Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics

Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics 109 (2020) 102763
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Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tafmec
Fracture behavior of additively manufactured components: A review T

a,⁎ b c a
Mohammad Reza Khosravani , Filippo Berto , Majid R. Ayatollahi , Tamara Reinicke
a
Chair of Product Development, University of Siegen, Paul-Bonatz-Str. 9-11, 57068 Siegen, Germany
b
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), 7491 Trondheim, Norway
c
Fatigue and Fracture Research Laboratory, Center of Excellence in Experimental Solid Mechanics and Dynamics, School of Mechanical Engineering, Iran University of
Science and Technology, Narmak 16846, Tehran, Iran
ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT
Keywords: Additive manufacturing (AM) has garnered increasing attention in academic and research projects, based on its
Additive manufacturing unique characteristics and favorable capabilities. Although three-dimensional (3D) printing technology was
3D-printed polymers initially used for rapid prototyping, currently it is being utilized in manufacturing of final products. Considering
Aluminum alloy various applications of 3D-printed components, investigation of their fracture behavior is necessary.
Titanium alloy
In the present study, we review fracture of polymeric and metallic 3D-printed components fabricated by
Cracked parts
different AM processes. More in deep, fracture behavior and mechanical properties of printed components under
static and dynamic loading regimes are classified and reviewed. In this regard, we collected, discussed, and
analyzed the reported data, to determine critical information about the influence of printing process and printing
parameters on fracture behavior of 3D-printed parts. Polymeric and metallic parts are currently fabricated via
different AM processes which have their own advantages and drawbacks. As internal defects can affect the
mechanical performance of 3D-printed components, fractographic analysis of previous studies have been re-
viewed. The present overview, highlights the limitations, challenges and research gaps in this field.
1. Introduction and polymeric materials which can be used in fracture analysis of 3D-
printed parts. Data obtained from fracture mechanics-based tests can be
Additive manufacturing (AM) has shown favorable and unique used to evaluate critical loads and determine remaining lifetimes of
capabilities and attracted a lot of research interest in the last few years components. Different experimental practices such as tensile, fatigue,
[1–5]. In this three-dimensional (3D) printing, components have been and bending tests have been currently conducted on intact specimens or
produced by adding layers of material under computer control. As 3D test coupons with initial notch or pre-crack. For instance, in [27]
printing technology proved its benefits, it has been used in a wide range nonlinear fracture mechanics parameters were used to predict the
of applications including automotive [6], electronics [7], aerospace [8], lifetime of a disk. As a number of modern manufacturing processes have
dentistry [9], and tissue engineering [10]. Regarding to increasing been introduced over the years, analysis of the fracture must be per-
applications of 3D printing technology, various engineering aspects formed for characterization of engineering parts produced by these
have been studied in this field [11–15]. However, further research methods.
seems to be necessary according to increasing applications of this rapid Although there are various standards for conventional manu-
manufacturing process. facturing processes, they are not suitable for 3D printing technology.
Literature investigation confirmed that fracture study of different This leads to slow adaptation of 3D printing technology. As 3D-printed
material was an interesting research topic over the years [16–22]. In parts are produced layer-wise, there is anisotropic properties
this respect, ductile and brittle fracture, and different modes of failure throughout the parts. Owing to the production process, 3D-printed
have been investigated. To this aim, fracture mechanics methodology parts present different mechanical properties and microstructures
has been used to determine fracture behavior of materials [23–26]. compared to components fabricated by other processes. Therefore, ex-
Utilizing theory of fracture mechanics plays a crucial role in in- perimental investigation must be conducted to provide information and
vestigation of structural integrity. Indeed, the fracture mechanics ap- to answer the demands. Currently, there is still a knowledge gap in the
proach is beneficial for characterization of materials. In this context, influence of parameters on failure load and fracture toughness of ad-
various techniques and methods have been developed to test metallic ditively manufactured parts. In order to close this knowledge gap and
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mohammadreza.khosravani@uni-siegen.de (M.R. Khosravani).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tafmec.2020.102763
Received 10 July 2020; Received in revised form 31 August 2020; Accepted 2 September 2020
Available online 11 September 2020
0167-8442/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.R. Khosravani, et al. Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics 109 (2020) 102763
obtain a desired deformation behavior in 3D-printed structural com- Table 1

ponents, it is necessary to study fracture behavior of these parts. In a 3D printing techniques and their strengths and weaknesses.
few researches, fracture toughness of 3D-printed rock-like material has Process Materials Advantages Disadvantages
been reported [28,29]. For instance, in [28] digital image correlation
technique was used to determine mechanical behavior of circular 3D- BJ Gypsum Low cost Low strength
Ceramics Colorful printing Post-processing
printed rock-like specimens. In fact, by a series of tests, the influence of
Stainless steel No support structure Low mechanical properties
specimen geometry and flaw shapes on load carrying capacity of the ME Glass Low cost Rough surface
examined specimens was reported. Ceramics Simple usage Low resolution
In the present study, we focus on fracture of polymeric and metallic Thermoplastics Multi material Poor part strength
3D-printed components. In detail, the current study aims at evaluating DED Metals High speed Post-processing
Titanium High durability Poor surface finish
the fracture behavior and fracture toughness of additively manu-
Cobalt chrome Suitable to repair parts Limited material use
factured polymeric and metallic parts. In this context, fracture me- MJ Plastic Low waste High cost
chanics methodology was considered in the reviewed papers. Here, we Polyethylene High accuracy Support structure
documented and discussed the reported results in experimental tests in Polypropylene Colorful printing Low mechanical properties
SL Paper Low cost Post-processing
fracture studies of above mentioned materials. Mechanical and material
Plastic High speed Poor resolution
properties like strength and fracture toughness play an important role Some metals Colorful printing Design limitations
in performance of 3D-printed parts. Therefore, we have considered PBF Titanium Low cost Low speed
these parameters in review of the previous studies. The rest of this Aluminum Multi material Size limitation
paper is organized as follows, where Section 2 presents an overview of Stainless steel No support structure High power usage
VP Resin High speed Fragility of parts
AM technology. In Section 3 mechanical fracture in polymeric and
Plastic Great precision Support structure
metallic 3D-printed parts has been comprehensively reviewed. More- Polymer High resolution Limited material use
over, fractography of 3D-printed components has been presented.
Challenges and perspectives have been outlined in Section 4. Further, a
conclusion has been furnished in Section 5. instance, process, printing equipment, and materials have influence on
the mechanical behavior of printed components.
Although 3D printing technology has been used for fabrication of
2. Overview of additive manufacturing different engineering and medical components, there are limitations
and challenges which need further research in this field. For instance,
AM technology is a layer-by-layer fabrication technology which there is no reference standard to determine environmental impacts of
transform 3D virtual models into physical 3D components. Since its first AM processes [31]. Moreover, there is still a lack of standards and
introduction, it has steadily increasing impact on industrial production. suitable metrics for mechanical characterization and quality control of
Although AM was primarily targeted for small-scale production, cur- the 3D-printed parts. Although 3D printing techniques have been used
rently it has been skewed toward mass production. According to the for a wide range of applications, each method has its own pros and
ASTM standard [30], AM has been classified into seven classes: (a) BJ: cons. Moreover, certain material can be used in each 3D printing pro-
binder jetting, (b) SL: sheet lamination, (c) ME: material extrusion, (d) cess. In Table 1 benefits and disadvantages of 3D printing techniques
DED: direct energy deposition, (e) MJ: material jetting, (f) PBF: powder and their material limits are summarized.
bed fusion, and (g) VP: vat photopolymerization. Schematics of these
processes are illustrated in Fig. 1. Different AM processes can be used in
fabrication via various materials such as polymers, metals and ceramic 3. Mechanical fracture in 3D-printed components
powders. Each one has its own advantages and disadvantages. The
novel engineering fabrication process in AM, confirmed some ad- Strength of a structural component can be reduced in the presence
vantages of this manufacturing processes, such as savings in costs and of a crack. Structural integrity can be evaluated by different meth-
time compared to traditional processes. Three main steps can be con- odologies. Fracture mechanics presents a methodology to study the
sidered in a 3D printing process: pre-printing preparation, 3D printing, behavior of cracked components. Constitutive equations can be utilized
and post processing. It is noteworthy that several factors play an im- for prediction of failure in crack-free components, but they are not
portant role in performance and quality of 3D-printed parts. For useful when a component contains a crack or flaw. Using principle of
fracture mechanics leads to failure prediction in the solid components
including cracks. In a cracked component, a critical stress level can be
determined that depends on various parameters such as specimen size,
applied stress, component geometry, and crack size. In this context, the
mechanical behavior of the component can be determined by evalua-
tion of the elastic stress intensity factors (KI , KII , and KIII for different
modes of failure). In experimental practice, different types of tests have
been used in order to study fracture behavior of engineering compo-
nents. In Fig. 2 details of solid specimens and crack configurations for
different experiments are illustrated. These experimental practices can
be conducted under quasi-static or high strain rate conditions.
As 3D-printed parts can experience various loading conditions
which might lead to fracture, several studies have been performed to
determine fracture resistance of these parts. Although 3D printing
technology has been enhanced substantially in recent years, there is no
specific standard for fracture evaluation of 3D-printed components.
Hence, researchers utilized the standards already available for in-
vestigation of metallic and plastic parts, for instance, ASTM D5045
[32], ASTM E1820 [33], and ISO 13586 [34]. In the current study, we
Fig. 1. Schematics of different AM processes. review failure modes and fracture of 3D-printed polymeric and metallic
2
Fig. 2. Different specimens and crack configurations in fracture studies.
components in the following sub-sections. selective laser sintering (SLS) method. In detail, specimens can be di-
vided into two groups according to the crack preparation methods: (a)
the crack was initiated after manufacturing by pressing a razor blade
3.1. Fracture in 3D-printed polymeric parts
into the notch, and (b) the crack was manufactured in the 3D printing
process. Based on the tests, lower stress concentration has been re-
Literature investigation indicated that various polymeric material
ported for the first group of above-mentioned specimens. Moreover, this
have been utilized in fabrication of structural components via 3D
group showed lower KIC compared to the second group. However, si-
printing technology. For instance, polylactic acid (PLA), polycarbonate
milar fracture behavior was documented for the specimens with dif-
(PC), acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), fibre-reinforced plastics
ferent printing orientations.
(FRP), and polyether ether ketone (PEEK) have been used. In Fig. 3,
The fused deposition modeling (FDM) process was used in fabrica-
mass density, Young’s modulus, and tensile strength of these most
tion of double-edge cracked specimens to conduct tensile and shear
common 3D-printed materials are shown.
tests in [43]. In this context, researchers used PC and ABS materials and
In [35] polyamide was used in 3D printing of compact tension
employed digital image correlation (DIC) technique to measure strain.
specimens. These specimens were printed in different orientations via
Fig. 3. Stiffness versus strength of various 3D-printed materials based on previous studies [36–42].
3
Fig. 4. (a) Fractured PC double-edge cracked specimens [43], (b) different infill patterns (rectilinear, honeycomb, and line) of 3D-printed specimens [44], (c)
load–displacement curves of optimized and non-optimized examined specimens [45].
Higher shear modulus equal to 770±30 MPa was obtained for [0/90] ductile fracture (high energy) were occurred in the inter-laminar and
made by ABS material. Also, PC double-edge cracked specimen showed cross-laminar fracture, respectively. Fig. 5b shows these fractures with
higher ultimate strength equal to 36.9±0.3 MPa. In Fig. 4a fractured PC respect to raster orientations. In [47], the FDM process was used for
specimens are illustrated. At the same time, in [44] the influence of fabrication of CT specimens in three orthogonal orientations (see
infill parameters on fracture behavior of 3D-printed specimens was Fig. 5c). Results showed that a 54% increase in fracture toughness was
investigated. To this aim, the ABS material was used to fabricate spe- obtained in the specimens with filament layers perpendicular to the
cimens with different infill patterns and densities through the FDM crack plane. This study confirmed that changes in the fracture tough-
process, see Fig. 4b. The results of tests indicated that rectilinear 100% ness of 3D-printed ABS samples mainly depend on the orientation of
infill has highest tensile strength equal to 36.4 MPa. Owing to the dif- deposited material with respect to the crack tip.
ferences in interlayer bonding zones between rectilinear and honey- In [48], specimens for a series of double cantilever beam (DCB) tests
comb patterns, different values of elastic modulus were reported for the were printed via FDM process in order to study their fracture resistance.
aforementioned patterns. Moreover, it was documented that fractures More in deep, ABS material was used in printing pre-crack DCB speci-
changed from ductile to brittle, due to the changes in the the infill mens and different interlayer adhesions were obtained by printing via
angle. Currently, components have been printed with different infill various nozzle temperatures. Comparison of the results showed that
patterns and densities in order to reduce material consumption and apparent fracture resistance ( Jcr , a ) was significantly increased with the
printing time. However, change in infill density mainly changes the printing temperature. It was equal to 953.7±29.8 J/m2 and 2731.87
mechanical strength. ±119.94 J/m2 for sample printed at 210 °C and 240 °C, respectively.
In [45], the FDM process was used to print ABS compact tension This apparent fracture resistance reflects the overall crack growth re-
(CT) specimens and finite element method (FEM) was employed to sistance that is related to size of the voids. Examined specimens which
identify direction of principle stress in CT specimens. This was used in are printed at a higher temperature, contain smaller voids. Fig. 5d
reproduction of principle stress directions in the specimen to improve shows the experimental setup, and the force–displacement curves of
the fracture toughness. The examined specimens were printed based on tested specimens printed at different nozzle temperatures. At the same
two methods: (a) linear infilling, and (b) generative trajectory method. time, in [49] a series of bending tests was conducted on sandwich
Printed specimens experienced uniaxial tensile test and their for- composite structures containing 3D-printed cores with conventional
ce–displacement curves are illustrated in Fig. 4c. As can be seen, the honeycomb, truss, and re-entrant honeycomb topologies. Experimental
maximum force and the displacement are increased in the optimized tests indicated that in the re-entrant honeycomb core, deformation is
specimens. Indeed, comparison proved that optimized 3D-printed spe- mostly buckling instead of fracture. Therefore, this structure has strong
cimens are strengthened up to 20%. potential for reuse.
The influence of print orientation on fracture behavior of 3D-printed Fracture behavior of unidirectional 3D-printed PLA was investigated
ABS specimens was investigated in [46,47]. In detail, Hart and Wetzel in [50]. To this aim, specimens were printed through FDM process and
[46] used fused filament fabrication (FFF) process to print single-edge experienced a series of three-point bending tests. Behavior of 3D-
cracked specimens with different layer orientations. The researchers printed PLAS was compared to injection-molded PLA parts. Conse-
conducted a series of bending tests and observed ductile and brittle quently, it was reported that 3D-printed components presented higher
fractures for cross-laminar and inter-laminar crack propagation, re- toughness. It is noteworthy that strength and toughness of 3D-printed
spectively. In Fig. 5a schematics of 3D-printed specimens are illu- specimens are size dependent. Previous research [51] has indicated that
strated. Experiments proved that brittle fracture (low energy) and there is a size threshold which show interaction between print layer
4
Fig. 5. (a) Schematics of 3D-printed single-edge cracked specimens [46], (b) fracture with respect to raster orientation [46], and (c) schematic of raster orientations
of examined samples in [47], (d) a DCM specimen under test conditions and obtained force–displacement curves [48].
thickness and specimen size. This size threshold could be assumed to be documented in the last few years. In Table 2, we have summarized the
50 times the print layer thickness. The specimens which are below this experimental studies which investigated fracture behavior of 3D-
size threshold showed declining strength with size. However, relation- printed polymeric components and have been documented in the last
ship between size and strength is not monotonic. The decrease in two years.
strength of small size 3D-printed parts can be related to increased ratio More recently, in [80] effects of filament-scale geometric features in
of layer thickness to specimen size. This indicates that designers must fracture behavior of 3D-printed polymers have been investigated. To
define a size constraint at the early stage of design phase. In this con- this aim, 3D-printed CT specimens were designed, fabricated, and
text, for small and large size structural components, a strength criterion tested. Consequently, it has been reported that filament-scale geometric
and concepts of fracture mechanics must be utilized. stress raisers are very important, and it can lead to an anisotropy in 3D-
Considering enormous developments in 3D printing technology, printed components. Experimental results proved that filament-scale
more investigation on fracture behavior of 3D-printed parts have been geometric feature play a crucial role compared to inter-filament
Table 2
A summary of fracture studies of 3D-printed polymeric parts, reported in the last two years.
Ref. Printing process Material Test details Result
[52] FDM ABS 3-point bending Thermal annealing to increase fracture toughness
[53] FDM ABS CT experiment Increased Jcr , a due to higher nozzle temperature
[54] FDM FRP DCB test Effect of geometrical pattern on fracture toughness
[55] ME Photopolymer Tensile test Optimization by changing the volume fraction
[56] FDM PLA 3-point bending Effect of printing space on fracture toughness
[57] FDM PLA CT experiment Optimization of 3D-printed specimens
[58] ME Photopolymer 3-point bending Special architecture to enhance fracture toughness
[59] ME Soft rubber CT experiment Increased overall fracture toughness
[60] FDM ABS 3-point bending Fracture properties based on raster orientation
[61] FDM ABS DCB test Reduction of fracture toughness due to raster voids
[62] FDM PLA Double-edge Effect of reinforced polymer on fracture resistance
[63] ME ABS CT experiment Dependency of fracture energy to geometry
[64] FDM PA DCB test Effects of processing on fracture behavior
[65] FDM Nylon CT experiment Using microstructures to improve fracture toughness
[66] ME Soft rubber CT experiment Stiffness variations to slow down crack propagation
[67] FDM PA 12 DCB test High fracture toughness for Mode I loading
[68] FDM PC CT experiment Effects of building orientation on fracture behavior
[69] FDM PLA CT experiment Annealing was recommended to reduce voids
[70] FDM ABS 4-point bending Effect of orientation on fracture behavior
[71] MJ Plastic 3-point bending Rubber-like deformation behavior
[72] FDM PC 3-point bending Effect of layer orientation on fracture behavior
[73] FDM PP Double-edge Role of raster orientation on structural integrity
[74] FDM ABS Single-edge Load–strain curve for analysis of fracture
[75] PBF PA 4-point bending Effect of spatial orientation on fracture behavior
[76] FDM ABS Peeling test Better properties in thin-layered printed parts
[77] FDM PLA 3-point bending Effect of raster orientation on fracture strength
[78] FDM ABS 3-point bending Effect of raster angle on fracture behavior
[79] FDM PLA 3-point bending Influence of infill speed and density on fracture
5
bonding. A review of the literature reveals that recently different

techniques such as phase field fracture modeling [81] and FEM [82]
have been used to study fracture behavior of additively manufactured
polymers. However, owing to new applications of 3D-printed parts, it is
expected to see more investigations on fracture behavior of 3D-printed
polymeric components.
3.2. Fracture in 3D-printed metallic parts
X
Innovations and printing advancements have led to fabrication of Z
3D-printed metallic parts. As these parts have been used in aerospace,
robotics, automobiles, electronics, and medical implants, fracture study
Y
of these components has become an increasingly important issue. Ti-
6Al-4 V and AlSi10Mg are two types of alloys which have been widely Fig. 6. A schematic of Ti-6Al-4V printed specimens with respect to build and
fabricated by AM and traditional processes. Ti-6Al-4 V as a titanium raster directions [95].
alloy has been extensively used in aerospace and biomedical applica-
tions. It has superior properties, such as high strength-to-weight ratio, based on the tests it was concluded that fracture toughness values of
good biocompatibility, and excellent fatigue resistance. AlSi10Mg is a EBM and LENS Ti-6Al-4 V parts are comparable. Subsequent experi-
typical alloy suitable for making components with thin walls and ments were performed to compare behavior of EBM and SLM printed Ti-
complex geometry. In several studies Ti-6Al-4 V structural elements 6Al-4 V parts [97]. The reported data showed that the specimen size has
have been produced by 3D printing technology [83–89]. Although, less effect on the mechanical properties of SLM samples compared to
fatigue strength of additively manufactured Ti-6Al-4 V and AlSi10Mg EBM printed parts. Moreover, both EBM and SLM printed components
parts were reviewed in [90], their fracture behavior is not reviewed. showed higher strength in the vertical orientation. The obtained results
In [91], fracture toughness of 3D-printed Ti-6Al-4 V parts was confirmed that the SLM printed parts showed greater tensile strength
analyzed. In detail, selective laser melting (SLM) as a sub-domain of compared to EDM samples. It is related to the higher ductility in EBM
PBF technique was used to produce CT specimens. A series of experi- parts and this finding is in agreement with the previous study [96].
ments was conducted on the pre-cracked specimens and fracture As built orientation has influence on fracture behavior of printed Ti-
toughness of KIC =69.98±3.53 MPa m was reported. Subsequently, 6Al-4 V parts, it was investigated in [98]. The SLM printed parts showed
next experimental tests were performed to study crack growth of ad- different fracture toughness values for different build orientations. In
ditively manufactured CT specimens [92]. The obtained results re- detail, values of 66.9±2.6 MPa m and 41.8±1.7 MPa m were obtained
vealed that the residual stresses have a strong influence in fracture and for X-Y and Y-Z directions, respectively. At the same time, this issue was
crack growth of the examined parts. Later, in [93,94], Ti-6Al-4 V studied in [99]. In this respect, SLM printed Ti-6Al-4 V components
components were printed based on the SLM process. In [93], heat were tested and fracture toughness of 37.5± 5 MPa m was obtained for
treatment was performed on the printed specimens, and these treat- as-built specimens in X-Y orientation. This value was increased to
ments (stress relief and annealing treatments) have led to an im- 86.3± 5 MPa m for a heat treated specimen on the same built direc-
provement in fracture behavior of examined parts. However, different tion. Hence, this study showed effect of treatment in improvement of
values for fracture toughness were documented based on the specimen fracture toughness in 3D-printed titanium alloy. As discussed in
orientation. Hence, it can be concluded that residual stress and mi- [100,101] effectiveness of post-processing treatments are proved. In
crostructure anisotropy play important roles in fracture toughness of this context, application of heat treatment and hot isostatic pressing
3D-printed Ti-6Al-4 V components. In [94] various combinations of (HIP) showed increase in fracture toughness of additively manufactured
process parameters with different energy density levels were used in parts. Indeed, HIP eliminates pores and removes defects that improve
printing the specimens. The experimental investigations confirmed that the material properties of Titanium alloys. The behavior of 3D-printed
although small pores in the specimens cannot lead to detrimental ef- components, regardless of the printing method, can be greatly im-
fects, amount of porosity 5 vol.% can lead to significant changes in proved by HIP.
mechanical properties. According to the study of fracture surfaces, it Based on the mechanical behavior of 3D-printed metallic parts, the
was claimed that brittle fracture in 3D-printed Ti-6Al-4 V parts corre- issue of location-dependent mechanical properties must be considered.
sponded to lack-of-fusion defects. Moreover, comparison of parts In this regard, a series of fracture toughness experiments were per-
printed by SLM and electron beam melting (EBM) technology indicated formed in different locations on the EBM Ti-6Al-4 V specimen [102].
that the SLM printed parts have higher yield and tensile strengths. Fig. 7 shows details of the specimen and the obtained results. As can be
At the same time, EBM process was utilized for fabrication of Ti-6Al- seen, a higher fracture toughness was obtained in a lower defect den-
4 V components to determine fracture toughness [95]. In this context, sity. It is worth mentioning that several factors have influence on
single-edge cracked specimens with different raster directions were fracture properties and two important factors are (a) microstructure
printed and examined by a series of three-point bending tests. Fig. 6 variation and (b) defect density. However, fracture behavior of 3D-
shows schematic of specimens with different raster orientations. Based printed materials is sensitive to the defects, and different defects can
on the results, the lowest toughness was obtained for a particular raster provide regions for crack growth.
orientation with some level of anisotropy. The experimental in- Although mechanical tests play a significant role in characterization
vestigations showed that the fracture toughness of printed Ti-6Al-4 V of 3D-printed metallic parts, there are different factors which have in-
specimens was in the range of wrought and cast Ti-6Al-4 V samples. fluence on mechanical properties of these components. For instance,
However, values of 65 MPa m and 80 MPa m were documented for defects, porosity distributions, stress concentration, and deviations
highest and lowest fracture toughness of the examined parts, respec- from design should be considered in full characterization of 3D-printed
tively. parts. Recently, in [103] influence of defects on mechanical properties
In [96] two different AM techniques (a) EBM and (b) Laser En- of metal additive manufacturing has been presented.
gineered Net Shaping (LENS) were used to print Ti-6Al-4 V components. As the review of literature showed the applications of AM in fabri-
EBM and LENS methods are based on PBF and DED technologies. A cation of AlSi10Mg components, here we present fracture behavior of
series of tensile tests and experimental practices on CT specimens in- these parts. In [104], fracture mechanism of 3D-printed AlSi10Mg parts
dicated higher ductility in EBM fabricated Ti-6Al-4 V parts. However,
6
Defect Analysis Microstructure Fracture Toughness
Build Direction
_
Titanium (Alpha) 1010
__ 20 mm
0001 2110
Fig. 7. Different defects and fracture toughness values in 3D-printed titanium alloy [102].
was investigated. More in deep, AlSi10Mg specimens were fabricated relationships of the specimens were evaluated and deformation het-
based on the SLM process and artificial ageing was performed as heat erogeneity was reported as a reason of the fracture. In a subsequent
treatment. Consequently, it was reported that the as-built specimen study [111] additively manufactured parts were investigated and ulti-
showed highest yield strength equal to 322.17±8.1 MPa. At the same mate compressive strength of 485 MPa and 320 MPa were reported for
time, mechanical properties of SLM AlSi10Mg components were studied as-built and heat treated specimens, respectively. Moreover, a rise in
in [105,106]. To this aim, the influence of heat treatment on mechan- ductility from as-built to heat treated parts was documented. Compar-
ical properties of AlSi10Mg parts fabricated by SLM were investigated ison of fracture surfaces confirmed significant enhancement in ductility
in [105]. Based on the experiments, it was documented that the heat in the heat treated specimens. Linear elastic fracture mechanics was
treatment can reduce micro-hardness and ultimate tensile strength of utilized for evaluation of fractured AlSi10Mg specimens in [112]. In
3D-printed AlSi10Mg parts. It is noteworthy that, although the heat this context, AlSi10Mg parts were fabricated based on SLM technique
treatment reduced strength and hardness, it makes these materials more and image analysis was employed to estimate the fraction of a cata-
appropriate for a wider range of applications. In [106] performance of strophic area in the fractured components. The experiments showed
SLM AlSi10Mg components were evaluated under quasistatic loading that fracture developed in three steps: (a) crack initiation, (b) planar
conditions. Considering the tests, as-built specimens showed brittle crack propagation, and (c) final fracture. Based on the analysis of
collapse and non-ideal deformation behavior, therefore, heat treatment fracture area, the researchers addressed fracture toughness of the ex-
was conducted. The heat treatment has led to improvement in behavior amined specimens. Consequently, it was reported that increase in the
and capability of energy absorption of the tested parts. In the sub- applied stress has led to shortening of the critical crack length. In [113],
sequent year, fracture mechanism and strain rate sensitivity of 3D- dynamic fracture of additively manufactured AlSi10Mg parts was in-
printed AlSi10Mg components were investigated in [107]. In this con- vestigated. Experimental tests under different strain rates proved that
text, SLM AlSi10Mg parts were fabricated and experienced different fracture mode of the examined parts is rate-independent for <1 s−1.
strain rates. The obtained results indicated strain-rate sensitive beha- The fracture mode was changed to the rate-dependent brittle fracture
vior of the parts. In fact, an increase in the strain rate has led to an for >5×103 s−1.
increase in flow stress. Moreover, ductile fracture occurred and the With respect to titanium and aluminum, fabrication of 3D-printed
strain rate had no effect on fracture mode of the examined specimens. Ti-6Al-4 V and AlSi10Mg components received significant attention in
However, different fracture modes were observed in the specimens with recent years. Table 3 presents experimental results of fracture behavior
different building directions. of these 3D-printed metallic parts that have been reported in the last
In [108,109], the same research group investigated the performance two years.
of AlSi10Mg parts produced by SLM process. According to the results, it Although various metallic alloys have been used for fabrication by
is concluded that crack initiation was not necessarily the result of large AM processes, there are a few studies that investigated mechanical
defects on the fracture surface. Moreover, the obtained data confirmed properties of these structural components. Maraging steel, Zr-based
that in some specimens minor defects placed closer to the surface bulk metallic glass, and Ni-based superalloy are examples of these
should be considered as an origin of the crack for the final fracture. metallic materials. Based on the developments in 3D printing tech-
These results confirmed that the fracture depends on size and location nology, a global growth in application of the above-mentioned metallic
of the defect. At the same time, SLM AlSi10Mg parts were evaluated in alloys is expected. In this case, further investigation would be required
[110]. Based on the experimental practices, the stress–strain to determine fracture behavior of these components.
7
Table 3
A summary of fracture studies of 3D-printed metallic parts, documented in the last two years.
Ref. Printing process Material Test details Result
[114] PBF Al alloy Tensile Effect of support structures on structural integrity

[115] PBF Al alloy Tensile Strengthening mechanisms of mechanical properties
[116] DED Ti alloy Tensile Morphological characteristics of the failure surface
[117] PBF Al alloy Dynamic load Brittle fracture under dynamic loading
[118] PBF Ti alloy Tensile Effect of heat treatment on type of fracture
[119] PBF Al alloy Tensile Ultimate tensile stress decreases with temperature
[120] DED Ti alloy Tensile Identifying crack initiation point
[121] PBF Al alloy Tensile Role of build atmosphere on impact toughness
[122] PBF Al alloy Double-edge Effect of pore size on tensile ductility
[123] PBF Al alloy Tensile Fracture morphology and stress concentration
[124] PBF Al alloy Tensile Evolution of pores during deformation
[125] PBF Al alloy Dynamic load Dependency of fracture on building direction
[126] PBF Al alloy Tensile Effect of heat treatment on mechanical behavior
[127] PBF Al alloy Tensile Role of processing conditions on fracture
[128] PBF Al alloy Tensile Damage mechanisms in heat treated parts
[129] PBF Ti alloy Compression Effect of building direction on compressive strength
[130] PBF Al alloy Tensile Effects of manufacturing defects on behavior
[131] PBF Al alloy Tensile Effects of working environment on properties
[132] PBF Al alloy CT experiment Role of material orientation on strength
[133] PBF Al alloy 3-point bending Influence of orientation on performance of part
[134] PBF Ti alloy Tensile Analysis of macrostructure before and after fracture
[135] PBF Al alloy Tensile Influence of heat treatment on mechanical behavior
[136] DED Al alloy Tensile Ultimate tensile strength affected by inhomogeneity
[137] PBF Al alloy 3-point bending Influence of defects on the fracture origin
[138] PBF Al alloy Tensile Effects of annealing on strength properties
[139] PBF Al alloy Tensile Investigation on fracture mechanism of the parts
[140] PBF Al alloy Tensile Effect of geometric defects in the damage evolution
[141] PBF Al alloy Dynamic load Effect of build orientation on the fracture
3.3. Fractography in 3D-printed components confirmed that copper coated 3D-printed specimens retained their
toughness, ductility, and flexural strength during the exposure to UV.
As fractography provides valuable data in identification of fracture Also, tests indicated that short term environmental ageing has led to
in different materials, researchers used this technique in fracture study significant reduction in mechanical properties of uncoated specimens.
of additively manufactured parts. In this context, scanning electron Parallel to the fractographic analysis of 3D-printed polymeric parts,
microscope (SEM) was utilized for fracture surface analysis of addi- fracture surfaces of additively manufactured metallic parts have been
tively manufactured parts [142]. In detail, a series of tests was per- investigated in several research projects [148–151]. In this context,
formed on specimens printed on different orientations. The researchers various issues were studied. For instance, in [152] heat treatment was
tested and compared pure ABS and two ABS matrix composites. Frac- used for additively manufactured Ti-6Al-4 V parts. By visual inspection
tography proved that different additives can lead to different modes of and analyzing fracture surfaces, the appropriate approach for life pre-
failure (see Fig. 8a-c). In the subsequent year, SEM was utilized to diction can be selected [153]. Fig. 9a shows defects on the fracture
compare stress concentration in 3D-printed Izod impact test samples in surface of heat treated specimen. The obtained results proved that heat
[143]. Indeed, a series of impact tests were performed on ABS and PC treatment leads to decrease in plasticity of the examined components.
printed specimens according to ASTM D256-10 [144]. In Fig. 8d and e At the same time, effective structural health monitoring system was
fracture surfaces next to the notches are illustrated. The notches in the developed to detect the cracks in 3D-printed Ti-6Al-4 V components
examined specimens are made by (a) milling, and (b) printing. Gra- [154]. The system was based on a network of capillaries which are
phical data confirmed that specimens with printed notches have lower integrated in a structure. The researchers performed fractographic
resistance to impact compared to milled-notch specimens. In the sub- analysis to evaluate the performance of the proposed system. In Fig. 9b
sequent year, fractographic methods were employed to determine and c, the fracture surfaces are illustrated.
failure mechanism of 3D-printed ABS specimens in [145]. In detail, Recently, in [155] effects of porosity on compressive performance of
SEM was used to investigate the effects of printing parameters (e.g., additive-manufactured Ti-6Al-4 V part were investigated. In detail,
build directions and raster orientation) on ultimate failure of specimens specimens with three different porosities were fabricated and their
printed with 0°/90° and ± 45° raster orientations. Fig. 8f shows en- fracture behaviors were documented. In Fig. 9d fracture surface of a
larged view of a fractured surface. Based on the tests, lowest tensile SLM specimen with with 50% porosity is presented. Moreover, fracture
load belongs to the vertical build specimens. However, the 90° vertical surfaces of heat treated sample with the same porosity are illustrated in
build specimens failed at lower load than 0° vertical build specimens. Fig. 9e and f. It was reported that an increase in porosity leads to re-
This can be related to stronger adhesion in longer rasters. Moreover, duction in endurance ratio of the tested specimens. However, it was
highest ultimate strength belongs to the ± 45° vertical build specimens. claimed that the specimens with different porosities showed similar
Later, in [146] fracture of 3D-printed parts was investigated by SEM. fracture modes.
Based on this investigation, the generation of voids during 3D printing In [156], recycled powder was used in 3D-printed AlSi10Mg parts.
can affect the failure modes. Fig. 8g shows cross-sectional view of the The researchers investigated average particle size, composition and
fractured surface of the examined specimen. In a recent study [147], a microstructure. They studied mechanical characterization of parts
novel method was used to improve the durability of 3D-printed poly- which are built horizontally and vertically. Moreover, fracture surfaces
mers. More in deep, the surface of 3D-printed ABS parts was covered by of the examined specimens were investigated. Fig. 9g shows the frac-
a copper thin film to enhance durability against different environmental ture surface of a vertical built specimen. The researchers reported dif-
conditions. SEM images of uncoated and copper coated specimens are ferent behavior of the microstructures in vertical and horizontal spe-
illustrated in Fig. 8h and i, respectively. The experimental practices cimens. It confirmed significant role of the building direction on the
8
(a) (b) (c)
500 µm
(d) (e) (f)
(g) (h) (i)
Fig. 8. Fractures of (a) ABS, (b) ABS and jute fiber, and (c) ABS and TiO2 , [142], fracture surfaces; (d) next to the printed notch, and (e) milled-notch, [143], (f)
fractured surface (horizontal ± 45° orientation), [145], (g) SEM image of 3D-printed specimen after tensile test, [146], surfaces of 3D-printed specimens (h) uncoated,
and (i) copper coated, [147].
Fig. 9. (a) defects on the side surface of the

heat treated Ti-6Al-4V specimen [152], (b) a
close-up of a defect in fracture surface, (d) a
part of fracture surface with gas inclusion
[154], (d) fracture surface of Ti-6Al-4V
specimen with 50% porosity, (e,f) fracture
surface of heat treated Ti-6Al-4V sample
with 50% porosity [155], (g) fracture sur-
face of a vertically built specimen [156], (h)
folding of a thin-walled specimen, and (i)
failed thick-walled unit-cell [157].
9
failure mechanism of the components. Based on the tests, a higher demands. Choosing the most appropriate design can lead to reduction
elongation was obtained for horizontally built specimens. In [158], in stress concentration and avoid the initiation of crack in the parts.
additively manufactured AlSi10Mg parts were subjected to quasi-static Moreover, utilizing a suitable post-processing technique for 3D-printed
loading at different orientations. To this aim, SLM technique was used parts can reduce the void contents and increase performance of the
in fabrication of specimens. Later, the specimens were crushed under part.
applied load. Due to the loss of bearing capacity, cracks propagated A review of the literature reveals that there is a lack of scientific
quickly. The fracture surfaces were scanned by SEM. This investigation study on fracture behavior of additively manufactured parts under large
showed that as-printed material exhibited a high porosity which might deformation on macroscale. Based on the usage of metallic parts, they
have induced the quasi-brittle failure in the specimens. Mechanical can experience large forces that can lead to an increase in part di-
performance of thin and thick-walled lattice were investigated in [157]. mensions and a large deformation. Despite applications of numerical
More in deep, SLM AlSi10Mg components with negative Poisson’s ratio simulations for fracture studies of additively manufactured parts, there
were tested. The specimens were produced with design parameters is no focus on FEM of 3D-printed metallic parts under large deforma-
(e.g., wall thickness) to show lateral instability. The specimens ex- tion.
perienced compression tests and stress–strain responses were obtained. Although various standards of metallic and polymeric materials
In Fig. 9h and i fracture surface of a thin and thick-walled specimens are have been used for 3D-printed specimens, material testing standards are
illustrated, respectively. The experimental practices proved significant required which are specified for additive manufacturing technology.
influence of wall thickness on elastic modulus and compressive strength For instance, the notches in the specimens for Izodic tests can be made
of the structure. by different methods (e.g., milling, and printing), but investigating the
Recently, in [159] mechanical properties of a composite including effects of notch manufacturing technique on the mechanical behavior of
AlSi10Mg produced by PBF technique was investigated. In this context, 3D-printed parts needs material testing techniques specified for AM
tensile tests were conducted and the results indicated that the tensile technology.
properties were decreased in the highly porous specimens. However, As details of the manufacturing process play crucial roles in the
the yield strength was increased 22% in the graphene reinforced Al- behavior of the structural components, there are several international
Si10Mg specimens compared to unreinforced specimens. standard methods in this issue. In this context, it is necessary to provide
Fractographic analysis confirmed the existence of different types of reliable standard test methods to evaluate the influence of process
defects on the fracture surfaces of the examined 3D-printed parts. As variables on the fracture behavior of additively manufactured parts. For
these defects change the behavior of the parts and decrease their instance, raster orientation and printing direction indicated important
strength, appropriate attempts are required to reduce or eliminate the effects on strength of 3D-printed parts, but there is no standard method
defects. For instance, optimization of the processing conditions and in this matter.
post-processing treatments can be used for both polymer and metal 3D Based on the reviewed studies, it is concluded that heat treatment
printing processes to reduce defects and improve mechanical properties plays a significant role in mechanical properties and fracture behavior
and fracture behavior of 3D-printed components. Based on the role of of 3D-printed metallic parts. Therefore, the optimization of heat treat-
fractographic analysis on determining effects of manufacturing para- ment processes can be considered as one of the current challenges in
meters on failure, a growth in analyzing the 3D-printed fracture sur- this field. In this context, further research and experimental practice is
faces is expected. required to produce structural components with higher load carrying
capacity. These components can provide a high level of safety with
4. Challenges and perspectives lower limitations in their performance.
In practice, different factors can lead to internal defects in 3D-
The quality of the additively manufactured parts depends on several printed parts. For instance, gas pores (due to the interaction between
parameters which can be categorized into three main stages: pre- the powder bed and laser beam) and unmelted particles (of fusion) are
paratory parameters, printing factors, and finishing items. These factors the main reasons of defects in 3D-printed parts produced by the SLM
have different effects on the performance of 3D-printed parts produced process. These defects lead to mechanical fracture in additively man-
by various AM processes. Finding optimized parameters for each special ufactured parts. Therefore, different destructive and nondestructive
case is one of the current challenges in this field. In this respect, it is techniques can be used to detect the defects. For instance, X-ray com-
necessary to consider various parameters such as design aspects, cost, puted tomography has been utilized, but there is still lack of standards
material development, and environmental factors. and suitable metrics for mechanical characterization of printed com-
With regard to the reviewed studies, there are four major issues that ponents.
must be considered in fracture characterization of 3D-printed materials: Rapid development in 3D printing has led to numerous investiga-
(a) defects in the parts, (b) surface roughness, (c) anisotropy, and (d) tions in this field, but there is a shortage of scientific investigation on
similarity between the specimens and actual components. As these is- fracture behavior of large scale 3D printed parts. Parallel to govern-
sues have effects on the fracture behavior of the additively manu- mental initiatives, the applications of large scale 3D printing have been
factured parts, they should be investigated accurately. In this context, significantly increased by technical specialists in different fields such as
conventional testing methods, international standards, and new tech- construction and automotive manufacturing. Although large scale 3D
niques have been used. However, the main challenge is how to utilize printing has been utilized for heavy and often permanent structural
the obtained information in design stages. elements, they are prone to fracture too. However, mechanical behavior
Different defects generated during the printing process can lead to a and fracture characterization of large scale 3D-printed components is
decrease in strength of the parts and change mechanical behavior required for further developments in this field.
during their service life. For instance, the presence of voids in the Although technological advances have led to developments in 3D
printed structural components has significant influence on the fracture printing, the cost of this technology is one of the main limitations in its
behavior of the printed parts. As these voids strongly affect crack pro- wider-spread applications. Different aluminum and titanium alloys can
pagation, further attempts are required to solve the problems. Indeed, be used in metal 3D printing techniques, but the cost of these manu-
quality of 3D printing processes has been improved significantly in the facturing processes remains much higher than other 3D printing tech-
past few years, but limitation in strength of 3D-printed parts is one of niques. In fact, metal 3D printing are becoming more robust, but
the challenging issues in this domain. As void size distribution has a polymer 3D printing is a low-cost process that has been used for serial
crucial effect on the strength of the additively manufactured parts, reproduction. However, reduction in manufacturing cost can lead to
ducing voids can greatly increase strength of these parts and answer the further applications of this technology.
10
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Mohammad Reza Khosravani: Conceptualization, Methodology, [27] T.Y. Zhang, C.F. Gao, Crack growth rate and lifetime prediction for aviation gas
Writing - original draft, Visualization. Filippo Berto: Writing - review turbine enginecompressor disk based on nonlinear fracture mechanics parameters,
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& editing. Majid R. Ayatollahi: Writing - review & editing. Tamara [28] M. Sharafisafa, L. Shen, Q. Xu, Characterisation of mechanical behaviour of 3D
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Declaration of Competing Interest and investigation of mechanical and fracturebehaviour of rock using 3D printing
and 3D numerical methods incombination with X-ray computerized tomography,
Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 106 (2018) 198–212.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial [30] ASTM F2792 -12 Standard Terminology for Additive Manufacturing Technologies,
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ- Standard, American Society for Testing Materials, West Conshohocken, USA,
ence the work reported in this paper. 2012.
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technology, Appl. Mater. Today 20 (2020) 100689.
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Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics

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Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics 109 (2020) 102763

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Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics

Fracture behavior of additively manufactured components: A review T

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

obtain a desired deformation behavior in 3D-printed structural com- Table 1

Fig. 2. Different specimens and crack configurations in fracture studies.

bonding. A review of the literature reveals that recently different

3.2. Fracture in 3D-printed metallic parts

Defect Analysis Microstructure Fracture Toughness

[114] PBF Al alloy Tensile Effect of support structures on structural integrity

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

(g) (h) (i)

Fig. 9. (a) defects on the side surface of the

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