Mobile Communication & Computing(CSC702)

ASSIGNMENT NO 1.

(Based on module 1,2,3)

1. What is GPRS ?Explain architecture in detail

Solution:-

GPRS - General Packet Radio Service was the evolution of 2G GSM to provide packet
switched

data at rates up to a maximum of 172 kbps.

GPRS was something of a revolution because all previous mobile phone systems had used circuit
switched channels. Also previous cell phone systems including GSM had focussed on voice
communications, but the need for mobile data was starting to come about and GPRS was one of
the first to address this in a real way.

Although 2G GSM could provide some data capability it was far too slow to be used for any real
applications. As a result, GPRS was developed to enable data to be handled and it also provided
a stepping stone on the path to 3G.

1. GPRS architecture works on the same procedure like GSM network, but, has additional
entities that allow packet data transmission. This data network overlaps a second-
generation GSM network providing packet data transport at the rates from 9.6 to 171
kbps. Along with the packet data transport the GSM network accommodates multiple
users to share the same air interface resources concurrently.
2. GPRS includes several security services such as authentication, access control, user
identity confidentiality, and user information confidentiality.
3. The GPRS architecture introduces two new network elements, which are called GPRS
support nodes (GSN) and are in fact routers. All GSNs are integrated into the standard
GSM architecture, and many new interfaces have been defined.
4. The gateway GPRS support node (GGSN) is the interworking unit between the GPRS
network and external packet data networks (PDN). This node contains routing
information for GPRS users, performs address conversion, and tunnels data to a user via
encapsulation.
5. The GGSN is connected to external networks (e.g., IP or X.25) via the Gi interface and
transfers packets to the SGSN via an IP- based GPRS backbone network (Gn interface).
The other new element is the serving GPRS support node (SGSN) which supports the MS
 via the Gb interface. The SGSN, for example, requests user addresses from the GPRS
register (GR), keeps track of the individual MSs’ location, is responsible for collecting
billing information (e.g., counting bytes), and performs several security functions such as
access control.
6. The SGSN is connected to a BSC via frame relay and is basically on the same hierarchy
level as an MSC. The GR, which is typically a part of the HLR, stores all GPRS-relevant
data.

2. Describe GSM in detail

Solution:-

GSM (Global System for Mobile communication) is a digital mobile network that is widely used
by mobile phone users in Europe and other parts of the world. GSM uses a variation of time
division multiple access (TDMA) and is the most widely used of the three digital wireless
telephony technologies: TDMA, GSM and code-division multiple access (CDMA). GSM
digitizes and compresses data, then sends it down a channel with two other streams of user data,
each in its own time slot. It operates at either the 900 megahertz (MHz) or 1,800 MHz frequency
band.
GSM, together with other technologies, is part of the evolution of wireless mobile
telecommunications that includes High-Speed Circuit-Switched Data (HSCSD), General Packet
Radio Service (GPRS), Enhanced Data GSM Environment (EDGE) and Universal Mobile
Telecommunications Service (UMTS).

GSM Architecture

A GSM network consists of the following components:

● A Mobile Station: It is the mobile phone which consists of the transceiver, the
display and the processor and is controlled by a SIM card operating over the
network.

● Base Station Subsystem: It acts as an interface between the mobile station and the
network subsystem. It consists of the Base Transceiver Station which contains the
radio transceivers and handles the protocols for communication with mobiles. It
also consists of the Base Station Controller which controls the Base Transceiver
station and acts as a interface between the mobile station and mobile switching
centre.

● Network Subsystem: It provides the basic network connection to the mobile

stations. The basic part of the Network Subsystem is the Mobile Service Switching
Centre which provides access to different networks like ISDN, PSTN etc. It also
consists of the Home Location Register and the Visitor Location Register which
provides the call routing and roaming capabilities of GSM. It also contains the
Equipment Identity Register which maintains an account of all the mobile
equipments wherein each mobile is identified by its own IMEI number. IMEI
stands for International Mobile Equipment Identity.

Features of GSM Module:

● Improved spectrum efficiency

● International roaming
 ● Compatibility with integrated services digital network (ISDN)

● Support for new services.

● SIM phonebook management

● Fixed dialing number (FDN)

● Real time clock with alarm management

● High-quality speech

● Uses encryption to make phone calls more secure

● Short message service (SMS)

3. What is goal of mobile ip? How is packet delivery achieved to and from mobile node

Solution:-

The goal of IP Mobility is to maintain the TCP connection between a mobile host and a static
host while reducing the effects of location changes while the mobile host is moving around,
without having to change the underlying TCP/IP. In other words Mobile IP is an internet
protocol designed to support host mobility. Its goal is to provide the ability of a host to stay
connected to the internet regardless of their location. Mobile IP is able to track a mobile host
without needing to change the mobile host's long-term IP address.

Mobile Internet Protocol (IP) is a new recommended Internet protocol designed to support the
mobility of a user (host). Host mobility is becoming important because of the recent blossoming
of laptop computers and the high desire to have continuous network connectivity anywhere the
host happens to be. The development of Mobile IP makes this possible.
Using the previous illustration's Mobile IP topology, the following scenario shows how a
datagram moves from one point to another within the Mobile IP framework.

1. The Internet host sends a datagram to the mobile node using the mobile node's home
address (normal IP routing process).
2. If the mobile node is on its home network, the datagram is delivered through the normal
IP process to the mobile node. Otherwise, the home agent picks up the datagram.
3. If the mobile node is on a foreign network, the home agent forwards the datagram to the
foreign agent.
4. The foreign agent delivers the datagram to the mobile node.
5. Datagrams from the mobile node to the Internet host are sent using normal IP routing
procedures. If the mobile node is on a foreign network, the packets are delivered to the
foreign agent. The foreign agent forwards the datagram to the Internet host.

The mobile i.e movement of MN from one location to another has to be hidden as per the
requirement of mobile IP. CN may not know the exact location of MN
STEP 1: CN sends the packet as usual to the IP address of MN. With Source address as CN and
Destination address as MN .The internet, which does not have any information of the current
location of MN, routes the packet to the router responsible for the home network of MN. This is
done using the standard routing mechanisms of the internet.

STEP 2: The HA now diverts the packet, knowing that MN is currently not in its home network.
The packet is not forwarded into the subnet as usual, but encapsulated and tunnelled to the COA.
A new header is put in front of the old IP header showing the COA as new destination and HA as
source of the encapsulated packet.

STEP 3: The foreign agent (FA) now decapsulates the packet, i.e., removes the additional
header(newly added as COA as destination and HA as source), and forwards the original packet
with CN as source and MN as destination to the MN. Again, for the MN mobility is not visible.

Finally the MN Receives the packet with the Source address as CN and Destination address as
MN.

STEP 4: The MN sends the packet MN as Source Address and CN as Destination Address. The
router with the FA acts as default router and forwards the packet in the same way as it would do
for any other node in the foreign network. Simple mechanism works if CN is Fixed at a location
if it has got mobility then the above Steps 1 to 3 are to be followed to deliver the packet from
MN to CN.
 4. What is antenna ?Explain different types od antenna

Solution:-

An Antenna (or sometimes called an Aerial), is an electrical device that converts electric power
into electromagnetic waves (or simply radio waves) and vice-versa.

A signal from a transmission line or the guiding device like a co-axial cable, is given to an
antenna, which then converts the signal into electromagnetic energy to be transmitted through
space.

Some of the common types of antennas are mentioned below:

A. Wire Antennas

a. Short Dipole Antenna

b. Dipole Antenna

c. Loop Antenna

d. Monopole Antenna

B. Log Periodic Antennas

a. Bow Tie Antennas

b. Log-Periodic Antennas

c. Log-Periodic Dipole Array

C. Aperture Antennas

a. Slot Antenna

b. Horn Antenna

D. Microstrip Antennas

a. Rectangular Microstrip Patch Antenna

b. Quarter-Wave Patch Antenna

E. Reflector Antennas

a. Flat-plate Reflector Antenna

b. Corner Reflector Antenna

c. Parabolic Reflector Antenna

 F. Lens Antennas

G. Travelling-wave Antennas

a. Long Wire Antenna

b. Yagi–Uda Antenna

c. Helical Wire Antenna

d. Spiral Antenna

H. Array Antennas

a. Two-Element Array Antenna

b. Linear Array Antenna

c. Phased Array Antennas

Type of antenna Examples Applications

Wire Antennas Dipole antenna, Personal applications,

Monopole antenna, buildings, ships,
Helix antenna, Loop automobiles, space crafts
antenna

Aperture Waveguide (opening), Flush-mounted

Antennas Horn antenna applications, air-craft,
space craft

Reflector Parabolic reflectors, Microwave

Antennas Corner reflectors communication, satellite
tracking, radio
astronomy

Lens Antennas Convex-plane, Used for very

 Concave-plane, highfrequency
Convex-convex, applications
Concaveconcave lenses

Micro strip Circular-shaped, Air-craft, space-craft,

Antennas Rectangularshaped satellites, missiles, cars,
metallic patch above the mobile phones etc.
ground plane

Array Antennas Yagi-Uda antenna, Used for very high gain

Micro strip patch array, applications, mostly
Aperture array, Slotted when needs to control
wave guide array the radiation pattern

5. What is tunnelling in mobile ip? explain minimal encapsulation

Solution:-

Mobile IP is a communication protocol (created by extending Internet Protocol, IP) that

allows the users to move from one network to another with the same IP address. It ensures
that the communication will continue without user’s sessions or connections being dropped.

Key Mechanisms in Mobile IP:

1. Agent Discovery:

Agents advertise their presence by periodically broadcasting their agent

advertisement messages. The mobile node receiving the agent advertisement
messages observes whether the message is from its own home agent and
determines whether it is in the home network or foreign network.

2. Agent Registration:

Mobile node after discovering the foreign agent, sends registration request (RREQ)
to the foreign agent. Foreign agent in turn, sends the registration request to the
home agent with the care-of-address. Home agent sends registration reply
(RREP) to the foreign agent. Then it forwards the registration reply to the
mobile node and completes the process of registration.
 3. Tunneling:

It establishes a virtual pipe for the packets available between a tunnel entry and an
endpoint. It is the process of sending a packet via a tunnel and it is achieved by
a mechanism called encapsulation. It takes place to forward an IP datagram
from the home agent to the care-of-address. Whenever home agent receives a
packet from correspondent node, it encapsulates the packet with source address
as home address and destination as care-of-address.

Minimal Encapsulation

A minimal forwarding header is defined for datagrams which are not fragmented prior to
encapsulation. Use of this encapsulating method is optional. Minimal encapsulation MUST
NOT be used when an original datagram is already fragmented, since there is no room in the
minimal forwarding header to store fragmentation information. To encapsulate an IP datagram
using minimal encapsulation, the minimal forwarding header is inserted into the datagram, as
follows:
The IP header of the original datagram is modified, and the minimal forwarding header is
inserted into the datagram after the IP header,followed by the unmodified IP payload of the
original datagram (e.g.transport header and transport data).No additional IP header is added to
the datagram.

In encapsulating the datagram, the original IP header is modified as follows:

- The Protocol field in the IP header is replaced by protocol number 55 for the minimal
encapsulation protocol.

- The Destination Address field in the IP header is replaced by the IP address of the exit
point of the tunnel.

- If the encapsulator is not the original source of the datagram,the Source Address field
in the IP header is replaced by the IP address of the encapsulator.

- The Total Length field in the IP header is incremented by the size of the minimal
forwarding header added to the datagram.This incremental size is either 12 or 8 octets,
depending on whether or not the Original Source Address Present (S) bit is set in the forwarding
header.

- The Header Checksum field in the IP header is recomputed or updated to account for
the changes in the IP header described here for encapsulation.

6. Why and how optimization in mobile ip achieved

Solution:-

Route Optimization has been designed within the IETF to ameliorate the problem of triangle
routing, a routing artifact introduced by Mobile IP's requirement to route packets destined for a
mobile node by way of its home network. In this article, we describe the current protocol
specification for the Route Optimization protocol, concentrating on design decisions and
justifications.

Mobile IPv4 route optimization

Mobile IPv4 route optimization is a proposed extension to the Mobile IPv4 protocol. It provides
enhancements to the routing of datagrams between the mobile node and to the correspondent
node. The enhancements provide means for a correspondent node to tunnel datagrams directly to
the mobile node or to its foreign agent care-of address.

Route optimization messages and data structures

The route optimization extension adds a conceptual data structure, the binding cache, to the
correspondent node and to the foreign agent. The binding cache contains bindings for mobile
nodes' home addresses and their current care-of addresses. With the binding the correspondent
node can tunnel datagrams directly to the mobile node's care-of address.

Every time the home agent receives a datagram that is destined to a mobile node currently away
from home, it sends a binding update to the correspondent node to update the information in the
correspondent node's binding cache. After this the correspondent node can directly tunnel
packets to the mobile node. Thus direct bi-directional communication is achieved with route
optimization, as shown in Figure 1

Figure 1. Direct routing with route optimization and foreign agent care-of address.

Route optimization adds four new UDP-messages to the Mobile IPv4 protocol:

● Binding update informs the correspondent node or foreign agent of the mobile node's
new location. It is sent by the home agent or in the case of previous foreign agent
notification, by the new foreign agent, as shown in Figure 4. The binding update
contains the care-of address and the home address of the mobile node and also the
lifetime of the binding. It also must contain a mobile IP authentication extension. An
identification number may also be present to provide a way of matching updates with
acknowledgements and to protect against replay attacks.

● Binding acknowledgement is sent by the correspondent node or the foreign agent in

response to the binding update. It contains the mobile node's home address and a
 status code. It also contains an identification number, if there was one in the
corresponding binding update.

● Binding request is sent by the correspondent node to the home agent to request a
binding update. It contains the home address of the queried mobile node and possibly
an identification number.

● Binding warning is sent by the previous foreign agent in response to receiving a

tunneled datagram for a mobile node for which it has a binding and for which it is not
acting as the current foreign agent. The binding warning is sent to the home agent. It
contains the home address of the mobile node and the address of the correspondent
node that does not have up to date information of the mobile node's current care-of
address. With this information the home agent can send a binding update to the
correspondent node.