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Isomorphism Theorems PDF

The document summarizes two isomorphism theorems: 1) The first isomorphism theorem states that for a homomorphism φ: G → H, the group G/Ker(φ) is isomorphic to the image φ(G). This is proved by showing a mapping ψ is well-defined, a homomorphism, one-to-one, and onto. 2) The second isomorphism theorem states that for a subgroup H of G and a normal subgroup N of G, the group H/(N∩H) is isomorphic to the group (NH)/N. This is proved by showing a mapping φ is a homomorphism and onto.

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Ayhiel Feedrano
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86 views

Isomorphism Theorems PDF

The document summarizes two isomorphism theorems: 1) The first isomorphism theorem states that for a homomorphism φ: G → H, the group G/Ker(φ) is isomorphic to the image φ(G). This is proved by showing a mapping ψ is well-defined, a homomorphism, one-to-one, and onto. 2) The second isomorphism theorem states that for a subgroup H of G and a normal subgroup N of G, the group H/(N∩H) is isomorphic to the group (NH)/N. This is proved by showing a mapping φ is a homomorphism and onto.

Uploaded by

Ayhiel Feedrano
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Isomorphism Theorems

Isomorphism Theorems

January 13, 2021


Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Theorem 6.3.1 - First Isomorphism Theorem


Let ϕ : G → H be a homomorphism. Then
G/Ker (ϕ) ∼
= ϕ(G).
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Proof
Let K = Ker (ϕ). Define ψ : G/K → ϕ(G) by
ψ(Kx) = ϕ(x).
To prove this theorem, we need to show 4 cases. That is,
ψ must be well-defined, a homomorphism, 1-1 and onto.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 1 : ψ is well-defined
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 1 : ψ is well-defined
Let ψ be a well-defined function, that is, if Kx = Ky, then
ϕ(x) = ϕ(y).
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 1 : ψ is well-defined
Let ψ be a well-defined function, that is, if Kx = Ky, then
ϕ(x) = ϕ(y). Now, suppose that Kx = Ky.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 1 : ψ is well-defined
Let ψ be a well-defined function, that is, if Kx = Ky, then
ϕ(x) = ϕ(y). Now, suppose that Kx = Ky. This means
that xy −1 ∈ K
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 1 : ψ is well-defined
Let ψ be a well-defined function, that is, if Kx = Ky, then
ϕ(x) = ϕ(y). Now, suppose that Kx = Ky. This means
that xy −1 ∈ K = Ker (ϕ).
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 1 : ψ is well-defined
Let ψ be a well-defined function, that is, if Kx = Ky, then
ϕ(x) = ϕ(y). Now, suppose that Kx = Ky. This means
that xy −1 ∈ K = Ker (ϕ). Then, ϕ(xy −1 ) = e1 , so
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 1 : ψ is well-defined
Let ψ be a well-defined function, that is, if Kx = Ky, then
ϕ(x) = ϕ(y). Now, suppose that Kx = Ky. This means
that xy −1 ∈ K = Ker (ϕ). Then, ϕ(xy −1 ) = e1 , so

ϕ(xy −1 ) =
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 1 : ψ is well-defined
Let ψ be a well-defined function, that is, if Kx = Ky, then
ϕ(x) = ϕ(y). Now, suppose that Kx = Ky. This means
that xy −1 ∈ K = Ker (ϕ). Then, ϕ(xy −1 ) = e1 , so

ϕ(xy −1 ) = ϕ(x)(ϕ(y))−1 = e1
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 1 : ψ is well-defined
Let ψ be a well-defined function, that is, if Kx = Ky, then
ϕ(x) = ϕ(y). Now, suppose that Kx = Ky. This means
that xy −1 ∈ K = Ker (ϕ). Then, ϕ(xy −1 ) = e1 , so

ϕ(xy −1 ) = ϕ(x)(ϕ(y))−1 = e1
ϕ(x) = ϕ(y)
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 1 : ψ is well-defined
Let ψ be a well-defined function, that is, if Kx = Ky, then
ϕ(x) = ϕ(y). Now, suppose that Kx = Ky. This means
that xy −1 ∈ K = Ker (ϕ). Then, ϕ(xy −1 ) = e1 , so

ϕ(xy −1 ) = ϕ(x)(ϕ(y))−1 = e1
ϕ(x) = ϕ(y)

So, ψ is well-defined.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 2 : ψ is a homomorphism
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 2 : ψ is a homomorphism
For any two right cosets, say, Kx, Ky ∈ G/K ,
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 2 : ψ is a homomorphism
For any two right cosets, say, Kx, Ky ∈ G/K ,

ψ((Kx)(Ky)) =
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 2 : ψ is a homomorphism
For any two right cosets, say, Kx, Ky ∈ G/K ,

ψ((Kx)(Ky)) = ψ(Kxy) =
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 2 : ψ is a homomorphism
For any two right cosets, say, Kx, Ky ∈ G/K ,

ψ((Kx)(Ky)) = ψ(Kxy) = ϕ(xy) =


Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 2 : ψ is a homomorphism
For any two right cosets, say, Kx, Ky ∈ G/K ,

ψ((Kx)(Ky)) = ψ(Kxy) = ϕ(xy) = ϕ(x)ϕ(y) =


Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 2 : ψ is a homomorphism
For any two right cosets, say, Kx, Ky ∈ G/K ,

ψ((Kx)(Ky)) = ψ(Kxy) = ϕ(xy) = ϕ(x)ϕ(y) =


ψ(Kx)ψ(Ky)
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 2 : ψ is a homomorphism
For any two right cosets, say, Kx, Ky ∈ G/K ,

ψ((Kx)(Ky)) = ψ(Kxy) = ϕ(xy) = ϕ(x)ϕ(y) =


ψ(Kx)ψ(Ky)

Hence, ψ is a homomorphism.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 3 : ψ is onto
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 3 : ψ is onto
Suppose g ∈ ϕ(G).
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 3 : ψ is onto
Suppose g ∈ ϕ(G). Since ϕ is onto, there exists x ∈ G
such that ϕ(x) = g.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 3 : ψ is onto
Suppose g ∈ ϕ(G). Since ϕ is onto, there exists x ∈ G
such that ϕ(x) = g. Then, ψ(Kx) = ϕ(x) = g.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 3 : ψ is onto
Suppose g ∈ ϕ(G). Since ϕ is onto, there exists x ∈ G
such that ϕ(x) = g. Then, ψ(Kx) = ϕ(x) = g. This shows
that ψ is onto.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 4 : ψ is 1-1
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 4 : ψ is 1-1
Suppose ψ(Kx) = ψ(Ky ) for some Kx, Ky ∈ G/K .
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 4 : ψ is 1-1
Suppose ψ(Kx) = ψ(Ky ) for some Kx, Ky ∈ G/K . This
means that ϕ(x) = ϕ(y).
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 4 : ψ is 1-1
Suppose ψ(Kx) = ψ(Ky ) for some Kx, Ky ∈ G/K . This
means that ϕ(x) = ϕ(y). Then, ϕ(x)(ϕ(y ))−1 = e1 ,
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 4 : ψ is 1-1
Suppose ψ(Kx) = ψ(Ky ) for some Kx, Ky ∈ G/K . This
means that ϕ(x) = ϕ(y). Then, ϕ(x)(ϕ(y ))−1 = e1 , so
ϕ(xy −1 ) = e1 , which means that xy −1 ∈ Ker ϕ = K ,
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 4 : ψ is 1-1
Suppose ψ(Kx) = ψ(Ky ) for some Kx, Ky ∈ G/K . This
means that ϕ(x) = ϕ(y). Then, ϕ(x)(ϕ(y ))−1 = e1 , so
ϕ(xy −1 ) = e1 , which means that xy −1 ∈ Ker ϕ = K , thus
Kx = Ky.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 4 : ψ is 1-1
Suppose ψ(Kx) = ψ(Ky ) for some Kx, Ky ∈ G/K . This
means that ϕ(x) = ϕ(y). Then, ϕ(x)(ϕ(y ))−1 = e1 , so
ϕ(xy −1 ) = e1 , which means that xy −1 ∈ Ker ϕ = K , thus
Kx = Ky. This shows that ψ is 1-1.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 4 : ψ is 1-1
Suppose ψ(Kx) = ψ(Ky ) for some Kx, Ky ∈ G/K . This
means that ϕ(x) = ϕ(y). Then, ϕ(x)(ϕ(y ))−1 = e1 , so
ϕ(xy −1 ) = e1 , which means that xy −1 ∈ Ker ϕ = K , thus
Kx = Ky. This shows that ψ is 1-1.

Therefore, since we proved all the claims, we can


conclude that that G/Ker (ϕ) ∼
= ϕ(G).
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Theorem 6.3.1 - Second Isomorphism Theorem


Let H be a subgroup of G and let N be a normal subgroup
of G. Then H/(N ∩ H) ∼= (NH)/N.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Proof
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Proof
Define ϕ : H → (NH)/N by ϕ(h) = Nh. We will use the
First Isomorphism Theorem and show that ϕ is a
homomorphism and onto to prove this theorem.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 1 - ϕ is a homomorphism
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 1 - ϕ is a homomorphism
Take any h1 , h2 ∈ H,
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 1 - ϕ is a homomorphism
Take any h1 , h2 ∈ H, then
ϕ(h1 h2 ) =
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 1 - ϕ is a homomorphism
Take any h1 , h2 ∈ H, then
ϕ(h1 h2 ) = Nh1 h2 =
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 1 - ϕ is a homomorphism
Take any h1 , h2 ∈ H, then
ϕ(h1 h2 ) = Nh1 h2 = (Nh1 )(Nh2 ) =
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 1 - ϕ is a homomorphism
Take any h1 , h2 ∈ H, then
ϕ(h1 h2 ) = Nh1 h2 = (Nh1 )(Nh2 ) = ϕ(h1 )ϕ(h2 ).
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 1 - ϕ is a homomorphism
Take any h1 , h2 ∈ H, then
ϕ(h1 h2 ) = Nh1 h2 = (Nh1 )(Nh2 ) = ϕ(h1 )ϕ(h2 ). Hence, ϕ is
a homomorphism.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 2 - ϕ is onto
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 2 - ϕ is onto
Take any Nx ∈ NH/N.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 2 - ϕ is onto
Take any Nx ∈ NH/N. So, x ∈ NH which means that
x = nh for some h ∈ H and n ∈ N.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 2 - ϕ is onto
Take any Nx ∈ NH/N. So, x ∈ NH which means that
x = nh for some h ∈ H and n ∈ N. Our main target is to
show that ϕ is onto.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 2 - ϕ is onto
Take any Nx ∈ NH/N. So, x ∈ NH which means that
x = nh for some h ∈ H and n ∈ N. Our main target is to
show that ϕ is onto. We can achieve this by showing that
ϕ(h) = nx, which means that nh = nx and so xh−1 ∈ N.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 2 - ϕ is onto
Take any Nx ∈ NH/N. So, x ∈ NH which means that
x = nh for some h ∈ H and n ∈ N. Our main target is to
show that ϕ is onto. We can achieve this by showing that
ϕ(h) = nx, which means that nh = nx and so xh−1 ∈ N.
Now,
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 2 - ϕ is onto
Take any Nx ∈ NH/N. So, x ∈ NH which means that
x = nh for some h ∈ H and n ∈ N. Our main target is to
show that ϕ is onto. We can achieve this by showing that
ϕ(h) = nx, which means that nh = nx and so xh−1 ∈ N.
Now, xh−1 = nhh−1 ∈ N since h ∈ H ≤ G, n ∈ N and
N / G.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 2 - ϕ is onto
Take any Nx ∈ NH/N. So, x ∈ NH which means that
x = nh for some h ∈ H and n ∈ N. Our main target is to
show that ϕ is onto. We can achieve this by showing that
ϕ(h) = nx, which means that nh = nx and so xh−1 ∈ N.
Now, xh−1 = nhh−1 ∈ N since h ∈ H ≤ G, n ∈ N and
N / G. This means that nx = nh.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 2 - ϕ is onto
Take any Nx ∈ NH/N. So, x ∈ NH which means that
x = nh for some h ∈ H and n ∈ N. Our main target is to
show that ϕ is onto. We can achieve this by showing that
ϕ(h) = nx, which means that nh = nx and so xh−1 ∈ N.
Now, xh−1 = nhh−1 ∈ N since h ∈ H ≤ G, n ∈ N and
N / G. This means that nx = nh. Thus, ϕ(h) = nh = nx.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 2 - ϕ is onto
Take any Nx ∈ NH/N. So, x ∈ NH which means that
x = nh for some h ∈ H and n ∈ N. Our main target is to
show that ϕ is onto. We can achieve this by showing that
ϕ(h) = nx, which means that nh = nx and so xh−1 ∈ N.
Now, xh−1 = nhh−1 ∈ N since h ∈ H ≤ G, n ∈ N and
N / G. This means that nx = nh. Thus, ϕ(h) = nh = nx.
Hence, ϕ is onto.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

By the FIT, we have H/Ker ϕ ∼


= (NH)/N.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

By the FIT, we have H/Ker ϕ ∼


= (NH)/N. We need to
show that Ker ϕ = N ∩ H and we are done.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

By the FIT, we have H/Ker ϕ ∼


= (NH)/N. We need to
show that Ker ϕ = N ∩ H and we are done. Note that
Ker ϕ = {h ∈ H|ϕ(h) = e(NH)/N } = {h ∈ H|Nh = N} =
{h ∈ H|h ∈ N} = N ∩ H.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

By the FIT, we have H/Ker ϕ ∼


= (NH)/N. We need to
show that Ker ϕ = N ∩ H and we are done. Note that
Ker ϕ = {h ∈ H|ϕ(h) = e(NH)/N } = {h ∈ H|Nh = N} =
{h ∈ H|h ∈ N} = N ∩ H. And so, H/(N ∩ H) ∼ = (NH)/N.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Third Isomorphism Theorem


Let H and K be normal subgroups of a group G with
K ≤ H. Then (G/K )/(H/K ) ∼
= G/H.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Proof
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Proof
To prove this thorem, we will be using the FIT.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Proof
To prove this thorem, we will be using the FIT. Now, since
by assumption that H, K / G, it is safe to assume that
K / H.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Proof
To prove this thorem, we will be using the FIT. Now, since
by assumption that H, K / G, it is safe to assume that
K / H.
Define ϕ : G/K → G/H by ϕ(gK ) = gH.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Proof
To prove this thorem, we will be using the FIT. Now, since
by assumption that H, K / G, it is safe to assume that
K / H.
Define ϕ : G/K → G/H by ϕ(gK ) = gH. We want to show
that ϕ is well-defined, that is, if ϕ(gK ) = ϕ(g 0 K ), then
gH = g 0 H.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Proof
To prove this thorem, we will be using the FIT. Now, since
by assumption that H, K / G, it is safe to assume that
K / H.
Define ϕ : G/K → G/H by ϕ(gK ) = gH. We want to show
that ϕ is well-defined, that is, if ϕ(gK ) = ϕ(g 0 K ), then
gH = g 0 H. Now, suppose that gK = g 0 K .
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Proof
To prove this thorem, we will be using the FIT. Now, since
by assumption that H, K / G, it is safe to assume that
K / H.
Define ϕ : G/K → G/H by ϕ(gK ) = gH. We want to show
that ϕ is well-defined, that is, if ϕ(gK ) = ϕ(g 0 K ), then
gH = g 0 H. Now, suppose that gK = g 0 K . This means that
g(g)−1 ∈ K . But note that K ≤ H, which means that
g(g)−1 ∈ H.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Proof
To prove this thorem, we will be using the FIT. Now, since
by assumption that H, K / G, it is safe to assume that
K / H.
Define ϕ : G/K → G/H by ϕ(gK ) = gH. We want to show
that ϕ is well-defined, that is, if ϕ(gK ) = ϕ(g 0 K ), then
gH = g 0 H. Now, suppose that gK = g 0 K . This means that
g(g)−1 ∈ K . But note that K ≤ H, which means that
g(g)−1 ∈ H. By properties of COSETS, this implies that
gH = g 0 H.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Proof
To prove this thorem, we will be using the FIT. Now, since
by assumption that H, K / G, it is safe to assume that
K / H.
Define ϕ : G/K → G/H by ϕ(gK ) = gH. We want to show
that ϕ is well-defined, that is, if ϕ(gK ) = ϕ(g 0 K ), then
gH = g 0 H. Now, suppose that gK = g 0 K . This means that
g(g)−1 ∈ K . But note that K ≤ H, which means that
g(g)−1 ∈ H. By properties of COSETS, this implies that
gH = g 0 H. Hence, we have ϕ(gK ) = ϕ(g 0 K ).
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 1 - ϕ is a homomorphism
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 1 - ϕ is a homomorphism
Suppose ϕ()(gK )(g 0 K )) =
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 1 - ϕ is a homomorphism
Suppose ϕ()(gK )(g 0 K )) = ϕ((gg 0 )K ) =
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 1 - ϕ is a homomorphism
Suppose ϕ()(gK )(g 0 K )) = ϕ((gg 0 )K ) = (gg 0 )H =
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 1 - ϕ is a homomorphism
Suppose ϕ()(gK )(g 0 K )) = ϕ((gg 0 )K ) = (gg 0 )H =
(gH)(g 0 H) =
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 1 - ϕ is a homomorphism
Suppose ϕ()(gK )(g 0 K )) = ϕ((gg 0 )K ) = (gg 0 )H =
(gH)(g 0 H) = ϕ(gK )ϕ(g 0 K ).
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 1 - ϕ is a homomorphism
Suppose ϕ()(gK )(g 0 K )) = ϕ((gg 0 )K ) = (gg 0 )H =
(gH)(g 0 H) = ϕ(gK )ϕ(g 0 K ). Thus, ϕ is a homomorphism.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 2 - ϕ is onto
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 2 - ϕ is onto
Suppose gH ∈ G/H.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 2 - ϕ is onto
Suppose gH ∈ G/H. Note that gK ∈ G/K .
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Claim 2 - ϕ is onto
Suppose gH ∈ G/H. Note that gK ∈ G/K . This means
that ϕ(gK ) = gH.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Now, suppose that gK ∈ Ker ϕ.


Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Now, suppose that gK ∈ Ker ϕ. This implies that


ϕ(gK ) = H.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Now, suppose that gK ∈ Ker ϕ. This implies that


ϕ(gK ) = H. Further, this means that gH = H.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Now, suppose that gK ∈ Ker ϕ. This implies that


ϕ(gK ) = H. Further, this means that gH = H. By
properties of COSETS, this imples that g ∈ H
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Now, suppose that gK ∈ Ker ϕ. This implies that


ϕ(gK ) = H. Further, this means that gH = H. By
properties of COSETS, this imples that g ∈ H and thus,
gK ∈ H/K .
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Now, suppose that gK ∈ Ker ϕ. This implies that


ϕ(gK ) = H. Further, this means that gH = H. By
properties of COSETS, this imples that g ∈ H and thus,
gK ∈ H/K . In other words, Ker ϕ ⊆ H/K .
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Now, suppose that gK ∈ Ker ϕ. This implies that


ϕ(gK ) = H. Further, this means that gH = H. By
properties of COSETS, this imples that g ∈ H and thus,
gK ∈ H/K . In other words, Ker ϕ ⊆ H/K .
On the other hand, suppose that hK ∈ H/K .
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Now, suppose that gK ∈ Ker ϕ. This implies that


ϕ(gK ) = H. Further, this means that gH = H. By
properties of COSETS, this imples that g ∈ H and thus,
gK ∈ H/K . In other words, Ker ϕ ⊆ H/K .
On the other hand, suppose that hK ∈ H/K . But notice
that hK ∈ G/K since H / G.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Now, suppose that gK ∈ Ker ϕ. This implies that


ϕ(gK ) = H. Further, this means that gH = H. By
properties of COSETS, this imples that g ∈ H and thus,
gK ∈ H/K . In other words, Ker ϕ ⊆ H/K .
On the other hand, suppose that hK ∈ H/K . But notice
that hK ∈ G/K since H / G. Now,
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Now, suppose that gK ∈ Ker ϕ. This implies that


ϕ(gK ) = H. Further, this means that gH = H. By
properties of COSETS, this imples that g ∈ H and thus,
gK ∈ H/K . In other words, Ker ϕ ⊆ H/K .
On the other hand, suppose that hK ∈ H/K . But notice
that hK ∈ G/K since H / G. Now, ϕ(hK ) =
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Now, suppose that gK ∈ Ker ϕ. This implies that


ϕ(gK ) = H. Further, this means that gH = H. By
properties of COSETS, this imples that g ∈ H and thus,
gK ∈ H/K . In other words, Ker ϕ ⊆ H/K .
On the other hand, suppose that hK ∈ H/K . But notice
that hK ∈ G/K since H / G. Now, ϕ(hK ) = hH =
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Now, suppose that gK ∈ Ker ϕ. This implies that


ϕ(gK ) = H. Further, this means that gH = H. By
properties of COSETS, this imples that g ∈ H and thus,
gK ∈ H/K . In other words, Ker ϕ ⊆ H/K .
On the other hand, suppose that hK ∈ H/K . But notice
that hK ∈ G/K since H / G. Now, ϕ(hK ) = hH = H since
h ∈ H.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Now, suppose that gK ∈ Ker ϕ. This implies that


ϕ(gK ) = H. Further, this means that gH = H. By
properties of COSETS, this imples that g ∈ H and thus,
gK ∈ H/K . In other words, Ker ϕ ⊆ H/K .
On the other hand, suppose that hK ∈ H/K . But notice
that hK ∈ G/K since H / G. Now, ϕ(hK ) = hH = H since
h ∈ H. This implies that hK ∈ Ker ϕ.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Now, suppose that gK ∈ Ker ϕ. This implies that


ϕ(gK ) = H. Further, this means that gH = H. By
properties of COSETS, this imples that g ∈ H and thus,
gK ∈ H/K . In other words, Ker ϕ ⊆ H/K .
On the other hand, suppose that hK ∈ H/K . But notice
that hK ∈ G/K since H / G. Now, ϕ(hK ) = hH = H since
h ∈ H. This implies that hK ∈ Ker ϕ. Thus, H/K ⊆ Ker ϕ.
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Now, suppose that gK ∈ Ker ϕ. This implies that


ϕ(gK ) = H. Further, this means that gH = H. By
properties of COSETS, this imples that g ∈ H and thus,
gK ∈ H/K . In other words, Ker ϕ ⊆ H/K .
On the other hand, suppose that hK ∈ H/K . But notice
that hK ∈ G/K since H / G. Now, ϕ(hK ) = hH = H since
h ∈ H. This implies that hK ∈ Ker ϕ. Thus, H/K ⊆ Ker ϕ.
And so, Ker ϕ = H/K .
Isomorphism Theorems
Isomorphism Theorems

Using the FIT, we have ϕ(G) = G/H and Ker ϕ = H/K ,


and so we have (G/K )/(H/K ) ∼
= G/H.
Isomorphism Theorems
The Structure of Some Finite Groups

1 Every group of order prime p is isomorphic to Zp .


2 Every group of order 4 is isomorphic to either Z4 or
Z2 × Z2 .
3 Every group of order 6 is isomorphic to either Z6 or
S3 .
4 Every group of order 8 is isomorphic to
Z8 , Z4 × Z2 , Z8 , Z2 × Z2 × Z2 , D4 , or Q.

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