Bible

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Bible
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Bible (from Greek τὰ βιβλία ta biblia "the

books") is the various collections of sacred
scripture of the various branches of Judaism
and Christianity. The Bible, in its various
editions, is the best-selling book in history. [1]
There is no single Bible, and both the

individual books (Biblical canon), their
contents and their order vary between
denominations. Mainstream Judaism divides
the Tanakh into 24 books, while a minority
stream of Judaism, the Samaritans, accepts
only five. The 24 texts of the Hebrew Bible
are divided into 39 books in Christian Old The Gutenberg Bible, the first printed bible
Testaments, and complete Christian Bibles
range from the 66 books of the Protestant
[2] Part of a series on
canon to the 81 books in the Ethiopian Orthodox Bible.
The Bible
The Jewish Bible, or Tanakh, is divided into three parts: (1) the five
books of the Torah ("teaching" or "law") comprise the origins of the
Israelite nation, its laws and its covenant with the God of Israel; (2) the
Nevi'im ("prophets") containing the historic account of ancient Israel
and Judah plus works of prophecy; and (3) the Ketuvim ("writings"),
poetic and philosophical works such as the Psalms and the Book of
Biblical canon
Job.[3] and books
The Christian Bible (sometimes known as the Holy Bible) is divided Tanakh
into two parts. The first is called the Old Testament, containing the 39 (Torah · Nevi'im · Ketuvim)
books of Hebrew Scripture, and the second portion is called the New Old Testament (OT)
Testament, containing a set of 27 books. The first four books of the New Testament (NT)
New Testament form the Canonical gospels which recount the life of Hebrew Bible
Christ and are central to the Christian faith.
Deuterocanon
Christian Bibles include the books of the Hebrew Bible, but arranged Antilegomena
in a different order: Jewish Scripture ends with the people of Israel Chapters and verses
restored to Jerusalem and the temple and the Christian arrangement Apocrypha
ends with the book of the prophet Malachi. (Jewish · OT · NT)
The oldest surviving Christian Bibles are Greek manuscripts from the Development and
4th century; the oldest complete Jewish Bible is a Greek translation, authorship
also dating to the 4th century. The oldest complete manuscripts of the Jewish canon
Hebrew Bible (the Masoretic text) date from the Middle Ages.[4] Old Testament canon
New Testament canon
During the three centuries following the establishment of Christianity
Mosaic authorship
in the 1st century, Church Fathers compiled Gospel accounts and
letters of apostles into a Christian Bible which became known as the Pauline epistles
New Testament. The Old and New Testaments together are commonly
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referred to as "The Holy Bible" (τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια). The canonical Johannine works

composition of the Old Testament is under dispute between Christian Petrine epistles
groups: Protestants hold only the books of the Hebrew Bible to be
canonical; Roman Catholics and Eastern Orthodox additionally Translations and
consider the deuterocanonical books, a group of Jewish books, to be manuscripts
canonical. The New Testament is composed of the Gospels ("good Samaritan Torah
news"), the Acts of the Apostles, the Epistles (letters), and the Book of Dead Sea scrolls
Revelation.
Masoretic text
Targums · Peshitta
Septuagint · Vulgate
Gothic Bible · Vetus Latina
Luther Bible · English Bibles
Contents
Biblical studies
■ 1 Etymology Dating the Bible
■ 2 Jewish canon Biblical criticism
■ 2.1 Development of the Jewish canon Higher criticism
■ 2.2 Torah Textual criticism
■ 2.3 Nevi'im
Canonical criticism
■ 2.4 Ketuvim
■ 2.5 Hebrew Bible translations and editions Novum Testamentum Graece
■ 2.6 The Oral Torah Documentary hypothesis
■ 2.7 Septuagint Synoptic problem
NT textual categories
■ 3 Christian canons
■ 3.1 Old Testament Historicity
■ 3.1.1 Apocryphal or deuterocanonical books People · Places · Names
■ 3.1.2 Role in Christian theology Internal consistency
Archeology · Artifacts
■ 3.2 New Testament
■ 3.2.1 Original language Science and the Bible
■ 3.2.2 Historic editions Interpretation
■ 3.3 Development Hermeneutics
■ 3.4 Ethiopian Orthodox canon
Pesher · Midrash · Pardes
■ 3.5 Marcionite Bible
■ 3.6 Belief in divine inspiration Allegorical interpretation
Literalism
■ 4 Bible versions and translations Prophecy
■ 5 Biblical criticism
■ 5.1 Higher criticism Perspectives
■ 5.2 Documentary hypothesis
Gnostic · Islamic · Qur'anic
■ 6 Archaeological and historical research Christianity and Judaism
■ 7 See also Biblical law
■ 7.1 Biblical topics in Judaism · in Christianity
■ 8 Endnotes Inerrancy · Infallibility
■ 9 References and further reading Criticism of the Bible
· Book:Bible
Etymology
The English word bible is from the Latin biblia, traced from the same
word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin and ultimately from Greek
τὰ βιβλία ta biblia "the books" (singular βιβλίον biblion).[5]
Middle Latin biblia is short for biblia sacra "holy book", while biblia in
Greek and Late Latin is neuter plural (gen. bibliorum). It gradually came
to be regarded as a feminine singular noun (biblia, gen. bibliae) in
medieval Latin, and so the word was loaned as a singular into the
vernaculars of Western Europe.[6] Latin biblia sacra "holy books"
translates Greek τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια ta biblia ta hagia, "the holy books".[7]
The word βιβλίον itself had the literal meaning of "paper" or "scroll" and
came to be used as the ordinary word for "book". It is the diminutive of
βύβλος bublos, "Egyptian papyrus", possibly so called from the name of
An American family Bible the Phoenician port Byblos (also known as Gebal) from whence
dating to 1859. Egyptian papyrus was exported to Greece. The Greek ta biblia (lit. "little
papyrus books")[8] was "an expression Hellenistic Jews used to describe
their sacred books (the Septuagint).[9][10] Christian use of the term can be traced to ca. AD 223.[5]
Jewish canon
Development of the Jewish canon
Main article: Development of the Jewish Bible canon
Tanakh (Hebrew: ‫ )תנ"ך‬refers to the threefold division of the Hebrew Scriptures (the Law, the
Prophets, and the Writings). This division is alluded to in the New Testament: Luke 24:44
(http://www.biblegateway.com/bible?passage=Luke%2024:44;&version=ESV;) refers to the "law of
Moses" (Pentateuch), the "prophets", which include certain historical books, in addition to the books
now called "prophets", and the psalms (the "writings" - designated by its most prominent collection).
The Hebrew Bible probably was canonized in three stages: 1) the law - canonized before the Exile, 2)
the prophets - by the time of the Syrian persecution of the Jews, 3) and the writings - shortly after AD 70
(the fall of Jerusalem). About that time, early Christian writings began to be accepted by Christians as
"scripture". These events, taken together, may have caused the Jews to close their "canon". They listed
their own recognized Scriptures, and excluded both Christian and Jewish writings considered by them to
be "apocryphal". In this canon the thirty-nine books found in the Old Testament of today's Christian
Bibles were grouped together as twenty-two books, equaling the number of letters in the Hebrew
alphabet. This canon of Jewish scripture is attested to by Philo, Josephus, the New Testament,[11] and the
Talmud.[8]
The Bible used at Qumran excluded Esther but included Tobit. Otherwise, it seems to have been
basically the same as the Hebrew Bible or Old Testament, albeit with many textual variants.
Torah
Main article: Torah
The Torah, or "Instruction," is also known as the "Five Books" of Moses, thus Chumash from Hebrew
meaning "fivesome," and Pentateuch from Greek meaning "five scroll-cases." The Hebrew book titles
come from some of the first words in the respective texts.
The Torah comprises the following five books:
1. Genesis, Ge—Bereshith (‫)בראשית‬

2. Exodus, Ex—Shemot (‫)שמות‬
3. Leviticus, Le—Vayikra (‫)ויקרא‬
4. Numbers, Nu—Bamidbar (‫)במדבר‬
5. Deuteronomy, Dt—Devarim (‫)דברים‬
The Torah focuses on three moments in the changing relationship between God and people. The first
eleven chapters of Genesis provide accounts of the creation (or ordering) of the world and the history of
God's early relationship with humanity. The remaining thirty-nine chapters of Genesis provide an
account of God's covenant with the Hebrew patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob (also called Israel),
and Jacob's children (the "Children of Israel"), especially Joseph. It tells of how God commanded
Abraham to leave his family and home in the city of Ur, eventually to settle in the land of Canaan, and
how the Children of Israel later moved to Egypt. The remaining four books of the Torah tell the story of
Moses, who lived hundreds of years after the patriarchs. His story coincides with the story of the
liberation of the Children of Israel from slavery in Ancient Egypt, to the renewal of their covenant with
God at Mount Sinai, and their wanderings in the desert until a new generation would be ready to enter
the land of Canaan. The Torah ends with the death of Moses.
The Torah contains the commandments, of God, revealed at Mount Sinai (although there is some debate
amongst Jewish scholars as to whether this was written down completely in one moment, or if it was
spread out during the 40 years in the wandering in the desert). These commandments provide the basis
for Halakha (Jewish religious law). Tradition states that the number of these is equal to 613 Mitzvot or
613 commandments. There is some dispute as to how to divide these up (mainly between the Ramban
and Rambam).
The Torah is divided into fifty-four portions which are read on successive Sabbaths in Jewish liturgy,
from the beginning of Genesis to the end of Deuteronomy. The cycle ends and recommences at the end
of Sukkot, which is called Simchat Torah.
Nevi'im
Main article: Nevi'im
The Nevi'im, or "Prophets," tell the story of the rise of the Hebrew monarchy, its division into two
kingdoms, and the prophets who, in God's name, warned the kings and the Children of Israel about the
punishment of God. It ends with the conquest of the Kingdom of Israel by the Assyrians and the
conquest of the Kingdom of Judah by the Babylonians, and the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem.
Portions of the prophetic books are read by Jews on the Sabbath (Shabbat). The Book of Jonah is read
on Yom Kippur.
According to Jewish tradition, Nevi'im is divided into eight books. Contemporary translations subdivide
these into twenty-one books.
The Nevi'im comprise the following eight books:
6. Joshua, Js—Yehoshua (‫)יהושע‬
7. Judges, Jg—Shoftim (‫)שופטים‬

8. Samuel, includes First and Second 1Sa–2Sa—Sh'muel (‫)שמואל‬
9. Kings, includes First and Second, 1Ki–2Ki—Melakhim (‫)מלכים‬
10. Isaiah, Is—Yeshayahu (‫)ישעיהו‬
11. Jeremiah, Je—Yirmiyahu (‫)ירמיהו‬
12. Ezekiel, Ez—Yekhezkel (‫)יחזקאל‬
13. Twelve, includes all Minor Prophets—Tre Asar (‫עשר‬ ‫)תרי‬
■ A. Hosea, Ho—Hoshea (‫)הושע‬
■ B. Joel, Jl—Yoel (‫)יואל‬
■ C. Amos, Am—Amos (‫)עמוס‬
■ D. Obadiah, Ob—Ovadyah (‫)עבדיה‬
■ E. Jonah, Jh—Yonah (‫)יונה‬
■ F. Micah, Mi —Mikhah (‫)מיכה‬
■ G. Nahum, Na—Nahum (‫)נחום‬
■ H. Habakkuk, Hb—Havakuk (‫)חבקוק‬
■ I. Zephaniah, Zp—Tsefanya (‫)צפניה‬
■ J. Haggai, Hg—Khagay (‫)חגי‬
■ K. Zechariah, Zc—Zekharyah (‫)זכריה‬
■ L. Malachi, Ml—Malakhi (‫)מלאכי‬
Ketuvim
Main article: Ketuvim
The Ketuvim, or "Writings" or "Scriptures," may have been written during or after the Babylonian Exile.
Many of the psalms in the book of Psalms are attributed to David; King Solomon is believed to have
written Song of Songs in his youth, Proverbs at the prime of his life, and Ecclesiastes at old age; and the
prophet Jeremiah is thought to have written Lamentations. The Book of Ruth is the only biblical book
that centers entirely on a non-Jew. The book of Ruth tells the story of a non-Jew (specifically, a
Moabitess) who married a Jew and, upon her husband's death, followed in the ways of the Jews;
according to the Bible, she was the great-grandmother of King David. Five of the books, called "The
Five Scrolls" (Megilot), are read on Jewish holidays: Song of Songs on Passover; the Book of Ruth on
Shavuot; Lamentations on the Ninth of Av; Ecclesiastes on Sukkot; and the Book of Esther on Purim.
Collectively, the Ketuvim contain lyrical poetry, philosophical reflections on life, and the stories of the
prophets and other Jewish leaders during the Babylonian exile. It ends with the Persian decree allowing
Jews to return to Jerusalem to rebuild the Temple.
The Ketuvim comprise the following eleven books, divided, in many modern translations, into twelve
through the division of Ezra and Nehemiah:
14. Psalms, Ps—Tehillim (‫)תהלים‬

15. Proverbs, Pr—Mishlei (‫)משלי‬
16. Job, Jb—Iyyov (‫)איוב‬
17. Song of Songs, So—Shir ha-Shirim (‫השירים‬ ‫)שיר‬
18. Ruth, Ru—Rut (‫)רות‬
19. Lamentations, La—Eikhah (‫)איכה‬, also called Kinot (‫)קינות‬
20. Ecclesiastes, Ec—Kohelet (‫)קהלת‬
21. Esther, Es—Ester (‫)אסתר‬
22. Daniel, Dn—Daniel (‫)דניאל‬
23. Ezra, Ea, includes Nehemiah, Ne—Ezra (‫)עזרא‬, includes Nehemiah (‫)נחמיה‬
24. Chronicles, includes First and Second, 1Ch–2Ch—Divrei ha-Yamim (‫הימים‬ ‫)דברי‬, also called Divrei
(‫)דברי‬
Hebrew Bible translations and editions

Main article: Bible translations
The Tanakh was mainly written in Biblical Hebrew, with some portions (notably in Daniel and Ezra) in
Biblical Aramaic.[12]
The Oral Torah

According to some Jews during the Hellenistic period, such as the Sadducees, only a minimal oral
tradition of interpreting the words of the Torah existed, which did not include extended biblical
interpretation. According to the Pharisees, however, God revealed both a Written Torah and an Oral
Torah to Moses, the Oral Torah consisting of both stories and legal traditions. In Rabbinic Judaism, the
Oral Torah is essential for understanding the Written Torah literally (as it includes neither vowels nor
punctuation) and exegetically. The Oral Torah has different facets, principally Halacha (laws), the
Aggadah (stories), and the Kabbalah (esoteric knowledge). Major portions of the Oral Law have been
committed to writing, notably the Mishnah; the Tosefta; Midrash, such as Midrash Rabbah, the Sifre, the
Sifra, and the Mechilta; and both the Babylonian and Jerusalem Talmuds as well. It may have even
influenced early Jewish Christianity.
Orthodox Judaism continues to accept the Oral Torah in its totality. Masorti and Conservative Judaism
state that the Oral Tradition is to some degree divinely inspired, but disregard its legal elements in
varying degrees. Reform Judaism also gives some credence to the Talmud containing the legal elements
of the Oral Torah, but, as with the written Torah, asserts that both were inspired by, but not dictated by,
God. Reconstructionist Judaism denies any connection of the Torah, Written or Oral, with God.
The article Jewish commentaries on the Bible discusses the Jewish understanding of the Bible, including
Bible commentaries from the ancient Targums to classical Rabbinic literature, the midrash literature, the
classical medieval commentators, and modern day Jewish Bible commentaries.
Septuagint
Main article: Septuagint
The Septuagint was an edition of the Hebrew Bible translated into Greek. The Septuagint included
books and additions not found in the Hebrew Bible. Modern Jewish Bibles follow the Masoretic Text
rather than the Septuagint. The Septuagint splits certain books in two, so that the book of Kings, for
example, became First Kings and Second Kings. Christian Bibles maintain these divisions. The
Septuagint was also the source for the books found in the Christian Old Testament but not in the Hebrew
Bible.
Christian canons
Main article: Christian biblical canons
The Christian Bible consists of the Hebrew scriptures of Judaism, which are known as the Old
Testament; and later writings recording the lives and teachings of Jesus and his followers, known as the
New Testament. "Testament" is a translation of the Greek διαθηκη (diatheke), also often translated
"covenant." It is a legal term denoting a formal and legally binding declaration of benefits to be given by
one party to another (e.g., "last will and testament" in secular use). Here it does not connote mutuality;
rather, it is a unilateral covenant offered by God to individuals.[8]
Groups within Christianity include differing books as part of one or both of these "Testaments" of their
sacred writings—most prominent among which are the biblical apocrypha or deuterocanonical books.
Significant versions of the English Christian Bible include the Douay-Rheims, the RSV, the KJV, and
the NIV. For a complete list, see List of English Bible translations.
In Judaism, the term Christian Bible is commonly used to identify only those books like the New
Testament which have been added by Christians to the Masoretic Text, and excludes any reference to an
Old Testament.[13]
Old Testament
Main article: Old Testament
The Old Testament consists of a collection of writings believed to have been composed at various times
from the twelfth to the 2nd century BC. The books were written in classical Hebrew, except for brief
portions (Ezra 4:8–6:18 (http://www.biblegateway.com/bible?passage=Ezra%204:8–
6:18;&version=ESV;) and 7:12–26 (http://www.biblegateway.com/bible?passage=Ezra%207:12–
26;&version=ESV;) , Jeremiah 10:11 (http://www.biblegateway.com/bible?passage=Jeremiah%
2010:11;&version=ESV;) , Daniel 2:4–7:28 (http://www.biblegateway.com/bible?passage=Daniel%
202:4–7:28;&version=ESV;) ) which are in the Aramaic language, a sister language which became the
lingua franca of the Semitic world.[14] Much of the material, including many genealogies, poems and
narratives, is thought to have been handed down by word of mouth for many generations. Very few
manuscripts are said to have survived the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70.[14]
The Old Testament is accepted by Christians as scripture. Broadly speaking, it contains the same
material as the Hebrew Bible. However, the order of the books is not entirely the same as that found in
Hebrew manuscripts and in the ancient versions and varies from Judaism in interpretation and emphasis
(see for example Isaiah 7:14). Christian denominations disagree about the incorporation of a small
number of books into their canons of the Old Testament. A few groups consider particular translations to
be divinely inspired, notably the Greek Septuagint, the Aramaic Peshitta, and the English King James
Version.
Apocryphal or deuterocanonical books
The Septuagint (Greek translation, from Alexandria in Egypt under the Ptolemies) was generally
abandoned in favour of the Masoretic text as the basis for translations of the Old Testament into Western
languages from St. Jerome's Bible (the Vulgate) to the present day. In Eastern Christianity, translations
based on the Septuagint still prevail. Some modern Western translations make use of the Septuagint to
clarify passages in the Masoretic text, where the Septuagint may preserve a variant reading of the
Hebrew text. They also sometimes adopt variants that appear in other texts e.g. those discovered among
the Dead Sea Scrolls.
A number of books which are part of the Peshitta or Greek Septuagint but are not found in the Hebrew
(Rabbinic) Bible are often referred to as deuterocanonical books by Roman Catholics referring to a later
secondary (i.e. deutero) canon. Most Protestants term these books as apocrypha. Evangelicals and those
of the Modern Protestant traditions do not accept the deuterocanonical books as canonical, although
Protestant Bibles included them in Apocrypha sections until around the 1820s. However, the Roman
Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches include these books as part of their Old Testament.
The Roman Catholic Church recognizes:
■ Tobit
■ Judith
■ 1 Maccabees
■ 2 Maccabees
■ Wisdom of Solomon
■ Sirach also called Ecclesiasticus
■ Baruch
■ The Letter of Jeremiah (Baruch Chapter 6)
■ Greek Additions to Esther
■ The Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Holy Children
■ Susanna
■ Bel and the Dragon
In addition to those, the Greek and Russian Orthodox Churches recognize the following:
■ 3 Maccabees
■ 1 Esdras
■ Prayer of Manasseh
■ Psalm 151
Some other Eastern Orthodox Churches include:
■ 2 Esdras i.e., Latin Esdras in the Russian and Georgian Bibles
There is also 4 Maccabees which is only accepted as canonical in the Georgian Church, but was
included by St. Jerome in an appendix to the Vulgate, and is an appendix to the Greek Orthodox Bible,
and it therefore sometimes included in collections of the Apocrypha.
The Anglican Churches uses some of the Apocryphal books liturgically. Therefore, editions of the Bible
intended for use in the Anglican Church include the Deuterocanonical books accepted by the Catholic
Church, plus 1 Esdras, 2 Esdras and the Prayer of Manasseh, which were in the Vulgate appendix.
Role in Christian theology
Further information: Sola scriptura and Christian theology
The Old Testament has always been central to the life of the Christian church. Bible scholar N.T. Wright
says Jesus himself was profoundly shaped by the scriptures. He adds that the earliest Christians also
searched those same scriptures in their effort to understand the earthly life of Jesus. They regarded the
ancient Israelites' scriptures as having reached a climactic fulfillment in Jesus himself, generating the
"new covenant" prophesied by Jeremiah.[15]
New Testament
Main articles: Canonical gospels and New Testament
The New Testament is a collection of 27 books, of 4 different genres of Christian literature (Gospels,
one account of the Acts of the Apostles, Epistles and an Apocalypse). Jesus is its central figure. The
New Testament presupposes the inspiration of the Old (2 Timothy 3:16). Nearly all Christians recognize
the New Testament (as stated below) as canonical scripture. These books can be grouped into:
The Gospels ■ Second Epistle to the ■ Epistle to Philemon, Pm

Corinthians, 2Co ■ Epistle to the Hebrews,
■ Synoptic Gospels ■ Epistle to the Galatians, Ga He
■ Gospel According to ■ Epistle to the Ephesians, Ep
Matthew, Mt ■ Epistle to the Philippians, Pp General Epistles, also called
■ Gospel According to ■ Epistle to the Colossians, Cl Jewish Epistles
Mark, Mk ■ First Epistle to the
■ Gospel According to Thessalonians, 1Th ■ Epistle of James, Jm
Luke, Lk ■ Second Epistle to the ■ First Epistle of Peter, 1Pe
Thessalonians, 2Th ■ Second Epistle of Peter,
■ Gospel According to John, Jn 2Pe
■ Acts of the Apostles, Ac ■ Pastoral Epistles
■ First Epistle of John, 1Jn
(continues Luke) ■ First Epistle to ■ Second Epistle of John,
Timothy, 1Ti 2Jn
Pauline Epistles ■ Second Epistle to ■ Third Epistle of John, 3Jn
Timothy, 2Ti ■ Epistle of Jude, Jd
■ Epistle to the Romans, Ro ■ Epistle to Titus, Tt
■ First Epistle to the Revelation, or the Apocalypse
Corinthians, 1Co Re
The order of these books varies according to Church tradition. The New Testament books are ordered
differently in the Catholic/Protestant tradition, the Slavonic tradition, the Syriac tradition and the
Ethiopian tradition.
Original language
See also: Oral tradition and the historical Jesus
The books of the New Testament were written in Koine Greek, the language of the earliest extant
manuscripts, even though some authors often included translations from Hebrew and Aramaic texts.
Certainly the Pauline Epistles were written in Greek for Greek-speaking audiences. See Greek primacy.
Some scholars believe that some books of the Greek New Testament (in particular, the Gospel of
Matthew) are actually translations of a Hebrew or Aramaic original. Of these, a small number accept the
Syriac Peshitta as representative of the original. See Aramaic primacy. In 2008, Dr. N.T. Wright, the
Bishop of Durham, stated that Dr. Christopher Evans of King's College London, used to argue that the
study of the Greek New Testament, not least the synoptic gospels, presented undergraduates "with a
more demanding set of interlocking intellectual challenges than any other subject in the university".[16]
Historic editions
See also: Biblical manuscript, Bible translations, and

Textual criticism
When ancient scribes copied earlier books, they wrote notes on

the margins of the page (marginal glosses) to correct their text—
especially if a scribe accidentally omitted a word or line—and to
comment about the text. When later scribes were copying the
copy, they were sometimes uncertain if a note was intended to be
included as part of the text. See textual criticism. Over time,
different regions evolved different versions, each with its own
assemblage of omissions and additions. The Codex Gigas from the 13th
century, held at the Royal Library in
The autographs, the Greek manuscripts written by the original Sweden.
authors, have not survived. Scholars surmise the original Greek
text from the versions that do survive. The three main textual traditions of the Greek New Testament are
sometimes called the Alexandrian text-type (generally minimalist), the Byzantine text-type (generally
maximalist), and the Western text-type (occasionally wild). Together they comprise most of the ancient
manuscripts.
Development
Main articles: Development of the Old Testament canon and Development of the New Testament
canon
The Old Testament canon entered into Christian use in the Greek Septuagint translations and original
books, and their differing lists of texts. In addition to the Septuagint, Christianity subsequently added
various writings that would become the New Testament. Somewhat different lists of accepted works
continued to develop in antiquity. In the 4th century a series of synods produced a list of texts equal to
the 39-to-46-book canon of the Old Testament and to the 27-book canon of the New Testament that
would be subsequently used to today, most notably the Synod of Hippo in AD 393. Also c. 400, Jerome
produced a definitive Latin edition of the Bible (see Vulgate), the canon of which, at the insistence of
the Pope, was in accord with the earlier Synods. With the benefit of hindsight it can be said that this
process effectively set the New Testament canon, although there are examples of other canonical lists in
use after this time. A definitive list did not come from an Ecumenical Council until the Council of Trent
(1545–63).[17]
During the Protestant Reformation, certain reformers proposed different canonical lists to those
currently in use. Though not without debate, see Antilegomena, the list of New Testament books would
come to remain the same; however, the Old Testament texts present in the Septuagint, but not included
in the Jewish canon, fell out of favor. In time they would come to be removed from most Protestant
canons. Hence, in a Catholic context these texts are referred to as deuterocanonical books, whereas in a
Protestant context they are referred to as Apocrypha, the label applied to all texts excluded from the
biblical canon which were in the Septuagint. It should also be noted, that Catholics and Protestants both
describe certain other books, such as the Acts of Peter, as apocryphal.
Thus, the Protestant Old Testament of today has a 39-book canon—the number varies from that of the
books in the Tanakh (though not in content) because of a different method of division—while the
Roman Catholic Church recognizes 46 books as part of the canonical Old Testament. The Orthodox
Churches, in addition to the Catholic canon, recognise 3 Maccabees, 1 Esdras, Prayer of Manasseh and
Psalm 151. Some include 2 Esdras. The Anglican Church also recognises a longer canon. The term
"Hebrew Scriptures" is often used as being synonymous with the Protestant Old Testament, since the
surviving scriptures in Hebrew include only those books, while Catholics and Orthodox include
additional texts that have not survived in Hebrew. Both Catholics and Protestants have the same 27-book
New Testament Canon.
The New Testament writers assumed the inspiration of the Old Testament, probably earliest stated in 2
Timothy 3:16 (http://www.biblegateway.com/bible?passage=2Tim%203:16;&version=;) , "all Scripture
is inspired of God."[8]
Ethiopian Orthodox canon

The Canon of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church is wider than for most other Christian groups.
The Ethiopian Old Testament Canon includes the books found in the Septuagint accepted by other
Orthodox Christians, in addition to Enoch and Jubilees which are ancient Jewish books that only
survived in Ge'ez but are quoted in the New Testament (citation required), also Greek Ezra First and the
Apocalypse of Ezra, 3 books of Meqabyan, and Psalm 151 at the end of the Psalter. The three books of
Meqabyan are not to be confused with the books of Maccabees. The order of the other books is
somewhat different from other groups', as well. The Old Testament follows the Septuagint order for the
Minor Prophets rather than the Jewish order.
Marcionite Bible
Marcion, an early Christian heretic, and his followers, had a Bible that excluded the Old Testament. It
consisted of an edited Gospel of Luke (excluding what Marcion considered Jewish additions), and the
Epistles of Paul (excluding Titus, the two epistles to Timothy, the Epistle to the Hebrews, and passages
rejected as Jewish additions).[18]
Belief in divine inspiration

Main articles: Biblical literalism, Biblical infallibility, and Biblical inerrancy
Some Christians adhere to a doctrine of biblical literalism, i.e. they regard both the New and Old
Testament as the undiluted Word of God, spoken by God and written down in its perfect form by
humans. Others hold the Biblical infallibility perspective, that the Bible is free from error in spiritual but
not scientific matters. "Bible scholars claim that discussions about the Bible must be put into its context
within church history and then into the context of contemporary culture."[15]
Belief in sacred texts is attested to in Jewish antiquity,[19][20] and this belief can also be seen in the
earliest of Christian writings. Various texts of the Bible mention Divine agency in relation to prophetic
writings,[21] the most explicit being: "All scripture is breathed out by God and profitable for teaching, for
reproof, for correction, and for training in righteousness."[2 Timothy 3:16 (http://www.biblegateway.com/bible?
passage=2Tim%203:16;&version=ESV;) ]
In their book A General Introduction to the Bible, Norman Geisler and William Nix wrote: "The process
of inspiration is a mystery of the providence of God, but the result of this process is a verbal, plenary,
inerrant, and authoritative record."[22] Most evangelical biblical scholars[23][24][25] associate inspiration
with only the original text; for example some American Protestants adhere to the 1978 Chicago
Statement on Biblical Inerrancy which asserted that inspiration applied only to the autographic text of
Scripture.[26] A minority even within adherents of biblical literalism extend the claim of inerrancy to a
particular translation, e.g. the King-James-Only Movement.
Bible versions and translations

Further information: Bible translations and Bible translations by language
Bible versions are discussed below, while Bible translations can

be found on a separate page.
The original texts of the Tanakh were in Hebrew, although some

portions were in Aramaic. In addition to the authoritative
Masoretic Text, Jews still refer to the Septuagint, the translation
of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, and the Targum Onkelos, an
Aramaic version of the Bible. There are several different ancient
versions of the Tanakh in Hebrew, mostly differing by spelling,
and the traditional Jewish version is based on the version known A Bible handwritten in Latin, on
as Aleppo Codex. Even in this version by itself, there are words display in Malmesbury Abbey,
which are traditionally read differently from written (sometimes Wiltshire, England. This Bible was
one word is written and another is read), because the oral transcribed in Belgium in 1407 for
reading aloud in a monastery.
tradition is considered more fundamental than the written one,
and presumably mistakes had been made in copying the text over
the generations.
The primary biblical text for early Christians was the Septuagint or (LXX). In addition, they translated
the Hebrew Bible into several other languages. Translations were made into Syriac, Coptic, Ge'ez and
Latin, among other languages. The Latin translations were historically the most important for the Church
in the West, while the Greek-speaking East continued to use the Septuagint translations of the Old
Testament and had no need to translate the New Testament.
The earliest Latin translation was the Old Latin text, or Vetus Latina, which, from internal evidence,
seems to have been made by several authors over a period of time. It was based on the Septuagint, and
thus included books not in the Hebrew Bible.
Pope Damasus I assembled the first list of books of the Bible at the Council of Rome in AD 382. He
commissioned Saint Jerome to produce a reliable and consistent text by translating the original Greek
and Hebrew texts into Latin. This translation became known as the Latin Vulgate Bible and in 1546 at
the Council of Trent was declared by the Church to be the only authentic and official Bible in the Latin
Rite.
Especially since the Protestant Reformation, Bible translations for many languages have been made. The
Bible has seen a notably large number of English language translations.
Bible translations, worldwide[27]

Number Statistic
6,900 Approximate number of languages spoken in the world today
1,300 Number of translations to new languages currently in progress
1,185 Number of languages the New Testament has been translated to
451 Number of languages the Bible (Protestant Canon) has been translated to
The Bible continues to be translated to new languages, largely by Christian organisations such as
Wycliffe Bible Translators, New Tribes Mission and the Bible society.
Biblical criticism
Main articles: Biblical criticism and Criticism of the Bible
Biblical criticism refers to the investigation of the Bible as a text, and addresses questions such as
authorship, dates of composition, and authorial intention. It is not the same as criticism of the Bible,
which is an assertion against the Bible being a source of information or ethical guidance.
Higher criticism
Main articles: Higher criticism and Lower criticism
In the 17th century Thomas Hobbes collected the current evidence to conclude outright that Moses could
not have written the bulk of the Torah. Shortly afterwards the philosopher Baruch Spinoza published a
unified critical analysis, arguing that the problematic passages were not isolated cases that could be
explained away one by one, but pervasive throughout the five books, concluding that it was "clearer than
the sun at noon that the Pentateuch was not written by Moses...." Despite determined opposition from
Christians, both Catholic and Protestant, the views of Hobbes and Spinoza gained increasing acceptance
amongst scholars.
Documentary hypothesis
Main article: Documentary hypothesis
The medieval tradition of Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch (Torah) came under philological scrutiny
with the development of Biblical criticism in the 18th century. H. B. Witter, Jean Astruc (1753), and
Johann Gottfried Eichhorn (1803) separated the Pentateuch into two original documentary components,
both dating from after the time of Moses. Others hypothesized the presence of two additional sources.
The four documents were given working titles: J (Jahwist/Yahwist), E (Elohist), P (Priestly), and D
(Deuteronomist). Each was discernible by its own characteristic language, and each, when read in
isolation, presented a unified, coherent narrative.
Subsequent scholars, notably Eduard Reuss, Karl Heinrich Graf and Wilhelm Vatke, turned their
attention to the order in which the documents had been composed (which they deduced from internal
clues) and placed them in the context of a theory of the development of ancient Israelite religion,
suggesting that much of the Laws and the narrative of the Pentateuch were unknown to the Israelites in
the time of Moses.
These were synthesized by Julius Wellhausen (1844–1918), who suggested a historical framework for
the composition of the documents and their redaction (combination) into the final document known as
the Pentateuch. This hypothesis was challenged by William Henry Green in his The Mosaic Origins of
the Pentateuchal Codes (available online (http://www.biblicaltheology.org/mop.html) ). Nonetheless,
according to contemporary Torah scholar Richard Elliott Friedman, Wellhausen's model of the
documentary hypothesis continues to dominate the field of biblical scholarship: "To this day, if you want
to disagree, you disagree with Wellhausen. If you want to pose a new model, you compare its merits
with those of Wellhausen's model."[28]
The documentary hypothesis is important in the field of biblical studies not only because it claims that
the Torah was written by different people at different times—generally long after the events it
describes—[29] but it also proposed what was at the time a radically new way of reading the Bible. Many
proponents of the documentary hypothesis view the Bible more as a body of literature than a work of
history, believing that the historical value of the text lies not in its account of the events that it describes,
but in what critics can infer about the times in which the authors lived (as critics may read Hamlet to
learn about 17th-century England, but will not read it to learn about 7th-century Denmark).
Wellhausen's hypothesis proposed that the four documents were composed in the order J-E-D-P, with P,
containing the bulk of the Jewish law, dating from the post-Exilic Second Temple period (i.e., after 515
BC).[30]
The documentary hypothesis has been modified by numerous later authors. The contemporary view is
that P is earlier than D, and that all four books date from the First Temple period (i.e., prior to 587 BC).
[31]
Martin Noth (who in 1943 provided evidence that Deuteronomy plus the following six books make a
unified history from the hand of a single editor), Harold Bloom, Frank Moore Cross and Richard Elliot
Friedman also presented versions of the hypothesis.
The documentary hypothesis, at least in the four-document version advanced by Wellhausen, has been
controversial since its formulation, and not all biblical scholars accept J, E, D, and P as meaningful
terms. Critics question the existence of separate, identifiable documents, positing instead that the biblical
text is made up of almost innumerable strands so interwoven as to be hardly untangleable. The J
document, in particular, has been subjected to such intense dissection that it seems in danger of
disappearing.[citation needed]
The hypothesis dominated biblical scholarship for much of the 20th century, and, although increasingly
challenged by other models in the last part of the 20th century, its terminology and insights continue to
provide the framework for modern theories on the origins of the Torah.[32]
Archaeological and historical research

Main articles: Biblical archaeology school and The Bible and history
Biblical archaeology is the archaeology that relates to, and sheds light upon, the Hebrew Scriptures and
the New Testament. It is used to help determine the lifestyle and practices of people living in biblical
times.
There are a wide range of interpretations of the existing Biblical archaeology. One broad division
includes Biblical maximalism that generally take the view that most of the Old Testament or Hebrew
Bible is essentially based on history although presented through the religious viewpoint of its time. It is
considered the opposite of biblical minimalism which considers the Bible a purely post-exilic (5th
century BCE and later) composition. In any case, even accepting Biblical minimalism, the Bible is a
historical document containing first-hand information on the Hellenistic and Roman eras, and there is
universal scholarly consensus that the events of the Babylonian captivity of the 6th century onward have
a basis in history.
On the other hand, the historicity of the biblical account of the history of ancient Israel and Judah of the
10th to 7th centuries BC is disputed in scholarship. The biblical account of the 8th to 7th centuries is
widely, but not universally, accepted as historical, while the verdict on the earliest period of the United
Monarchy (10th century BC) and the historicity of David is far from clear. For this reason,
archaeological evidence providing information on this period, such as the Tel Dan Stele, can potentially
be decisive.
Finally, the biblical account of events of the Exodus from Egypt in the Torah, and the migration to the
Promised Land and the period of Judges are not considered historical in scholarship.[33][34]
Regarding the New Testament, the setting being the Roman Empire period in the 1st century, the
historical context is well established. There has nevertheless been some debate on the historicity of
Jesus, but the mainstream opinion is clearly that Jesus was one of several known historical itinerant
preachers in 1st-century Roman Judea, teaching in the context of the religious upheavals and
sectarianism of Second Temple Judaism.
See also
■ Religious text
■ Biblical studies
■ Code of Hammurabi
■ List of major biblical figures
Biblical topics
■ Alcohol in the Bible
■ Circumcision in the Bible
■ Crime and punishment in the Bible
■ Ethics in the Bible
■ Murder in the Bible
■ Slavery in the Bible
■ Women in the Bible
■ Summary of Christian eschatological differences
Endnotes
1. ^ Ash, Russell (2001). Top 10 of Everything 2002. Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 0789480433, 9780789480439.
See also Google Link (http://www.google.com/search?
q=It+has+been+bought+and+read+more+than+any+other+book+%28Businessweek+7%2F18%
2F2005+reports+2.5+billion+copies+sold.+Author+Russell&btnG=Search&tbm=bks&tbo=1&aq=f&aqi=&aql=&oq
2. ^ "The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo
Church" (http://www.ethiopianorthodox.org/english/canonical/books.html) . Ethiopianorthodox.org.
http://www.ethiopianorthodox.org/english/canonical/books.html. Retrieved 2010-11-19.
3. ^ Halpern, B. the First Historians: The Hebrew Bible. Harper & Row, 1988, quoted in Smith, Mark S.The
early history of God: Yahweh and the other deities in ancient Israel. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.; 2nd
ed., 2002. ISBN 978-0802839725, p.14
4. ^ Philip R. Davies, "Memories of ancient Israel", p.7 (http://books.google.com.au/books?
id=M1rS4Kce_PMC&lpg=PP1&ots=F92fs-7_dq&dq=Memories%20of%20Ancient%
20Israel&pg=PA7#v=onepage&q&f=false) . Books.google.com.au. http://books.google.com.au/books?
id=M1rS4Kce_PMC&lpg=PP1&ots=F92fs-7_dq&dq=Memories%20of%20Ancient%
20Israel&pg=PA7#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 2010-11-19.
5. ^ a b Harper, Douglas. "bible" (http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=bible) . Online Etymology
Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=bible.
6. ^ "The Catholic Encyclopedia" (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02543a.htm) . Newadvent.org.
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02543a.htm. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
7. ^ Biblion, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus
(http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%
2319917) .
8. ^ a b c d Stagg, Frank. New Testament Theology. Nashville: Broadman, 1962. ISBN 0-8054-1613-7.
9. ^ "From Hebrew Bible to Christian Bible" by Mark Hamilton
(http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/first/scriptures.html) on PBS's site From Jesus to
Christ: The First Christians (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/) .
10. ^ Dictionary.com etymology of the word "Bible" (http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=Bible) .
11. ^ Luke 11:51 (http://www.biblegateway.com/bible?passage=Luke%2011:51;&version=ESV;) , Luke 24:44
(http://www.biblegateway.com/bible?passage=Luke%2024:44;&version=ESV;)
12. ^ "Bible Study, Bible Facts" (http://www.csbbc.net/bible.html) . http://www.csbbc.net/bible.html. Retrieved
2007-11-05.
13. ^ Accuracy of Torah Text
(http://www.aish.com/shavuottorah/shavuottorahdefault/Accuracy_of_Torah_Text.asp) .
14. ^ a b Sir Godfrey Driver. "Introduction to the Old Testament of the New English Bible." Web: 30 November
2009
15. ^ a b Wright, N.T. The Last Word: Scripture and the Authority of God—Getting Beyond the Bible Wars.
HarperCollins, 2005. ISBN 0060872616 / 9780060872618
16. ^ Evans, Christopher. King's College London. Quoted in Wright, N.T. "New Testament Scholarship and
Christian Discipleship." 5 June 2008. Web: 27 February 2010 N.T. Wright on NT Scholarship and Christian
Discipleship (http://www.ridley.cam.ac.uk/documents/moulemem.pdf)
17. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Canon of the New Testament (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03274a.htm) :
"The idea of a complete and clear-cut canon of the New Testament existing from the beginning, that is from
Apostolic times, has no foundation in history. The Canon of the New Testament, like that of the Old, is the
result of a development, of a process at once stimulated by disputes with doubters, both within and without
the Church, and retarded by certain obscurities and natural hesitations, and which did not reach its final term
until the dogmatic definition of the Tridentine Council."
18. ^ Paula Fredriksen, Augustine and the Jews, ISBN 978-0-385-50270-2 (2008), pp. 67-68, 391.
19. ^ Philo of Alexandria, De vita Moysis 3.23.
20. ^ Josephus, Contra Apion 1.8.
21. ^ "Basis for belief of Inspiration Biblegateway" (http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%
20Sam%2023:2,2%20Tim%203:16,Luke%201:70,Heb%203:7,10:15-16,1%20Peter%201:11,Mark%
2012:36,2%20Peter%201:20-21,Acts%201:16,Acts%203:18,Acts%2028:25;&version=50) .
Biblegateway.com. http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Sam%2023:2,2%20Tim%
203:16,Luke%201:70,Heb%203:7,10:15-16,1%20Peter%201:11,Mark%2012:36,2%20Peter%201:20-
21,Acts%201:16,Acts%203:18,Acts%2028:25;&version=50. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
22. ^ Norman L. Geisler, William E. Nix. A General Introduction to the Bible. Moody Publishers, 1986, p.86.
ISBN 0-8024-2916-5
23. ^ For example, see Leroy Zuck, Roy B. Zuck. Basic Bible Interpretation. Chariot Victor Pub, 1991,p.68.
ISBN 0-89693-819-0
24. ^ Roy B. Zuck, Donald Campbell. Basic Bible Interpretation. Victor, 2002. ISBN 0-7814-3877-2
25. ^ Norman L. Geisler. Inerrancy. Zondervan, 1980, p.294. ISBN 0-310-39281-0
26. ^ International Council on Biblical Inerrancy (1978) (PDF). The Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy
(http://www.churchcouncil.org/ccpdfdocs/01_Biblical_Inerrancy_A&D.pdf) . International Council on
Biblical Inerrancy. http://www.churchcouncil.org/ccpdfdocs/01_Biblical_Inerrancy_A&D.pdf.
27. ^ Wycliffe Bible Translators, Inc. (WBT) Translation Statistics. July 2010: Wycliffe Bible Translators
(http://www.wycliffe.org/About/Statistics.aspx)
28. ^ Richard Elliott Friedman, "Who Wrote the Bible?," HarperSanFrancisco, 1997 (2nd edition).
29. ^ Joel Rosenberg, 1984 "The Bible: Biblical Narrative" in Barry Holtz, ed Back to the Sources New York:
Summit Books p. 36; Nahum Sarna, 1986 Understanding Genesis New York:Schocken Books pp. xxi-xxiii.
30. ^ Wellhausen adopted the idea of a post-Exilic date for P from Eduard Reuss.
31. ^ Although the bulk of all four documents date from before 587 BC, the strand of D known as Dtr2 dates
from the following Exilic period.
32. ^ Wenham, Gordon. "Pentateuchal Studies Today", Themelios 22.1 (October 1996)
(http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/article_pentateuch_wenham.html)
33. ^ Finkelstein, Israel; Neil Silberman. The Bible Unearthed.
34. ^ Dever, William. Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come from?.
References and further reading

■ Anderson, Bernhard W. Understanding the Old Testament. ISBN 0-13-948399-3.
■ Asimov, Isaac. Asimov's Guide to the Bible. New York, NY: Avenel Books, 1981. ISBN 0-517-34582-X.
■ Berlin, Adele, Marc Zvi Brettler and Michael Fishbane. The Jewish Study Bible
(http://www.newjewishbooks.org/0195297512/) . Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-19-529751-2.
■ Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2001). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of
Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-2338-1.
■ Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (August 2002). "Review: "The Bible Unearthed": A
Rejoinder" (http://www.jstor.org/stable/1357859?seq=1) . Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental
Research 327: 63–73. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1357859?seq=1
■ Herzog, Ze'ev (October 29, 1999). Deconstructing the walls of Jericho
(http://mideastfacts.org/facts/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=32&Itemid=34) . Ha'aretz.
http://mideastfacts.org/facts/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=32&Itemid=34
■ Dever, William G. (March/April 2007). "Losing Faith: Who Did and Who Didn’t, How Scholarship Affects
Scholars" (http://creationontheweb.com/images/pdfs/other/5106losingfaith.pdf) . Biblical Archaeology
Review 33 (2): 54. http://creationontheweb.com/images/pdfs/other/5106losingfaith.pdf
■ Dever, William G. Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come from? Grand Rapids, MI:
William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2003. ISBN 0-8028-0975-8.
■ Ehrman, Bart D. Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why New York, NY:
HarperSanFrancisco, 2005. ISBN 0-06-073817-0.
■ Geisler, Norman (editor). Inerrancy. Sponsored by the International Council on Biblical Inerrancy.
Zondervan Publishing House, 1980, ISBN 0-310-39281-0.
■ Head, Tom. The Absolute Beginner's Guide to the Bible. Indianapolis, IN: Que Publishing, 2005. ISBN 0-
7897-3419-2
■ Hoffman, Joel M. In the Beginning (http://www.newjewishbooks.org/ITB/) . New York University Press,
2004. ISBN 0-8147-3690-4
■ Lienhard, Joseph T. The Bible, The Church, and Authority. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1995.
■ Lindsell, Harold. The Battle for the Bible. Zondervan Publishing House, 1978. ISBN 0-310-27681-0
■ Masalha, Nur, The Bible and Zionism: Invented Traditions, Archaeology and Post-Colonialism in Palestine-
Israel. London, Zed Books, 2007.
■ McDonald, Lee M. and Sanders, James A., eds. The Canon Debate. Hendrickson Publishers (January 1,
2002). 662p. ISBN 1565635175 ISBN 978-1565635173
■ Miller, John W. The Origins of the Bible: Rethinking Canon History Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1994. ISBN
0-8091-3522-1.
■ Riches, John. The Bible: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-19-285343-0
■ Siku. The Manga Bible: From Genesis to Revelation. Galilee Trade (January 15, 2008). 224p. ISBN
0385524315 ISBN 978-0385524315
■ Taylor, Hawley O. "Mathematics and Prophecy." Modern Science and Christian Faith. Wheaton: Van
Kampen, 1948, pp. 175–83.
■ Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, s.vv. "Book of Ezekiel," p. 580 and "prophecy," p. 1410. Chicago: Moody
Bible Press, 1986.
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible"

Categories: Bible | Greek loanwords | Judeo-Christian topics
■ This page was last modified on 8 February 2011 at 04:55.

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Bible - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Page 1 of 17

The Bible (from Greek τὰ βιβλία ta biblia "the

There is no single Bible, and both the

referred to as "The Holy Bible" (τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια). The canonical Johannine works

The Torah comprises the following five books:

1. Genesis, Ge—Bereshith (‫)בראשית‬

The Nevi'im comprise the following eight books:

6. Joshua, Js—Yehoshua (‫)יהושע‬

7. Judges, Jg—Shoftim (‫)שופטים‬

14. Psalms, Ps—Tehillim (‫)תהלים‬

Hebrew Bible translations and editions

The Oral Torah

Apocryphal or deuterocanonical books

The Roman Catholic Church recognizes:

Some other Eastern Orthodox Churches include:

■ 2 Esdras i.e., Latin Esdras in the Russian and Georgian Bibles

Role in Christian theology

Further information: Sola scriptura and Christian theology

The Gospels ■ Second Epistle to the ■ Epistle to Philemon, Pm

See also: Oral tradition and the historical Jesus

See also: Biblical manuscript, Bible translations, and

When ancient scribes copied earlier books, they wrote notes on

Ethiopian Orthodox canon

Belief in divine inspiration

Bible versions and translations

Bible versions are discussed below, while Bible translations can

The original texts of the Tanakh were in Hebrew, although some

Bible translations, worldwide[27]

Archaeological and historical research

References and further reading

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible"

■ This page was last modified on 8 February 2011 at 04:55.

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