BASIC CONCEPT SURVEYING

Objectives:
This chapter is intended to answer the following frequently asked questions:

 What is surveying?
 Why Surveying is considered as an art as well as a science?
 What are the classifications of Surveying and on what bases this classification
are made?
 What are the purposes of Surveying or the applications of Surveying?
 What are the procedures or steps to be followed so for planning ,designing
&construction some civil engineering projects like: Highways , Railways,
dam etc?
 What are the basic measurements in surveying?
 How can we make the basic measurements and what are the instruments
required?
 What are the functions of the various surveying Instruments like: Theodolite,
measuring tape, prism square, ranging poles, Tripods etc?
 How to determine the horizontal & vertical distances between various
points ,what are the required: methods or procedures , instruments or
equipments and the techniques?
 How can we check the accuracy of a measured quantity? Or How to
determine the reliability of a measured quantity?
 What are the functions of traversing? How to run a traverse and? Determine
the coordinates of various points and calculate the area encompassed in a
given polygon?
 How can we determine the accuracy of a traverse?

1
INTRODUCTION
Nearly every one has, at one time or another, seen a surveying crew working
alongside a road or on a local construction sites. Most people know that the
surveyors are making measurements of some kind. But not everyone has a full
understanding of what is actually binge measured, or an appreciation of the
knowledge and skill that are required for the surveyors to accomplish their tasks.

Definition: - Surveying may be simply defined as the art of making measurements.

Surveying involves the measurements of Distances, angles and elevations. It also
involves staking out the lines and grades needed for the construction of buildings,
roads, dams, and other engineering structures. I addition to the field measurements,
surveying includes the computation of areas, volumes, and other quantities, as well
as the preparation of necessary maps and diagrams. Surveying has many industrial
applications: for example, setting equipments, assembling aircrafts, laying out
assembly lines, and so on. In addition it includes the processing of converting the
measurements in to positional information such as maps and coordinates. The
survey activities are not limited to the surface of the earth but extend to the sea and
deep underground, as well as extraterrestrial space.
More precisely, Surveying can be defined as the art and Science of
determining the relative positions of various points on, above or below the
surface of the earth.
When we say the relative positions of points it means that determining the relative
positions of points in reference to another point or reference point/station. For
example, Adama City is found at about 100 kilometers East of Finfinne (Addis
Ababa), again you may say Adama University in found at about 3 km North- east of
Adama City In this example, it is obvious that the (relative position) location of
Adama city is described in reference to Finfinne (Addis Ababa) and that of Adama
University is in reference to Adama City.
Activity/assignment
1. Write at least four surveying instruments or equipment with their
accessories and describe their functions briefly.
Example- 1 Measuring tape/steel tape
Function- Surveyors use steel tape for measuring the slope or horizontal distances
between two or more points on the surface of the earth

No.
Accessories Function
Are used for making tape ends on the ground and for tallying the number
1. Chaining pins
of tape lengths in a given line.
Is used to apply the appropriate full the tape when fairly careful
2. Tension Handle measurements are to be made
The clamping Is used to grip the flat ribbon of steel tape Our kinking it
3.
handle
4. Rage poles For aligning the taping
Plumb bobs with To transfer the measurement on the ground In case where a tape is
5
string handled above the Ground
Cutting tools like For cleaning the line of vegetation
6
machetes

2
2. Bring the assignment 1 to class, make a group of five share what you have written
with your group members.
The Art and Science of Surveying

Simply stated, Surveying involves the measurement of distances and angles. The
distances may be horizontal or vertical in direction. Simply, the angles may be
measured in a horizontal or vertical plane. Frequently distances are measured on a
slope, but they must eventually be converted to a corresponding horizontal distance.
Vertical distances are also called elevations. Horizontal angles are used to express
the directions of land boundaries and other lines.
There are two fundamental purposes for measuring distances and angles. The first
is to determine the relative positions of existing points or objects on or near the
surface of the earth. The second is to layout or mark the desired positions of new
points or objects which are to be placed or constructed on or near the surface of the
earth. The survey measurements must be made with precision in order to achieve a
maximum of accuracy with a minimum expenditure of time and money.
The practice of surveying is an art, because it is dependent upon the skill, judgment,
and experience of the surveyor. Surveying may also be considered to be an applied
science, because field and office procedures rely up on a systematic body of
knowledge, related primarily to mathematics and physics.

Primary Division of Surveying

Primary divisions of surveying are made on the basis whether the curvature of the
earth is considered or whether the earth is assumed to be a flat plane. Because of
the curvature of the earth’s surface the measured distances on earth are actually
curved. However, when the distances are small, compared with the radius of the
earth, there is no significant difference between the curved distances and the
corresponding straight – line distances, and the curvature of the earth can be
neglected.
Surveying is thus primarily divided in two types:
2. Plane surveying
3. Geodetic Surveying
Plane surveying- is the type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is
neglected and it is assumed to be a flat surface. All distances and horizontal and
horizontal angles are assumed to be projected on a horizontal plane. A horizontal
plane at a point is the plane, which is perpendicular to the vertical line at that point.
Geodetic Surveying: It is the type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is
taken in to consideration and a very high standard of accuracy is maintained. The
main objective of geodetic surveying is to determine the precise location of a system
of widely spaced points on the surface of the earth.

Activity/Assignment

1. When /where one can safely apply plane surveying and why? (Explain)
2. Discuss on the following in group of five and present the out put of the
discussion through your group representative.
Your understanding about surveying
1. Why surveying is called an art as well as a science?

3
 2. Write at least one reason why surveying is called an art and one reason why
it is called a science
3. The difference and similarities b/n plane surveying & geodetic surveying.
Give one example for the type of survey categorized in plane surveying and
one for the Geodetic surveying
Importance of Surveying
Surveying plays an essential role in the planning, design, layout and construction of
our physical environment and infrastructure. The term infrastructure is commonly
used to present all the constructed facilities and systems which allow human
communities to function. Surveying is the link between design and construction.
Roads, Bridges, Buildings, water supply sewerage, drainage systems and many other
essential public works, projects could never be built without surveying technology.
In addition to its customary applications in construction and land-use projects,
surveying is playing an increasingly important role in modern industrial technology.
Most commonly for ordinary local projects the surveying process starts with the
reconnaissance survey i.e. on arrival at the site the survey team simply walks over
the area with a view to establish the best sites for survey stations, and other
purposes need to be considered.
Next the necessary data for the project will be collected by the principle of basic
measurements in surveying, then computations of the collected data has to be done
to produce plans or topographic maps depending up on the objectives of the project.
The produced plans or maps are used for planning Engineering projects, marking
boundary corners or lines, computations of areas & volumes and other purposes.
Surveying also includes the art of setting out the new points on the ground from the
plans or maps according to the design of the project.
To summarize; the first stage in all big projects is generally to survey the area and
prepare plans or maps which will be used in the preparation of detailed drawings,
design and cost estimation of the project .After finalizing the design or detail
drawing, setting out will be done.

Activity/Assignment
Discuss on how or where to apply surveying on the following areas or projects
 Road construction
 Establishing Horizontal & vertical control points
 Topographic mapping
 Property Surveying
 Building construction
 Irrigation projects
 Pipe lines, drainages & sewerage line projects

Surveying Applications
As we mentioned at the beginning, the two fundamentals purposes for surveying are
to determine the relative positions of existing points and to mark the positions of
new points on or near the surface of the earth .within this frame work, many
different kinds of surveys are performed. Some specific applications or types of
surveys are outlined briefly as follows:
1. Property survey
A property survey is performed in order to establish the positions of boundary lines
and property corners. It is also referred to as a land survey or a boundary survey.
4
Property surveys are usually performed when ever land ownership is to be
transferred or when a large tract of land is to be subdivided in to smaller pacels for
development. Also before the design and construction of any public or private land-
use project can get underway, it is necessary to accurately establish the legal
boundaries of the proposed project site. Constructing a structure on what later is
found to be property that belongs to someone else can be a very expensive mistake.
Any survey for establishing or describing land boundaries must be performed under
the supervision of a licensed land surveyor. Land surveys in urban areas must be
conducted with particular care, due to the very high cost of land. In rural areas less
accuracy may be accepted. Land surveys done to actually mark property corners
with permanent monuments are sometimes informally referred to as ‘’stakeout’’
‘’out bound’’ or ‘’bar job’’ surveys.

2. Topographic Survey
A topographic survey is performed in order to determine the relative positions
(horizontal and vertical) of existing natural and constructed features on a tract of
land. such features include ground elevations, bodies of water ,vegetation, rock out
crops, roads, buildings, and so on.
A topographic survey provides information on the ‘’shape of the land’’ Hills, valleys,
ridges, and the general slope of the ground can be depicted graphically. The data
obtained from a topographic survey are plotted and drawn as a suitably scaled map
called a topographic map, or topo map.
The shape of the ground is shown with contours, or lines of equal elevation. Since a
topo map is always needed before the engineering and architectural design of any
building or other project can begin, a topo survey may also be referred to as a
preliminary survey. Of course an accurate property survey must always precede the
topo survey, to establish the boundaries of the project site.

3. Construction Survey
A construction survey, also called a layout or location survey is performed in order
to mark the position of new points on the ground. These new points represent the
location of building corners, road center lines, and other facilities that are to be
built. These positions are shown on a site plan, which is essentially a combination of
the property survey and topographic survey, along with the newly designed
facilities. This also may be called a plot plan.
A site plan shows the location dimensions which are to be measured with reference
to boundaries or other control points. Vertical heights are given by elevations. Some
times horizontal positions may be given by coordinates. Wooden stakes are used by
the surveyors to mark the positions of the building, roads, and other structures.
The wooden stakes serve as reference points for the construction contractor who
actually builds the project. They may be centerline stakes, offset stakes, or grade
stakes. Carpenters, masons, and other skilled professionals transfer measurements
directly from the survey points. The procedure of placing the markers is called
staking out. Another term used, especially for pipelines and roads, is giving line and
grade.
4. Control Survey
There are two kinds of control surveys horizontal and vertical. In a horizontal
control survey, several points are placed in the ground by the surveyor, using
wooden stakes, or more permanent markers such as iron bars and concrete
5
monuments. These points, called stations, are arranged throughout the site or area
under study so that they can be easily seen and surveyed. The relative horizontal
positions of these points are established, usually with a very high degree of
precision and accuracy; this is done using traverse, triangulation, or trilateration
survey methods.
In a vertical control survey, the elevations of relatively permanent reference points
are determined by precise leveling methods. Marked or monumented points of
known elevation are called elevation bench marks (BMs). Boundary surveys or
construction surveys can be tied in to near by control surveys stations and Bench
Marks. This minimizes the accumulation of errors and the cost of making all the
measurements precise.

Fig-1.2-A horizontal control survey network showing traverse and triangulation

station points and course lines

5. Route Survey
A route survey is performed in order to establish horizontal and vertical control to
obtain topographic data and to lay out the positions of highways, rail ways, streets,
pipelines or any other ‘’linear’’ project. In other words, the primary aspect of a route
survey is that the project area is very narrow compared with its length, which can
extend from many kilometers and miles

Classification of Survey based on Instruments used

Based on the instruments used surveys can be classified as under

Chain surveying: is the simplest type of surveying in which only linear
measurements are taken with a chain or tape
Compass surveying: In this type of surveying, the horizontal angles are measured
with the help of a magnetic compass, in addition to the line or measurements with a
chain or a tape.
Leveling: this is a type of survey in which a leveling Instrument is used for
determination of relative elevations (levels) of various points on, above or below the
surface of the earth
Activity/ Assignment
Describe the following type of survey.
 Plane table surveys
 Theodolite Surveys
6
  Tachometric Surveys
 Photogrammetric Surveys
 EDM Surveys

Basic Measurements in Surveying

Introduction as it is defined in section 1.1 generally surveying can be define as the
art and science of determining the relative position of various points on, above or
below the surface of the earth.

These relative positions of points or the position of one point to another point or the
reference point can be defined by making some kind of measurements of these
measurements the basic ones are classified in to four:
1. Horizontal distance
2. Vertical Distance
3. Horizontal Angles and
4. Vertical Angles.

Horizontal Distance
Most surveying data are eventually plotted and drawn as a boundary plat, a
topographic map, a building site plan, a profile of the ground along a route or a
series of route cross-sections. With the exception of the last two types of drawings,
the lines shown on the paper represent projections of points on to a flat and
horizontal surface. The drawing paper represents the level reference plane. The
scaled length of any line on the drawing is proportional to the actual horizontal
distance between its end points on the earth.
The tasks of determining the horizontal distance between two existing points and of
setting a new point at a specified distance from some other fixed position are
fundamental surveying operations. The surveyor must select the appropriate
equipments and apply suitable field procedures in order to determine or set and
mark distances with the required degree of accuracy. The most common methods
for measuring horizontal distances include: pacing, stadia, taping, and electronic
distance measurement (EDM).
More generally, we can define horizontal distance between two points as the
distance measured between the points which are in a horizontal plane, the plane
which is perpendicular to the vertical direction at a point or direction of gravity at
the points or the horizontal projection of the slope distance between points which
are on a sopping round.
Horizontal distance is the distance measured between points which are in a
horizontal plane or the horizontal projection of the slope distance between points
on a sloping ground

7
Fig -Taping over level ground

Fig-Measuring slope distance

Vertical Distances
The vertical direction is parallel to the direction of gravity; at any point, it is the
direction of a freely suspended plum bob cord or string. The vertical distance of a
point above or below a given reference surface is called the elevation of the point.
The most commonly used reference surface for measuring vertical distance is mean
sea level (MSL). (The words altitude & height are some times used in place of
elevation)

8
Vertical distance between two points or between the point and reference surface is
the distance measured between the points which are in a vertical plane or a plane
which is parallel to the direction of gravity at that point and passing through the
point or points

Fig -The vertical direction is defined as the direction of force of gravity.

Horizontal Angle
One of the basic purposes of surveying is to determine the relative positions of
points on or near the earth’s surface. Assigning coordinates to a given point is a
useful and common way to indicate its position. Angles, as well as linear distances,
are usually measured in order to compute the coordinates of any particular point.
Horizontal Angles are measured between two intersecting lines in a horizontal
plane. They are usually expressed in terms of degrees, minutes, and seconds of arc.
The horizontal angle between a given line and a specified reference line is called the
direction of the line. The reference line is called meridian.

An angle measured between two intersecting lines in a horizontal plan is called

horizontal angle

Fig-Measurement of horizontal and vertical angles.

Vertical Angles

9
A vertical angle between two lines of sight is measured in a plane that is vertical at
the point of observation
In modern surveying Instruments the up ward vertical direction is usually used as a
reference for measuring vertical angles, instead of the horizontal. That direction is
called the zenith direction, and the angle measured with respect to it is called a
zenith angle

Fig- Designation of Vertical angles or Zenith Angles.

Fig- Relationship between Zenith and Vertical Angle.

Activity/ Assignment
List the instruments accessories with their functions& man power required to make
the following basic measurements in surveying:
 Horizontal distance measurements
 Horizontal and vertical angles measurements
 Vertical distance measurements

Individual Assignment
1. Explain why surveying is the first, the middle and the last stage in some civil
engineering projects and give one civil Engineering project and write the steps
where the application of surveying is required.

10
 2. Example – to design a route for railway construction to make reconnaissance
survey at office level, Assume that the Ethiopian Road Authority (ERA) has a
plan to construct a new alternative road from Adama city to Asela town what
are the steps or procedures to be followed? Map study at office level if the map
showing the two towns or desk study is/are available.

3. For the above Road project list the responsibilities/tasks of the surveyor/s in
order of priority and the instruments or Equipments required at each stage

Example During the field observation/reconnaissance survey the survey team may
need to walk in the project area to get the general view of the project area, to check
the existence of Natural and man make features which are on the map/s, to select
the best route out of the proposed routes during the map study or desk study, to
select the best sites for establishing. Control stations or reference station, for the
project, etc.
Bring the Assignment you have done individually to the class, make a group of five,
and discuss on what you have done write the out put of the discussion for each
question/individual Assignment and present it to the class through the group
representative/s.

Units of Measurements and Theory of Errors

Objectives: -
At the end of this chapter the students should be able to:
 Know the two main systems of measurements
 Identify the different SI (System International) units of quantity
 Covert the values of measured quantities form one system to other or from
one unit .
 Understand a scale of a map, Representations of scales and types of
measuring scales .
 Understand the theory of errors in a measured quantity
 Understand the necessity for Accurate Surveys
 Define the term Accuracy and Precision
 Know the difference between errors and mistakes
 Identify the sources of errors
 Understand the difference between systematic and accidental errors
 Know the requiems for attaining good precision or accuracy.
Units of Measurement
2.1 Introduction
There are two main systems of measurements
I. M.K.S. (meter, kilogram, second) Metric system (SI = System.
International)
II. F.P.S (foot, pound, second) -British system
The unit of length is the base unit meter (m)
1 Decameter = 101m = 1dam
1 hectometer = 102m = 1hm
11
 1 kilometer = 103m = 1km
1 mega meter = 106m = 1Mm
1 giga meter = 109m = 1Gm
1 tetrameter = 1012m = 1Tm

1 Decimeter = 10-1m = 1dm

1 centimeter = 10-2m = 1cm
1 Millimeter = 10-3m = 1mn
1 micrometer = 10-6m = 1Mm
1 nano meter = 10-9m = 1nm
1 Pico meter = 10-12m = 1pm

The SI unit for area is the derived units meter square

1 hectare = 104m2 = 100 X 100 m = 1 ha
1 square kilometer = 10 6 m 2 = 1000m X 1000m = 1km2 = 100 ha
The SI unit for volume is the derived unit cubic meter (m3)
1000 cu millimeter = 1 cubic centimeter meter
1000 cu centimeter = 1 cubic decimeter
1000 cu decimeters = 1 cubic meter
The SI units for plane Angles
There are three systems in use for angular unit, namely Sexagesimal
graduation & centesimal graduation and radian

I. Sexagesimal graduation: a circle is divided in to 360 parts

1 full circle = 3600 (degrees)
10 = 1/360 full circle = 2π/360 rad = π /180 rad
10 = 60’ (minutes)
1’ = 60 ‘’ (seconds)
II. Centesimal graduation: The circle is divided in to 400 parts.
1 full circle = 400 gon/grad
1 gon = 1/400 full circle = 2 π /400rad = π /200rad
1 gon = 100 c gon (centigon)
1 c gon = 10 milli gon (million)
1 mgon = 10cc (centicentigon)
III. Radian:- The radiam (rad is the basic unit of measurement of
angles ,one radian is defined as the angle subtended at the
center of a circle by an arc length exactly equal to the radius of
the circle. The circumference of a circle equals a 2╥ radians in
a circle
:- 360 0 = 2╥ radian
1 radian = 57.300

2.2 Conversion of units

2.2.1 Conversion of length
1 inch = 2.54 cm
1 foot = 0.30 48m

12
 1mile = 1.6093 km
Activity
Convert the following length in to meter
a) 150 feet C) 250 cm
b) 1.6 mile d) 9.6 km
Conversion of area
1 sq. in = 6.4516 sq. cm
1 sq. Ft = 0.0929 sq. cm
1 sq. mile = 2.59 sq. km
Activity
Convert the following areas in to sq. meter
a) 25 sq. inch c) 1 sq. mile
d) 500 sq. feet d) 2.5 sq. kilometer
Conversion of Volume
Conversion of volume
1 cu. In = 16.387 cu.cm
1 cu ft = 0.0283 cu.m
Activity
1 Convert the following volumes in to cu. Meter
a) 25 cu. In c) 50 cu. Ft
b) 1000 cu. cm
Conversion of Angles
1 gon = 9/10 deg, 400 gon = 3600
1 deg = 10/9, 400 gon = 3600
Example
Convert 48.0488 gon to degree
I. From gon to degree
48.0488 gon X 9/10 = 43.24390
II. From degree to gon
43.24390 X 10/10 = 48.048 gon
III. From Degree decimal value to degree, minute, second (0,’,”)
43.24390 = 430+0.4390
= 430 + 0.2439X60
= 430 +14.6340’
= 430+0.6340’
= 430 +14’+0.6340’X60
= 430+14’+38”
= 43014’38”
IV. From degree, minutes, seconds (0,’,”) to decimal value
43 14’ 38” = 430 +14’/60+38”/3500 = 43.24390
0

Activity
1. Convert the following to degree
a) 348 gon
b) 300 gon
c) 256 gon
2. Convert the following to gon/grade
a) 350 550
b) 2650 2780
c) 600 45’ 44 “
13
 d) 2560 16’ 25”
3. Convert the following to decimal values
a) 2000 20’ 20”
b) 450 45’ 45”
c) 2450 35’ 20”
4. convert the following to degree ,minutes, seconds
a) 255. 6450
b) 95.550
c) 165.7550
2.3 - Scale
Introduction: A plan graphical represents the features on or near the earth’s surface
as projected on a horizontal plane. A map generally shows Natural and man made
features on the earth’s surface with additional information such as relief’s, hachure
and contour lines to indicate undulation on the ground. The plan of a house, school,
factory, bridge, road, dam or the map of a town, city country can not be prepared in
full size on a drawing sheet. Hence, a reduced measuring instrument to measuring
instrument to measure the line or measurement is used which is the drawing sheet
with the help of the scale, to a reduced size, this operation being known as drawing
to scale.
Scale of a map
Scale of a map is the ratio of the distance marked on the map to the corresponding
distance on the ground. Scales of a map are generally classified as large, medium and
small. A large scale map shows the features in a bigger size than a small scale map.
Large denominator numbers refer to small scale, where as small denominator
numbers are indicative of a large scale.

Large scale : 1: 1000 or more, example 1:500

Medium scale: 1:1000 to 1:10,000, example 1: 5,000
Small Scale 1: 10000 or less, example 1:50,000

Representation of scale
The following methods are used to represent a scale of a map:
I. By statement (eg- engineer’s scale)
II. By representative fraction
III. By graphical Scale
I. By statement (engineer’s Scale) – According to this
representation, a specified distance on the map represents the corresponding
distance on the ground.
For example 1cm = 100 meters, that means 1 cm on the map represents 100m on
the ground.

II. By representative fraction (RF)- it is the ration between the

distance on the map (plan) and the distance on the ground.
R= dm/da Where:
dm = map distance
da = corresponding actual distance on the ground

14
 Note :
The unit in the numerator and denominator must be the same
Example: 1:5000 or 1/5000, that means 1 cm on the map represents 5000 cm
(=50m) on the ground.
III. By graphical Scale: A graphical Scale is a line drawn on the map so
that its map distance corresponds to a convenient unit of length on the ground.
Activity
1. Represent the following by representative fraction & By graphical Scale
(draw the graphical Scale)
a) 1cm to 50cm
b) 10 cm to 250 km
c) 1m to 5 km
d) 1m to 5 miles
2. Represent the following by statement
a) 1: 50,000
b) 1: 25,000

Type of measuring scales

1. Plain Scale
2. Comparative Scale
3. Diagonal Scale
4. Dernier Scale
Plain Scale- represents either two units or only one unit and its fraction. It consists
of a line divided in to suitable numbers of equal parts or units, the first of
which is subdivided in to smaller parts.
Comparative scale- The scales having the common representation fraction but
graduated comparatively to read different units called comparative scales,
such as the scales showing comparatively inches and centimeters, miles and
kilometers, degree and radians, time and distance traveled, etc. The
advantage is that measurements are taken directly in the desired unit with
out any calculations.
Activity
1. Sketch and describe the following measuring sales
a) Diagonal Scale
b) Verrier Scale
c) Plain scale
d) Comparative scale

MEASUREMENTS AND RANDOM ERROR THEORY

INTRODUCTION:
In ordinary life, most of us are accustomed to counting but not as much to
measuring. Surveying is concerned with measurements of quantities whose
exact or true values may not be determined, such as distances, elevations,
volumes directions etc, if a person were to measure the width of his desk
with a ruler divided in to tenths of an inch, he could estimate the width to
hundredths of an inch. If he were to use a ruler graduated in hundredths of
15
 an inch, he could estimate the width to thousandths of an inch; and so on.
Obviously, with better equipment he can estimate an answer that is closer to
the exact value but will never be able to determine the value absolutely. Thus
a fundamental principle of surveying is that no measurement is exact
and the true value of the quantity being measured is never known.
(Exact or true values do exist, but they can not be determined)
.Measurement is the principal concern of a surveyor.

NECESSITY FOR ACCURATE SURVEYS

The surveyor must have the skill and judgment necessary to make very
accurate measurements. This fact is obvious when on is thinking in terms of
the construction of long bridges tunnels. Tall buildings, and missile sites or
the setting of delicate machinery, but it can be just as important in land
surveying.
A few decades ago land princes were not extremely high except in and
around the largest cities. If the surveyor gained or lost a few feet in a lot or a
few acres in a farm, it was usually not considered to be a matter of great
importance. The instruments used for surveying before this century were not
very good compared to today’s equipment, and it was probably impossible
for the surveyor to do the quality of work expected of today’s surveyor.
Today, land prices are in most areas very high, and evidently the climb has
only begun. In many areas of high population and in many popular resort
areas, land is sold by so many dollars per square foot; therefore, the surveyor
must be able to do splendid work.

ACCURACY AND PRECISION

The terms accuracy and precision are constantly used in surveying, yet their
correct meanings are a little difficult to grasp. In an attempt to clarify the
distinction, the following definitions are presented:
Accuracy refers to the degree of perfection obtained in measurements.
It denotes how close a given measurement is to the true value of the
quantity.
Precision or apparent accuracy is the degree of refinement with which a
given quantity is measured. In other words, it is the closeness of one
measurement to another. If a quantity is measured several times and
the values obtained are very close to each other, the precision is said to
be high.

16
Activity 2.4.1
1. Does it necessarily follow that better precision means
better accuracy? Why? (Explain the reason by using/
giving at least one example.)
In measuring distance, precision is defined as the ratio of the error of the
measurement to the distance measured and it is reduced to fraction having a
numerator of unity.
Example:- If a distance of 4200 ft is measured and the error is later estimated to
equal 0.7ft, the precision of the measurement is 0.7/4200 = 1/6000. This
means that for every 6000ft measured, the error would be one ft, if the
work were done with this same degree of precision.
ERRORS AND MISTAKES
There is no one whose senses are sufficiently perfect to measure any quantity
exactly and there are no perfect instruments with which to do the measuring. The
result is that all measurements are imperfect. A major concern in surveying is the
precision of the work.
The ever present difference between measured quantities and the true magnitude of
those quantities are classified here in as either mistakes or errors. A mistake (or
blunder) is a difference from a true value cased by the inattention of the surveyor.
For instance, he/she may read a number as a 6 when it is actually 9, may record the
wrong quantities in the field notes, or may add a column or numbers incorrectly.
An error is a difference from a true value caused by the imperfection of the person’s
senses, by the imperfection of his equipment, or by weather effects, Errors can not
be eliminated but they can be minimized by careful work, combined with the
application of certain numerical corrections.
Activity
What are the causes for the of mistakes in a measured quantity?
2- How can we eliminate mistakes in a measured quantity during the surveying
process?

SOURCES OF ERRORS
There are three sources of errors; people, instrument and nature .Accordingly,
errors in measurement are generally said: personal, instrumental, and
natural, however, some errors do not clearly fit in to one of these categories
and may be due to a combination of factors.
Personal errors occur because no surveyor has perfect senses of sight and
touch. For instance, in estimating the fractional part of a scale, the surveyor can
not read it perfectly and will always be either a little large or a little small.
Instrumental errors occur because instruments can not be manufactured
perfectly and the different parts of instruments can not be adjusted exactly
with respect to each other. Moreover, with time the wear and tear of the
instruments causes errors.
Natural errors are caused by temperature, wind, moisture, magnetic
variation, and so on.
17
SYSTEMATIC AND ACCIDENTAL ERRORS
Errors are said to be systematic or accidental. A systematic or cumulative
error is one which, for constant conditions, remain the same as to signed
magnitude, for instance if a steel tape is 0.10ft too short, each time the tape is
use the same error (because of that factor) is made. If the full tape length is
used 10 times, the error accumulates and totals 10 times the error for one
measurement.
An accidental, compensating or random error is one whose magnitude and
direction are just an accident and beyond the control of the surveyor, For
instance, when a person reads an angle with a surveying instrument, he or she
can not read it perfectly, one time he or she will read a value that is too large
and the next time will read a value that is too small since these errors are just
as likely to have different ? signs as the other, they tend to a certain degree to
cancel each other or compensate for each other
Activity
1.Discuss the occurrence of random errors, probability curve and
propagation of random errors.

Definitions:

2.4.7.1 The standard deviation (  )

The standard deviation is defined as

W/r V= variations (Xi -X)

 v2 n = number of observations
 n  1
The standard deviation is also know as the root-mean square (R.M.S) error of a
measurement .The standard deviation is generally used as an indicator to
describe the reliability of a set of repeated measurements. the smaller the value
of the standard deviation, the greater the precision.

2.4.7.2 Most probable error

The most probable error is defined as that error for which there are equal
chances that the true error will be less than the probable error or will be less
than the probable error or will be more than the probable error .In other words,
the probability of the true error being less than the probable error is 50% and
the probability of the true error being greater than the probable error is also
50%.
This error is also called 50% error, expressed as E50

2.4.7.3 Standard error

18
 Is the probability of the error to occur between +  and -  it has a
percentage of 68.3% this error is called the standard error. It is also represented
as E68.3. In other words, the standard error is the same as the standard
deviation.
The standard error establishes the limits with in which measurements are
expected to fall 68.3% of the time.

2.4.7.4 Standard error of the mean (  m).

The standard error of the mean (  m) of a number of observations of the same
quantity is given by


 v2
n  n  1
It is also known as root- mean - square (R-M-S) error of the mean. The standard
error of the mean indicates that the probability of the mean value to be between
+  m and -  m is 68.3%.

2.4.7.5 Maximum error.

It is impossible to estimate absolutely maximum error, as it would occur at

infinity. In surveying generally 99.9% error (E 99.9) is taken as the maximum
error. It corresponds to a range of +3.29  and -3.29  .The Maximum error is
often used to separate mistakes (gross errors) from the random errors. If any
measurement deviates from the mean by more than ±3.29  it is considered as a
mistake, and that measurement is rejected.

2.4.7.6 Different percentage Errors

Sometimes, the following percentages of error are also required

(a). 90% Error (E90) = + 1.645 
(b). 95% Error (E95) = + 1.96 
(a). 95.5% Error (E95.5) = + 2.0 
(a). 99.7% Error (E99.7) = + 3.0 

2.4.7.7 Most probable error of the mean (Em) of a number of observation of the
same quantity is given by

Em  0.6745
v 2

n  n  1

19
 Example 1. There is a standard error of +10  seconds for a measured angle of
710 30' 20". Determine the range for which there are 50% chances that the true
value would lie in that range
Also determine the range for the standard error and 99.7% error

0.6745
 v2
Soln. most probable error =  n  1
 0.6445 X 10  7"

There are 50% chances that the true value lies b/n 71 0 30' 20" + 7" or 710 30'
13" to 710 30' 27"
Obviously, there are 68.3% chances that the true value lies b/n 71 0 30' 20"
+10" .There are 99.7 % chances that the true value lies b/n 71 0 30' 20" + 3X10"
or 710 29' 50" or 710 30' 50".

2.4.7.8- Relative precision

The relative precision or the degree of precision is used to express the precision
of the various measurements it is usually expressed as a ratio of the standard
error of the mean (  m) to the mean value (M) of the quantity

Relative precision =  m/M

It is usually expressed with numerator as
Unit .Thus:

1
Relative Precision = M 
  
 m 

Example - if the standard deviation is ± 0.03m for the mean value of the length
0.03
of the line of 615.41m ,the relative precision =  1
615.41 20,500

Example- Measurements of a line were taken ten times with a steel tape and
found to be as under
100.54m 100.56m 100.38m 100.36m 100.39m
100.46m 100.48m 100.32m 100.47m 100.52m
Assuming that the measurements have been corrected for all systematic errors,
determine:
1. Standard deviation(  )
2. Standard error of the mean (  m)
3. 95.5% error
20
 4. Most probable value
5. Most probable error

No Measured Residual (V) V2

(4)
length (Xi- X)
(1) (3)
(2)
1 1000.54m + 0.09 8.1X10-3
2 100.56m -0.11 12.1X10-3
3 100.38m -0.07 4.9X10-3
4 100.36m -0.09 8.1X10-3
5 100.39m -0.06 3.6X10-3
6 100.46m +0.01 0.1X10-3
7 100.48m +0.03 0.9X10-3
8 100.32m -0.13 16.9X10-3
9 100.47m +0.02 0.4X10-3
10 100.52m +0.07 4.9X10-3
X100.448 60.0X10-3

Solution:

100.448
 100.448m
Most probable value = mean value =
 100.45m
Residual (V) = Measured value - mean value
The residuals have been calculated in column (3) the values of V2
are given in column (4)

The standard deviation (  )

 v2
 =+  n  1

Or

21
 60 x103
 =+  10  1 = + 0.08m

 v2
The standard error of the mean,  m = + n  n  1

60 x103
Or  m= + 10  10  1 = + 0.025m

95.5% error = + 2  = + 0.16m

Most probable error = + 0.6745  = + 0.054m

Example

An angle is measured with a standard deviation of + 2" calculate the most probable
error determine 95% error and the maximum error
 v2
Most probable error = 0.6745 X n 1

= 0.6745 X  = + 1.349"

95% error (E95) = + 1.96  = + 1.349"

Maximum error (E99.9) =+3.29  =+6.58"

Example
A distance is measured a large number of times and its 90% error is ± 0.8225cm.
What is the standard deviation? What is the percentage error for ± 1.50 cm?

Solution:

E90 = + 1.645 
 = ± 0.50 cm
99.7% error is equal to 3  = + 1.50 cm
The required percentage error is 99.7%

DEGREE OF ACCURACY

The degree of accuracy indicates the accuracy attained in the measurements .It is
usually expressed as the ratio of the error to the measured quantity. For example,
For example, a degree of accuracy of 1 in 10,000 indicates that there is an error of 1
unit in 10,000 units.

22
1. Linear measurements. The degree of accuracy of the linear measurement is
usually expressed as the ratio of the standard deviation to the measured distance for
example if there is a standard deviation of + 0.05m in a measured distance of
584.65m, the degree of accuracy is 1 in 11700 as degree of accuracy
s tan dard devation

Measured dis tan ce
0.05 1
  1
584.65 11693 11700

These days the trend is to express the degree of accuracy as the ration of the
standard error (  ) stead of he probable error thus.
s tan dard error
Degree of Accuracy
measured distace
Traverse. The degree of accuracy of a traverse is usually expressed as the ratio of
the error of closure to the perimeter of the traverse thus:
Error of closure
D.of . Accu 
Total Perimeter of traverse
Angular measurements. For angular measurements, the degree of Acc. Is usually
expressed as k N
W/r N = Number of angles measured
Angular error of closure
K=
Number of angles measured

For example: For an error of 140" in ten (10) angles

140
K  44" :- degree of acc = 44 N seconds.
10

Leveling. For leveling the degree of accuracy is usually expressed as k L

W/r L= Horizontal length of the route in meter.

For example:- if there Error of in of

is an error elevation
0.24m in a route of 1000m
0.24 K =
K=  0.0024HOrizontal length of route
Degree accuracy = 0.0024 L W/r L is in meters
10, 000

TAPE CORRECTIONS

In precise taping, the following corrections should be applied to the measured

distances,

1- Correction for standardization

2 -Correction for slope
3-Correction for pull
23
 4-Correction fro temperature
5-Correction for sag
6-Correction for misalignment

Correction for standardization. The correction for standardization in taping is

required if the absolute length or true length of tape is not equal to the nominal
length or the designated length

Correction per tape length (C) = L'-L

W/r L = nominal length of the tape
L'= actual length of the tape '
The correction is positive when the actual length (L') is greeter than the nominal
length (L) and vice versa
Total correction in the measured distance (L)
l ' l CXL
Ca  xL  (c  l ' l )
l l
Correction for slope

In the method of taping on a sloping ground, the correction for slope can be
competed. As the distance measured is always greater than the horizontal
distance, the error is positive. The correction is therefore, always negative. How
ever, the slope correction is generally neglected if the slope angle is equal or less
than 30. If the actual length of the tape is not equal to the nominal length, the
correction fro standardization slope.

Correction, D  L   L(1  cos  )  2 L sin 

W/rD= Horizontal equivalent
L= slope distance
 = Angle of slope

1  cos 
L sin  
2 2
2
 1  cos  
 
2
sin    
D 2 2
 
Cos  = D/L
 sin  2  1  cos 
2

2
D=L cos 
2sin 2   1  cos 
2
 L(1  cos  )   L(2sin 2  )
-L (1-cos  ) 2
2
 2 L sin
2

Alternatively . 1
cg   L  h 2 2
 2 L

24
1 h2 h4 h2
cg   
2 L 8 L3 2L
 Approximately

W/r H= difference in elevation of the end points. The correction is always

negative

Correction for Pull (or Tension)

Correction for pull or Tension is applied at the ends of the tape during measurement
in the field is different from the standard tension at which the tape was calibrated
correction fro pull is required. If the pull applied is greeter than the standard pull,
the actual length of the tape is greater than the nominal length, and positive
correction is required.
The correction for pull (cp) in given by
 p  p0  L
cp 
AE
W/r P = Pull applied during measurement (N)
P0 = Standard pull (N)
L= Measured Length
A= Cross sectional area of the tape
E= Young's modulus of elasticity.
The cross-sectional area of the tape can be obtained by measuring its width and
thickness with a precise calipees. Alternatively it can be computed by dividing the
total weight of the tape by the product of a unit weight and length.
The value of E for steel is usually taken as 1.9X10 5 N/mm2 (or 1.9X105 Mpa). The
tapes are generally standardized at a pull (P0) of 45 to 90 N.
The sign of the correction will depend up on the relative values of p and p 0,

Correction for temperature

The correction for temperature is required if the tape temperature is different from
the temperature at which it was standardized. The tape are usually calibrated at a
temperature of 200c or 270c

ct    T  T0  L
W/r  = Coefficient of linear expansion

T = Mean temperature of the tape (0c)

T0 = standard temperature (0c)
For steel tapes, the value of  is usually taken as 1.6 X10-5 per 0c. for invar tapes, the
value of  varies considerably. It is commonly 1/10 to 1/30 of that for steel.
(i.e 1.16 X 10-6 to 3.87 X10-7 per 0c)

Correction for sag

25
 when a tape is supported at two ends it takes the shape of a catenaries. The
correction for sag should be applied, as the horizontal chord length is always
shorter than the curved length

For the determination of the correction the curve is assumed to be parabola instead
of the actual shape of catenary the sag correction is given by

l1 ( wL1 ) 2 W 2 L3
cs   W/r W= Weight of tape per unit length (N/M)
24 p 2 24 p 2
P = applied pull (N)
L1 = Length of the tape suspended b/n the supports (M)
The equation can also be written as

l1 w12
cs  W/r W1 = Total weight of the tape b/n supports
24 p 2
If L is the total length of the tape which is suspended in n bays of equal length, L1.
=L/n
As the total sag correction is equal to the sum of the sag correction for the individual
bays, the sag correction per tape length is given by
 L (WL1 ) 2 
cs  n  1 2 
 24 p 
Substituting L1 = L/n
 L n   Wl n 
2

cs  n
24 p 2
L  WL 
2

cs 
24n 2 p 2

* The sag correction is always negative

In the above treatment, it has been assumed that the ends of the tape are at the
same level. If the ends of the tape are not at the same level, the sag correction is
given by
 WL 
cs  cs c os 1  1 sin  
 p 
Where plus sign is used when the tension p is applied at the higher end, and
negative sign, when at the lower end.

 = Angle of slope b/n the end supports (i.e., the angle made by the chord with the
horizontal)

For a steel tape, the above formula is approximated as

cs '  cs c os 2 W/r Cs = is ordinary sag correction for zero slope

26
 Correction for misalignment

If the survey line is not accurately ranged out the error due to misalignment occurs.
The measured distance is always greater than the correct distance and hence the
error in positive and the correction is negative.
The correction is calculated as that for slope, w/r h is the distance by w/c the line is
out the error due to misalignment also occurs if there is some obstruction on the
survey line, and it becomes necessary to follow a part consisting of two straight
lines.

  1800   1   2 

The correction due to misalignment in this case is given by

cm   L1cos1  L2 cos  2    L1  L2 
or cm    L1 (1  cos1 )  L2  1  cos  2  
If the end stations A and B are not inter visible, the included angle (  ) at C can be
measured accurately with a theodolite. The correction is then given by
cm  Distance AB- (L1+L2)
cm  L12  L2 2  2 L1 L2 Cos   L1  L2 
If the angles are not of measured but the distance d by W/c the alignment is off the
straight line AB is measured, the correction is given by
 
cm   L2  d 2  L2 2  d 2    L1  L2 
 
 d2 d2 
cm     
 2l1 2l2 

Summery
-The two main system of measurements are:
i-Metric system(SI=system international) i.e M.K.S
ii-British system i.e F.P.S

-The SI unit for a measured quantities(meter)

Length-meter(m)
Area-square meter(m2)
Volume-cubic meter(m3)
Plane angles –i-Sexagesimal graduation(1 full circle=360 degrees)
ii-Centesimal graduation(1 full circle=400 grads/gons)
iii-Radian (2 radian=360 degrees)
-Scale of a map is the ratio of the distance measured on the map to the
corresponding distance on the ground)
-Representations of scale :
i-By statement (example –Engineer scale)
ii-By representative fraction (RF)
iii-By graphical scale
27
-Types of measuring scale :
i-Plane scale
ii- Comparative scale
iii-Diagonal scale
iv- Vernier scale
-Measurement is the principal concern of surveyors.
-While measuring a quantity, a surveyor with a better equipment can determine a
value that is closer to the exact or true value absolutely.
Exact or true values of a quantity do exist,but, they can not be determined.
- Accuracy refers to the degree of perfection obtained in measurements.
It denotes how close a given measurement is to the true value of the
quantity.
-Precision or apparent accuracy is the degree of refinement with which
a given quantity is measured. In other words, it is the closeness of one
measurement to another. If a quantity is measured several times and
the values obtained are very close to each other, the precision is said to
be high.

It does not necessarily follow that better precision means better accuracy
- The ever present difference between measured quantities and the true magnitude
of those quantities are classified here in as either mistakes or errors. A mistake (or
blunder) is a difference from a true value cased by the inattention of the surveyor.
For instance, he/she may read a number as a 6 when it is actually 9, may record the
wrong quantities in the field notes, or may add a column or numbers incorrectly.
An error is a difference from a true value caused by the imperfection of the person’s
senses, by the imperfection of his equipment, or by weather effects, Errors can not
be eliminated but they can be minimized by careful work, combined with the
application of certain numerical corrections.
- There are three sources of errors; people, instrument and nature .Accordingly,
errors in measurement are generally said: personal, instrumental, and
natural, however, some errors do not clearly fit in to one of these categories
and may be due to a combination of factors.
- Personal errors occur because no surveyor has perfect senses of sight and touch.
For instance, in estimating the fractional part of a scale, the surveyor can not
read it perfectly and will always be either a little large or a little small.
- Instrumental errors occur because instruments can not be manufactured
perfectly and the different parts of instruments can not be adjusted exactly
with respect to each other. Moreover, with time the wear and tear of the
instruments causes errors.
- Natural errors are caused by temperature, wind, moisture, magnetic
variation, and so on.
- Errors are said to be systematic or accidental. A systematic or cumulative
error is one which, for constant conditions, remain the same as to signed
magnitude, for instance if a steel tape is 0.10ft too short, each time the tape is
use the same error (because of that factor) is made. If the full tape length is
used 10 times, the error accumulates and totals 10 times the error for one
measurement.
- An accidental, compensating or random error is one whose magnitude and
direction are just an accident and beyond the control of the surveyor, For
28
 instance, when a person reads an angle with a surveying instrument, he or she
can not read it perfectly, one time he or she will read a value that is too large
and the next time will read a value that is too small since these errors are just
as likely to have different ? signs as the other, they tend to a certain degree to
cancel each other or compensate for each other.
-With a better equipment, good or correct procedure and care a surveyor can obtain
a better accuracy or precision.
- The standard deviation is defined as:
W/r V= variations (Xi -X)

 v2 n = number of observations
 n  1
The standard deviation is also know as the root-mean square (R.M.S) error of a
measurement .The standard deviation is generally used as an indicator to
describe the reliability of a set of repeated measurements. the smaller the value
of the standard deviation, the greater the precision.

- Most probable error is defined as that error for which there are equal chances
that the true error will be less than the probable error or will be less than the
probable error or will be more than the probable error .In other words, the
probability of the true error being less than the probable error is 50% and the
probability of the true error being greater than the probable error is also 50%.
This error is also called 50% error, expressed as E50
- The relative precision or the degree of precision is used to express the
precision of the various measurements it is usually expressed as a ratio of the
standard error of the mean (  m) to the mean value (M) of the quantity

Relative precision =  m/M

It is usually expressed with numerator as
Unit.
Thus:

1
Relative Precision = M 
  
 m 

- The degree of accuracy indicates the accuracy attained in the

measurements .It is usually expressed as the ratio of the error to the
measured quantity. For example, For example, a degree of accuracy of 1 in
10,000 indicates that there is an error of 1 unit in 10,000 units.

29
 Tape Measurement
Objectives: - After studying this chapter the student should be able to:
1. Know the various methods for measuring distances.
2. Identify the most common Surveying tapes.
3. Identify the taping accessories.
4. Measure horizontal distances over level ground precisely.
5. Measure horizontal distances over sloping ground precisely.
6. Measure slope distance precisely.
7. Calculate corrections for systematic error/s in taping.
8. Know the sources of random errors in taping.
9. Understand sources of random errors in taping.

30
Introduction
One of the fundamental operations in surveying is the measurement of distances.
Some of the most common methods for measuring distances include: pacing,
taping stadia and the use of electronic distance-measuring equipment (EDM).
The approximate distance between two points can be measured by pacing. The
length of steps is usually quite regular for each person. Thus by counting the
number of steps a person takes to walk from one point to the other and
multiplying the number by the average length of that person’s step, the distance
can be determined. An experienced person can obtain an accuracy of 1 part in 100
(that is 1/100) of the distance in pacing.
However, distances ranging from a few feet to several tens of miles can be
measured almost instantaneously with extremely high accuracy by using
electronic distance measuring (EDM) equipment. Such instruments measure
distance using electromagnetic waves.
Distance can also be measured by a method called stadia which requires an angle
measuring instrument and graduated rod. The stadia method combines distance
measurement with the measurement of elevation differences. Therefore, it is
uniquely suited for topographic mapping.
This chapter is devoted to the discussion of measuring distances by graduated
tapes in a process called taping. The term chaining is also frequently used to
describe the taping operation.
Distances up to 200 or 300 feet long can be easily measured with a steel tape to an
accuracy of 1/3,000. By using proper care and field procedure small distances can
be measured to an accuracy that is adequate for maney engineering projects. A
steel tape is also an indispensable tool in construction layout.
As in all surveying operations, the successful use of tapes for distance
measurement requires a thorough understanding of measurement principles,
equipment, field procedure and the sources of systematic and random errors.

Tapes
The most common surveying tapes are made of a steel ribbon of constant cross-
section bearing graduations at regular intervals. Others are made of a steel alloy
or of a metallic or non metallic cloth. There is great diversity of tapes with
respect to lengths and widths and manner of graduation
The 100-ft (30m) steel tape is the surveyor’s favorite device for measuring
distance. It’s width varies from ¼ to ½ inch and its thickness from 0.020 to 0.025
31
 in. The graduations and identifying foot numbers are either stamped on soft
(babbit) metal previously embossed on the tape at the foot divisions or etched in
to the metal of the tape.
Nickel- steel alloy tapes, known as Invar or Lovar, have a coefficient of thermal
expansion about one thirtieth that of steel and are used when the taping
specification prescribe a high order of accuracy. The relative insensitivity of
these tapes to temperature changes and the fact that they do not readily tarnish
or rust on exposure to the elements make them particularly suitable for
important survey tasks. However, the alloy metal is relatively soft and special
care must be taken to prevent these tapes from becoming kinked or broken

woven tapes are 5/8 to 7/8 in.wide and most commonly 50 or 100 ft long. The
non metallic type is made of synthetic yarns with out metallic threads. It offers
excellent wearing properties, high tensile strength, and dimensional stability.
Steel tapes, whether foot or metric, are graduated in various ways and care must
be taken to read the graduations properly in order to prevent making a blunder.
Of special significance is the location of the end marks, particularly the zero
mark. It may be located in different places on the various tapes.

3.3. Taping Accessories

Various accessory equipment is usually used with tapes. Some of the most
common items will be briefly described, and a few are depicted in figure 3.3

32
 Fig–taping accessories.

Steel pins with a ring at one end and pointed on the other are called chaining
pins or taping arrow. They are used for marking tape end on the ground and
for tallying the number of tape lengths in a given line.
The tension handle is used to apply the appropriate pull to the tape when
fairly care full measurements are to be made. The clamping handle is
employed to grip the flat ribbon of steel tape without kinking it.
In addition to such special equipment as the transit and hand level, which
will be described in chapter 5 and which are used to convert taped slope
distance to their horizontal equivalents, other accessories include range
poles for aligning the taping, plumb bobs, thermometers, and cutting tools
like hatchets or machetes for clearing the line of vegetation.

a. Taping Horizontal Distance over Level Ground

The simplest taping operation is measuring over level ground where the tape
can be stretched out while fully supported by the ground, as shown in figure 3.4
a. A range pole is set at each end of the line, and the tape is unwound and laid
out on the ground with the zero end forward. The front tape person then takes
the zero end of the tape ,hands one pin to the rear tape person, and moves
forward a long the line.

33
 Fig- Taping over level ground

Taping Horizontal Distance over sloping Ground

Consider two point A and B which are several tape lengths apart along a slope. The
horizontal distance between the two points can be measured by supporting the
tape at the two ends only, as shown in figure 5.5
Assuming that the distance is to be measured downhill, the front tape person
holds one end of the tape at a comfortable height above the ground so that the
straight line joining the two ends are approximately level. Tension is applied and
the position of the end of the tape is transferred by means of a plumb bob to the
ground, where a point is set or, on a hard surface, a keel mark is mode. If accurate
work is needed, the tape is stretched a second time and the mean of the two
measurements taken.
It is hardly feasible or good practice to hold the tape more than 5 ft above the
ground; hence, if the slope is more than 5ft per tape length it is necessary to break
tape, as the process is called.

34
 Fig-Measuring horizontal distance along a slope
Taping Slope Distance
When a distance lies along an uniform slope where a tape can either fully or
partially supported by the ground, and when the difference in height between
the two end points has already been or is to be determined in a separate survey,
it may be preferable to measure the slope distance directly, as shown in. Figure
3.6 . The corresponding horizontal distance between the two end points can be
computed from the following simple formula
Equ 3.1 d = s 2  h 2 Where d is the horizontal distance, s
is the slope distance, and  h is the
difference in height between the two
end points.

35
 Fig -Measuring slope distance.

Note that the accuracy of the computed horizontal distance d depends on the
accuracy of measured slope distances & on the accuracy of the height
difference  h.
By the error propagation formula

…… Eq, 3.2
2 2
 ad  2  ad  2
 2d     s   h
 as   ah 

Where :
-  d- is estimated standard errors for the
computed horizontal distance
-  s - is estimated standard errors for the
measured slope distance
- h - is estimated standard errors for the
measured height difference
Taking the partial derivative of d with respect to s& h in Equ. (3.1) yield the
following expression.

 s2  2  h2  2
 2 d   2  s   2
2 
 h
2 
 s  h   s  h  36
 ….. Eq. 3.3

Example 5.1

Give the following field measurements and their estimated standard errors.
S = 472.3.6 ft  s = 0.08ft
h = 21.6 ft h = 0.1ft

Compute the horizontal distance (d) and its estimated error (  d)

Solution
d  s 2  h2  471.87

(d ) 2 
 472.36 2  0 . 08  2

 21.6  2  0.1 2
 472.36 2   21.6  2  472.36 2   21.6  2

= 0.006413 +0.000021
= 0.006434
= + 0.08ft

Before electronic pocket calculators became commonly available, it was tedious to

find the square root of a large number by hand calculation. Therefore, in the past,
instead of using Equ.3.1 To compute the horizontal distance, a slope correction (cg)
was usually applied to the measured slope distance to obtain the corresponding
horizontal distance. From Equ. 3.1,

h 2  s  d 2
  s  d  s  d 

Therefore h 2
s  d 
When the slope is small,  cg
s  dd can be approximated by s, and the slope correction can be
approximated by the following expression

h 2
cg 
2s

For instance in example 3.1 cg = 21.6 2 (2X472. 36) = 0.49’ Therefore, d= s- c g =

472.36 – 0.49 = 471.87 ft, which is the same as previously obtained by Eq. 3.1. The
slope correction needed to reduce a slope measurement to the horizontal is always
negative.

Corrections for Systematic Errors in Taping

The distance between the two and point of a fully stretched tape varies slightly
with changes in temperature, tension, and mode of support. The errors caused by

37
 these sources behave according to some physical lows of nature and can be
modeled with simple mathematical expressions. They are, therefore, systematic
errors.
All steel survey tapes are carefully graduated by the manufacturer under
controlled conditions of temperature, tension, and mode of support. A steel tape
purchased from reputable makers usually will have a length not different from its
nominal length (for example, 100ft for a 100 ft tape) by more than 0.01ft. But a
tape that has been in use may have become kinked or been repaired so that its
length has been appreciably altered. Such tapes are frequently in error as much as
0.02 ft or more. Hence, all survey tapes should be frequently calibrated against a
standard tape or a specially constructed calibration range. The temperature,
tension, and mode of support during calibration should be recorded for future
reference. Although the field temperature can not be controlled, whenever
possible the same tension and mode of support should be used in the field
measurement as in calibration. Otherwise, corrections must be applied.

Length correction
The difference between the nominal length of a tape and its actual length under
the conditions of calibration is known as the length correction, C1. When
measuring with a 100 ft tape, its nominal length is 100ft and every full tape
length will be recorded as 100ft in field measurement. If the tape is actually
100,02ft long when calibrated (or standardized) under a specific set of
conditions then the tape is said to be 0.02ft too long.
Example
If a distance is measured with the tape just mentioned and found to be 705.
76 ft, the resultant error would be 7.05X0.02= 0.14ft, and the corrected
length, therefore, would be 705.76 +0.14= 705.90 ft.
Activity For the above given example, what would be the resultant error & the
corrected length of the measured distance if the tape were found to be too
short by the same length (i.e. by 0.02ft)
5.9. Temperature Correction
The correction Ct to be applied to the observed length of a survey line because of
the effect of temperature on the steel tape can be computed from the following
expression
Ct= 0.00000645 (T1 – T0) L
Where : 0.00000645 is the coefficient of thermal expansion of steel tape per 1 0 F,
T1 is the field temperature, T0 is the temperature under which the tape is
calibrated, and L is the length of the line.
Example = If T0 = 680F and T1 = 830F, the temperature correction for 100ft steel
tape called be
Cz = 0.00000645 (83-68)100 = 0.097ft.

Note *For small ranges of temperature and on ordinary work, this error may not
be important.
*The coefficient of expansion of steel is 0.0000116 per 10c.
Activity
The measured length of a traverse line way 876.42m. The field temperature
was 240c and the 30m steel tape was exactly 30m at 20 0c. Find the corrected
length of the line.
38
 So. Ct= 0.0000116 (24-20) 876.42 = + 0.04m
: - Corrected length = 876.42 + 0.04 + 876.46m
Sag Correction
A tape supported only at the ends will sag in the center by an amount that is
related to its weight and the pull. The shortening effect of the sag is essentially
the difference between the axial length of the tape hanging in a catenary’s and
the chord distance between the ends. Sag causes the recorded distance to be
greater than the actual length being measured. When the tape is supported at
its mid point, the effect of the sag in the two spans is considerable less than
when it is supported at the ends only. Furthermore, as the number of equally
spaced intermediate supports is increased, the distance between the end
marks will closely approach the length of the tape when supported through its
length.
The sag correction Cs can be calculated by either one of the following
equations.

W 2L
Cs 
24 p 2

w 2 L3
or Cs 
24 p 2

In Which
W = the total weight of the section of tape located between supports,
L= the interval between supports,
P= the tension on the tape
w= Weight per foot of tape
The units of weight and tension must be compatible (that is , both either pounds or
kilograms). Furthermore, the total sag correction fro a tape resting on multiple
supports would be the sum of the sag corrections for the separate intervals. Hence
the total sag effect for a 30m tape supported at its mid point and the ends would be
twice the calculated sag for a 15m span.

Example
A 100ft steel tape weights 2 lb and is supported at the ends only with a pull of 12
lb, Find the sag correction.

2 2 X 100
So/n. Cs   0.12 ft
24 X 12 2

Activity
1. What will happen if the tension were increased to 20 lb for the above
example and what does this indicate.
2. If a 30m steel tape weights 0.336kg and is supported at the 0, 15, and 30m
points under a tension of 5kg. What is the sag correction?

Tension Correction

39
 Since a steel tape is elastic to a small extent, its length is changed by variations
in the tension applied. This change in length is not to be associated with the
effect of the sag on the tape due to variations in tension but rather with the
elastic deformation of the tape.

It can be calculated from the expression

 p  p0  L
Cp  1
AE

In which
Cp = the elongation of the tape of length in feet,
P1= the applied tension in pounds
P0 = the calibration tension in pounds
A = the cross-sectional area of the tape in square inches,
E= The modulus of elasticity of the tape material (for steel 29,000,000) in
pounds per square inch (psi)
An ordinary 100ft steel tape will stretch only about 0.01ft. for an increase of 15 lb in
tension.
Example
A 100 ft steel tape having a cross- sectional area of 0.0046 in qu. is corrected
length under a pull of 12 lb. calculate the elongation (nearest 0.001ft) due to
a tension of 20 lb

 20  12100
So/n. Cp   0.006 ft
 0.0046  29,000,000

Summary
- Some of the most common methods for measuring distance include pacing,
taping, stadia and the use of electronic distance- measuring equipment
(EDM)
- The most common taping accessories include: steel pin, Tension handle,
clamping handle and so on
- Distance can also be measured by a method called stadia which requires an
angle measuring instrument and graduated rod. This method combines
distance measurement with the measurement of elevation differences.
Therefore, it is uniquely suited for large scale topographic mapping.
- Distance ranging from a few feet to several tens of miles can be measured
almost instantaneously with extremely high accuracy by using electronic
distance measuring (EDM) equipment. Such instruments measure distance
using electro magnetic waves.
- The distance between the two end points of a fully stretched tape varies
slightly with changes in temperature, tension, and mode of support. The
errors caused by these sources behave according to some physical lows of

40
 nature and can be modeled with simple mathematical expressions. They are,
therefore, systematic errors.
- The difference between the nominal length of a tape and its actual length
under the conditions of calibration is known as the length correction.
- In taping process correction for temperature is required when ever there is a
difference between the field temperature and the temperature under which
the tape is calibrated. But for small ranges of temperature difference and on
ordinary work, this error may not be important or may be neglected.
- The correction for temperature can be computed from the following
expression.
Ct = 0.00000645 (T1-T0) L
Where :– 0.00000645 is the coefficient of thermal expansion of steel tape per 1 0F
- T1 is the field temperature
- T0 is the temperature under which the tape is calibrated and
- L is the length of the line
- A tape supported only at the ends will sag in the center by an amount that is
related to its weight and the pull. Correction applied for such cases is called
sag correction.
- Corrections made to a measured distance by taping method when the length
of the tape is changed by variation in the tension applied is called tension
correction.
- Activity
1. A distance was measured using a 100ft steel tape in five sections, 100’ +
100’ + 100’+ 100’ + 100’ +89,32’, The tape was supported at the two ends
only during the measurements, The field temperature was 80 0F and
attention of 20 lb was used. The tape was previously calibrated using a
tension of 15 lb at a temperature of 68 0F with the tape fully supported. The
tape was found to measure actually 100.02ft. The tape had a total weight of
2.80 lb and a cross-sectional area of 0.003 in. squ.

Compute the corrected distance. (Show the steps clearly)

Answer = 589.06ft
2. Describe slope and Alignment Errors and present to the class.
3. What are the sources of Random errors in taping?
4. List some of the common mistakes in taping

Angles and Directions

General objectives

At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

i. Identify the difference between horizontal and vertical angles.
ii. Identify different types of horizontal angles.
iii. Identify types of reference north.
iv. The difference between bearing and azimuths.
v. Methods of computing bearing and azimuths
vi. Identify and compute back bearing and back azimuth.
vii. To solve problems regarding directions.
41
5.1. Introduction
Measurements of angles is basic to any surveying operation When angle is
measured in horizontal plane it is horizontal angle when measured in a vertical
plane it is vertical angle. Angle measure needs the following.
Reference of starting line
Direction of turning
Angular value (Value of the angle)
These are clearly illustrated in the fig 5.1.1

Fig 5.1.1

5.2 Angle measuring instruments

A theodolite is an instrument used to measure horizontal and vertical angle
Depending on the facilities provided for reading of observations theodolite may be
classified as
1. Optical theodlite
2. Digital theodolite

Varies parts of both types are shown below fig 5.2.2a and fig 5.2.2b
1. Optical Theodolite

42
1. Telescope level adjustment 18. Micrometer eyepiece
2. Telescope level 19. Telescope eyepiece
3. Micrometer knob 20. Telescope eyepiece
4. Telescope motion clamp screw 21. Telescope eyepiece mounting ring
5. Field of view illumination level 22. Reticule adjustment cover
6. Collimator sight 23. Focusing ring
7. Vertical slow motion screw 24. Objective lens
8. Horizontal motion clam screw 25. Standards
9. Horizontal slow motion screw 26. Instrument height mark
10. Shifting clamp 27. Clamping slot
11. Base plate 28. Light reflector
12. Leveling screw 29. Circular level
13. Lower motion clamp screw 30. Circular level adjustment screw
14. lower slow motion screw 31. Optical plummet .
15. Circle positioning ring 32. Optical plummet adjustment screw
16. Plate level 33. Optical plummet focusing ring.
17. Plate level adjustment screw Circle .
Positioning ring
Digital Theodolite

1. Handle 14. Optical plummet reticule cover

2. Handle screwing screw 15. Optical plummet focusing ring
3. Instrument height mark 16. Objective lens
4. Battery covers 17. Tubular compass slot
5. Data output connector 18. Horizontal clamp
43
6. Operation panel 19. Horizontal slow motion screw
7. Tribrach clamp 20. plate level
8. Base plate 21. plate level adjusting screw
9. Leveling foot screw 22. Vertical clamp
10. Circular level adjusting screws 23. Vertical slow motion screw
11. Circular level 24. Telescope eyepiece
11. Display 25. Telescope focusing ring
12. Optical plummet eyepiece 26. Peep sight
27. Instrument center mark.

Preparing theodolite for measurement (Temporary adjustment)

There are different ways to prepare a theodolite for measurements. Among these we
noted the below procedure.
This procedure contains four steps.
Stetting up
Initially the tripod is set up at a convenient height and the instrument is
is approximately leveled.
Centering
It is place up the vertical axis exactly over the station
It is done by means of a foot screw

Leveling up
The circular bubble is then accurately leveled with the help of tripod and
The cylindrical bubble of the instrument fairly leveled by using foot screws to level
the cylindrical bubble.
Focusing
This done in two steps. The first step is focusing the eye piece. This is done by
turning either in or out until the crosshairs are sharp and distinct. This will vary
from person to person as it depends on the vision of the observer. The next step is
focusing the object. This is done by means of the focusing screw where by the image
of the staff is brought to the plane of the crosshairs.

Activity
1. Identity Varies Parts of both optical and digital theodlite.
2. Compare and contrast optical and digital Theodolite
3. Take one theodlite with all of its accessories select one station and mark it
with paint ,set up prepare theodlite for work on this station.

Types of horizontal angle

Horizontal angle can be
1-Interior horizontal angle (included)
2 Deflection horizontal angles

Interior angles:-can be clockwise or anticlockwise depending the direction of

turning the upper part of the theodolite. (fig 5.3.1a and b)

44
 Fig5.
3.1a Fig5.3.1b
Deflection angles: - similarly deflection angle can be deflection to the right
(clockwise) and deflection to the left (anticlockwise).fig5.3b

Activity
1. What is the difference between interior horizontal angle and deflection
horizontal angle
2. Sketch three stations, join them by straight line then identify interior and
deflection angle at each station.

Direction
Direction of a line is the horizontal angle measured from a reference line called
(Reference north).

There are four basic types of North.

Astronomic north
It is an imaginary line on the earth’s surface passing through the north –South
geographical north.
Magnetic north
It is the direction of a vertical plane shown by a freely suspended magnetic needle.
It will be measured by surveyor compass.
Grid North-
- A line through a point parallel to the Y–axis of a rectangular
Coordinate system on the map.
Arbitrary North
45
 - An arbitrary chosen line with a directional value assigned by the
observer.

Activity
On a globe find the meridians and parallels.
1. Select one point outside in the field mark it with paint open a compass and
setup on this point finally determine the direction of magnetic north.
2. Take a map of any scale and look at a network of Easting and nothing
3. the line that follow Y-direction are parallel to a grid north.

Bearing and Azimuth

Bearing
Bearing of a line is an angle with reference to north or south direction.
Bearing can be measured clockwise or anticlockwise.
It is measured with reference to North or south.
The range of bearing is (00 - 900)

Illustrative example
θ = bearing of line AB
It will be written as N <Angular value >E
If θ = 400 15’ we can say that;
Bearing AB = N 40015’ E

Bearing of line AC
- It is measured from south direction
- It will be measured as S < ß > E
If ß = 320 20’ 16’’
Bearing of AC is S 320 20’16’’E

Format of bearing
Bearing in the I - quadrant is N <angular Value> E
Bearing in the II – quadrant is S < angular Value > E
46
 Bearing in the III- quadrant is S <angular Value>W
Bearing in the IV- quadrant is N <angular Value> W

Bearing of OA = N 200 E
OB = S 450 E
OC = S 800 W
OD = N 60 W

Illustrative example 2
What is bearing of a line?
OB and OC

Solution
Bearing of line QB = 900 -300
= 600
= N 600 E

Bearing of line OC = 900-400

Activity 5.6.1.1
= 500
500 W
What is the bearing =ofSline
5.6.2 Back bearing
AB,AC,AD,AE
- It is a reverse bearing.

For example
Forward bearing of line AB is N 600E
Backward bearing of AB is = bearing BA
= S 600 W

47
To determine the back bearing from forward bearing,

1. Draw a line parallel to N-S direction at the end of a line.

2. Determine the quadrant in which backward line lies.
3. Mention the back bearing by using direction and angular value.

The angular value is equal to the forward bearing. Since alternative

Interior angles of parallel lines are equal.

a=b

Illustrative example
Find the back bearing of line KT if a forward bearing of KT is N 52012’15” W.

Solution
1. Mark point K
2. Draw N-S and W-E line crossing at these points.

48
3. Draw line KT approximately at a given angle starting from point K
4. Draw N-S and W-E line through point T so that they are parallel to the
lines through

5. Back bearing of KT= bearing of TK

= S 52012’15” E

Activity

Form a group of three and discuss the relationship between forward and backward
bearing

Activity
Being in pair do the following in the field.
1. Mark two Station out side in the field as station A and B
2. Set up your compass on station A and align with a line joining point A
with B (bisect point B)
3. Read angular Value and direction from the instrument
4. What is the bearing of line AB.?

Activity
Being in pair do the following in the field.
1. Similarly set up your instrument on station B and read a bearing of line BA
2. What is the bearing of line BA?
3. Compare both measurements, identify the difference.

49
Azimuths
-It is an angle measured clockwise from a reference north.
-It is always measured clock wise and north direction
-Its range is [0,360]
- Unlike bearing the direction will not mentioned
- Azimuth sometime called Whole Circle Bearing

Example.1

Azimuth of line OA =θ
Azimuth of line OB =β
Range of Azimuth in different quadrants

In I Quadrant
Azimuth between 00 - 900
In II q quadrant
Azimuth is between 900 - 1800
In III- Quadrant
Azimuth is between 1800 -2700

50
In IV quadrant
Azimuth is between 2700 - 3600

Azimuth of line OR = 500

Azimuth of line OS = 1000
Azimuth of line OT = 2100
Azimuth of line OU = 3350

The relationship between azimuth and bearing.

The relationship b/n bearing and azimuth in different quadrants is different.

In I quadrant
Angular Value of bearing = Azimuth
Eg

51
Bearing of line AB = S 330 E
Azimuth of line = 2800 33’147”
In II quadrant
Azimuth = 180 0 - angular value of bearing
Eg

Az AB = 1800-330
= 1470
In III quadrant
Azimuth = 180 0+ angular value of bearing

52
Bearing of line AB= S250 W
Azimuth of line AB = 1800+250
= 2050
In IV Quadrant
Azimuth = 3600-angular Value of bearing
Eg

Bearing of AB = N 400 W
Azimuth = 3600 -400
= 3200

Activity

Activity 5.6.3
Find the azimuth of line
OA, OB, OC, OD

Back azimuth
53
Similarly to bearing the back azimuth is the reverse of forward azimuth
Back azimuth of AB = Azimuth of BA

The angular difference b/n forward and backward azimuth is equal to 180 0
To determine the back azimuth of a line AB
1. Draw N-S and W-E line through A

2. Draw N-S and W-E lines through B

Computing a back azimuth from forward azimuth.

-If a forward azimuth is less than 180 0
Backward azimuth = forward Az + 180 0
If a forward azimuth is greater than 1800,
Backward azimuth = foreword azimuth +180 0

Principle behind the above two rules is as follows

Rule 1
Back azimuth = forward azimuth + 1800

54
Proof
1. Take a line having an azimuth less than 180 0 suppose line AB lying in II-
quadrant.

2. Draw N-S and W-E line through B

3. Prolong line AB to some distance to C

4. Indicate azimuth BA and BC

55
Azimuth of BA = Azimuth of BC+ 1800
Because line AC is straight line forming 1800 angle at B
And azimuth of AB and BC are equal (Corresponding angle of parallel lines)

Implies Azimuth of BA = Azimuth AB + 1800

Example

Find the backward azimuth of the following lines having foreword azimuth.

Line Forward azimuth

a- AB 43011’20’’
b- BC 112 0 20’15’’
C- CD 1970 18’36’’
D- DE 3200 17’40’’

Soln
a.

Since Az AB < 900

Az BA = Azimuth of AB +1800
= 2230 11’20’’

b.

56
 Since 900 < Az BC< 1800
Back azimuth of line BC = 112029’15+1800
= 290020’15’’

c.

Since 1800 < Az CD< 2700

Back azimuth of CD = Az CD-1800
= 197018’36’’-1800
= 170 18’36’’

d.
Since 2700 < Az DE < 3600

Back azimuth DE = Az DE -1800

= 320017’40’’-1800
0
= 140 17’40’’

57
Activity

Form a group of three and discuss the relationship between forward and backward
azimuth.
Activity

What is the backward azimuth of line ST if the azimuth of ST is equal to 60 015’23”

Activity

Prove rule II
I.e. if a line has a forward azimuth greater than 1800,
Backward azimuth = forward azimuth - 1800

Computing bearing and Azimuth of a line given coordinates

Suppose
Illustrative Example -1
The following coordinates of A and b are given
Point X Y
A 500 700
B 800 900

Procedures

1. Draw a line parallel to X axis and y axis lines through A and B

2. Mark points C and D at the intersections of these lines, then ACB is a right
angle triangle forming 900 at C.
3 . Calculate ∆X and ∆Y
∆X AB = XB –XA
58
 = 800-500
= 300

∆Y = YB-YA
= 900-700
= 200
Let θ is a clockwise angle measured with reference to Y- axis
Θ =<CAB = bearing of line AB
To calculate θ
From triangle ACB
tan θ = Opposite
Adjacent

= ∆X
∆Y

= 300
200

= 1.5
Θ = tan -1(1.5)
= 560 18’36”

Therefore bearing of AB = N 560 18’36” E

Since the line is in the 1st Quadrant
Az AB = Bearing of AB
= 560 18’ 36”

Illustrative Example 2
Calculate bearing and azimuth of line DE,

D
(200 ,600)

E (450 .2,155.3)
Soln

59
1. Draw Parallel lines through E and D Parallel to the X-and Y- axis as in
example-1
2 . Since it lines in II quadrant, bearing will be measured from south direction
3. Calculate ∆x and ∆Y
∆X DE = XE –XD
= 450 .2 -200
= 250.2
∆X DE = YE-YD
= 155.3-600
= -444.7

4. Calculate
tan Θ = ∆X
∆Y

= 250.2
-444.7

Θ = tan -1 [250.2]
-444.7

Θ = -29021’48’’
Since ∆Y = - ve and ∆X = +ve the line lies in the III quadrant

Therefore
Bearing or DE = S 29021’48’’E
Azimuth of DE= 1800 -Bearing of DE
= 1800 -290 21’48’’
= 150038’12’’

Illustrative Example 3

Suppose line KT has the following coordinates.

60
 K (XK = 930.2 , YK= 825.5)

T (XT = 538.4 , YT= 31.3)

Calculate bearing and azimuth of line KT.

Solution
∆X = XT - XK
= 538.4 - 930.2
= -391.8

∆Y = YT - YK
= 31.3 - 825.5
= -794.2

tan Θ = ∆X
∆Y

= -391.8
-794.2

Θ = tan -1 [-391.8]
-794.2

Θ = 26015’30’’
But both ∆X and ∆Y are -ve

Implies the line KT lies in III quadrant.

Therefore Bearing of line KT = S 26015’30’’ W

And azimuth of KT = bearing + 1800

= 206015’30’’

Illustrative Example -4
Calculate bearing and azimuth of line DC from the following data.
D ( 546,345) and C( 444,856)

Solution
∆X = XC – XD
= 444-546
= -102

∆Y = YC – Y D
= 856-345
61
 = 511

tan Θ = ∆X
∆Y

= -102
511

Θ = tan -1 [-102]
511

Θ = -11017’18’’

But ∆X is -ve and ∆Y is +ve,

Implies the line DC lies in IV quadrant.

Therefore Bearing of line DC = N 11017’18’’ W

And azimuth of DC = 3600 - bearing

= 348017’18’’

Activity 5.11

Discuss the relationship between bearing and the signs of departure (∆X) and
latitude (∆Y) in different quadrants.

Activity 5.12

Calculate the bearing and azimuth of line AB, BC, CD and DE if the coordinates are
Point X Y
A 100.345 231.453
B 354.990 500.652
C 543.765 364.772
D 423.987 299.675
E 357.871 476.159

Magnetic Declination
The horizontal angle between true north and magnetic north is known as magnetic
declination. The earth’s magnetic force not only aligns a freely suspended magnetic
needle along magnetic north and south but also pulls or dips one end below the
horizontal position.

Declination may be towards east or west. When the magnetic north is towards the
west of true north, the declination is west or negative, when towards east, it is east
declination or positive.

62
A line on a map or chart connecting points that have the same declination is called
isogonic line and agonic line consists of pointing having zero declination.

The declination at a place does not remain constant but changes with time. These
changes are
Secular change
Annual change
Diurnal change
Irregular change

Secular change: - this is occurs over a long period of time approximately for 250
years. The magnitude also is very high. However, this variation does not follow any
general law. It can be obtained only from detailed charts and tables derived from
observations.
Annual change:- It is a variation over a year. It is roughly 1’-2’ in amplitude. It
varies from place to place.
Diurnal change:- means variation over a day. It depends on the following four
factors :
Locality: It is greater near the pole and less near equator
Season : It is greater in summer than in winter
Time: It is more during day and less during night. The rate of variation over 24hrs is
quite irregular.
Year: The daily variation changes from year to year

Irregular variation: is caused by unpredictable magnetic disturbances and storms.

The magnitude of variation is more than a degree.

Illustrative example

The magnetic bearing of a line is measured and found to be N23 043’12” E. if the
declination at the time of measurement was 2’east, calculate the true bearing of this
line.

Solution

As you can see from the fig

True bearing = Magnetic bearing – magnetic declination
= 23043’12” – 2’
= 23041’12”
63
 Find true bearing of a line AB if magnetic bearing is S 45 032’34”W. Use declination
at a time was 3’west.
Solution

True bearing = magnetic bearing + declination

= 45032’34” + 3’
= 45035’34”

Exercises

Answer the following question accordingly

the words Included angle and deflection angle can be used interchangeably
(True/False) Ans: ___________
Horizontal angle is measured in horizontal plane while vertical angle is measured in
the vertical plane.
(True/False) Ans: __________
Included angle will be measured in clockwise direction only.
(True/False) Ans:___________
Digital Theodolite is more accurate than optical Theodolite.
(True/False) Ans:__________
Angular value difference between forward and backward bearing is 180 0 .
( True/False) Ans:________
Angular value difference between forward and backward azimuth is 180 0 .
( True/False) Ans:________
If bearing of line ST is N 23 012’34” W, then bearing of line TS will be S 23 012’34” E.
(True/False) Ans :_________
We can compute azimuth of a line, if bearing of the same line is given and vise versa.
(True/False) Ans :_________
If the departure of a line is +ve and latitude is –ve the line will line in IV quadrant.
(True/False) Ans :_________
Azimuth and bearing value is equal for line which lies in II quadrant
(True/False) Ans :_________

Briefly explain the following

What are the differences between Digital and Optical theodolite, which one do you
preferable? Why?
Discuss the relation ship between bearing and azimuth in different quadrants.
What are different types of reference north? What instrument do you use to
determine a magnetic north outside in the field?
Discuss the relationship between forward and backward azimuth for different angle
values. (Suppose if the forward azimuth is 112 0, 2350).
Can you find a bearing or azimuth for a single point? Why?
Identify the mistakes in the notes.
64
Bearing of line AB = N1250W
Azimuth of line ST = N450E
Azimuth of line DT = 111023’67”
Bearing of line WQ = W 450S
Bearing of line KL = N23054’12”S
What is magnetic bearing? How it occurs?

Solve the following Problems.

Calculate the back bearing for the following lines.
Line Forward bearing
0
i. AB N 12 32’43” E
ii. FT S 32015’44”W
iii. UL N 76008’34”W

Calculate the back azimuth for the following lines

Line Forward azimuth
i. RT 91013’40”
ii. QW 234012’44”
iii. HG 333033’33”

Compute azimuth of line AB, NM, ML from their coordinates.

Point X Y .
A 123.123 234.234
B 564.880 125.430
N 476.870 90.631
M 378.120 534.293
L 400.201 712.543

Calculate the values of included angles a , b and bearing of line TS from the following
figures.

65
Calculate clockwise angle < ABC, And <DCB if the coordinates are,
Point X Y .
A 142.554 856.342
B 534.876 622.116
C 734.756 631.663
D 790.322 457,932

66