obtain some form of response. The response is
minimum
How Individuals Respond To Persuasive MessagesSocial
categories such as educational level, to which people belonged,
and individual differences were more predictive of their responses
to the mass media they are not defenceless. People defend
themselves against persuasive messages and propaganda.
1. Selective exposure- people tend to expose themselves
relatively more to those items of communication that
harmonised with their values and convictions.
2. Selective perception- in spite of the individual’s exposure to
34
 specific communication, his or her perception of an event, an
issue or a person , will depend on personal values, attitudes,
needs and related factors.
3. Selective retention-Our recall of information is influenced by
our moods, attitudes and perceptions. The act of switching off
the TV set when a particular person to present something e.g.
shows that a listener has the power to choose what to listen
to, therefore he or she is not defenceless as such
4. BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
No matter how good the communication system in an organisation
is, unfortunately barriers can and do often occur. This may be
caused by a number of factors which can usually be summarised as
being due to physical barriers, system design faults or additional
barriers.
Physical Barriers –are often due to the nature of the environment.
Thus for example, the natural barrier which exists, if staff are
located in different buildings or on different sites. Likewise, poor
or outdated equipment, particularly the failure of management to
introduce new technology, may also cause problems.
Staff shortages are another factor which frequently causes
communication difficulties for an organisation. Whilst distractions
like background noise, poor lighting or an environment which is
too hot or cold can all affect people’s morale and concentration,
which in interfere with effective communication.
System design faults refer to problems with the structures or
systems in an organisation. Examples might include an
organisational structure which is unclear and therefore makes it
confusing to know who to communicate with.
Additional barriersOther examples could be inefficient or
inappropriate information systems a lack of supervision or training
35
and a lack of clarity in roles and responsibilities which can lead to
staff being uncertain about what is expected of them

Attitudinal Barriers come about as a result of problems with staff

in an organisation. These may be brought about as a result of
problems with staff in an organisation. These may be brought for
example, by such factors as poor management, lack of consultation
with employees, personality conflicts whichcan result in people
delaying or refusing to communicate, the personal attitudes of the
individual employees which may be due to lack of motivation or
dissatisfaction at work brought about by insufficient training to
enable them to carry out particular tasks, so just resistance to
change due to entrenched attitudes and ideas.Psychological
factors such as people’s state of mind. We all tend to feel happier
and more receptive to information when the sun shines. Equally, if
someone has personal problems like worries about their health or
marriage, then this will probably affect them.

Different Languages and cultures represent a national barrier

36
which is particular important for organisations involved in
overseas business.Individualistic linguistic ability is also
important. The use of difficult or inappropriate words in
communication can prevent people from understanding the
message. Poorly explained or misunderstood messages can also
result in confusion. We can all think of situations where we have
listened to something explained which we just could not
grasp.Physiological barriers may result from individuals’
personal discomfort, caused, for example, by ill health, poor
eyesight or hearing difficulties.Presentation of information is
also important to aid understanding

37
 Communication Channels

Introduction

In an organization, information flows forward,

backwards and sideways. This information flow is
referred to as communication. Communication
channels refer to the way this information flows
within the organization and with other organizations.
In this web known as communication, a manager
becomes a link. Decisions and directions flow
upwards or downwards or sideways depending on
the position of the manager in the communication
web.
For example, reports from lower level manager will
flow upwards. A good manager has to inspire, steer
and organize his employees efficiently, and for all
this, the tools in his possession are spoken and
written words.
For the flow of information and for a manager to
handle his employees, it is important for an effectual
communication channel to be in place.

The Working of a Communication Channel

Through a modem of communication be it face to

face conversations or an inter-department memo,
information is transmitted from a manager to a

38
subordinate or vice versa.
An important element of the communication process
is the feedback mechanism between the management
and employees.
In this mechanism, employees inform managers that
they have understood the task at hand while
managers provide employees with comments and
directions on employee's work.

Importance of a Communication Channel

A breakdown in the communication channel leads to

an inefficient flow in information. Employees are
unaware of what the company expects of them. They
are uninformed of what is going on in the company.
This will cause them to become suspicious of
motives and any changes in the company. Also
without effective communication, employees become
department minded rather than company minded, and
this affects their decision making and productivity in
the workplace.
Eventually, this harms the overall organizational
objectives as well. Hence in order for an organization
to be run effectively, a good manager should be able
to communicate to his/her employees what is
expected of them, make sure they are fully aware of
company policies and any upcoming changes.
Therefore, an effective communication channel
should be implemented by managers to optimize

39
worker productivity to ensure the smooth running of
the organization.

Types of Communication Channels

The number of communication channels available to

a manager has increased over the last 20 odd years.
Video conferencing, mobile technology, electronic
bulletin boards and fax machines are some of the
new possibilities.
As organizations grow in size, managers cannot rely
on face to face communication alone to get their
message across.
A challenge the managers face today is to determine
what type of communication channel should they opt
for in order to carryout effective communication.
In order to make a manager's task easier, the types of
communication channels are grouped into three main
groups: formal, informal and unofficial.

Formal Communication Channels

1. A formal communication channel transmits

information such as the goals, policies, and

40
 procedures of an organization. Messages in this
type of communication channel follow a chain
of command. This means information flows
from a manager to his subordinates and they in
turn pass on the information to the next level of
staff.
2. An example of a formal communication channel
is a company's newsletter which gives
employees as well as the clients a clear idea of a
company's goals and vision. It also includes the
transfer of information with regard to
memoranda, reports, directions, and scheduled
meetings in the chain of command.
3. A business plan, customer satisfaction survey,
annual reports, employer's manual, review
meetings are all formal communication
channels.

Informal Communication Channels

1. Within a formal working environment, there

always exists an informal communication
network. The strict hierarchical web of
communication cannot function efficiently on its
own and hence there exists a communication
channel outside of this web. While this type of
communication channel may disrupt the chain of
command, a good manager needs to find the fine
balance between the formal and informal
communication channel.
2. An example of an informal communication
channel is lunchtime at the organization's

41
 cafeteria/canteen. Here, in a relaxed atmosphere,
discussions among employees are encouraged.
Also managers walking around, adopting a
hands-on approach to handling employee queries
is an example of an informal communication
channel.
3. Quality circles, team work, different training
programs are outside of the chain of command
and so, fall under the category of informal
communication channels.

Unofficial Communication Channels

1. Good managers will recognize the fact that

sometimes, communication that takes place
within an organization is interpersonal. While
minutes of a meeting may be a topic of
discussion among employees, sports, politics
and TV shows also share the floor.
2. The unofficial communication channel in an
organization is the organization's 'grapevine'. It
is through the grapevine that rumors circulate.
Also those engaging in 'grapevine' discussions,
often form groups which translate into
friendships outside of the organization. While
the grapevine may have positive implications,
more often than not information circulating in
the grapevine is exaggerated and may cause
unnecessary alarm to employees. A good
manager should be privy to information
circulating in this unofficial communication
channel and should take positive measures to

42
 prevent the flow of false information.
3. An example of an unofficial communication
channel is social gatherings among employees.

Conclusion

In any organization, three types of communication

channels exist: formal, informal and unofficial.
While the ideal communication web is a formal
structure in which informal communication can take
place, unofficial communication channels also exist
in an organization.
Through these various channels, it is important for a
manager to get his/her ideas across and then listen,
absorb, glean and further communicate to
employees.

Formal / Informal Communication Channels

Communication is the sharing of information for a variety of

purposes including informing, persuading, motivating or

43
influencing. There are two general ways of delivering the
information: formal and informal communication channels.

Formal Communication in the Workplace

Formal communication is organized and managed information

that is shared with relevant individuals in order to secure
coordinated action throughout the organization. Formal
communication channels are based on an individual’s role in
the organization and distributed in an organized way
according to the established chain in organizational charts.
Typically, formal communication flows “downward” from
executives to directors to managers to staff regarding
company direction and instruction and “upward” from staff to
managers to directors to executives in the form of data and
reports. The communication flowing through these channels is
specific to the jobs and departments.
Such formal communication is well established and planned.
For example, reports and data from staff are organized are
generally submitted in prescribed templates and according to a
set schedule. Communication focused on a company’s
strategy and direction, which originates from company
executives, is funneled through the organizational chart and
changed in such a way to be relevant to each department and
manager. What starts out as “high-level” communication on
corporate strategy needs to be thought out through planning
sessions so that the communication provides direction and is
actionable for the individuals who implement the tasks of the
strategy. The better the communication the better employees
and staff will understand what is expected and required of
them.

44
Informal Communication in the Workplace

On the other hand, informal communication in the workplace

satisfies a variety of needs, particularly social and emotional,
and is not based on the positions individuals occupy within
the organizations. As a result, the communication is not
managed or planned in any organized fashion. It’s more
relaxed, casual and tends to be spread by word-of-mouth
quickly throughout a department or organization because it’s
not restricted to approvals and an established path of
distribution.
Probably the most common term used for the informal
communication in the workplace is “grapevine” and this
communication that is sent through the organizational
grapevine is often considered gossip or rumour. While
grapevine communication can spread information quickly and
can easily cross established organizational boundaries, the
information it carries can be changed through the deletion or
exaggeration crucial details thus causing the information
inaccurate – even if it’s based on truth.
The use of the organizational grapevine as an informal
communication channel often results when employees feel
threatened, vulnerable, or when the organization is
experiencing change and when communication from
management is restricted and not forthcoming.
When used with thought and planning, however, there are
several advantages of grapevine communication. It can
 spread information quickly throughout an organization
 serve a social purpose
 reduce stress and anxiety

45
  can be used to identify problems or lack of satisfaction
in the workplace
While the organizational grapevine can never be eliminated,
even if there are several advantages of grapevine
communication, it can be reduced by removing the need for
information. Managing the grapevine can be partly achieved
by providing information through good, effective
communication such as:
 supplying sufficient information through the formal
communication channel about the concerns that are of
importance to employees and staff
 present as much factual information as possible as soon
as it is obtained
 keep information coming on a regular basis especially
during times of change when the employees are
stressed and wondering what’s going on. Daily
communication with them will reduce the pressure of
uncertainty.
 open the lines of the formal communication channels to
receive feedback and concerns. Respond to these as
quickly as possible. If concerns are submitted from staff
and no response is given by management, rumours
through grapevine communication will begin to fill in the
communication gap which was created by management.
Formal / informal communication channels exist in every
organization. Formal communication requires thought and
planning prior to distribution; informal communication,
however, usually succeeds on its own mostly because of the
very effective grapevine. While there are several advantages
of grapevine communication, managing the grapevine also
46
requires thought and planning. Even so, it’s very difficult to
formalize informal communication, therefore, the best way to
cut the grapevine is to provide accurate, respectful and timely
formal communication.

Grapevine Communication and Workplace

Communication Methods

Using Grapevine Communication as a

Workplace Communication Tool

People like to socialize at events, parties and even within and

outside of the work environment. Although the office is not
the best place to socialize, workers still find the time to both
work and learn about all of the latest office information.

There are many reasons why grapevine communication exists

within the office environment and is one of the business
communication activities that occurs in any company.
Although the most obvious reason is that nosey people are
everywhere, there is also another more credible reason. People
want and need to get information that is not being given to
them for one reason or another.

Don't confuse grapevine communication with grapevine

gossip. Yes, there will always be a few workers that start and
spread vicious rumours about their co-workers and
management. However, there are also workers who provide
their co-workers with pertinent information that pertains to
their jobs. For example, many times when unpleasant things

47
are about to happen within a company, management will fail
to keep all employees updated on what is really happening.

As a result, there will be employees who have the information

that others need. They in turn pass this office communication
along. There are usually a lot of hushed low-keyed
conversations that take place in the break room or at
lunchtime, but important information is being passed and
received to and from employees.

It is useful to use grapevine communication to the company's

benefit by feeding the right information that you want
disseminated to key people who will spread it. You can
monitor it to a certain degree. You can find out what is being
said and anticipate miscommunications and correct them via
other communication channels such as newsletters, bulletin
boards, forums, blogs etc.

It is human nature for people to gather and express their

opinions and to seek information.

There are many ways to communicate, be it nonverbal

communication in business, business communication by
email, word of mouth, written or printed communication. All
methods play an important role in conveying messages. Read
this nonverbal communication article and barriers to
business communication.

48
 When communicating sensitive issues in the workplace
follow the guidelines below.

Communication objectives for internal workplace

communication

All communication should be formulated to:

 Communicate the changes within and across the various

business units enabling staff to become accustomed to
the new environment.
 Ensure successful and smooth implementation and
transition from an old environment to the new
environment.
 Communicate all stages of the process, clearly and
effectively in order to reduce uncertainty during the
transition process.
 Increase employee commitment to and participation in
the roll out project.
 Increase productivity, motivation and morale and use of
initiative.
 Increase trust among employees.
 Anticipate, ascertain and deal with possible
misperceptions.
 Decrease apprehension and resistance by establishing
two way lines of open communication.
 Improve service delivery.
Research
Research is necessary in the communication process.
Research current communication methods and their
effectiveness by means of climate surveys. Assess
employee perceptions before and after the
49
process. Use grapevine communication in your
research.

Communication can cover the following issues:

 Communication concerning job roles and

responsibilities, policies and procedures, all
information pertaining to the organizational
culture, business processes, physical
environment
 Communication of where we are now, where
we ideally want to be, the rationale
 Communication of changes and new
developments thereby keeping staff informed
every step of the way
 Informing and encouraging staff’s
involvement in ascertaining problems areas,
causes and solutions, as well as factors
impacted by problem areas
 Success stories, case studies.

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION AND WRITTEN

MESSAGES IN AN ORGANISATION
Written communication is the exchange of information by
writing e.g letters, memos, notices, minutes, reports

50
It is the expression of ideas, thoughts or feelings through the
use of symbols or words
Or inscriptions in a given language on paper and other forms
Situations Where Written Communication Can Be Used
In contracts between In meetings or deliberations
organisations
In agreements
In letters of appointment
In requests
In sales orders
In making or formulating
In purchase orders policies
In disciplinary action
Advantages of written communication
1. Can be carefully planned and considered before
transmission, it’s clearly thought out there is because
there is time e.g. exams.
2. Errors can be removed before transmission.
3. Useful when record is required for reference purposes
e.g. minutes from a meeting, reports or even love letters.
4. Better for the purposes of conveying, difficult or
complicated messages.
5. Can transmit the same message to a lot of people who are
difficult to contact by other means e.g. memorandum,
notices.

Disadvantages

51
 1. Its time consuming
2. Feedback is either nonexistent or delayed
3. Lacks non verbal cues or signs which help interpretation
4. Some people do not like to read or are illiterate.
5. You can never be sure that the message has been read.
6. It lacks warmth and individuality.
7 Cs of Written 4. Courtesy
Communication
1. Clarity (clearness)
5. Correctness
2. Conciseness (exact to
6.Consideration
the point)
7. Concreteness
3. Completeness
Conciseness- A written document should be concise. This
means that the writer should be exact to the point. This will
keep the reader awake and monotony is avoided .The writer
should make sure that what he or she is writing makes sense
and should be easy to understand.
Courtesy- it brings people together. The writer should be
polite in his or her writing for example “I hope to receive a
favourable reply”
Correctness- The document should not have errors in
spellings, grammar and punctuation. It creates a good
impression.
Clarity- Clarity is one of the essential elements of effective
communication in written documents. Documents should be
easy to understand. It helps reader to get the meaning of it and
also easy acknowledgement of any document.
52
Consideration- The writer should think about the audience or
the recipient to receive the written document. The writer
should make note of the words he/she will be using
(diction).Should not use a lot of jargon or difficult words
because this will minimise effective communication.
MEMORANDA

What is a memorandum?
The business memo is a simple way of communicating
information inside an organization is a written form of
communication. It conveys information efficiently and
effectively, which can save time-consuming meetings
.
Memo is short for Memorandum. You can use either term,
depending on how formal a tone you want. Use memos for
communication inside your company. Use letters to
communicate outside your company. Email is now being used
in both of these ways as well. They have a fixed format that
shows the sender and the intended receiver. Memoranda
should have:
(a) a good subject line
(b) a clear opening paragraph announcing the topic
(c) good readability
(d) clear style
(e) a good friendly tone

Memoranda often called memos are messages written inside

organisations.They are organised like letters, but vary a great
deal in informality.They may also be used out as reports with
numbered headings.
53
Memos are best used for:
 Introducing information such as policy changes
 Persuading people to take an action such as attending a
meeting
 Announcing policies
 Changing a current work procedure
 Confirming a conversation or agreement
 Requesting information
 Transmitting data
 Presenting goals or expectations
Format of a memorandum
In the past, memos used to be very formal. However, the
current style is to be more personal. It is very different from
that of a letter. Many companies have standard printed
memoranda forms. If staff does not have such forms they
create their own forms.

Memos are generally short, with one to four sentences. The

order and placement of these items may vary. For example,
the date may be on the right. Follow your company's format.
A longer format might have several paragraphs but should
never be longer than one page. If you need to communicate
more information it is better to write a report. Memos do not
require a salutation or a closing statement.

54
Words of caution. Though you may prefer the personal style,
do not compromise on accuracy, brevity and clarity. Do not
sacrifice on the essentials. Bear in mind that unlike letters, a
memo is made up two parts: the heading and body. Many
companies and organisations, in order to standardise the

NAME OF COMPANY
MEMORANDUM

To: All Staff

From: The Vice-President, Corporate
Communications
Date: 19 February 2012
Subject: How Not To Write A Memo:
format of a memorandum, have pre-set formats. In fact, it is
common to find memos on how to write a memorandum being
circulated from time to time in business as well as academia!
An example of a format for the heading is:

55
Conventions of memorandum writing
Memoranda do not have salutations or complementary closes.
The writer normally has his or her typed name at the end.He
or she could also end off with initials. Memoranda are written
in styles ranging from formal to consultative.
The conventions of memoranda writing are as follows:
 TO:

Be familiar with company policy or guidelines. Take into

consideration your relationship with the persons or
persons you are addressing. What is their rank or title?
Generally, courtesy such as "Mr." or "Mrs." is not used.
However, depending on the local culture, people of
higher rank are usually addressed by their title such as
"The President" or "Chief Executive Officer."
Use the addressee's name in full. You may, depending on
your relationship and in an informal memo, use first
names or even nicknames. Where necessary, you may
have to use additional identification such as a job title,
name of the unit or department. For example: Shalina
Victor, Senior General Manager, Corporate
Communications. If your memo is directed at many

56
people, you may use "See Below" and list the names at
the bottom of the memo. For a large group, use
identification such as, "Divisional Heads" or
"Departmental Heads."

 Copies to
If the memorandum has to be addressed to a receiver
and other people for information then the “copies to”
section is used.
 From
You may place your own name, job title or name of your
department here. However, do use not courtesy such as
"Mr." or "Mrs." You may sign the memo or put down
your initials at the end of it. This is usually at the top of
your title or name. Variations depend on the culture of the
organisation or company.

 Date:
Give the date of the memorandum for reference. The
following style for date is recommended: Write the
month in full. Do not use abbreviations or numerals
such as 24/10/09.
 Subject
Write a clear subject-line above the first paragraph. This
should announce the title of the memorandum. "Re:" is
commonly used instead of subject. The rule is to have
your statement as brief or short as possible without losing
its accuracy. What is the memo all about? Mention it in
the statement.

57
Information to include in different styles of business
memos:
Informative subject line: This explains simply and clearly
what the memo is about.
Opening: The first sentence or two should give the main point
by expanding on the subject line.
Main Body: Give instructions or information. This is where to
explain the problem, the policy or procedure changes, or
present goals or expectations. Keep your information concise,
factual and neutral in tone.
Conclusion: If needed, add a conclusion to reaffirm or
summarize the memo's points.
In addition to the above, your memorandum must be free of
spelling, punctuation and grammar mistakes. Sentences must
be well constructed and words used correctly. Proofread and
check your memorandum carefully.

REVISION
Define a memorandum
Distinguish different types of memoranda
Outline the essential characteristics of a memorandum
Correctly layout memoranda to apply the 7cs or goals of

58
written communication to the
writing of memoranda.
You are the Head of departmentMutare Polytechnic and
lessons have been disrupteddue to the economic hardships.
The principal asks youto investigate the causes and suggest
how the problems can be overcome. Write a memorandum
report.

CIRCULARS
A circular letter is one which is sent out to many, not to one
person but to hundreds or even thousands but it is written
giving the impression that it was written for him or her alone.
E g a sales letter attempting to sell you books. A circular can
also be presented in memo form addressed to “all members of
the staff” The circular is prepared once only and then

59
duplicated for distribution to several people. Names and
addresses will then be inserted to personalise the letter.

LAYOUT
1. Month or year only e.g. July 2012
2. Blank –for details later
3. Salutation- in singular form e.g. Dear student/customer
4. In the body use individual term e.g. “you” and not “all of
you”
5. Complementary ending – Yours sincerely.
Example: 12 June 2012

.............................................
...............................................
.......................................................
Dear Customer

Move to 36 Third Street Castle Town

We are moving! Our present shop is too small to meet our

customer needs we have decided to move to 36 Third Street
on the 20th of June 2012. This well designed shop in a
developing area will enable us to all your needs that we will
be offering you:
- Plenty of parking
- Twice the floor space
- Full display of all our goods
- Complete customer Service

60
Move with us to 36 Third Street. We offer the best service in
town.
Yours Sincerely

L Angel

Managing Director
(Signature)

NOTICES

Many companies have notice boards. Notices are written

forms of mass communication (i.e. written for a general
audience)and unlike a memo there is no direct line of
communication between the sender of the messages and the
people who will read the notice as a result the sender may not
know if the notice has been understood or not.

1. Notices should be attractively set out. They are normally

displayed on notice boards where they have to compete
for attention with many other notices, so it is very
important that the notice stands out in some way
2. Simple
3. Immediately clear

Functions include:
61
a. Announcement of social events.
b. Report on matters of general interest to the employees
c. Advertisements of posts for internal appointment
d. To remind or inform staff of new procedures.

How to write a notice

1. Heading: Should be very clear and well set out.
2. Introduction: It should expand on what the heading
states. It should also state who should be reading the
message.
3. Main message: should be kept simple. The writer
should set out the key points as readable as possible
i.e. he or she should use ;
a) a numbering system
b) Plenty of headings

62
BUSINESS LETTERS

Business letters are often the common form of communication

that people have in an organisation. The basics of good
business letter writing are easy to learn. The following guide
provides the phrases that are usually found in any standard
business letter. This basic of business letters are important
because certain formulas are recognized and handled
accordingly.

TYPES OF BUSINESS LETTERS

Making An Inquiry
Make an inquiry when you are requesting more information
about a product or service. This type of business letter tends to
include specific information such as product type, as well as
asking for further details in the form of brochures, catalogues,
telephone contact, etc. Making inquiries can also help you
keep up on your competition!

Sales Letters
Sales Letters are used to introduce new products to new
customers and past clients. It's important to outline an
important problem that needs to be solved and provide the
63
solution in sales letters. This example letter provides an
outline, as well as important phrases to use when sending out
a wide variety of sales letters.It is a piece of direct mail which
is designed to persuade the reader to purchase a particular
product or service.

It should:

• Have a clear and powerful headline

• Have an immediately clear benefit for the intended

audience or target.

• Must build the readers’ trust

• Have the customer’s needs coming first, not your desire

to sell something

• Be upfront and bold about promising a prize or a tangible

reward in exchange for time and attention

• Explain “WIFM” or “what is in for me”.

Before writing a sales letter one must acquire and analyse

appropriate lists of targeted customers.

Replying to an Inquiry
Replying to inquiries is one of the most important business

64
letters that you write. Customers who make inquiries are
interested in specific information, and are excellent business
prospects. Learn how to thank the customers, provide as much
information as possible, as well as make a call to action for a
positive outcome.

Account Terms and Conditions

When a new customer opens an account it is essential to
inform them of account terms and conditions. If you run a
small business, it is common to provide these terms and
conditions in the form of a letter. This guide provides a clear
example on which you can base your own business letters
providing account terms and conditions.

Letters of Acknowledgment
For legal purposes letters of acknowledgment are often
requested. These letters are also referred to as letters of receipt
and tend to be rather formal and short. These two examples
letters will provide you with a template to use in your own
work and can be easily adapted for a number of purposes.

Placing an Order
As a business person, you will often place an order -
especially if you have a large supply chain for your product.

65
This example business letter provides an outline to make sure
your order placement is clear so that you receive exactly what
you order.

Making a Claim
Unfortunately, from time to time it is necessary to make a
claim against unsatisfactory work. This example business
letter provides a strong example of a claim letter and includes
important phrases to express your dissatisfaction and future
expectations when making a claim.

Adjusting a Claim
Even the best business may make a mistake from time to time.
In this case, you may be called upon to adjust a claim. This
type of business letter provides an example to send to
unsatisfied customers making sure that you address their
specific concerns, as well as retain them as future customers.

Cover Letters
Cover letters are extremely important when applying for a
new position. Cover letters should include a short
introduction, highlight the most important information in your
resume and elicit a positive response from your prospective
employer. These two examples of cover letters are part of a

66
larger section on the site providing all the information you
will need on taking an interview in English during your job
search.

Think of a basic business letter in three steps:

1. Introduction - The reason for writing

The introduction helps the reader understand in which

context the letter should be considered. Possibilities include
job interview inquires, business opportunity requests,
complaints, and more. Each type of business letter has its own
standard phrases which you can find in this guide to different
types of business letters.

2.Details - What you would like to accomplish

The detail section of a business letter is extremely important.

This is where you achieve your goals in writing a business
letter.

3.Conclusion / Next Steps - What you would like to happen

in the future

Provide a call for future action. This can be a chance to talk

in person, a follow-up letter or more. It's important and

67
expected to make it clear what you would like for the next
step from the person reading your business letter.

a) The start of any business letter begins by addressing

the recipient of the letter.

-Dear Personnel Director,

-Dear Sir or Madam: (use if you don't know who you are
writing to) -Dear Dr, Mr,
Mrs, Miss or Ms Mbona: (use if you know who you are
writing to, and have a formal relationship with - VERY
IMPORTANT use Ms for women unless asked to use Mrs or
Miss)
-Dear Jill : (use if the person is a close business contact or
friend) Note: If you
are unsure how formal you should be, always choose a more
formal form. Writing to a specific person is always preferred
if at all possible.

b) The Reference
Begin by referencing a specific conversation or other contact
means. If this is the first letter in a conversation, you can also
provide the reason for writing.
-With reference to your advertisement in the Times, your

68
letter of 23 rd March/ or your phone call today,
-Thank you for your letter of March 5 th.

a) The Reason for Writing

I am writing to:-
... inquire about
... apologize for
... confirm
... comment on
... apply for

Examples:
I am writing to inquire about the position posted in The Daily
Mail. I am
writing to confirm the shipment details on order # 2346.
I am writing to apologize for the difficulties you experienced
last week at our branch.

Once you have introduced the reason for writing your

business letter, move on to stating more specifically the
purpose of your letter. Here are a number of possibilities:

1. Requesting e.g. Could you possiblyforward your job

requirements?
I would be grateful if you could
69
2. Agreeing to Requests e.g. I would be delighted to...............
3. Giving Bad News e.g. Unfortunately/ I am afraid thatI will
be able to attend the conference next week.
4. Enclosing Documents e.g. I am enclosing/ Please find
enclosed/ Enclosed you will find
5. Closing Remarks e.g.Thank you for your help, Please
contact us again if we can help in any way / there are any
problems/ you have any questions.
6. Reference to Future Contact e.g. I look forward to /
hearing from you soon/ meeting you next Tuesday/ seeing
you next Thursday.
b) The Finish
Yours faithfully, (If you don't know the name of the person
you're writing to) Yours sincerely, (If
you know the name of the person you're writing to)
Best wishes/ Best regards, (If the person is a close business
contact or friend)

SAMPLE LETTER (Here is a sample letter using some of

these forms)

Mutare Polytechnic
P O Box 640
Mutare
Tel:
70
Fax:
Email: Emman @cheese.com

October 23, 2012

Garwe Restaurant
P.O Box 3240
Eastlea
Harare

Dear Ms Mvukwe:

With reference to our telephone conversation today, I am

writing to confirm your order for: 120 x Cheddar Deluxe Ref.
No. 856

The order will be shipped within three days via UPS and
should arrive at your store in about 10 days.

Please contact us again if we can help in any way.

Yours sincerely,

NyaradzaiMazaiwanaDirector Garwe Restaurant

71
Interviews

It is a planned conversation between two partners during

which questions are asked and answered. A job interview is
aimed specifically at trying to find the suitable interviewee for
the job.

Purpose

 The interviewer wants to form an impression of the

interviewee.
 Interviewer wants to confirm the accuracy of information
supplied in the application letter and CV.
 The interviewer is given a chance to explain the job in
detail.
 Interviewer also gets to form an impression for the
organisation.
 Facilitates the selection of the best candidate.

Types of Interviews

72
Structured Interviews are carefully planned in advance and
questions asked are usually closed ones where one word
answers are required.

Unstructured Interviews

They offer more flexibility, more scope is allowed to the

interviewee to answer questions, Openende questions are
asked.

Interviewee ‘s preparation

 Gain as much knowledge as possible about the company.

 Study the job specifications closely.
 Prepare to sell yourself i.e. state what you can do for the
company.
 Think carefully about your career objectives.
 Draw up a list of questions that colud be asked and plan
how to answer them.
 Drw up a list of questions that you would like to ask.

Interviewers Preparation

 Prepare a job description.

 Prepare a range of general and specific questions suitable
for each candidate.

73
 Prepare the room well.
 prepare a checklist for the desired characteristics.
 Prepare a score sheet so that each candidate can be rated
on a set of characteristics.

Questions asked may cover the following:

 Home background
 Education and Training
 Work history
 Career Plans
 Reasons for applying the job.
 Leadership
 Initiative
 Flexibility
 Independence
 Ability to get on with others
 Motivation
 Communication skills
Examples of interview questions include;
 Why have you applied for this job?
 Why are you here/ Why did you pick the organisation?
 What kind of a person are you?

74
  Assuming you can do the job what distinguishes you
from 10 other people who can do the same job?
 What have been your achievements so far?
 What preparations did you make before coming for this
interview?
 When can you start?
 Do you have any challenges?
 What qualities will you bring into this organisation if
offered a job?
 For how long do you intend to stay with us?
 Where do you see yourself in 5 years time?
 What do you think of this organisation?
 What is it that you least enjoy about your job?
 What qualities do you think a Marketing Manager should
possess?

TELEPHONE SKILLS
The telephone is often the first point of contact within an
organisation. Organisations should strive to create an image of
themselves over the telephone i.e. helpful, efficient, friendly.

75
Staff should strive to make their voices friendly, interested,
concerned. Voices are crucial over the phone; they may create
or destroy a relationship with callers.

People need to cultivate good listening skills. Speak slowly

carefully to give the caller the impression that you are
interested in him or her as well as with his /her problem.

Show that you are confident and enthusiastic.

Varying our voice shows that you are listening, by saying “I

see”, “yes”, “mmm”.

Choose your words carefully, do not be tempted to use

technical terms that are likely to confuse listeners.

Be positive and helpful, avoid negative words such as “busy”,

“ I don’t know”, or I’ll try to help you”

Offer immediate help, if you cannot solve the problem

immediately take down the details say that you will deal with
the matter as soon as you can.

Ensure that you follow up any complaint. Let the caller know
when he or she may expect help.

Be assertive rather than aggressive or submissive.

76
When a caller is angry try not to be intimidated. Answer in a
confident way, ask the caller’s name and use it.

Do not

Simply say hallo.

Assume that you will not be able to help.

Ask weak and submissive questions

Ask weak and submissive questions such as I don’t suppose I

ca be of any help? This question risks an immediate “no”

Leave the details unrecorded.

Simply offer to take a message.

Respond angrily to the caller’s anger.

Let the call end with the caller dissatisfied

CONTROLLING CALLS.

Answer promptly Allow the phone to ring no more than three

or four times.

Greet the caller as follows Good morning/ afternoon

Thank you for calling

The name of your organisation

77
Your name

How can l help you?

Ask the caller’s name and use it.

THE TELEPHONE USER’S RIGHTS

Know the person you are talking to.

State their needs.

Have their needs properly listened to.

Ask a range of questions to prompt the caller or to find out

how to get information.

Have their questions answered promptly, efficiently and

courteously.

Be told why their request will not be met.

Be told what the other person expects of them.

MEETINGPROCEDURE

78
Meetings are held by members of organisations, clubs and
societies. If a group of people come together for the first time
to form a club, organisation or society then we call that
gathering an inaugural meeting. The person who organise
the event is the conveyor (he / she convenes the meeting.)

If an organisation has been existing for some time and a

meeting is held then we refer to that meeting either as a
special meeting or a general meeting.

Special meetings are held only when something occurs which

necessitates a meeting which is not scheduled. An example is
when something unforeseen has happened in an organisation
which necessitates the urgent gathering of members to decide
on what to do.

Notices are written notifications of forthcoming meetings.

You will have to give written notices of forthcoming meetings
in the examination.

An Agenda is a list of items for discussion in a meeting.

These are listed in print form. The agenda is very often
included with the notice given to members. If the agenda is
not included with the notice then the members will receive the
agenda before or during the meeting.

79
Minutes of the meeting is a document which pertains to
everything said during the meeting. It is a verbatim record of
members’ spoken words during the meeting. The minute of
the meeting is taken down during the meetings by the
secretary. It does not mean that the secretary is necessarily a
secretary in the organisation, it is a term given to someone
taking down the minutes during the meeting. Some
organisation alternate their secretaries, but it is often the same
person who is taking down the minutes.

OTHER IMPORTANT TERMS

Constitution: a set of rules and regulations which

govern the organisation. These have been
accepted by members during the inaugural
(very first) meeting. The constitution is that
which prescribes to the members how they
must behave and which decisions are legally
binding.

The Quorum: A minimum of members, as prescribed by the

constitution, must be present during a meeting
before a legally binding decision may be taken.
Voting on issues, therefore, presupposes that

80
 the prescribed minimum number of members
should be present (before any legally binding
decision may be made.)

The Chairperson: This person presides at the meeting. The

chairperson’s duty is to maintain order during
the meeting and to control the procedure.

Proposal: This is a suggestion made by someone during

the meeting. If a proposal is given to be
discussed before the meeting, then we call it a
motion. A motion becomes a resolution when
the motion is either accepted or rejected.

Ad hoc Committee: During a meeting, it may become

clear that certain issues have to be attended to.
The appointment of members on the committee
is then done on a temporary basis: they are
expected to conduct investigations into the
matters and then report back to the members at
another meeting after the completion of the
investigation.

81
Voting: It is sometimes necessary to vote ( to reach a
decision on a matter). Voting procedures have
their own terminology:

Ballot: Voting in secret, either by ballot (putting votes

in a ballot- secretly- or voting anonymously.

Deadlock: Sometimes a situation rises where equal

numbers of votes are for and against a
proposal.

Casting vote if a deadlock exists, then the chairperson may

have the casting vote, in other words, the
deciding vote.

Neminedespentiente:(nem.dis) No one disapproves of a

motion, everyone approves of it: this is called
unanimous approval.

Neminecontrodicente:(Nem.con.): No one votes, against

the motion but a few people abstain from voting.

Abstain: To refuse to vote.

Proxy: The permission given to a person by another

member (who cannot be present at the
meeting) to vote on his behalf.

82
Resolution: Agreement by a majority of the members at a
meeting on a motion – this agreement may be
positive or negative (for or against the motion).

Unanimous; When all members vote in favour of a motion.

Motions each item to be discussed will have a proposal,

normally called a motion to which members
will speak. A motion is a proposal put forward
for discussion and decision at a meeting. It can
be in writing before the meeting or may be a
proposal during the discussion.

Changes motions may be changed before they are voted

upon by amendment or addendum. An
amendment is a proposal to alter a motion
which has been submitted to a meeting e.g. by
adding, inserting or deleting words of the
original motion.

Addendum: is the addition of words to a motion and is

treated in the same way as an amendment.

Closure: End of a meeting.

83
Guillotine ruling: This is a specific time restriction placed
on a discussion of a proposal or the time given
to a speaker or on the actual duration of a
meeting.

In camera: When the proceedings for a meeting take place

behind closed doors. It is of a sensitive,
confidential nature.

Attendance Register: The actual record of numbers

attending a meeting.

Point of order: The chairperson has to decide if a

member’s contribution to the meeting is in line
with the constitution or relevant to the point on
the agenda.

Verbatim: The exact words of a speaker.

Second: To second a proposal, means that another

person agrees with the original proposal,
necessitating the meeting’s attention to the
matter.

Precedent: When something that occurred in the past is

used as a basis for future actions.

84
Suspension: The prohibition of a member from taking part
in the activities of an organisation.

Treasurer: A treasurer is in charge of the organisation’s

financial matters.

Honorarium: An honorarium is paid to any person for

recognition of duties performed during a year,
e.g. the treasurer, for accounting duties.

Status quo: The current situation.

Ex officio: the authority which a person has as result of his

or her position.

Adjournment: When a meeting is closed before all the

topics on the agenda have been discussed, the
discussion, however, will resume after a break.
This is not an official closure.

Co-option being invited to join the deliberations of a

meeting, but not allowed to vote.

TYPES OF MEETINGS

a) Public meeting - every member of the public is allowed

(to discuss, e.g. political issues.)

85
 b) Private meeting – Only the members of the organisation
are allowed to attend the meeting.
c) Management Meetings (command meetings) – are
attended only by management; general meetings are
attended by members of staff on a regular basis
(annually, weekly, monthly) and on special occasions
(special meetings).
d) Committee meetings are attended only by members
serving on a specific committee.

Meetings are governed by the

following:

Common Law: Common law refers to the unwritten laws

which are applied by the courts as just, It is
common law that a quorum must be present
before a decision made during a meeting can
be legally binding; it is also common law that
members must be notified of forthcoming
meetings.

Constitution: The rules and regulations which govern the

organisation and its meeting procedures are
known as the constitution.

86
The following is expected
from:
The chairperson: He she plays a key role in the success of
the meetings: The chairperson should therefore
be tactful, diplomatic, sincere, a good
communicator and above all a respectable
leader. The main function of the chairperson is
to maintain order during the meeting.

Secretary: The secretary must be well organised and

attend to matters such as the venue for the
meeting, the drafting of the notice and agenda
and taking down the minutes of the meeting,
The secretary should therefore, be well skilled
in communication,

NOTICES, AGENDA AND MINUTES

1. NOTICE

A notice can be formal or informal.

MUTARE POLYTECHNIC
Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education

NOTICE OF A MEETING

87
 Notice is hereby given of a monthly academic board
meeting. It is to be held in the boardroom on the 21st of
June 2012 at 0900 hours.
The minutes of the meeting held on the 20 th of May 2012
are attached.

C Gatsi
Chairwoman
Cell: 0772 950 037
10 June 2012

Notice of a monthly meeting is given above. If you are

requested to write the notice of an annual meeting, then it is
obvious that you’ll replace monthly with annual.

Below is the agenda of the monthly meeting. N.B points 1-

7 on the agenda are standard for most meetings for all
organisations. Points 7.1, 7.2 and 7.3 are specific “new
Business” matters pertaining to the specific
organisation. Points 8 and 9 are standard.

88
 AGENDA
1. Attendance Register.
2. Apologies.
3. Opening and Welcome.
4. Finalisation of the agenda.
5.Minutes of meeting held on 20 May 2012
6. Matters arising.
7.New business:
7.1 Symposium and Miss Poly
7.2 Main Graduation
7.3 MOTION; That the Symposium invitation letters
to High Schools be sent to the Regional offices of
Ministry of Education, Sports and Culture Offices.
PROPOSAL: Ms G Sithole
SECONDED: Ms T Mawoyo
8. Date of next meeting.
9. Closure.

89
REPORT
-are fixed format documents. They are written as a result of
instructions given to someone to investigate and report on a
problem.
The major purposes of reports are to -:
Inform
Record facts
Persuade
Help in decision making
Recommend action

Reports are widely used in organisation for making

decisions:

1. They should be based on careful research.

2. Clearly and logically written in an objective, impersonal
style.
3. Constructed with the appropriate sections.
4. Well presented with high readability.

90
5. Written with a specific audience in mind.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A REPORT

They have clearly defined sections.

They are based on facts.
They are used for making decisions.
They often give detailed technical information.
They should be set out in a highly readable way.
They should be written in a formal, impersonal style.
They are often accompanied by a letter of transmittal. This
letter records that the work has been done.

Reports are written for a variety of audiences. Major types

are:

Informative report (stresses about facts) –give the facts of a

situation. The writer will also stress the procedures

Investigative Reports (gives results of an investigation and

recommends action) – are written because the writer has been
instructed to investigate the problem, draw conclusions from
the facts and recommendations. The writer for example has
been asked to investigate the causes of the factory fire, draw
conclusions and recommendations

Feasibility Reports (examines whether something can be

done or not and recommend action) are related to
91
investigation reports. They are written because someone has
been instructed to investigate whether something can or
should be done or not.

Evaluative reports – investigation and feasibility reports

evaluate the facts.
Technical reports – contains large amounts of technical
information. Information often set in tables, graphs e.tc
Interim reports - Are written to inform managers of the
progress of a project.
Self inaugurated reports
Investigative reports
Annual reports to shareholders and employees

Organisation and method studies

Work studies.

COMPILING A REPORT: SCHEMATIC REPORT

BODY OF REPORT

Introduction
Procedure for gathering
Conclusions (insight and implications)
Recommendations (the action to be taken)
Findings (the Facts)

92
Bibliography
List of references
Appendices

THE PURPOSE
It is important to establish immediately the exact purpose of
the report. Think of who is to read it, what is it intended to
achieve and how it will be used.

FORMAT OF A REPORT

1. COMPANY NAME

2. REPORT TITLE

3. TERMS OF REFERENCE.
They form the opening of the report.
They should include the following:
(a) By whom the report has been requested e.g.
At the request of a sales director or as directed by the
board.

(b) The precise areas to be covered e.g.

To enquire into present procedures of.................To examine
how the................................................................................
To carry out a feasibility study into
the...................................................
(c) What is intended should be the outcome of the report
e.g. To establish the
nature and extent of existing problems and make
recommendations for their solution.
To inform shareholders of plans for rationalisation.

93
(d) Establishing the limits of the report, such as
recognition of financial or economic constraints, company
policy, union, agreements or factors external to a
department which partially determine the working method.

4. PROCEDURES
This element concerns the method of investigation to be
adopted. Methods which might be mentioned include:
(a) Experiment
(b) Observation – observation of customer of staff
behaviour
(c) Survey
(d) Consultation
(e) Research

5. FINDINGS – Found when the procedures are analysed.

6. CONCLUSION - These are the solutions.

-The derived from findings.

7. RECOMMENDATIONS - These are suggestions.

They are derived from the conclusions.

8. SIGNATURE.

9. NAME – His /Her name full.

10. DESIGNATION – His / her post or position in the

organisation.
EXAMPLE OF A SCHEMATIC REPORT
94
Terms of ReferenceMargaret Anderson, Director of Personnel
has requested this report on employee benefits satisfaction.
The report was to be submitted to her by 28 June.
ProcedureA representative selection of 15% of all employees
was interviewed in the period between April 1st and April
15th concerning:
1. Overall satisfaction with our current benefits package
2. Problems encountered when dealing with the personnel
department
3. Suggestions for the improvement of communication
policies
4. Problems encountered when dealing with our HMO
Findings
1. Employees were generally satisfied with the current
benefits package.
2. Some problems were encountered when requesting
vacation due to what is perceived as long approval
waiting periods.
3. Older employees repeatedly had problems with HMO
prescription drugs procedures.
4. Employees between the ages of 22 and 30 report few
problems with HMO.
5. Most employees complain about the lack of dental
insurance in our benefits package.
6. The most common suggestion for improvement was for
the ability to process benefits requests online.
Conclusions

95
 1. Older employees, those over 50, are having serious
problems with our HMO's ability to provide prescription
drugs.
2. Our benefits request system needs to be revised as most
complaints concerning in-house processing.
3. Improvements need to take place in personnel
department response time.
4. Information technology improvements should be
considered as employees become more technologically
savvy.
Recommendations
1. Meet with HMO representatives to discuss the serious
nature of complaints concerning prescription drug
benefits for older employees.
2. Give priority to vacation request response time as
employees need faster approval in order to be able to
plan their vacations.
3. Take no special actions for the benefits package of
younger employees.
4. Discuss the possibility of adding an online benefits
requests system to our company Intranet.
Important Points to Remember

 A report is divided into four areas:

o Terms of Reference- This section gives

background information on the reason for the report.

It usually includes the person requesting the report.
o Procedure- The procedure provides the exact steps

taken and methods used for the report.

o Findings- The findings point out discoveries made

during the course of the report investigation.

96
 o Conclusions- The conclusions provide logical
conclusions based on the findings.
o Recommendations- The recommendations state

actions that the writer of the report feels need to be

taken based on the findings and conclusions.
 Reports should be concise and factual. Opinions are
given in the "conclusions" section. However, these
opinions should be based on facts presented in the
"findings".
 Use simple tenses (usually the present simple) to express
facts.
 Use the imperative form (Discuss the possibility ..., Give
priority ..., etc.) in the "recommendations" section as
these apply to the company as a whole.

How to Write a Business Email

Business Email Basics

Example 1: Formal

Hello,

I read on your web site that you offer Music CD

copying for large quantities of CDs. I'd like to
inquire about the procedures involved in these
services. Are the files transferred online, or are
the titles sent by CD to you by standard mail?
How long does it usually take to produce

97
approximately 500 copies? Are there any
discounts on such a large quantity?

Thank you for taking the time to answer my

questions. I look forward to your response.

Jack Finley
Sales Manager, Young Talent Inc.
(709) 567 - 3498

Example 2: Informal

At 16.22 01/07/2002 +0000, you wrote:

> I hear you're working on the Smith account. If

you need any information don't hesitate to get in
> contact with me.

Hi Tom,

Listen, we've been working on the Smith account

and I was wondering if you could give me a
hand? I need some inside information on recent
developments over there. Do you think you could
pass on any information you might have?

Thanks

Peter

98
 Peter Thompsen
Account Manager, Tri-State Accounting
(698) 345 - 7843

Important Points to Remember

 Email is much less formal than a written letter.

Emails are usually short and concise.
 If you are writing to someone you don't know, a
simple "Hello" is adequate. Using a salutation
such as "Dear Mr Smith," is too formal.
 When writing to someone you know well, feel
free to write as if you are speaking to the
person.
 Use abbreviated verb forms (He's, We're, He'd,
etc.)
 Include a telephone number to the signature of
the email. This will give the recipient the chance
to telephone if necessary.
 It is not necessary to include your email
address as the recipient can just reply to the
email.
 When replying eliminate all the information that
is not necessary. Only leave the sections of text
that are related to your reply. This will save
your reader time when reading your email.

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Guide to Basic Business Letters
The Basics

The basics of good business letter writing are

easy to learn. The following guide provides the
phrases that are usually found in any standard
business letter. This basic of business letters are
important because certain formulas are
recognized and handled accordingly.

Think of a basic business letter in three steps:

1.Introduction - The reason for writing

The introduction helps the reader understand

in which context the letter should be
considered. Possibilities include job interview
inquires, business opportunity requests,
complaints, and more. Each type of business
letter has its own standard phrases which you
can find in this this guide to different types of
business letters.

2.Details - What you would like to accomplish

The detail section of a business letter is

extremely important. This is where you
achieve your goals in writing a business letter.

100
3.Conclusion / Next Steps - What you would
like to happen in the future

Provide a call for future action. This can be a

chance to talk in person, a follow-up letter or
more. It's important and expected to make it
clear what you would like for the next step
from the person reading your business letter.

The phrases presented in this guide provide a

frame and introduction to the content of business
letters. At the end of this guide, you will find
links to sites that give tips on the difficult part of
writing successful business letters - arguing your
business objective. By using these standard
phrases, you can give a professional tone to your
English business letters. Once you understand
these basics, you can refine your business letter
writing skills by focusing on different types of
business letters, as well as other business
documents to refine your skills for your business
needs at your employers or your own small
business organization.

The Start

The start of any business letter begins by

addressing the recipient of the letter.

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Dear Personnel Director,

Dear Sir or Madam: (use if you don't know who

you are writing to)

Dear Dr, Mr, Mrs, Miss or Ms Smith: (use if you

know who you are writing to, and have a formal
relationship with - VERY IMPORTANT use Ms
for women unless asked to use Mrs or Miss)

Dear Frank: (use if the person is a close business

contact or friend)

Note: If you are unsure how formal you should

be, always choose a more formal form. Writing to
a specific person is always preferred if at all
possible.

The Reference

Begin by referencing a specific conversation or

other contact means. If this is the first letter in a
conversation, you can also provide the reason for
writing.

With reference to your advertisement in the

Times, your letter of 23 rd March,
your phone call today,
Thank you for your letter of March 5 th .

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The Reason for Writing

I am writing to...

... inquire about

... apologize for
... confirm
... comment on
... apply for

Examples:

I am writing to inquire about the position posted

in The Daily Mail.
I am writing to confirm the shipment details on
order # 2346.
I am writing to apologize for the difficulties you
experienced last week at our branch.

Once you have introduced the reason for writing

your business letter, move on to stating more
specifically the purpose of your letter. Here are a
number of possibilities:

Requesting

Could you possibly?

I would be grateful if you could

Agreeing to Requests
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I would be delighted to

Giving Bad News

Unfortunately
I am afraid that

Examples:

Could you possible forward your job

requirements?
I am afraid that I will be able to attend the
conference next week.
I would be delighted to give you a tour of our
facility this coming month.

Enclosing Documents

I am enclosing
Please find enclosed
Enclosed you will find

Closing Remarks

Thank you for your help Please contact us again

if we can help in any way.
there are any problems.
you have any questions.

Reference to Future Contact

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I look forward to ...
hearing from you soon.
meeting you next Tuesday.
seeing you next Thursday.

The Finish

Yours faithfully, (If you don't know the name of

the person you're writing to)

Yours sincerely, (If you know the name of the

person you're writing to)

Best wishes,

Best regards, (If the person is a close business

contact or friend)

Sample Letter

Here is a sample letter using some of these

forms:

Ken's Cheese House

34 Chatley Avenue
Seattle, WA 98765
Tel:
Fax:
Email: kenny@cheese.com

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October 23, 2006

Fred Flintstone
Sales Manager
Cheese Specialists Inc.
456 Rubble Road
Rockville, IL

Dear Mr Flintstone:

With reference to our telephone conversation

today, I am writing to confirm your order for:
120 x Cheddar Deluxe Ref. No. 856

The order will be shipped within three days via

UPS and should arrive at your store in about 10
days.

Please contact us again if we can help in any

way.

Yours sincerely,

Kenneth Beare
Director of Ken's Cheese House

106
Writing Business Letters - 1

The use of this lexical approach is essential for

successful language acquisition in English for
Specific Purposes. However, teachers are often
not equipped with the exact English terminology
required in very specific trade sectors. For this
reason, core vocabulary sheets go a long way in
helping teachers provide adequate materials for
students with English for Specific Purposes
needs.

These core vocabulary reference sheets (here

focusing on writing business letters) provide
between 150 and 240 key words and phrases for
each industry. Each series is divided into three
pages that, when combined, form an alphabetical
list. In taking this lexical approach to attaining
key vocabulary, students should be encouraged
to translate the specific words and phrases into
their native tongues as each phrase has a very
specific translation in each language.

to act on behalf of
to agree with
always at your service
as agreed
as far as I'm concerned

107
 as far as the payment is concerned
as follows
as per invoice
as per to the conditions
as per your request
as requested
as soon as possible
at your convenience
at your earliest convenience
at your expense
awaiting your reply
to be able to to be authorised to to be
characterised by
to be confident in
to be delighted to to be held responsible for
to be in arrears with payments
to be in difficulty
to be interested in
on arrival of the goods
on behalf of
on condition that - provided that
on delivery
on receipt of the order
on short notice
on written request
order to be confirmed
our best attention

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 our offer is still open
outside address
to pay the maximum attention to the matter
payable in advance
please allow us
please send us
please send us your instructions
prices are increasing
to reach the destination
to refer to to return a letter to the sender
to sell at the best
to send under separate cover
sender address
short term
similar to sample - up to
to be late
to be overrun with orders
to be prepared to - to be willing to before the
date we agreed upon
Best regards
body of the letter
circular letter
claim - letter of complaint
to come to a decision
to come to an agreement - to reach an
agreement
complimentary close
to cope with the competition
correspond to the sample
109
to correspond with
covering letter
due to oversight
enclosure - attachment
to fix an appointment
following your instructions
from order receipt
further to our letter - following our letter
goods listed below
greeting
half-price
to have the pleasure to to stop negotiations
to submit a sample
to suit the quality - to meet the quality
to take into consideration
the aim of this letter
the following items
the goods are available in our warehouse
the goods are not similar to sample
the goods are sold out
the goods arrived in good conditions
the letter remained unanswered
the matter in reference
the meeting was cancelled
to our mutual benefit
to the kind attention of
under separate cover
up to an amount of
utmost care
we acknowledge receipt of
we apologise again for

110
we apologise for
we apologise for the delay
we apologise for the mistake
we are sorry to have to we are sorry to inform
you
to have the power to hereby
in case of need
in compliance with - accordingly
in due time - in due course
in good condition
in our favour
in partial payment
in reply to your letter
in the absence of
to inform in due time
inside address
to let someone know in advance
letter opening - beginning of the letter
letterheading - heading
to look forward to looking forward to an early
reply
looking forward to hearing from you
to make the goods available
to meet a demand
to meet customer's requirements
to meet the demand
Messrs
to notify in advance about
on advanced payment
we have received
we hope we'll receive the goods soon
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we look forward to your kind reply
we must apologise for
we remain - our kindest regards
we sent you
we thank you in advance
we wish to inform you that
we would appreciate it if you could answer
we would appreciate your reply
with no obligation - without commitment
with reference to - in reference to with the
compliments of
with the utmost care
with two weeks' notice
within the end of the month
within which
without delay
without notice
would you please let us have
would you please let us know
you ordered
you requested
you sent us
Yours faithfully (GB) - Yours truly (GB)

ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION
Organisational Structure
To organise is to give an orderly structure to something. An
organisation is structured. We are all part of at least one
organisation be it a family, church, university, business e.t.c.
Our daily interactions in public sector or our engagement in
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social activities almost always take in the context of an
organisation.
Definitions
An organisation is a framework of the management process
whose purpose is to create an arrangement of positions and
responsibilities through and by which an enterprise can carry
out its work.(Appleby 1982:6)
Wofford and Associates(1977:337) sees an organisation as....
systems which are planned to satisfy some environmental
needs and survive over time. The systems are seen to consist
of a set of required activities, interaction and sentiments that
are logically considered appropriate to accomplish the
organisational mission.
Centrality of communication
Words like “process”, “framework system” and “interaction”
clearly imply the exchange of information among people who
communicate.
Classification of organisation
Formal organisations
These are run according to a set of rules for example a school
or a manufacturing company.Barnard ..... An organisation is
formal when the activities of two or more persons are
consciously coordinated towards a given objective.

113
Formal organisations come into being when persons are
willing to communicate with one another and share a
common purpose.
-The network of communications in an organisation or an
enterprise.
-An official channel through which information pass.
Informal organisation
Members are not strictly bound by rules yet it can still be an
organisation for example a family, friends who regularly
meet.Social desires of persons find their expressions in the
informal structure which should not be disregarded by
management. It is far much better if informal relations are
put on a formal footing as possible in order to ensure that
they do not go against formal relations for example informal
meetings of union members may undermine the authority of
the union management.

Bureaucratic Organisations
Organisational structures can be divided into three types:
Traditional- based on the head/ chiefs authority.
Rational/ legal- based upon the power which people
recognised and accepted in a given situation.

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Charisma- based upon the exceptional ability or personality
of someone who has charisma.
Bureaucracy may be defined as a type of organisation
designed to accomplish large scale administrative tasks by
coordinating the work of a large number of persons in a
systematic manner.
Characteristics
Regular activities are distributed in a fixed way and are called
official duties.
Each lower position is under the control and supervision of a
higher position (hierarchical principle)
Operations are governed by a consistent systematic system
of abstract rules all leading to the attainment of a common
goal.
Duties are carried out impersonally.
Employment is based upon technical qualification and
promotion is based upon seniority or achievement or both.
Advantages System of procedures for
processing work.
Impartial application of
rules. Division of labour based
upon functional
Clearly defined system of
specialisation.
authority.
Disadvantages

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Confusion and conflict Poor communication and
among roles numerous informal
organisations.
Arbitrary rules
Slow to adapt to new
No room for personal
technology.
growth.
ORGANISATIONAL PYRAMID
Small firms have a simple organisational structure. There is
specialisation of jobs but it is flexible, other jobs are made to
fit the person available for example a sales manager may
have an aptitude for figures and so may be placed in charge
of accounts. Relations are informal and the lower ranks can
talk direct to the manager directly about their problems,
Rules are few and decisions are based largely upon
experience. As the firm expands more specialists and
managers are employed. The organisation becomes more
complex as management levels are more numerous and in
need to be more closely defined.
Duties may have to be more specific and the qualities and
qualifications needed by the personnel for each job are also
more closely defined this tend to lead to appointments
becoming less personal. Detailed rules governing all aspects
are formulated to guide managers in the running of their
departments.
Levels of authority vary and the number of levels depends
among other things upon the number and type of employees

116
for example a company with a large number of manual
workers will have fewer tiers than a similar sized company
with more clerical workers because the supervisor ratio tends
to be greater on the shop floor.
Broad base indicates that lower down there is a government
of operating employees. Towards the top fewer operating
workers are needed where more managerial and
administration is done. In the more complex organisations
the number of levels may be many and each succeeding
lower level and authority decreases in status and authority.
This creates a “chain of command”.
These levels are important in so far as they aid
communication. Each of the level is responsible to the level
immediately above it.

Chief Executive (managing Director)

Senior Executives
Assistant Senior Executives
Supervisors

Workers

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COMMUNICATION WITHIN A FORMAL ORGANISATION
Any formal organisation must have a functioning
communication linked to its environment.

Principles of organisation
Unity of objective- every part must contribute to the
attainment of of the objective of the enterprise’
Span of control-Consideration is needed to find the number
of persons an individual can effectively manage. The number
varies but a figure often quoted is that six subordinates is the
largest number a person should supervise.
Delegation- authority should be delegated as far down the
levels as possible.
Unity of command- Instructions from two or more superiors
may conflict. This is why each subordinate should have only
one superior.
Scalar Principle-Someone must have ultimate authority and a
clear line of authority should be in existence to all parts of
the enterprise.
Responsibility-The responsibility of a subordinate to a
superior for delegated authority is absolute and responsibility
should be on par with the amount of authority given.

118
SPAN OF CONTROL/ SPAN OF MANAGEMENT
It is the number of subordinates that an executive manager
can supervise. It refers to the executive or supervisory
subordinates over whom the individual has authority. It
varies from one company to another and can range from one
to more than one hundred depending on the complexity of
the organisational structure. There are smaller spans of
control in the managerial profession than general staff.
Junior grades and routine tasks accommodate bigger spans.
The number should not be too large so as to affect the
effectiveness of the boss. There are two types of spans of
control, viz, flat span and tall span.
Flat or wide span of control
This is an environment where the manager has got several
subordinates under him. Usually the performance of
subordinates is poor because of inadequate supervision.
The tall or narrow span of control
This is whereby the manager has got a few subordinates under
him which result is good supervision resulting in better
performance from subordinates. The two diagrams below
illustrate two different spans of control:

A span of control of 7 would be considered to be quite wide.

119
 NARROW SPAN OF CONTROL

A suitable span of control will depend upon a number of factors:

The experience and personality of the manage

120
The nature of the business. If being a line manager requires a great deal of
close supervision, then a narrower span might be appropriate

The skills and attitudes of the employees. Highly skilled, professional

employees might flourish in a business adopting wide spans of control

The tradition and culture of the organisation. A business with a

tradition of democratic management and empowered workers may
operate wider spans of control

Here is a summary of the relative advantages and disadvantages of each:

Narrow Span of Control Wide Span of Control

Allows for closer supervision of Gives subordinates the chance

employees for more independence

More layers in the hierarchy More appropriate if labour costs

may be required are significant – reduce number
of managers

Helps more effective

communication

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