Redd

z.L-3-q.
THE INFLUENCE OF HEAT INPUT ON THE
MICROSTRUCTURE AND MECHANTCAL PROPERTIES
OF A HIGH STRENGTH FLUX CORED WELD METAL
by
Gregory Ross Redden
B.E. Mech. (Hons)
Thesis Submitted for the Degree of
Master of Engineering Science
in
The University of Adelaide
(Department of Mechanical Engineering)
August 1995
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Relationships between microstructure and mechanical propert¡es for high
nickel ferrous weld metals with yield strengths greater than 690 MPa have
only recently begun to be investigated. Knowledge of this type of weld metal,
with particular reference to gas metal arc processes, has subsequently been
found to be incomplete in the literature. This is especially the case for as
deposited weld metal in the commonly used heat input range of between 1.0
and 2.5 kJ/mm.
Literature reviewed includes reactions which occur before weld solidification,
during solidification and the subsequent solid phase austenite
transformations. The effects of shielding gas composition, different alloying
elements and factors such as prior austenite grain size and non-metallic
inclusion properties are also discussed. The effects of heat input on all of
these variables is then related to previous studies on the effects of heat input
in submerged arc welding, manual metal arc welding and gas metal arc
welding using metal compositions resulting in weld strengths ranging from
400 MPa to high strength welds of over 690 MPa ultimate tensile strength.
This study is subsequently focussed on as deposited weld metal in the 1.0 to
2.5 kJ/mm heat input range using basic flux cored high strength electrodes
in the
vertical up position. Heat input was recorded using a digital storage
(i)
Abstract
oscilloscope and the weld cooling rate was monitored by plunging
thermocouples into the weld pool.
Light, scanning and transmission electron microscopy were employed to
examine microstructures. Mechanical tests performed included Vickers
hardness, tensile strength and the use of unique sub-size CTOD specimens
to obtain fracture toughness comparisons. Weld chemical compositions were
also obtained using ICP analysis.
The results of this study showed a large change in the microstructure over the
heat input range examined. These differences in microstructure correlated
with changes in the mechanical properties. This has suggested a number of
areas which require further study.
(ii)
Declaration
DECLARATION
This thesís contains no material which has been accepted for the award of
any other degree or diploma in any un¡versity or other tertiary institution and,
to the best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material previously
published or written by another person, except where due reference has been
made in the text.
I give consent to this copy of my thesis, when deposited in the university

library, being available for loan and photocopying.
GREGORY R. REDDEN
14 August 1995
(iii)
Acknowledgements
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Most importantly, I must thank the Co-operative Research Centre for
Materials Welding and Joining which provided financial support and funding
for experimentation and analysis. Without this assistance, this study would
not have been possible.
There are also many people who must be thanked for their assistance in the
planning, experimentation and analysis of results.
Of particular note, my superuisors, Dr John Bee (The University of Adelaide)

must be acknowledged for his assistance wíth TEM operation and
interpretation of metallographic results, Dr M. Wahab (The University of

Adelaide) for general guidance and Dr lan French (CSIRO DMT) for the
selection of the welding process, access to CSIRO facilities and for general
guidance.
ln addition to these people there are numerous others who must also be
thanked for their ass¡stance. The most significant of these include Dr

Graham Powell (CSIRO) - interpretation of light and SEM microstructures,
John Terlet (The University of Adelaide - CEMMSA) - SEM instruction and
EDS analysis advice, Dr John Yellup (CSIRO) - mechanical testing

assistance, David Viano (CSIRO) and Gunter Herfurth (CSIRO) - advise and
assistance on metallographic specimen preparation, Trevor Kenyon (CSIRO)
photographic processing, lan Brown (Adelaide Uni) - photographic
Mechanical Engineering workshop - mechanical test sample preparation and

test rig construction.
(iv)
Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
GHAPTER r. INTRODUCTION .....................1
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE SURVEY ...........3

2.1. INTRODUCTION 3
2.2. MOLTEN METAL REACTIONS ....... 4
2.3. SOLTDtFICATION 7
2.4. AUSTENITE TRANSFORMATION 10
2.4.1 . lntroduction .... 10
2.4.2. Austenite Transformation Products 11
2.4.2.1 . Classification of Weld Metal Microstructures.'... 11
2.4.2.2 Grain Boundary Ferrite 12
2.4.2.3 Widm anstätten Ferrite . 12
2.4.2.4 Acicular Ferríte 12
2.4.2.5. Bainite .... 13
2.4.2.6. Martensite 15
2.4.2.7. Retained Austenite 17
2.4.2.8. CCT Diagrams....., 17
2.4.3. Effects of Alloying Elements 19
2.4.3. 1 . lntroduction.............. 19
2.4.3.2. Carbon, Manganese and Silicon 20
2.4.3.3. Nickel, Copper, Molybdenum and Chromium 22
2.4.3.4. Vanadium, Niobium and Aluminium 23
2.4.3.5. Boron and Titanium .......... 24
2.4.4. Carbon Equivalents ..,'''.,'.,,26
2.4.5. Effect of Prior Austenite Grain Size ... ..'.,,'',''.27
2.4.6. Effect of Non-Metallic Inclusions........ ............31
2.5. PREVIOUS HEAT INPUT EFFECT STUDIES '',,..'.''..37
2.5.1. Overview ............37
2.5.2. Low Strength Weld Metal Studies.... ............37
2.5.3. High Strength Weld Metal Studies ....,.......38
2.6. CONCLUSIONS '...'.,',','44
CHAPTER 3. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME....... ....46
3.1. TNTRODUCTION ...... .46
3.2. CONSUMABLES AND BASE MATERIAL .47
3.2.1. Consumables.......... .47
3.2.2. Base Plate Chemical Composition .48
3.2.3. Base Plate Dimensions................. .50
(v)
Contents
CHAPTER 4. WELDING AND INSTRUMENTATION............. ......53

4.1 INTRODUCTION 53
4.2 WELDING EQUIPMENT......... 54
4.3 BASE PLATE PREPARATION 55
4.4. HEAT INPUT MEASUREMENT... 58
4.4.1. lntroduction 5B
4.4.2. Heat lnput Background lnformation..... 59
4.4.3. Heat lnput Measurement Technique and Results ..... 60
4.5. MEASUREMENT OF WELD DEPOSIT COOLING RATE 63
4.5.1. lntroduction ..... ......63
4.5.2. Thermocouple Construction.... ......67
4.5.3. Thermal Data Collection ......70
4.5.4. Software Function ......72
4.5.5. Thermal Data Analysis and Results.... ......75
4.6. WE LDING PROCEDURE AND RESULTS ......77
4.6.1. Test Welds.. ......77
4.6.2. Welding and Monitoring Procedure .... ......78
4.6.3. Welding Results. ......80
4.6.4. Effect of Heat lnput on Chemical Composition ......80
CHAPTER 5. MECHANICAL PROPERT¡ES....... .........82
5.1 . INTRODUCTION 82
5.2. HARDNESS....... 83
5.3. TENSILE STRENGTH B8
5.4. FRACTURE TOUGHNESS 93
5.4.1. lntroduction............. 93
5.4.2. Test Rig Construction ............ 93
5.4.3. Specimen Preparation ........... 95
5,4.4. Testing, Analysis and Results 98
5.5. D|SCUSS|ON........ 103
CHAPTER 6. MICROSTRUCTURE ............105

6.1. TNTRODUCTTON ....105
6.2. MICROSTRUCTURE ANALYSIS ................ .........107
6.3. NON-METALL¡C PARTICLE ANALYSIS ............. .........126
6.3.'1. Particle Analysis Techniques.............. .........126
6.3.2. Size Distributions and Volume Fractions........... 127
6.3,3. Elemental Compositions.. 130
6.4. FRACTURE SURFACES........ 133
6.5. DTSCUSS¡ON......... 135
CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK.... ...........137

7.1. CONCLUSIONS 137
7.2. FUTURE WORK ......1
REFERENCES .......
(vi)
Contents
APPENDICES
Appendix A TMS Software Listing
Appendix B TMS Data File Example
Appendix C Weld Cooling Rate Profiles
Appendix D Raw Hardness Data
Appendix E Drawings of Fracture Testing Rig
Appendix F TEM Foil Preparation Procedure
Appendix G Stress Intensity Factor Software Listing
FIGURES
Figure 2-1 Cell Spacing as a Function of Heat Input

Figure 2-2 Formation of Martensite..........
Figure 2-3 Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagram..
Figure 2-4 Effect of Carbon Concentration on CTOD Values
Figure 2-5 Effects of Boron and Titanium on Acicular Ferrite
Figure 2-6 Effects of Boron and Titanium on Grain Boundary Ferrite
Figure 2-7 Effect of Prior Austenite Grain Size on Microstructure .....
Figure 2-8 Carbon Diffusion in Large and SmallAustenite Grain ......
Figure 2-9 Hardness Variation as a Function of Heat 1nput...............
Figure 3-1 Cross Section of Flux Cored Electrode 48

Figure 3-2 Chemical Compositions of Base Plates Considered 50
Figure 3-3 Location of Specimens Removed From We|ds......... 53
Figure 4-1 Photo of Base Plate Preparation ........... ...........57

Figure 4-2 Base Plate Preparation ...........57
Figure 4-3 Final Base Plate Configuration ....... ...........58
Figure 4-4 Connection of DSO to Welding Equipment................ ...........62
Figure 4-5 Voltage and Current Wave-forms Recorded by DSO ...........62
Figure 4-6 Thermocouple Probe Assemb|y............. ...........70
Figure 4-7 Thermal Data Collection System ......... ...........7 1
Figure 4-8 Software Function Flow Chart ,,'.'.''''.75
Figure 4-9 Cooling Rate Comparisons at 700 "C........... ...........78
Figure 4-10 Photograph of Welding Equipment.......... ........... B0
Figure 4-11 Photograph of lnserted Thermocouples ........... 80
Figure 5-1 Hardness Traverse Location.... 85

Figure 5-2 SEM Micrograph of Hardness 1ndent............... .......87
Figure 5-4 Variation of Vickers Hardness as a Function of Heat lnput.......

Figure 5-5 Origin of Tensile Specimens..............
Figure 5-6 Dimensions of Tensile Specimen
(vii)
Contents
Figure 5-7 Micrograph of Tensile Specimen Cross Section

Figure 5-8 Weld Tensile Properties as a Function of Heat lnput .....
Figure 5-9 Grain Boundary Crack Transverse to Direction of Strain
Figure 5-10 End of Crack Shown in Figure 5-9..........
Figure 5-11 Sub-size CTOD Testing Rig
Figure 5-12 Dimensions of Sub-Size CTOD Specimen
Figure 5-13 Location of Fracture Specimen ln Weld Deposit
Figure 5-14 Location of Notch and Fatigue Crack (arrowed)
Figure 5-15 MTS Apparatus........
Figure 5-16 Fracture Properties at23 deg C
Figure 5-17 Fracture Properties at -51 deg C
Figure 6-1 1.12 kJlmm Representative Microstructure .. .... 1 09

Figure 6-2 1.21 kJlmm Representative Microstructure .. .... 1 09
Figure 6-3 1 .66 kJ/mm Representatíve Microstructure .............. ....110
Figure 6-4 1 .74 kJlmm Representative Mícrostructure .............. ....110
Figure 6-5 1.94 kJlmm Representative Microstructure ... ....111
Figure o-o 1.97 kJ/mm Representative Microstructure ... ....111
Figure 6-7 Representative High Heat Input Microstructure........ ....112
Figure 6-8 Nucleation of Ferrite on Particles at High Heat lnput ....112
Figure 6-9 Grain Boundary Ferrite at High Heat 1nput............... ....113
Figure 6-10 Particles Without Ferrite Nucleation ....113
Figure 6-11 SEM Micrographs of Ferrite Nucleation...... ....115
Figure 6-12 Prior Austenite Grain Boundaries ....116
Figure 6-1 3 SEM Micrographs of Unaligned Microstructure (1.97 kJ/mm) .118
Figure 6-14 SEM Micrographs of Aligned Microstructure (1 .l2kJlmm)......119
Figure 6-15 TEM Micrographs of Martensite Laths and Twinning ..... .........122
Figure 6-16 Electron Diffractíon Pattern of Martensite...... ........123
Figure 6-17 TEM Micrograph Showing Ferrite Nucleation ,','..'',.123
Figure 6-18(a) TEM Bright Field of Laths ',,,,,',..124
Figure 6-18(b) Selected Area Diffraction Pattern .,',,'''..124
Figure 6-1 8(c) Retained Austenite ''..',',,'125
Figure 6-19 Weld lnclusions in 1pm Diamond Polished Surface . '.'.,',,'.126
Figure 6-20 lnclusion Size Distributions.... ..........128
Figure 6-21 EDS X-Ray Spectrum of Selected Weld lnclusion 130
Figure 6-22 X-Ray Counts Collected from Weld Particles 132
Figure 6-23 Microvoid Coalescence on Tensile Specimens....... 134
(viii)
Contents
TABLES
Table 2-1 Microstructural Terminology......

Table 3-1 Chemical Composition of MlL690 electrodes ...
Table 4-1 Heat lnputs Obtained (kJ/mm) .......
Table 4-2 Weld Deposit Cooling Rates 5
Table 4-3 Weld Chemical Compositions .........
Table 5-1 Variation of Vickers Hardness......
Table 5-2 Weld Tensile Data .......
Table 5-3 CTOD Results....
Table 6-1 Inclusion Spatial Analysis Statistics.......
EQUATIONS
Equation 2-1 Bainite Start Temperatu re 14

Equation 2-2 Martensite Start Temperature........ 16
Equation 2-3 llW Carbon Equiva|ent................... 26
Equation 2-4 Ito-Besseyo Carbon Equivalent..... 26
Equation 4-1 Definition of Heat lnput 59
Equation 4-2 Modified Heat lnput Equation 59
Equation 5-1 Fatigue Pre-cracking Force 95
Equation 5-2 Crack Tip Opening Displacement.. 99
Equation 5-3 Stress lntensity Factor..... 99
Equation 5-4 Stress lntensity Coefficient............ 99
(ix)
Acronyms
AGRONYMS
l BHP Broken Hill Proprietary Ltd
ccr Continuous Cooling Transformation
CDT Controlled Drop Transfer
CEMMSA Centre for Electron Microscopy and Microstructure Analysis
crG Commonwealth lndustrial Gases
cRc Co-operative Research Centre
CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and lndustrial Research Organisation
CTOD Crack Tip Opening Displacement
CVN Charpy V Notch
DSO Digital Storage Oscilloscope
EDS Energy Dispersion Spectrum

'l
q
FCAW Flux Cored Arc Welding
HAZ Heat Affected Zone
NATA National Association of Testing Authorities
Q&T Quenched and Tempered
SAW Submerged Arc Welding
SEM Scanning Electron Microscopy

i,
TEM Transmission Electron Microscopy
'l
WIA Welding lndustries of Australia
WTIA Welding Technology lnstitute of Australia
(x)
v
Nomlenclature
NOMENCLATURE
ours Ultimate tensile strength
a Effective crack length
âs lnitial crack length
B Test piece thickness
bo lnitial uncracked ligament
E Young's modulus of elasticity
K Stress intensity factor
Pf Fatigue pre-cracking force
S Specimen span
V Clip gauge displacement
W Test piece width
Y Stress intensity coefficient
z Distance of clip gauge location from test piece surface
(xi)
Chapter 1 lntroduction
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
The increased usage of high strength steels in recent years has seen a
corresponding increase in the development of welding processes and
consumables capable of meeting the mechanical properties of these high
performance steels. This increased usage, combined with continuing
developments in technology, has resulted in a pressure to improve productivity
and production processes to meet the requirements of increasingly demanding
applications. High productivity and versatility can only be achieved if the
processes employed are also of high quality and reliability. This in turn is only
possible if the processes are fully understood, thus allowing proper process
control and design. For these reasons, high strength welds categorised as
having a strength level of 690 MPa and above are of particular interest as the
metallurgy of these welds is far from understood and these are now commonly
used in the construction of structures as diverse and demanding as ships,
pressure vessels and armoured vehicles.
To improve productivity, flux cored welding consumables have been employed
in Australia since the 1960's but it is only in recent times that they have been
used for high strength applications. This recent introduction, combined with the
limited knowledge base on high strength weld metal metallurgy, dictates the
need for research into the effects of factors influencing mechanical properties
Page 1
Chapter 1 lntroduction
Factors which have a bearing on the final weld mechanical properties are the
chemical and physical properties of the consumables and base plate, the joint
geometry, preheat and inter-pass temperatures and the welding parameters of
speed, current and voltage.
The parameters of speed, current and voltage can be collectively grouped
together in a relationship representing the electrical heat input. This is

important because this is the parameter which the welder has quoted as a
value to adhere to, and on which acceptable mechanical properties often
depend. Even so, a study on the effects of heat input is really a study
concerned with the weld cooling profìle while in the molten state, during
solidification and then through the various solid phase transformations. ln
these stages of weld development, factors such as weld chemistry, which may
itself be influenced by heat input, have a highly significant role to play in the
complex interactions taking place
ln response to this lack of fundamental knowledge in the literature, the present
study discusses known theory and experimental work on high strength welding
metallurgy and relates it to the flux cored pulsed welding technique through an
experimental study of high strength weld metal deposited using an out of
position manganese-nickel-molybdenum high strength consumable.
Page2
Chapter 2 Literature Survey
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE SURVEY
2.'1. INTRODUCTION
There are many sources of information discussing microstructure and
mechanical property relationships. This is due to the large number of factors

which effect the weld deposit combined with the great economic importance
of the field. This review has been divided into four sections, each covering a
specific stage of weld development.
Firstly the reactions which occur when the weld is still in the molten state,
then the effects of solidification are briefly discussed. After this the vitally
important austenite to ferrite transformations are reviewed with particular
reference to the effects of prior austenite grain size and non-metallic
inclusions. Finally, individual studies which have previously focussed on high
strength weld metal microstructure and mechanical property relationships are
reviewed. ln this way an overview of the fundamental metallurgy governing
the properties of the weld deposit is fìrst discussed and then specifics of
research directly focussed upon heat input effects is described, thus allowing
conclusions to be made about the current state of knowledge in this field
Page 3
2.2. MOLTEN METAL REACTIONS
Reactions which occur in the molten state can lead to chemical changes in
the weld pool through the formation of metal oxides, sulphides and nitrides
as well as by evaporation. These chemical changes are known to influence
microstructure and mechanical properties. The weld pool is also known to
absorb elements from the shielding gas. lt follows that the weld metal
composition is a function of the cover gas composition, welding wire, slag
system, base metal and most importantly, the time allowed for reactions. This
reaction time is dependent on the material physical properties, the welding
process used, and of particular interest to this study, the heat input. ln fact,
the time the weld remains in íts molten state is directly proportional to the heat
input. lt follows that the extent of the many chemical reactions which occur in
the molten state are also directly proportional to the heat input.
The most dominant reaction to occur while in the molten state is the oxidation
of elements such as aluminium and titanium to form particles which have
been reported to have a significant effect on the final weld microstructure
during solid state transformations as discussed in section 2.4. Of course,

other reactions such as the formation of sulphides also occur. These
reactions often result in particles of heterogenous compositions. These
particles and their effect on the final weld microstructure and mechanical
properties are discussed further in section 2.4.6.
Page 4
Shielding gas composition exerts a significant effect over the handling
characteristics and spatter levels and although it does not have an effect on
the electrical heat input it does have an effect on arc efficiency. By altering
the shielding gas composition the actual heat input can be decreased by an
effective decrease in arc efficiency of over 10 percent when using argon rich
mixtures, relative to that obtained when using a CO2 shielding gas [1].
As the shielding gas is one of the consumables in direct contact with the weld,
it must be considered to influence the weld deposit microstructure and
mechanical properties through chemical reactions.
The most significant shielding gas parameter affecting the weld metal
composition is the oxidation potential of the shielding gas. The oxidation

potential refers to the ability of the shielding gas to alter the oxygen content of
the weld deposit. This study is not focussed on the ability of different
shielding gases to alter the weld metal oxygen content, however, further
information in this area can be found in work by Vaidya and Ahlblom [2,3]'
For reference, the weld oxygen content can also be influenced by the flux
composition as discussed by Chai [a].
Effects of changing the oxygen content of the weld are discussed well by
Francis [5] where it is stated that the shielding gas composition will influence
e amou com
Page 5
As well as ¡ncreasing the oxygen content in the weld metal, increasing the
oxidation potential of the shielding gas can affect the concentrations of other
elements, namely a decrease in the concentration of silicon and manganese.
These elements become oxidised in the arc transfer. This decrease, among
other findings, has been found to be the case in basic flux-cored electrodes by
Vines [1,6].
While many researchers have found changes in weld deposit chemical
concentrations due to shielding gas composition variations, these changes are
minimal and thus have little effect on mechanical properties [7,8].
Page 6
2.3. SOLIDIFICATION
Solidification behaviour controls dendrite arm spacíng, solute banding, the
extent of segregation, the extent of defects such as porosity and hot cracks,
the distribution of inclusions, the size and shape of grains, the microstructure,
and ultimately the properties of the weld metal itself [9-12].
The solidification of castings is a process that is well understood with usually
well behaved and controllable conditions. For welding processes, much of
this theory is interchangeable. However, there are a number of features which
must be taken into account which make it a fundamentally different process to
that of ingot casting and cause it to be more closely related to a continuous
casting process [9].
Of the many authors who have discussed the features which make these
differences, Easterling [13] has listed the most significant features as:
. The weld pool contains impurities.
. Dilution.
. Considerable turbulence resulting in good weld pool mixing.
. The molten metal volume is small compared with the size of the mould (the
base metal).
. The com osition of the molten metal and mould are
. There are large temperature gradients across the melt'
PageT
. Since the heat source moves, weld solidification is essentially a dynamic
process and the solidification behaviour is thus dependent on the welding
speed.
. ln high energy welds or in multi-run welds where the base metal is pre-
heated, temperature gradients and hence solidification behaviour are
affected.
Taking all of these factors into account the complexity of weld solidification
processes is evident.
Even though these factors have a great influence, it'is still the cooling rate of
the weld deposit which has the greatest potential to change the properties of
the weld. Cooling rate is therefore one of the most significant variables in
determining the final microstructural morphology. lt not only has a critical role
to play in solid state transformations, but it is also crucial in solidification
theory. A number of authors have attempted to determine the cooling rate of
different welding processes using experimental or numerical techniques.

Some of the better published literature and classical papers are those of
Rosenthal, Adams and Blodgett [1a-16].
Due to the effect of grain growth from the base metal grains and grain
nucleation, the weld pool shape has been found to have a large effect on the
macro cro-s res
dependent upon numerous factors such as the thermal properties of the base
Page 8
metal, the surfactant effect of impurities and the heat input. The effects of
heat input on the spacing of the solidification microstructure of a high strength
weld metal is clearly shown in figure 2-1.
40
35
30 Figure 2-1 Gell Spacing as a
25 Function of Heat lnput

E
-+
2¿o
H
(J Figure 2-l from Oldland [l8J
ù
Ø
-.r
-)
15
o represents the cell spacing in three
l! HIGH STRENGTH STEEL
CJ
HELO METAL
o series of high strength welds.
5
o I ¡{IRE I
o SERIES IT t{I RE 2
¡ SERI E
0
t 2.0 3.0 ¡1.0
HEAT INPUT (MJIMI
For low alloy weld metals this has significance as austenite grains form by the
transformation of õ ferrite through nucleation at the ô ferrite grain boundaries.
Their higher rate of growth along the ô ferrite gra¡n boundaries leads to the
formation of columnar austenite grains whose shape resembles that of the
original solidification microstructure [19,20]. For higher alloy weld metals
however, it is found that the weld metal will solidify directly as austenite, thus
the cell spacing shown in figure 2-1 is the prior austenite grain size. This is
also discussed by Sudgen l21l and has a great effect on properties as
discussed in section 2.4.
Page 9
2.4. AUSTENITE TRANSFORMATION
2.4.1. lntroduction
While the effects of chemical reactions ¡n the molten state and the subsequent
solidification of the weld deposit are important, it is the austenite
transformation products which directly determine the final weld mechanical
propeñies.
This section outlines the mechanisms involved in the transformation of
austenite to the different forms of ferrite. The athermal shear transformation
which forms martensite is also discussed as this microconstituent is of great
importance in high strength weld metallurgy
The ability to describe austenite transformation mechanisms depends on
elemental effects, non-metallic particles and the prior austenite grain size.
Each of these are discussed in the following sections. At this point it should
be noted that while it may seem as though these are not variables of any
significance in a heat input study, heat input has an effect on all of these.
They must therefore be considered.
Page 10
2.4.2. Austenite Transformation Products
2.4.2.1. C/assrTrcation of Weld Metal Microstructures
Microstructures observed in ferrous welding can be highly complex. As a
result there is a wide variety of terminology in frequent use by various
researchers. This is unfortunate, as it can lead to mis-identification of micro-
constituents and confusion when comparing research results in an already
complex field. Some of these nomenclatures used for low alloy carbon weld
microstructures are interchangeable, others are not. A review of the different
terms in common use and their general interchangeability for the

microstructures observed in this study is given in table 2-1. The reference
used for the ltw Scheme was llw Doc lX-1533-88 l22l while "Other
Terminology" comes from the large amount of literature which has been
published in this field over the past fifteen years.
This Document llW Scheme Other Terminology

Grain Boundary Fenite Primary Ferrite (PF) Polygonal Ferrite
Grain Boundary Fenite (PFtcl) Proeutectoid Ferrite
Grain Boundary AlliotriomorPhs
Widmanstätten Ferrite Fenite with Second Phase (FS) Ferrite with Aligned MAC
Fenite with Aligned Second Phase (FS[A]) Side Plate Ferrite
Fenite Side Plates (FS[SP]) Lath like fenite
Secondary Fenite
Acicular Ferrite Acicular Ferrite (AF) Fine Bainitic Ferrite
Needle like fenite
Fine Grained Ferrite
lntra-qranular fenite
Bainite Fenite with Second Phase (FS) Lath Ferrite
Bainite (FS[B])
Upper Bainite (FSIUBl)
Lower Bainite (FSfLBl)
Martensite Martensite (M) Martensite Packets
Lath Martensite (MfLl)
Table 2-1 Microstructural Terminology
Page 11
2.4.2.2. Grain Boundary Ferrite
This is usually the first phase to form and is nucleated heterogeneously on
high energy austenite grain boundaries. ln low alloy welds, the austenite
grain boundaries often become decorated with ferrite [20]. ln higher alloy
welds (such as the one used in the present study) little grain boundary ferrite
is formed since the austenite to ferrite transformation is suppressed by most
alloying elements.
2.4.2.3. Widmanstätten Ferrite
Grain boundary ferrite and Widmanstätten side plate ferrite are often grouped
together as primary ferrite. They both form at relatively slow cooling rates but
unlike grain boundary ferrite, Widmanstätten ferrite nucleates and grows from
grain boundary ferrite as long needle-like laths that protrude into the austenite
grains. Widmanstätten ferrite can sometimes be detrimental to mechanical
properties because the ferrite plates can grow in parallel formations which
permit cleavage cracks to propagate with little deviation [23-25].
2.4.2.4. Acicular Ferrite
At cooling rates faster than those associated with the formation of
Widmanstätten ferrite, transformation occurs at a lower temperature and if

appropriate and suffìciently well distributed nucleant's are available, the
nucleate intra-granularly on inclusions producing a fine microstructure known
as acicular ferrite. The term acicular means shaped and pointed like a needle
Page 12
but it is generally recognised that acicular ferrite has in three dimensions the
morphology of thin lenticular plates [20]. Acicular ferrite is the most favourable
microstructure with respect to mechanical properties, particularly fracture
toughness 126-281.
Acicular ferrite has been claimed by authors such as Ali [29] and Yang [30] to
be intra-granularly nucleated bainite. This is supported by later work of
Bhadeshia and Sudgen [31,32] where "lower" acicular ferrite was shown to
exist where carbide precipitates form between the acicular ferrite laths when
the carbon content is sufficiently high. Transformation of austenite to acicular
ferrite has also been shown to begin below the bainite start temperature thus
adding further weight to this theory [33]. Whatever the mechanism by which
acicular ferrite is formed, it has been shown that heat input will affect its
development t34l and that microstructures containing acicular ferrite are
commonly found in C-Mn-Ni welds [35].
2.4.2.5. Bainite
lf the cooling rate is sufficiently rapid, the austenite can transform to bainite in
preference to acicular ferrite. At even greater cooling rates, there is
insufficient time for carbon diffusion to occur and the austenite transforms
directly to martensite as discussed in section 2.4.2.6. Classical ferrous

bainite consists of a non-lamellar aggregate of lath or plate shaped ferrite
grains with carbide precipitation within the grains or in inter-lath regions. ln
some steels however (for example, steels containing significant silicon
Page 13
content), carbide precipitation can be suppressed completely, although a lath-
like ferritic product still forms in a manner identical in morphology and kinetics
to the formation of classical upper bainitic ferrite. Such special carbide-free
structures are also generally referred to as bainitic [36] and are commonly
encountered in high strength weld metals due to low carbon contents. The
start temperature of bainite is below that of acicular ferrite and above that of
martensite. Alloying elements do have an effect on the temperature at which
bainite begins to form. This is described by Honeycombe [37] using equation
2-1 where the relative importance of different alloying elements are shown.
Bs fC) = 830 - 270%C - 90%Mn - 37%N¡ - 70%Cr - 83%Mo
Equation 2-1 Bainite Start Temperature
As with other microstructural constituents, the formation of bainite is
recognised to be dependent on the cooling rate, the prior austenite grain size
and the inclusion content and composition [30]. A study by Yang et al [38]
concluded that at low temperatures bainite cannot provide superior toughness
to acicular ferrite even if the weld deposit contains an extremely low carbon
content thus avoiding inter-plate cementite in the bainite-ferrite matrix. This
was said to be because the plane of the cleavage crack was frequently
deflected in acicular ferrite while the bainite allowed cracks to propagate with
less deflection.
Page 14
2.4.2.6. Mañensite
Unlike other m¡crostructural constituents found in low carbon steels which form
by means of isothermal kinetics that characterise thermally-activated diffusion-
controlled transformations, martensite forms by an athermal reaction. lf the
cooling of the weld deposit is uninterrupted and rapid enough to prevent the
decomposition of austenite by nucleation and growth processes then a shear
mechanism will occur resulting in the near instantaneous formation of
martensite. Martensite, once nucleated, propagates at the velocity of an
elastic wave. The resulting martensite units that form in the shape of laths are
grouped into larger sheaves or packets. This structure is generally called lath
or packet martensite. When the martensite units form as individual lenticular
plate-shaped units the structure is called plate martensite as discussed by
Speich [39].
Region of plastic
accommodalion
in austonile
Tilred Original
martensite auslen ite
su rfac e surface
I
Midrib II Austenite
Hab¡t
plane
Marlensile
re 2-2 Formation of Martens¡te
Figure 2-2 from Bilby [40J shov,s a schematic of shear
and .surface tilt associated withformation of a martensite plate.
Page 15
ln low carbon steels lath martensite is the expected form as also discussed in
Speich [39].
ln general, martens¡te has high strength due to it being a supersaturated solid
solution of carbon in a tetragonal iron matrix which is highly stressed. While
much of this strength increase can be directly contributed to increased
interstitial solid solution hardening there is also a contribution from the high
dislocation density which is characteristic of martensitic transformations in
iron-carbon alloys [37].
While the tensile strength of martensite is very high, the fracture or impact
strength of this micro-constituent is poor. There are however exceptions to
this rule, for example, where retained austenite films between the laths can
increase the toughness. This can sometimes be found in weld deposits with
low carbon levels.
Like all micro-constítuents found in weld metals, there is a temperature above
which the phase under consideration wítl not begin to form. This temperature
is determined by the alloy composition of the weld metal. For martensite the
effects of different alloying elements on this start temperature is shown below
in equation 2-2 from Honeycombe [37].
539 - 423%C - 30.4%Mn- 17.7o/oNi - 12.1%Cr -7.5%Mo
Equation 2-2 Martensite Start Temperature
Page 16
2.4.2.7. Retained Austenite
ln low carbon alloys retained austen¡te usually represents only a small
percentage of the micro-constituents. This retained austenite exists because
when ferrite is formed, carbon must diffuse into the remaining austenite. This
remaining austenite, which can be enriched with up to 7at% carbon, may
transform into a large variety of microstructural constituents such as pearlite,
upper and lower bainite and martensite or it can remain as intra-granular
islands of retained austenite within an acicular ferrite structure. Alternatively it
can remain between the laths of martensite [a1-a3].
2.4.2.8. CCT Diagrams
A means of characterising the solid state transformation behaviour of austenite
to other phases is by the use of a continuous cooling transformation diagram
(CCT diagram). These are generated using techniques such as dilatometry
which examine the volume changes associated with different phases as they
transform. The resultant diagram can be used as an aid to predict the
expected weld microstructure based on the profile of the cooling rate'
Examples of CCT diagrams, and their applications, can be found in a number
of papers 144-481.
Page 17
Figure 2-3 is an example of a CCT diagram in whích the cooling rate curves
for three different heat input welds are shown. ln the low heat input weld the
cooling rate curve avoids all high temperature transformation products and
forms 1OO% martensite. The medium heat input weld would result in a final
microstructure consisting of a mixture of bainite and martensite and the high
heat input weld has the slowest cooling rate resulting in a microstructure
consisting of ferrite, bainite and martensite.
l¡J
æ.
3
t--
É
l¡l B
g Ms
l¡J
Þ
M1
LOW MEDIUM HIGH
P T
log t ime
Figure 2-3 Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagram
Figure 2-3 from Oldland et al [l8J is q schematic of a continuous
cooling transformation diagramfor a high strength weld metal'
Page 18
2.4.3. Effects of Alloying Elements
2.4.3.1. lntroduction
,l
Due to the possibility that the heat input may have an effect on the
concentration of elements in the weld deposit the effects of different
elements, relevant to the present study, on the microstructure and mechanical
properties are briefly reviewed in this section.
The weld deposit composition is influenced by numerous factors. Base metal
dilution, shielding gas absorption and flux additions are the predominant
sources of foreign elements in the weld deposit. Some of these elements are
intentionally included while others are undesirable impurities or contaminants.
I The effect of different alloying elements on the hardenability of the resultant
weld deposit is often difficult to assess as there are many interactions
occurring between the different elements in an already complex

thermodynamic and kinetic environment.
There has been a great deal of study in this field by numerous researchers.
Many researchers have published work not only in the field of welding, but
have also published in related areas such as steel production and casting.
The review conducted in this section is therefore a discussion of known
effects of different elements on low carbon steel metallurgy, with particular
emphasis on GMA welding
Page 19
2.4.3.2. Carbon, Manganese and Silicon
Carbon is the most powerful alloying element in ferrous metallurgy. This
element has a great effect on hardenability but its concentration is usually
kept low to prevent brittle fracture initiation in the weld region and also to
safeguard against the effects of hydrogen-assisted cold cracking in the HAZ'
The yield strength, tensile strength and weld metal hardness in the as-
welded condition is influenced by small changes in the carbon concentration.
Studies by Surian and Evans [49,50] where the carbon content was varied in
the range of 0.05% to 0.15% strongly support this. The effect of carbon
concentration on CTOD toughness is shown in figure 2-4'
1.0
rl
II
E
E
()
o
o 0.5
!
rd
o
o
t-
C)
0 0.05 0.07 0.10 0.12

Carbon in weld (%)
Figure 2-4 Effect of Garbon concentration on cToD values
It should be nolcd lhal lhe dalapresentetl infigtte 2-4 hy Surian et al [49J
is of special relevance as the specimens were in the as welded condition.
Page 20
þ
Unfortunately figure 2-4 cannot be relied on to predict mechan¡cal properties.
One reason is because carbon acts differently in the presence of other
alloying elements [51].
Manganese is a commonly employed and effective alloying element to
increase the strength and hardenability of steel. Manganese has also been
found to decrease the transformation temperature of austenite to ferrite [52].
ln addition to this, it is now widely accepted that the addition of manganese to
the weld deposit increases the toughness by promoting the formation of
acicular ferrite. lt has been determined that the optimum amount of

manganese in the weld deposit is approximately 1 .4o/o 153,541, although it
must be remembered that this optimum level is influenced by the welding
process used and the extent of other alloying additions. Manganese also
strongly combines with sulphur [37]. This often results in a population of
manganese sulphide-rich inclusions in the weld deposit.
Unlike manganese, silicon is considered detrimental to the weld deposit
toughness even in small concentrations. This is due to its encouraging effect
on the formation of martensite and retained austenite micro-phases. The
detrimental effects of silicon can be reduced by the addition of an appropriate
amount of manganese to balance. Mn and Si concentration has been shown
to be influenced by heat input [34].
Page21
2.4.3.3. Nickel, Copper, Molybdenum and Chromium

As discussed by Grong [55], improved weld metal toughness may be
obtained by additions of nickel, copper, molybdenum or chromium. Copper
and nickel are believed to have effects on the steel transformation
temperature similar to those of manganese, while molybdenum and chromium
suppress the austenite transformation and therefore lower the transformation
temperature [52]. The role of molybdenum and chromium in the weld metal
transformation kinetics is not fully understood but it has been claimed that
precipitation of molybdenum or chromium carbides can restrict the formation
of grain boundary ferrite on the prior austeníte grain boundaries by either
pinning or dragging effects. lt has also been shown that increasing chromium
concentration promotes the formation of acicular ferrite [56].
lncreasing levels of nickel increase the amount of acicular ferrite, and also
reduce the importance of manganese on weld metal toughness [57]'
Page 22
2.4.3.4. Vanadium, Niobium and Aluminium
The influence of vanadium and niobium on weld metal microstructure and
toughness was reviewed by Dolby [58]. The influence of these elements
produces varied results which are often unpredictable in nature. However,
vanadium (in the absence of niobium) is considered to reduced the

development of ferrite side plates at the prior austenite grain boundaries,
while niobium restricts the formation of grain boundary ferrite [59]. Niobium is
known to be detrimental, however, resulting in reduced fracture toughness
t60l. Upon stress relief, vanadium can have a progressively deleterious effect
on toughness but levels up to 200 ppm can be tolerated [61]
Aluminium has been shown to have a significant effect on the microstructure
with increased levels of acicular ferrite reported [62].
Page 23
2.4.3.5. Boron and Titanium
The effect of boron on the wetd deposit is not yet fully understood. However,
boron is known to segregate to prior austenite boundaries where it
suppresses the growth of pro-eutectoid ferrite by lowering the free energy of
the grain boundary. This effect hinders the nucleation and growth of grain
boundary and side plate ferrite [63]. This is also consistent with the model of
Mori et al [64].
The role of titanium in relation to boron is to preferentially combine with
nitrogen and oxygen thus protecting the boron [63,41]. Titanium is also
required to combine with excess nitrogen after available oxygen has been
depleted. This prevents the formation of boron nitrides [19]. ln addition to
this, titanium has recently been examined more closely as its nitrides and
oxides are believed to act as nucleation sites for intra-granular ferrite growth
thus promoting the formation of acicular ferrite [65]. The importance of this
effect, wíth reference to titanium, is discussed further in section 2.4.6'
While there is currently debate over the mechanisms by which these elements
affect austenite transformation, the atl important effects of different
combinations of these elements on the volume fraction of different
microstructures is well described in figures 2-5 and 2-6 for a 0.1C-1.4Mn-
0.5Si-0.06Ni-O.O05Nb multi-pass weld deposit with heat inputs ranging
between 1.0 and 2.2kJlmm
Page24
Titanium in very high concentrat¡ons (typically > 0.05 - 0.1%) can however
lead to a deterioration in toughness [66]. Optimum mechanical properties are
ach¡eved us¡ng titanium at concentrations of 30 and 200 ppm [63,67,68].
.-, Figure 2-5 Effects of Boron and

F
trl
Titanium on Acicular Ferrite
o
)
t¡J
z= Figure 2-5 from Oh [63] represents

500
zl-
UJ
F the effect of weld metal boron and
z
o
O titanium content ratios on the volume
=
f
z. fr act i on of aci c ul ar fe ru i t e.
t--
l-- 0
0 50 100
BORON CONTENT lN WELD METAL (ppm)
Figure 2-6 Effects of Boron

J
and Titanium on Grain l-
|-lJ
E
Boundary Ferrite 3
t¡J
to8
l6 I
=
z
F
Figure 2-6 from Oh [63] represents z
t¡J
t-
zo to
the ffict of weld metal boron and o t4
t?
l6
titanÌum content ratios on îhe volume zo 18
o 50 roo
BORON CONTENT lN WELD METAL (PPin)
Page25
2.4.4. Carbon Equivalents
As a means of comparing different weld metals, the concept of a carbon
equivalent was introduced so the given alloy contents of a weld could be
expressed as a carbon level that is equivalent in hardenability. Many different
expressions for carbon equivalent have been developed from different
weldability criteria such as the HAZ hardness, toughness and transformation
temperatures.
Today there are two carbon equivalent formulae in common usage. Equation
2-3 was originally developed for C-Mn steels with carbon contents above
0.18% and is usually referred to as the llW formula.
Equation 2-3 llw Carbon Equivalent
For steels with less that 0.18o/o carbon, equation 2-4, known as the lto-
Besseyo formula is more appropriate for the assessment of low carbon steels.
Pcn, =, *IW#:SÐ* * * h. #+ ff + sr
Equation 2-4 lto-Besseyo Carbon Equivalent
Equation 2-3 has a much smaller tolerance to substitutional alloying elements
than equation 2-4 because at low carbon concentrations the kinetics of
transformation become sufficiently rapid to permit increased alloying, without
Page 26
2.4.5. Effect of Prior Austenite Grain Size
As heat input has a great effect on the solidification microstructure, it follows
that the prior austenite grain size is also affected by the heat input.
Unfortunately it is not yet possible to predict the austenite grain size based on
heat input alone. At present, the factors controlling the austenite grain size
continue to be unclear, and the best techniques involve the use of regression
equations to make crude estimates of the columnar austenite grain size as a
function of chemistry and heat input [20].
LARGE AUSTENITE GRAIN SIZE SNALL AUSTENITE GRAIN SlZE
INCLUS IONS --}.
EAINITE
/
ACICUTAR FERRITE
Figure 2-7 Elfect of Prior Austenite Grain Size on Microstructure
Figure 2-7 is from Bhadeshia [20J.
ln recent times, prominent work relating to prior austenite grain size effects
has been published [20,30,38,69-71]. In these studies prior austenite grain
size was shown to affect the composition of the resultant microstructure. This
Ni-Mo weld was examined to explain the co-existence of acicular ferrite and
bainite and in a paper by Dallam [71] where the prior austenite grain size and
Page27
appl¡ed stress was exam¡ned. However, these studies were not the first as a
decade earl¡er other studies also suggested that a factor affecting the
formation of acicular ferrite was the prior austenite grain size 1721.
Figure 2-7 illustrates how small prior austenite grain sizes result in a bainitic
microstructure while large prior austenite grain sizes result in an acicular ferrite
microstructure. ln large prior austenite grains, ferrite has the opportunity to
nucleate on the intra-granular inclusions before all the austenite has
transformed into grain boundary nucleated products. This is consistent with
the theory that acicular ferrite is simply intra-granularly nucleated ferritic bainite
1731.
Of course factors other than just the prior austenite grain size and inclusion
characteristics determine the resultant microstructure, The cooling rate of the
weld is still of great significance. For this reason, varying factors such as prior
austenite grain size can only affect the transformation temperatures for
different micro-constituents. This was in fact the result obtained by Farrar et al
who found that increasing the grain size depressed the start temperature of
grain boundary ferrite and slightly increased the acicular ferrite start
temperature 1741. Farrar also noted that microstructural products changed
from a grain boundary dominated effect to an intra-granular dominated effect
in the large grain sizes and at the same time the morphology of the acicular
dilatometric techniques on C-Mn-Ni weld metal were used to produce CCT
Page 28
Chepter 2 Literature Survey
diagrams for different prior austenite gra¡n s¡zes. The fractions of different
transformation products were assessed and the change in morphology of the
microstructures was observed.
Farrar's explanation of the effects of austenite grain size were that
accompanying the grain boundary transformation, the diffusion of alloying

elements, mainly carbon, will occur from the grain boundary regions toward
the intra-granular regions.
Therefore, the yet to be transformed austenite in the smaller graíned metal
will be enriched by carbon to a greater extent than in the larger grained metal.
This process is illustrated in figure 2-8 where Cs is the original carbon content
and Cs+ is the enriched level. This enrichment of carbon in figure 2-8(b) will
depress the acicular ferrite start temperature to a lower value compared with
the coarse-grained material illustrated in figure 2-8(a).
Figure 2-8 Carbon Diffusion in Large and Small Austenite Grain
Page 29
While investigating the effect of grain size it was also found that although
smaller austen¡te gra¡n sizes favoured the formation of gra¡n boundary
nucleated products it also promoted martensite to form at lower cooling rates.
This effect is also thought to be the result of local enrichment of carbon in the
centre of the transforming austenite grains. Another important microstructural
change was the variation in the acicular ferrite morphology. The results
indicate that with increasing prior austenite grain size, the acicular ferrite
constituent became larger and its aspect ratio increased as well, whereas with
smaller grain size, intra-granular products were refined. Similarly, Barrite
found that weld metals with a larger amount of acicular ferrite are found to
exhibit coarser prior austenite grains [72]. Farrar's conclusions were:
o Prior austenite grain size has a profound effect on the transformation
behaviour of C-Mn-Ni weld metal.
. The reasons are thought to be the availability of grain boundary nucleation
sites and the elemental redistribution into the intra-granular areas of the
retained austenite.
o A large grain size will suppress grain boundary ferrite formation and
increase the percentage of acicular ferrite at lower cooling rates but would
increase the amount of martensite when the cooling rate is sufficiently high.
The decomposition of austenite is a competitive process between the grain
boundary and the intra-granular transformations. Controlling the prior
and toughness of low alloy weld metals [74]
Page 30
2.4.6. Effect of Non-Metallic lnclusions
The origin of inclusions in the weld metal can be from either of two sources.
Firstly, external contaminants such as entrapped welding slag, surface
corrosion and external coatings applied to the pre-welded surface and
secondly, due to chemical reactions forming precipitates within the weld metal.
Even though large amounts of oxygen can be removed from the weld metal
through chemical reactions with de-oxidising elements, the removal of oxides
is seldom complete and entrapment of solid oxide particles in the form of
inclusions occurs [55].
Oxides are formed in the molten state and precipitation of nitrides and
carbides occur in the solid phase thus introducing even more particles into the
weld deposit. Predominantly the effect of these inclusions, depending upon
their composition, is to alter the microstructure and to adversely affect the
ductile fracture strength of the metal 175-771.
There have been numerous studies on the effects of non-metallic particles in
the weld deposit and to discuss the results of each of these papers is beyond
the scope of this review. However, in 1989 Abson published a comprehensive
literature review on non-metallic inclusions in ferritic weld metals [78]. His
conclusions were:
Page 31
1. Weld metal inclusions are pr¡marily a mixture of oxides of manganese and
silicon and other strong de-oxidants, including Al and T¡, when these are
present in the weld. lnclusions are often heterogeneous, with particles at
their surface of different composition and crystal structure, including
sulphides of Cu and Mn. The number density of inclusions is of the order of
108 mm-3, their shapes are roughly spherical and their diameters are
commonly in the range 0.2 to 1.Opm.
2. An important role of inclusions is to act as sites for nucleation of fine-

grained intra-granular ferríte, a high proportion of which is generally
associated with high toughness. Thus a sufficient inclusion content is
required in order to provide an adequate number of these nucleants.

However, increasing weld oxygen content reduces the prior austenite grain
size giving an increase in the proportion of grain boundary ferrite, both
indirectly through the increased grain boundary surface area and directly
because inclusions facilitate the nucleation of ferrite.
3. lnclusion composition is important in influencing ferrite nucleation. With
increasing recovery of Al in the inclusions, the proportion of acicular ferrite
has been reported to increase. However, an excess of Al yields inclusions
of Al2O3 which are poor ferrite nucleants. An approximate balance of
aluminium and oxygen in the weld is desirable with limited data suggesting
Page 32
beneficial, w¡th limited data suggest¡ng thal >2o/o Ti in the inclusions
(implying a ratio of Til(O+S) roughly ) >1115 is desirable.
4. The mechanism by which the more effective nucleants facilitate the
nucleation of acicular ferrite is not certain. Both Ti additions and the
achievement of the correct Al/O balance have been shown to raise the
temperature for the maximum rate of transformation, indicating that the
changes in composition improve the efficacy of inclusions as ferrite
nucleants. Epitaxial growth of ferrite on crystalline patches of the spinel
galaxite (MnO.AlrO,) or of TiO appears to be a likely mechanism. lnclusion
size may also be important, but stresses arising from the difference in
thermal expansion coefficient between the inclusions and ferrite are unlikely
to make a significant contribution.
5. The efficacy of ínclusions for nucleating acicular ferrite is reduced by the
presence of patches or shells of MnS on their surface.
More recently, in agreement with Abson, further work by Barbaro [79] has
found that the formation of intra-granular or acicular ferrite is dependent on
inclusions being over 0.4pm in size and a number of other authors have also
found similar results [80,81]. Court found nucleation events frequently
occurred on the surface of Mn or Cu-rich inclusions >0.2¡rm in size [80].
Page 33
Other work on structural steel microstructural refinement using x-ray and
electron diffraction of individual inclusions has also found that TirO. particles
are responsible for nucleation of acicular ferrite [82], while other studies are
continuing to characterise the heterogenous nature of inclusions and their

effect on nucleation [83,84].
ln addition to the findings relating Ti2O3 to ferrite nucleation above, Thewlis et
al found that calcium diluted in the weld pool also has a significant effect on
acicular ferrite nucleation by changing the weld metal inclusion volume and
size distribution [85].
Abson's study, and more recent work by others [80] is however primarily
based on lower strength weld metal. Unfortunately there has been little work
published on high strength weld metals where the deposits are frequently of a
bainitic microstructure, interspersed with martensite and retained austenite.
Of these few studies, Ramsay [86] examined microstructures consisting of
auto-tempered lath martensite, bainite and retaíned austenite. Limited
particle-nucleated ferrite laths were also examined. The conclusions of his
research were:
Page 34
1. lntra-granular nucleation of ferrite will occur in high strength steel weld

metal when a suitable proportion of non-metallic inclusions are present.
2. lntra-granular nucleation of ferrite laths segments the pr¡or austenite

grains. On subsequent transformation the effective martensite packet size
is refined.
3. Non-metallic inclusions in high strength weld metal can effectively pin

austenite grain boundaries resulting in smaller austenite grains and a finer
martensite packet size.
Further work by Oldland et al [18] found that there are a number of different
types of inclusions found in these types of weld metals. Using SEM and
energy dispersive x-ray spectrometry, qualitative chemical compositions of
inclusions were found. These inclusions were found to contain differing
amounts of aluminium, manganese, titanium, sulphur and iron. No discussion
was made on the effects of these different particles on the nucleation of ferrite
except that it was found that some particles would nucleate ferrite while
others would not. However, it is not only the chemical compositions of the
inclusions which are significant in affecting the weld microstructure but also
the size distribution. This was made apparent by Ramsay [86] in other work
which he referred to [87] in which it is stated that "a population of o0.5pm
smaller inclusions are required to pin prior austenite boundaries."
Page 35
Even though many of the effects of partícles in the weld deposit are
understood it is clear there is still further work requ¡red to determine the
effects of different particle types on the weld microstructure. This is especially
the case for particles found in high strength weld microstructures where
considerably less research has been focussed and the effect of different
particles having different propensities to nucleate ferrite ís found.
The factors influencing inclusion size are not understood in detail and
although inclusions are sometimes regarded as a means to obtain improved
weld microstructure their ability to nucleate cleavage and ductile failure must
also be appreciated [19].
Page 36
2.5, PREVIOUS HEAT INPUT EFFECT STUDIES
2.5.1. Overview
The majority of studies focussed specifically on heat input have been on
submerged arc welds with a view to validating the use of very high heat inputs
to achieve greater productivity. Significant research has also been on low
strength C-Mn welds made using a variety of processes. However, little work
has been published on high strength welds of strength greater that 690 MPa.
This is especially the case for welds made using flux cored consumables.
2.5.2. Low Strength Weld Metal Studies
Of the studies done on heat input effects on welds with strength levels below
690 MPa there have been some studies which are relevant to heat input
effects regardless of the weld strength level.
A study by Evans [34] on C-Mn manual metal arc welds in the heat input
range of 0.6 to 4.3 kJ/mm for Mn contents of 0.6 to 1.8 % wt in the down hand
position, found that increasing the heat input increased the bead size and
increased the size of the HAZ (as would be expected of a higher heat input).
The higher heat input also decreased the amount of acicular ferrite formed,
resulting in a general coarsening of the weld metal microstructure. This
corresponded with a reduction in tensile strength and hardness. Optimum
also found by Gonzalez [88] in a study of self-shielded flux-cored wires in the
heat ínput range of 1.0 to 2.4 kJ/mm.

Page 37
Evans [34] found the chemical compositions of the weld deposit changed only
marginally with changes ¡n heat input. There were only minimal decreases in
the contents of C, Mn and Si as the heat input increased.
Overall, as heat input was increased, Evans found that for the as deposited
weld
. Mn and Si contents were marginally reduced.
. Hardness of as-deposited weld metal decreased.
o Average width of the columnar grains increased.
. Pro-eutectoid ferrite increased at the expense of acicular ferrite.
. Lath size of acicular ferrite increased.
. Grain size of equiaxed fine grained regions increased'
. Yield and ultimate tensile strength decreased; and
. The strengthening effect of Mn decreased.
2.5.3. High Strength Weld Metal Studies
As stated in section 2.5.1., more high strength weld metal research has been
on the submerged arc welding process (SAW to gain productivity increases.
The SAW process has thus been the topic of much recent research [18,86,89-
e4l.
Page 38
Oldland [18] included heat input as part of a more general study on high
strength weld metal microstructures and Rorvik [90] was mainly interested in
high heat input welding in the range 3 - 7 kJ/mm.
Gianetto's study [89] was on the influence of heat input on the microstructure
and mechanical properties of high strength submerged arc welds in HY-80 and
HSLA-8O steels using a basic flux. A significant part of the study was to
determine the influence of the resultant dilution (which is proportional to the
heat input) on the weld characteristics. As expected, when welding HY-80
steel a major decrease in the yield strength and microhardness was observed
with increasing heat input. The heat input range was 1 - 4 kJ/mm.
When welding HY-80 steel the observed microstructure ranged between that
of lath martensite at the lower heat input to that of fine baínite at intermediate
heat inputs of around 2 kJ/mm and finally to increased packet sizes of bainite
at 4 kJ/mm heat input. This increased bainite packet size was said to be the
cause of a decrease in the transition temperature at that heat input and the
hard lath martensite at 1 kJ/mm was considered to be the cause of poor notch
toughness.
HSLA steels, however, only showed a small decrease in yield strength with
increasing energy input. Notch toughness was shown to be independent of
Page 39
be =80o/o acicular ferríte which probably accounted for the better notch
toughness performance
¿!
Additional work by Gianetto used radial dilatometry to find the CCT diagrams
for different welds. To do this, weld metal samples were machined from the
weld deposits and subjected to thermal cycles estimated to approximate the
cooling rate of welds deposited under different heat inputs.
The findings of Rorvik's study, which was focussed on determining the effect
on weld properties by increasing the heat Ínput to high levels in the range 3 - 7
kJ/mm, were much the same as those of Gianetto in that CVN and CTOD
results obtained were excellent, however a slight degradation in properties

was seen with increasing heat inputs
Oldland's study was the most general and covered the greatest number of
parameters associated with weld characteristícs. His study dealt with SAW in
a high strength low carbon steel with a 5Ni-Cr-Mo weld. He found that as the
heat input was increased the tensile strength was reduced, the ductility
increased and the fracture toughness increased. This was considered to be
due to the change in microstructure from auto-tempered martensite to a
mixture of martensite, bainite and retained austenite as the heat input
increased.
Page 40
lnclusion characteristics in high strength weld metal were also examined by
Oldland and it was shown that weld metal inclusions (which are known to
nucleate ferrite in lower strength weld metal) were shown to have a mixed
effect on the development of microstructures in high strength weld metal.
lnclusions in bainite appeared to have little effect while some nucleated ferrite
laths.
ln Ramsay [86], two different heat inputs were used in a study of

microstructures and properties of a high strength steel weld metal. His results
were similar to those of Oldland.
The effects of heat input due to cooling rate for a generic weld metal are
summarised well by Francis [5] where he states that two primary changes
occur in the weld metal microstructure due to alteration of the cooling rate.
First a decreased cooling rate will produce generalty coarser microstructural
features. Second, changes in cooling rate will influence the nucleation and
growth processes involved in the decomposition of austen¡te to ferrite and
carbides or to martensite.
Francis also notes that an increase in heat input represents a longer time to
solidify and thus a longer time of exposure to the atmosphere after the
welding gun and cover gas envelope have passed. The significance of such
Page 41
Chapter 2 L¡terature Survey
More recently, was a study by Dixon [95] where increased hardness levels
were associated wíth the formation of martensite and bainite
Dixon's work was designed to identify the optimum match of welding
parameters, notably pre-heat and inter-pass temperatures and the heat input
for the welding of a 690 MPa Q&T steel. The weld metal used was a Mn-Ni-
Mo composition and the heat inputs examined were 1.3,2.9 and 4.0 kJ/mm.
A variety of pre-heat and inter-pass temperatures were examined using these
heat inputs.
The mechanical properties Dixon examined were hardness, tensile strength
and Charpy toughness for which full transition curves were generally
obtained. The welds were however multi-pass and only minimal
microstructural examination was presented. Nonetheless, the mechanical
properties obtained showed a general decrease in hardness as the heat input
increased as seen in figure 2'9. Dixon explained this increase in hardness as
being due to the formation of martensite and bainite at the lower heat
in puUpreheat temperatu res.
Page 42
400
390
-10
E Hardness (Hv) @ .10"c
380 c Hardness (Hv) @ 200c
370 I Hardness (Hv) @ 70 "c
360 o Hardness (Hv) @ 120'C
Ø
Ø 350
(¡)
70 tr Hardness (Hv) @ 1700c
c 340
!
(! 330 a
rØ
320
o
o ¡
o 310
t¿ o
o 300 20
290 è
2E0
270 r70
260
I
2s0
240
I 2 3 4 5
Heat lnput (kJ/mm)
Figure 2-9 Hardness Variation as a Function of Heat lnput
Figure 2-9 is from Dixon [95J
Page 43
2.6. CONCLUSIONS
Much research has already been done in areas which control weld
microstructural development. For this reason it has only been possible to
discuss the main factors which influence microstructure and mechanical
properties. Partícular attention was given to individual studies on heat input
effects, especially those on high strength weld metals.
The review of molten metal reactions, solidification and austenite
transformation has made it evident that there is still much to be learned. This
is especially the case for high strength weld metals where microstructures
containing bainite and martensite are a common occurrence. There is also a
general lack of published research using processes such as pulsed welding
with the latest developments in flux cored consumables. This lack of
research using recent developments in welding technology may be because
researchers are still coming to terms with more fundamental issues such as
the effects of welding parameters and chemistry on inclusion characteristics
and their propensity to alter the microstructure to be concerned with any,
supposedly, minor effects of the individual welding processes.
Available information focussed on the submerged arc welding process with
little discussion of other processes employing technologies such as flux-
t therefore follows that an experimental
programme focussing on weld metal in this strength range will appropriately
Page 44
contribute to this shortfall in the literature, especially if the programme was to
employ some of the more recent advances in welding technology such as
pulsed welding and the new range of flux cored wires= now available.
Within such a study many aspects of weld microstructural development could
be examined. The most significant of which would be the types of particles
found in such weld deposits and their effect on microstructure and mechanical
properties.
Page 45
Chapter 3 Experimental Programme
CHAPTER 3. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
3.1. INTRODUCTION
Based on the needs discussed in section 2.6., an experimental programme
was dev¡sed to examine as depos¡ted high strength weld metal using an out
of position flux-cored consumable. The welding equipment available was a
WIA synchro-pulse power supply. This was not only used due to the
availability but also because of the necessity to use pulsed welding when
using an out of position consumable.
Using this equipment and consumable, six welds in the heat input range of
1.0 to 2.5 kJ/mm were prepared in the vertical up position and the critical
parameters of heat input and cooling rate were monitored during the welding
process. The weld microstructure was then examined using light, scanning
electron and transmission electron microscopy and mechanical tests
employed were Vickers hardness, tensile strength and fracture toughness at
two temperatures using specially prepared sub-size CTOD specimens.
Many references including 197-1171 were used as guidelines in the
development of mechanical tests and inspection techniques. Details of each
of these techniques and tests are explained later in this chapter and also in
chapters 4, 5 and 6. The remainder of chapter 3 is devoted to detailing the
experimental programme and the characteristics of consumables and
techniques used prior to the commencement of welding'
Page 46
3,2. CONSUMABLES AND BASE MATERIA¡.
3.2,1. Consumables
The consumable selected was a flux cored basic electrode, with designation
MIL 690. This specification is primarily used for the welding of high strength
steels. At the time of writing one such application under consideration for this
consumable was the welding of BlS812EMA Q&T steel plate used in the
Collins Class Submarines manufactured by the Australian Submarine
Corporation in Adelaide. The electrode had a diameter of 1.2 mm, A cross

section of a similar electrode can be seen in figure 3-1
200¡rm
Figure 3-1 Cross Section of Flux Cored Electrode
Page 47
The elemental analys¡s of MlL690, as prepared by CSIRO Division of
Manufacturing Technology using an ¡n house wire mill, is given in table 3-1
This is nominally the composition used for all experimentation in this study
Element Fe c Mn Si Ni Mo Ti AI B
Percentage Bal 0.03 1.13 0.47 2.91 0.27 0.09 0.04 1.08 ppm
by weight
Table 3-1 Chemical Composition of MlL690 electrodes
The shielding gas used was a g5% Argon I 5% CO2 special mixture. This gas
was prepared and analysed by CIG
3.2.2. Base Plate Chemical Composition
fhe consumable used in this study has been designed for the welding of a
number of different high strength steels available on the market. The use of a
single high strength steel as the base plate material would include the
complicating factors of dilution with various elements of different
concentrations found in the base plate. This would be further complicated by
having different levels of dilution as the heat input was varied. For these
reasons, a base material which was as inert as possible was desired. To
satisfy these conditions a low alloy steel was buttered on the surfaces to be
welded. As can be seen from figure 3-2, of the commonly available steels
listed, AS1204 250 grade BHP mild steel bar is a suitable choice in that it
contains no elements known to have a micro-alloying effect on the weld

metal. The only effect that may result is a small concentration decrease of
this material as a base plate was that it is cheap and readily available.
Page 48
C)
=
0)
!
o
.Tl (,
(õ' m
x
tr !
o
o E¡ MIL12lTM =.
3
o
(.)
¡ =
g
N ]M BIS812EMA
Ìt
o 3 E HY.l OO o
(o
Àt
o n200 3
3 3
o
o 2.5 @ 250
g
o I250LO and 250L15
o
3 tr350 Grades
ît 2
It o Et wR3s0/1
an
ql
(o
o õ'
I WR3s0/2
À
(o 1.5
=
at,
o
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Ð I
ah
o
3
Ð 0.5
o
an
o
o
0
il: H
2.
çL
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c s¡ Mn P S N¡ Cr Mo Cu
o Element
CL
3.2.3. Base Plate Dimensions
The base plate dimensions of thickness and width have an influence on the
cooling rate of the weld deposit. ldeally the base plate dimensions should be
such that no change in cooling rate would occur if the dimensions were
increased. ln this way the weld deposit sees the base plate as being of
infinite dimensions thus eliminating any cooling rate bias due to plate
thickness.
To determine the dimensions of base plates requíred it was necessary to
determine the smallest dimensions which may be considered infinite for welds
up to 2.5 kJ/mm. Previously, a number of researchers have considered such
problems mostly using theory based on the fundamental work of Rosthenthal
1141. Since then, a number of more refined theoretical studies have been
done. One of the better analytical studies was by Blodgett [16] where he
developed software in which numerical integration techniques were used to
develop a non-dimensional curve from which cooling rates could be
calculated easily. This theory was also compared to experimental studies on
weld cooling rate by Signes [1 18].
Using the theory discussed by Blodgett [16], the thickness of plate required
for which no further increase in thickness will have any effect on weld cooling
rate was calculated as being 34mm. lf this is compared to data extracted
rgnes ere measu WE coo
thermocouples in the weld pool, it is found that 34mm is the thickness for
Page 50
which no further increase in cooling rate will result by increasing the plate
thickness. However, the thickness can be as low as 20mm before any

significant increase in cooting rate will result for welds of up to 2.5 kJ/mm
The next dimension to take into consideration was the plate width. Again
looking at Signes study of weld bead cooling rates it is found that for welds of
up to 3.5 kJ/mm heat input and for plates under 25mm thickness a 230mm
wide plate was necessary to avoid edge effects for cooling down to as low as
260 'C. As these parameters are in excess of what is required here (as the
maximum heat input used is only 2.5 kJ/mm) a plate width of 200mm was
consídered satisfactory. Dimensions of the base plates on which to deposit
the welds were thus selected to be 20mm x 200mm x 400mm.
The length of 400 mm was necessary in order to obtain the required number
of samples while still being able to discard 25 mm of weld at either end of the
plate before the arc had stabilised and to avoid end effects on cooling. Figure
3-3 shows the location of the samples removed from the base plate.
Page 51
UNUSABLE HATERIAL I
IN THIS AREA DUE U
ts
TO ED6E EFFECTS
I
I c z
z o ct
JU ù
o
t <Ø
F
rJO F(J
U -u ul
U
J
f,e J
trl- U
U
FRACTURE
l¡¡
J
J
U z
U
øÈ
2n
U F
<Â
4ã¿
=
Ù H=
= ã-
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UL!N U U
ãe
JH
ãH
J<
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J
=
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À's ô- d I
ux z U
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U
Þ ts
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nt É9 ÉÉ U
ñJ rJ
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UNUSABLE HATERIAL
o IN THIS AREA DUE
|')
TO ED6E EFFECTS
Þ
o
ô
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Figure 3-3 Location of Specimens Removed From Welds
Page 52
Chapter 4 Welding and lnstrumentation
CHAPTER 4. WELDING AND INSTRUMENTATION
4.1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter details the specifics of the welding process, equ¡pment and
instrumentation used for welding. Process parameters recorded and final
welding results are also detailed.
Some of the equipment required to make and monitor the welds was already
available. However in many cases, modifications or construction was
required. These modifìcations are also detailed in this chapter. As well as
equipment modifications, the development of instrumentation and associated
software is discussed.
Page 53
4.2. WELDING EQUIPMENT
A CDT-450 Synchro pulse power supply manufactured by WIA was used.
Typical currents were between 100 and 150 Amps. CDT is an acronym for
controlled drop transfer, this metal transfer mode allows out of posit¡on
welding using consumables which would otherwise be confined to non-
positional welding. Metal transfer modes are described well by Kim [1 19].
Attached to the CDT-450 power supply was a WIA C-21 wire feeder and a
Bernard 300 Amp water cooled torch. The water jacket on the 300 Amp torch
failed during plate preparation and was subsequently replaced by a 400 Amp
non-water cooled unit. The replacement of the torch was not expected to
cause differences in the deposited metal characteristics although feed
problems were more evident with the non-water cooled unit. The increased
occurrence of contact tip friction problems after the failure of the water cooled
unit required the use of small quantities of molybdenum disulphide as a wire
lubricant. The quantities used were minute and were assumed to have had
an insignifìcant effect.
The torch was supported and guided by a BUG-9660 Speed Weaver. This
was set on stringer mode and did not weave during welding. The only
purpose of the BUG-9660 was to traverse the welding torch up the work piece
BUG-
9660 were supported by a metal frame
Page 54
4.3. BASE PLATE PREPARATION
Prior to welding, the base plates underwent considerable preparation. This
preparation was primarily aimed at buttering weld metal on the base metal so
as to prevent different weld deposit dilutions occurring as a function of the
heat input. lf these weld metal layers were not applied, the weld bead would
have been expected to have been diluted with up to 20 percent of the base
metal. This would cause significant changes in weld chemical composition,
thus biasing the results. Three layers of weld metal were subsequently
applied to the base plate surfaces to be welded. This provided a buttered
layer of four to five millimetre thickness.
A photo of the "buttering" operation can be seen in figure 4-1 where welding is
taking place in the down hand position using the CDT-450 and a tractor to
move the plate past the welding torch. A supporting jig was used to hold the
plate in position with clamps fastening the base plate to the jig and similarly
the jig to the tractor.
After the angled surfaces of the base plate had been fully buttered they were
machined back to the dimensions shown in figure 4-2,
Page 55
a
I
: it
\
ìi
I
,1
r ¡
t I
l, ',lt' ¡
rl'
T
tI i"'
I T.
Ê
\
{a
@
a
*
\
Figure 4-1 Photo of Base Plate Preparation
Weld Beads
Plate length is approx

41Omm into page
Material After Buttering
Layer Applied
MaterialAfter
Machining
oppror 90
Base Plate Must have deposited weld

metal machined to a clean surface.
Thickness of weld metal layer 't" on

base plate not to be less than 3mm
Figure 4-2 Base Plate PreParation
Page 56
Plate length is aPProx

41Omm into Page.
90
e0
Plates are welded together such that weld metal

completely fills notch at base of preparation'
Figure 4-3 Final Base Plate Configuration
The base plates were then welded together at the base to form a rigid
preparat¡on. This final base plate configuration is illustrated in figure 4-3'
The angle of the base plate was initially set at a 60 degree included angle
of
with no root gap. No root gap was used so as to maximise the height
still
available weld metal for mechanical testing. Even so, this configuration
proved to provide insufficient weld metal from which to obtain a fracture

This
specimen, and also presented difficulties in obtaining tensile specimens'
plates
angle was subsequently reduced to 50 degrees and tests on base
of test
proved this angle to provide a suitable weld bead geometry for removal
specimens. The use of such a tight angle imposed the danger of minor
root
gap defects developing. This proved to be the case when the final welds
were made.
Page 57
However, equation 4-2 still does not give high accuracy results. ln order to
determine the exact heat input for a particular weld, using a unique
consumable and gas type, the instantaneous voltage and current wave-forms
must be recorded and analysed. This was especially necessary in this project
as the range over which heat inputs were varied was small.
4.4.3. Heat lnput Measurement Technique and Results
Because of reasons discussed in section 4.4.2. instantaneous voltage and
current wave-forms were recorded using an M440 NICOLET digital storage
oscilloscope. This was connected to the welder using the arrangement
shown in figure 4-4.
The resistor used was a shunt resistor which developed a voltage of 75 mV
when 200 amps was passing through it. The DSO then recorded this voltage
and was programmed to map it to the corresponding current. Typical wave-
forms which were obtained by the DSO are shown in figure 4-5.
Page 60
CDT 450
Syncn oputse
Powen Source
Ground
M440
N¡cotet
DS!
Voltoge Choñnet
Shunt
Resistor
Eorth Leod
Gun Leod
Vorkpiece
Figure 44 Gonnect¡on of DSO to Welding Equipment
600 I i
i
I
500 I
I
Current
400 I
I
c I
E
300 I
E
o
f
o
=o 200
o
o Voltage
o
=o
100
0 I -_l -_ l
15 20 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Time (millisoconds)
Figure 4-5 Voltage and Current Wave-forms Recorded by DSO
Page 61
To convert data collected in the form of figure 4-5 into values of heat input,
sofü^/are functions within the M440 DSO were used to process the data to
give a mean value of the instantaneous product of voltage and current. The
resultant values of heat input, and the target values, are tabulated below in
table 4-1. Values of the heat input based on the values read from the welder
display panel and then converted to heat input using equations 4-1 and 4-2
are also tabulated in table 4-1 for comparison.
Target 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50

Welder Display (Eqn 4-1) 0.82 1.02 1.18 1.47 1.58 1.83 2.07
Welder Display (Eqn 4-2) 1.00 1.24 1.50 1.80 2.O3 2.23 2.53
Actual (DSO) 1.19 1.12 1.21 1.66 1.74 1.94 1.97
Table 4-1 Heat lnputs Obtained (kJ/mm)
As can be seen in table 4-1, the target heat input values were difficult to
achieve, however, reasonable spacings over the heat input range of interest
were obtained. This variation from the target values makes the need to use
accurate instrumentation when examining heat ínputs over a small range

apparent
Page 62
4.5. MEASUREMENT OF WELD DEPOSIT COOLING RATE
4.5.1. lntroduction
The effect of cooling rate is one of the most significant and critical factors in
determining the resultant microstructure and mechanical properties of a weld
deposit. Previous welding studies aimed at determining this cooling rate,

have used either physical measurements or have made predictions based
upon such experimental studies, with the assistance of theoretical or
computational methods. These methods have not however been able to
allow accurate prediction of the weld cooling rate for all situations. This
leaves the only sure option to be experimental measurement.
Theoretical examination of heat flow and weld cooling rates has been in
progress since the 1930's. The early work in this era can be best
summarised by Rosenthal's paper [14] published in 1941. Since that time

there have been numerous developments, many of which (through the
1960's) involved the development of mathematical models for the cooling rate
and temperature distributions for bead-on-plate welds [15,118,122-128].

These methods were predominantly based on "thick" and "thin" plate models
in which two and three dimensional heat flow was examined.
ln more recent times, with the advent of powerful computers, researchers
such as Blodgett [16] and Kannatey [129] have applied numerical techniques
to solving heat flow and cooling rate problems for welding, resulting in greatly
improved estimates.
Page 63
Chepter 4 Welding and lnstrumentation
Despite these advances there have been a number of difficulties associated
with applying such theoretical models to real situations. These are

associated with factors such as the arc efficiency for different processes, the
base plate composition and the geometry of the weld preparation. Also, there
is no reference source or technique available as an accurate guide to quickly
determine the expected cooling rate for a given welding process using a
specified set of parameters and preparation geometry. lf accuracy is to be
guaranteed it would seem experimental methods continue to remain the only
option.
Some expe¡mentally determined data has been published on weld cooling
rates 11,126,130-1331. This data is limited, but it is sufficient to obtain an
approximate fìgure for the expected cooling rate of the types of welds of
interest here. For example, typical cooling rates for a 2.0 kJ/mm heat input
flux cored bead on plate weld are in the order of ten seconds from 800'C to
500'C [1]. This cooling rate published by Vines [1] was determined by
plunging thermocouples into the weld pool.
ln early stages of this study there were a number of experimental techniques
considered which employ technologies other than thermocouples for the
measurement of weld cooling rates:
. Optical fibre insertion - Although not used to a great extent, the use of
optical fibres may become more commonplace in the future. The
Page 64
advantage of optical fibres is they avoid the electrical interference

associated with thermocouples and they are not prone to contamination.
They do however melt at temperatures lower than those of noble metal
thermocouples.
. Optical pyrometry - This is a good technique for measuring temperatures
in the region of a cooling weld deposit after solidification, however, ambient
light radiatíon from the arc makes such measurement in the weld pool
impossible. lt would also be potentially dangerous to eyes due to the high
levels of ultra violet radiation.
. lnfra red thermography - This has the advantage of less interference from
the arc than optical pyrometry due to the use of filters which exclude
radiation with wavelengths shorter than approximately 2mm. lt also has no
contact with the work piece thus avoiding electrical interference to which
thermocouples are prone. Thermocouples are however more accurate
than infra red thermography. Thermography equipment availability is also
very limited. ln addition to this, infra red thermography only measures the
surface temperature of the weld, not the temperature near the centre of the
weld as discussed by Lukens [134].
Thermocouples were however decided on due to their availability, ease of use
and because they require no special equipment to interface with

instrumentation [1 35-1 37].
Page 65
With the use of thermocouples, the means for recording data then needed to
be addressed. Previous researchers have used analogue amplifiers
connected between a thermocouple and a paper chart recorder. ln the
laboratory at CSIRO the technique prev¡ously used for thermocouple
measurements has been a signal conditioner connected between a
thermocouple and an A/D card in a computer. This technique has a number
of advantages in that the data is easy to analysis and if a suitably high data
collection rate is employed the time and temperature resolution is superior to
that obtained using conventional chart recorders. As equipment of this nature
was also available it was selected as the system for data collection.
Thermocouple probes were employed for weld thermal profile measurement'
These are discussed in section 4.5.2. Thermocouples were connected to an
Analogue Devices 3B-01 signal conditioner which in turn was connected to a
PC-3OPGL A/D card in a 80486DX-50 PC. The data received through this
system was then analysed and recorded using software díscussed in section
4.5.4.
Page 66
4,5,2. Thermocouple Construction
Although thermocouple lances into the weld pool have been used by
researchers in the past [132], little literature was found detailing the actual
construction of such probes. A design was subsequently made using
information in a number of references and through discussion with members
of the CS¡RO Division of Applied Physics - National Measurement Laboratory.
Factors considered when deciding on the thermocouple construction to
employ were:
. Due to the likely high cost of the thermocouple materials the construction
needed to be able to be used more than once.
. The thermocouple metal selected needed to be able to withstand the high
+
temperatures expected.
rj
. Construction needed to be easy, using equipment readily available.
. Thermal conduction atong the thermocouple wires, if allowed to reach the
effective cold junction end of the thermocouple, will reduce the output
voltage.
. The thermocouple requires shielding from the hostíle environment in the
vicinity of the arc.
There are many different types of thermocouples available. Thermocouples
commonly used in welding are K and R type. R-type is a noble metal
thermocouple and K-type is made from a combination of Nicrosil and Alumel.
Although K-type thermocouples are relatively cheap they melt at 1400"C
Page 67
I
which makes them unsuitable for insertion into molten ferrous alloys. R-type
melt at 1795'C which is about 200'C above the temperature of the molten
metal. This combined with their reasonable degree of availability made them
an acceptable choice. ln retrospect tungsten-rhenium thermocouples may
have been a better choice due to their much higher melting point (about
3100'C) despite their lower sensitivity and limited availability.
The thermocouple probe design, illustrated in figure 4-6, was constructed in
the following manner:
1. 180mm of 0.25mm diameter pure platinum wire and the same length of
87% platinum, 13o/o rhodium alloy wire were inserted into a 1.55mm
outside diameter, 130mm length of high density twin bore alumina.
2. The hot junction end of the thermocouple was joined by fusing it together
rt
Itj
using a high temperature hydrogen/oxygen flame torch.
3. The remaining 50mm of wire, extending from the end of the alumina, was
sheathed by Teflon tubing. The need for Teflon sheathing is two fold.
Firstly the applicatíon of heat shrink tubing (in step 6) would melt most PVC
type insulating materials and secondly, Teflon is highly resistant to spatter
from the arc welding process.
4. The thermocouple wires were then soldered to a three metre length of
shielded copper wire.
5. The shielded wire was then terminated with an R-type thermocouple plug.
6. Heat shrink tubing was applied to prevent wire movement and possible
short circuiting at the end of the alumina sheath.
Page 68
l
.{
c)
5
VC Insutotlc¡n oÐ
SUALL 4,1
o
RtD VIRE cc)nnec ts to 99 99 percent Pt À
É
o
A ã
PVC shielded coPPer wtres ã
teod to R-tYPe thernocouP[e (o
plug which ìnserts directtY 0¡
into signat cond tioner nodule =

o.
l
au
-Tl A c
õ' BLACK VIRI connects to Pt 13 pe'cent Rh
3
o
J
t ßl
o o
è ¡ ThernocouPIe wires ore
f
o) r¡e(ted together using

-{ oxygen/hyd.ogen gos torch
o Plotinum to copper joint ìs soldered
9999 Pe.ceñt Pt
3
-ft o
fl) o
(c¡ o
gc
o Pt 13 pe.ceñt Rh
o)
(o Tefton shietding is held secure
o ogqinst twin bore otumino usìng
1t heot shrink tubing Heqt shrink tubing is used
-o SCALE 20.1
SCALE 1?,1 to ensur? wrres ore
E odequo telY insulo t ed ond
o to prevent F o tigue f oiture
Þ oF soldered jotnt
at,
tt,
o
J SCALT 9.1
g Twin Bore Atunino
øJ4
Heot shr nk tubing rs used

to ensure wlres ore
odecluo LeiY in'.ulo lecj ond
to Þ.evt,/ìt futigue cotu'e
ø0 ?5 o t Pñd tl c oLun no tJKiraO
st (. lltll\ A A
4.5.3. Thermal Data Collection
when an R-type thermocouple is heated to temperatures found in the weld
pool, only a few mV of output is produced (typically 10 to 20 mV). As the
thermocouple is also in the vicinity of an arc with peak currents in the order of
400 to 5OO amps and voltages of up to 35 volts, some sort of signal
conditioning is necessary to obtain a relatively noise-free output. The system
available was an Analogue Devices 3B-01 signal conditioner. Unfortunately
this system consistently proved cantankerous and much time was spent
attempting to find the cause of faults. This system continued to behave
unreliably until an intermittent power supply fault was discovered' Regrettably
this fault was discovered at a critical point in experimentation resulting in the
loss of valuable data
3B0l Anologue Devices

Signol Condifioner
Ribbon Cable
rril
Shielded CoÞÞer Coble
B04Bó Personol ComPuter

with
PC3O-PGL A/D Conversion Cord
R-Type ThermocouPle
Probe Assemblies
Figure 4-7 Thermal Data Collection System
Page 70
I
Chapter4 Welding and lnstrumentation
When the reading of data is complete, software checks to see if the PC-30
has set the data read flag in one of its registers. lf this flag is set then the
data is read into the program in high byte/low byte form before being
converted to an integer value. The data read flag is then reset to data not
ready. As the PC-30 has 12 bit resolution the 4 highest bits of the high byte
register are discarded. This leaves a binary number which is converted into
an integer value between 0 and 4095. This value is then directly mapped to a
temperature value using the look-up table previously generated. The screen
is then updated and if the record option is set the data is recorded to file.
Software operation is described best in flow chart form in figure 4-8 while a
listing of the code can be found in appendix A.
Page 73
PROGRAX SIâRT
PEOUESI USER
¡NFORHAI ION
K_ R-
GENERA'E X - TYPÉ - fYPE

LOOKUP
'AILE
CONVERT USER
D JUNCTION
rO EOUIVALENT
VOLfAGE VALUE
OPEN USER
SET OTHER VALUES
¡F KEYEOARD KEY
CX€CK IF DATA AVA]LAELE
YES
READ A CHâNNELS OF DAIA
APPLY COLD
SNCT I ON
IF NECESSÀRY
UPDAIE TEHPERAÍURE ARRAY
IF NECESSARY
UPDATE IAR 6RAPH DTSPLAY
VRTTE S CHANNELS OF DAIA 10 FILE
YES
YES
NO NO RECORII DATA
OPTION OFF
YES YES f
OPTION ON
KEYIOARD
EEEN HII
YES
PPOI]FÂI ENN
Figure 4-8 Software Function Flow Chart
Page74
4.5.5. Thermal Data Analysis and Results
An example of the header of a data file and the first few lines of data from the
thermocouple collection software can be found in appendix B, A sample rate
of 50 Hz was used which allowed relatively detailed thermal profiles while not
generating excessively large data files.
Relevant cooling rates and peak temperatures were obtained using graphs of
this data processed with Microsoft Excel. Graphs were then generated using
Gnuplot. Simple software programs were also written to manipulate the data
fìles to simplify data processing due to the large data files obtained.
HEAT INPUT TH EO RET I CAL COO LI NG RAT E EXPERIMENTAL COOLING RAIE

(kJ/mm) (oC persecond at 70æC) (C per second at 700C)
1.12 89.0 117
1.19 83.5 113
1.21 80.8 nd
1.66 58.5 81
1.74 55.1 nd
1.94 49.4 nd
1.97 48.4 nd
Table 4-2 Weld Deposit Cooling Rates
As can be seen in table 4-2, the results obtained from the thermocouples
were far from satisfying due to the effects of power supply faults, unexpected
software crashes and thermocouples failing in the hostile environment of the
arc. This is unfortunate considering the time invested in developing the
instrumentation. Results shown in table 4-2 are the mean averages of data
recorded (ie if three thermocouples recorded valid data then the value shown
is the average value of these three).
Page 75
The statistical variation of the results (not shown here) prevents their use for
anything other than confirming that the theoretically calculated results are of
the correct order of magnitude. lt should be noted that the theoretical

estimates, are for bead on plate wetds with the assumption of a 7Oo/o âtc
efficiency. This arc efficiency was taken from French [139]. The V-groove
welds here will have a greater cooling rate than the theoretical estimates
made in table 4-2. Theoretical bead on plate weld welds will cool slightly
slower than a V-preparation. ln practice this has proven to be the case as
can be clearly seen in figure 4-9. lt was hoped that information such as a
thermal arrest of the molten steel solidifying might be recorded verifying
thermocouple accuracy, however, no thermal arrest could be identified.
200
180
.t60
Theory
î.*
U, l
^
¡ Experlmental
o
q, 120
o I
E
o 100
(ft
É.
o¡ 8o
= A
860
o A
& ^
20
0
0.5 o.7 0.9 1.1 't.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5
Heat Input (kJ/mm)
Figure 4-9 Cooling Rate Gomparisons at 700 "C
Page 76
4.6. WELDING PROCEDURE AND RESULTS
4.6.1. Test Welds
Before the final welds to be used for metallurgical examination and
mechan¡cal testing could be made, a number of test welds were prepared. As
the welding process was inconsistent and buttered test plates, which take
considerable resources to prepare could not be wasted, these trials were
essential. ln addition to this, the thermocouples to be implanted were of
signifìcant value and these could not be needlessly wasted either. Finally,
much of the equipment required was in use by other research projects and
was only available for limited periods of time. During testing there were
numerous problems encountered and in all over 60 welds were made, many
of which were sectioned and examined as macro's before satisfactory welds
could be assured.
Page77
4.6.2. Welding and Monitoring Procedure
The procedure for making the final welds was:
1. Set welding speed on BUG-9600 (based on equation 4-2).
2. Adjust weld parameters of voltage and current once the weld had started
3. lnsert a thermocouple.
4. Record a sample of the voltage and current waveforms on the NICOLET.
5. lnsert a second thermocouple.
6. lnsert the last thermocouple.
7. Wait for temperature to decrease to 200"C then stop recording.
The above procedure required two people. A welder adjusted the alignment
of the torch and maintained the correct arc length while another person (the
author) inserted thermocouples and operated the instrumentation. The
welding equipment and inserted thermocouples can be seen in figures 4-10
and 4-1 1.
After use, the thermocouple assemblies were cut off close to the weld and the
end Smm of twin bore alumina broken off to expose clean thermocouple
wires. These wires were then melted together to form a new hot junction.
The thermocouple probe was then ready for re-use.
Page 78
Chapter 4 Welding and lnsirumentation
i'.
r.¡
:.
,.:
I
a
.:
't_ a I r¡ II Ìt'
â
¡ tt
F
I il t-.-
1
;
a
a È
I ¡
Figure 4-10 Photograph of Welding Equipment
Figure 4-11 Photograph of lnserted Thermocouples
Page 79
4.6.3. Welding Results
ln all, six of the seven heat inputs were successfully welded but, as was seen
in table 4-1, the target values were difficult to achieve. The weld deposit
which was unsuccessful was the heat inputtarget of 1.25 kJ/mm. ln addition
to the failure to obtain a satisfactory weld with a heat input of 1.25 kJ/mm the
other welds which formed satisfactory deposits had minor root defects.
4.6.4. Effect of Heat lnput on Chemical Composition
Heat lnput
(kJ/mm) Fe c N¡ Mo s¡ Mn
1.12 Bal 0.059 3.52 0.30 0.51 1.18

1.21 Bal 0.061 3.36 0.30 0,54 1.22
1.66 Bal 0.059 3.76 0.30 0.55 1.25
1.74 Bal 0.064 3.50 0.29 0.52 '1.21
1.94 Bal 0.061 3.38 0.30 0.55 1.16

1.97 Bal 0.056 3.06 0.29 0.53 1.20
ln all welds S < 0.02, P < 0.015, O < 0.04, N < 0.005
Table 4-3 Weld Ghemical Compositions (% weight)
tt was not possible to analyse chemistries using an optical emission
spectrometer as the area of available weld metal was not large enough to
allow sparking exclusively on the as-deposited weld metal. Chemical analysis
of C, O, S and N were determined using Leco induction furnace equipment
and the remaining elemental compositions were subsequently determined by
ICP analysis. Analysis results can be seen in table 4-3. Comparison of table
4-3 and table 3-1 shows that a stightly lower nickel content and a slightly
higher carbon content was encountered than expected while all other
elements were of the expected concentration levels.
Page 80
Chapter 5 Mechanical Properties
CHAPTER 5. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
5.1. INTRODUCTION
There are many mechanical tests for welds and metals commonly accepted
by organisations such as Australian Standards, British Standards, Lloyd's and
the American Society for Testing of Materials. Selection of which test (or
tests) to employ is based upon a number of factors such as the welding
application, availability of test material, allowable time and expense, required
test accuracy and most importantly the properties of interest.
ln this study the mechanical properties of strength, hardness and toughness
of the weld deposit were considered to be the most important engineering
properties. These properties were tested and the results are shown in the
following sections.
Due to the difficulty of measuring the mechanical properties for such a small
weld deposit, modifications of standard tests were necessary.
Page 82
5.2. HARDNESS
Hardness data is particularly useful to complement trends in other data. The
relative ease in which hardness data can be obtained also makes it an
attractive mechanical property to measure. Vickers hardness with a 5 kg load
was measured by taking a hardness traverse across the centre of the weld
deposit as shown in figure 5-1.
t¡.o5 5 I
The tests were conducted to 4S1203 5.1 "Non-Destructive Testing of Weld
Metal" [96] using the following procedure
1. Specimens were prepared for metallogrçrphic examination by polishing with
1pm diamond then etching wilh 2o/o Nital solution.
2. The hardness testers calibration was checked using a 295 HV5 Vickers
calibration block by making two measurements before and after each
session of hardness testing and then comparing these to the expected
value.
3. Tests were then done to "452205.6.1 Weld Joint Hardness Tests" [97]
with the following exceptions:
. Due to the smatl size of the welds, one hardness traverse only was
made of each spec¡men through its approximate centre line as
shown in figure 5-1. Additional hardness traverses were made on
the 1.74 and 1.94 kJ/mm weld specimens to confirm that no

significant differences occurred between hardness values obtained
from different parts of the weld deposit. The 1 .74 and 1.94 kJ/mm
Page 83
weld depos¡ts were chosen for the additional testing as they had
deposits of sufficient size to allow the additional traverses.
. Due to sample size, and the buttering layer thickness, parent metal
which was not heat-affected was not always available for testing in
each hardness traverse. lt was therefore not possible, in all cases,
to extend the hardness traverses outwards from the weld to the

point where at least two hardness indentations gave hardness
values to within 5 HV5 of the unaffected parent metal.
Hardness data was entered into Microsoft Excel. From this data the averages
of the most representative hardness values from the weld deposit region were
selected. This was done with the assistance of the graphical results shown in
appendix D.
Vetd dePosit
V¡ckers Hordness
Tr ovense
(
\
c
Or
ò
(o,
o,
-J
^a
Bose Ptote
Bocking Vetds
Figure 5-1 Hardness Traverse Location
Page 84
As is apparent from figure 5-2, the use of the Vickers hardness test ensures
the hardness of the bulk material is measured and not individual phases,
particles or specific crystal orientations. ln figure 5-2 a Vickers hardness
indent is shown which has been heavily etched with a 2% Nital solution after
indentation. This shows the sampled weld microstructure,
As previously mentioned, in addition to the hardness traverse shown in figure
5-1, hardness traverses were also taken just below the weld surface and near
the weld root to determine if differences existed. No significant differences in
hardness were found. This suggests the weld deposit has uniform hardness
properties throug hout.
Figure 5-3 is of interest as it clearly shows differences in hardness between
as deposited and the re-heated buttering layer deposits. lt is reasonable to
conclude the lower value of hardness is not primarily due to the weld metal in
the buttered layer being diluted by the base plate, as different hardness
values would have been encountered as the layers of buttered weld metal
were traversed. Figure 5'3 also makes a direct comparison of the weld metal
hardness to that of the mild steel base plate material.
Page 85
Figure 5-2 SEM Micrograph of Hardness lndent
350
T ¡-¡
3 00
rf) 2 50
I TTIII
2 00
o
U'
o 1 50
tt
G 00
- 1
BM
BUTTERED WELD BUTTERED BASE
LAYER DEPOSIT LAYER METAL
50
0
-10-50510
Distance From Centre of Weld Deposit (mm)
Figure 5-3 Hardness Values Across 1.21kJlmm Weld Deposit
Page 86
The results of hardness tests are graphically illustrated in figure 5-4 and are
also tabulated with statistical information in table 5-1. A general trend of

decreasing hardness as the heat input is increased is apparent. The reason
there are different numbers of indents recorded for different welds is based
upon the size of the weld deposit and uncertainties in the accurate location of
the fusion line.
340
.o 335
9^
3n
ËE 330
rFoct) I
gY 325
o¡f'
.9 ârrì
315
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Heat lnput (kJ/mm)
Figure 54 Variation of Vickers Hardness as a Function of Heat lnput
Heat lnput 1.12 1.21 1.66 1.74 1.94 1.97

lndents in Weld 13 11 12 10 10 I
Standard Deviation 12 5 8 7 3 5
Hardness (HVs) 337 327 327 328 322 319
Table 5-1 Variation of Vickers Hardness
Page 87
Chapter 5 Mechanlcal Properties
50 DEGREE V-NOTCH
INCLUDED AN6LE
Specinen Locot¡on
Base
Buttered Metal
Layer
Figure 5-5 Origin of Tensile Specimens
Page 89
50
tf,
e
t{ - -a_
6 [R INO 6R ND
I
i
Specinen is Synetric obout oLt centre t¡ne5
i
I
i
I
].
L s
Figure 5-6 Dimens¡ons of Tensile Specimen
0.5mm
Figure 5-7 Micrograph of Tensile specimen cross section
Page 90
I r50
I r30
O+ 1110
=(u
oo- 1090 I
5= 1070 ì\
Þs 1050
gË) ,f
oc
tro
1030
t i
T
I
1010
3ø 990
970
950
1.21 1.66 1.74 1.95 1.97
Heat lnput (kJ/mm)
Figure 5-8 Weld Tensile Properties as a Function of Heat lnput
Heat lnput(kJ/mm) 1.12 1.21 1.66 1.74 1.95 1.97

UTS (MPa) N/A 1 084 1034 1 050 1 038 995
Table 5-2 Weld Tensile Data
As can be seen from the above results, as the heat input increased a general
trend of decreasing tensile strength was observed. lt was unfortunate that
results could not be obtained for the lowest heat input of 1 .12 kJlmm. This
was due to the presence of cracks along prior austenite grain boundaries as
shown in fìgures 5-9 and 5-10.
Page 91
Figure 5-9 Grain Boundary Crack Transverse to Direction of Strain
(Etchant in.figure 5-9 u,as 2% Nital)
+ 25um
Figure 5-10 End of Crack Shown in Figure 5-9
(Etchant in,figure 5-10 was 2% Nital)
Page 92
5.4. FRACTURE TOUGHNESS
5.4.1. lntroduction
CTOD tests were chosen due to the small amount of weld metal available for
testing. Sub-size 5mm x Smm Charpy spec¡mens would have been an
alternative, however it was felt that a unique sub-sized CTOD test would
provide results with far less scatter. lt was not possible to obtain standard Krc
values with samples of this size as the testing would have been in a plain
strain condition rather than in a plain stress condition. A plain stress condition
is required to obtain valid K¡ç values.
5.4.2. Test Rig Construction
No mechanical testing rigs were available for testing of sub-size CTOD

,l
rl,l
specimens of this size. A custom-made apparatus was subsequently
designed which was then manufactured by the University of Adelaide
engineering workshop. Detailed analysis was performed on the apparatus
geometry to ensure maximum stresses and deflections would be within

allowable limits. So as to ensure the CTOD test deviated as little as possible
from recognised standards, the apparatus was also made to conform to
ASTM 81290 and BS 5762 standards for CTOD testing. This also had the
added advantage of increasing the range of equipment in the laboratory
which could later be used for other projects. A schematic of the apparatus is
shown in figure 5-11 and engineering drawings of individual components can

Ì
be found in appendix D.
Page 93
I
FRACTURE SPECIMEN
EO MM THICK
BASE PLATE
50 Dt6REE V-NOÏCH
INCLUDED ANGLI
Fûtigue Crrck Locotiôn
Figure 5-13 Location of Fracture Specimen ln Weld Deposit
'.1
q
tir
'lmm
Figure 5-14 Location of Notch and Fatigue Grack (arrowed)
Page 97
*
5,4.4. Testing, Analysis and Results
As previously stated in chapter 3, two test temperatures were used For
testing of cryogenic specimens a small insulated tank was constructed around
the specimen in the MTS machine. This was filled with alcohol to which liquid
nitrogen was added. Mixing was done by a small stirrer motor while the
temperature was monitored with a NATA cerlified digital thermometer This
arrangement can be seen in figure 5-'15. The ambient temperature tests were
relatively easy to perform, although great care was still necessary to ensure
the specimens were correctly aligned. The cryogenic specimens were much
more difficult to test due to the time required for the specimen temperature to
reach equilibrium and the difficulty of maintaining the correct temperature in
the alcohol bath. All specimens were loaded at 90N per second.
:l
rl
fI
Figure 5-15 MTS ApParatus
Page 98
þ
Chapter 5 Mechanical ProPerties
Once the specimens had been tested the load versus dísplacement records
were examined to determine the failure mode, the load corresponding to the
failure or pop in and the clip gauge displacement' These values were then
used with measurements of the fatigue notch length to determine the CTOD
using equat¡ons 5-2,5-3 and 5-4 in Microsoft Excel. The fatigue notch length
was determined in accordance with BS 5762 and ASTM 81290 using a stereo
light microscope with calibrated graticules and a Vernier stage.
Equation 5-2 Grack Tip Opening Displacement
n-- YP
'L g¡ytt2
Equation 5-3 Stress lntensity Factor
lt2
ao ao
,( t.99 -
14/
*('-#)(rr'-'-qf +27(
f= 3t2
(t*a)(r-"ol
\ ttl /\ 14/ )
Equation 5-4 Stress Intensity Coefficient
Page 99
Chapter 5 Mechanical ProPerties
5.5. DISCUSSION
The mechan¡cat tests done have obtained a measure of the basic mechan¡cal
properties of the weld metal. ln the case of the tensile specimens' and
especially the CTOD tests, the small number of samples has resulted in a
large amount of statistical uncertainty in the results. Despite this uncertainty
a number of trends were aPParent.
Trends observed were a decrease in the hardness, and a corresponding
decrease in tensile strength as the heat input increased. The welds also
appeared to have higher res¡stance to fracture at the high heat inputs' These
trends correlated well with each other and literature shows these trends are
generally accepted as being the normal situation.
The small heat input range over which these trends occur is of interest. This
combined with the fact that no other researchers have conducted mechanical
tests of this nature on single pass welds of this type makes this approach
unique. For this reason further work is required to verify the results. This is
especially the case for the CTOD tests where the statistical uncertainty is
large.
It should also be noted that the CTOD tests predominantly tested the
toughness of the equiaxed grains in the centre of the weld deposit' Further
mechanical tests should also be conducted in other areas of the weld deposit'
Page 103
Work on targer mechanical test specimens prepared using a weld thermal
simulator would also be of benefit in determining the validity of the sub size
tests conducted in this study. This would provide data for comparison of
these tests and tests done using specimens of normal size.
Page 104
Chapter 6 Microstructure
CHAPTER 6. MICROSTRUCTURE
6.1. INTRODUCTION
The microstructure of a weld has great influence on the mechan¡cal

properties. This is especially the case for fracture toughness. Examination of
microstructural features such as lath s¡zes and orientations, grain boundaries
and precipitates provide a wealth of information to help explain and predict
mechanical properties. They also indicate how the microstructure developed
and what roles features such as prior austenite grain boundaries and non-
metallic partÍcles played in the development of the final microstructure.
High strength ferrous weld microstructures commonly contain large amounts
of maftensite and bainite. Microstructures containing phases such as bainite
and martensite are, however, difficult to identify using light microscopy.

Positive identification of such phases requires the use of electron micqoscopy.
This is especially the case for low carbon weld metals. This is because low
levels of carbon result in the absence of carbide precipitates thus making the
differentiation of acicular ferrite, bainite and martensite difficult'
The weld metal examined in this study was low in carbon, however, a number
of phases were positively identified. Microstructural features were also found
that may explain the variations in mechanical properties. The use of electron
microscopy allowed the examination of the fracture surfaces of the tensile
Page 105
absence of particle nucleat¡on, this is despite the apparent abundance of

ava¡lable nucleat¡on s¡tes. This absence of nucleation on non-metallic
particles does not however prove that the microstructure is martensitic. One
possibility is that the microstructure could be mostly bainite and due to the
attributes of the particles seen in this micrograph they were not conducive to
nucleation of ferrite.
A further timitation of tight microscopy is that it did not have the resolution to
examine the laths in the microstructure to determine what would likely occur if
a crack were to propagate through the weld. For this reason SEM was then
used.
Page 108
Figure 6-1 '1.12 kJtmm Representative Microstructure
Figure 6-2 1.21 kJ/mm Representative Microstructure
Page 109
Figure 6'3 1.66 kJ/mm Representative Microstructure
Page 110
40¡-Lm
Figure 6-6 1.97 kJ/mm Representat¡ve Microstructure
Page '1'11
Figure 6-7 Representative High Heat Input Microstructure
q14
Figure 6-8 Nucleation of Ferrite on Particles at High Heat lnput
Page 112
25þm
Figure 6-9 Grain Boundary Ferrite at High Heat lnput
Figure 6-10 Particles Without Ferrite Nucleation
Page 1 13
As light microscopy techniques were unable to positively identify the
m¡crostructure and could not fully expla¡n the mechanical properties observed
on a micro scale, SEM was used to provide better resolution at high
magnification. lnitial work was done on a Phillip's 505 SEM with a Tracor
Northern EDS analysis unit. Later work was done on a Phillips XL20 with an
EDAX EDS analysis unit.
Like figure 6-8, figure 6-11(a) shows ferrite nucleation on an intra-granular
non-metallic particle (labelled B). Further examples of ferrite nucleation on
non-metallic particles can be seen in figure 6-11(b) (labelled C). There also
appear to be large areas of broad (1pm) plates rather than packets of fine lath
martensite in this micrograph. This can be more clearly seen in figure 6'12(a)
which shows prior austenite grain boundaries which have either nucleated
ferrite or have acted as barriers to laths of martensite. Figure 6-12(b) shows a
selected area of figure 6-12 (a) at higher magnification where this may be
occurring.
Another mechanism which may be occurring is the refinement of the
martensite packet size within,the boundaries of the prior austenite grains. An
area where this could be occurring is shown in figure 6-12(a) (vicinity of label
D). The sequence of microstructure development would be that prior
austenite grain boundary nucleated ferrite laths first grow into the austenite
grains so that when the martensite forms the volume of available austenite is
segmented resulting in smaller packets of martensite laths.
Page 114
(a)
(b)
Figure 6-11 SEM Micrographs of Ferrite Nucleation
Page 115
(a)
(b)
Figure 6-12 Prior Austenite Grain Boundaries
Page 116
Apart from the presumption, based upon figures 6-1 to 6-6, that martensite is
present in the lower heat input welds (and they therefore have a lower
toughness) there is no evidence to prove that martensite is present, or for that
matter, any other evidence to suggest why a lower fracture toughness would
be expected.
However, the reduction in toughness may be explained by the micrographs in
figures 6-13 and 6-14. This explanation is independent of whether the phase
present is martensitic or ferritic but instead relies on the geometry and
orientations of the laths. These SEM micrographs show that there are
differences between the path which a crack would need to propagate along in
the cases of both low and high heat input. ln the microstructure of the high
heat input case shown in the micrographs of figure 6-13 the microstructure
consists of laths with a large included angle between them through which a
crack would need to change its direction of propagation frequently on its path
through the weld deposit. The micrographs in figure 6-14 however, show a
microstructure consisting of mostly aligned laths through which a crack can
propagate without frequently changing direction.
Unfortunately these micrographs do not positively identify the microstructure
as containing martensite, even though the mechanical properties of hardness
and tensile strength depend upon the presence of martensite to explain the
higher values associated with the lower heat input welds. To identify
martensite and other microconstituents present TEM was used.
Page 117
(a)
;r f :-
l-
--' 7 'r'
)
a\
L .r';-
i
l.
t,'r-ù.._ f
I
\
'- 2a.-
" '- tr?r

'
- ?
,/l t;
0
1l i
t
/\r r \r "1,¡¡¡{ fjl,r{jtr ,rìtt I i,¡ | I I ,
il l\\r I il ii](J()l)r l'l ii' ;

',lllJlrll'lìiì/lli ",ri,,
(b)
Figure 6-13 SEM Nlicrographs of Unaligned Microstructure (1'97 kJ/mm)
Page 118
(a)
(b)
Figure 6-14 SEM Micrographs of Aligned Microstructure (1.12 kJ/mm)
Page 119
Transmission electron m¡croscopy prov¡des a wealth of information about the
microstructure. ln general it was determined that the microstructure consists
of a mix of martensite, carbide free bainite and retained austenite' TEM was
able to identify these phases due to its ability to detect features characteristic
of martensite and the ability to obtain selected area electron diffraction
patterns.
ln figure 6-15(a), a prior austenite grain boundary is arrowed and there is a
broad martensite lath (labelled E) which can be identified due to the high
dislocation density and evidence of fine twinning (labelled F)' A lath
martensite structure is clearly visible (labelled G) and there is no evidence of
ferrite nucleation on non-metallic inclusions (eg. at H). The martensite
twinning can be more clearly seen in figure 6-15(b) (arrowed).
Figure 6-16 is a selected area diffraction pattern from the lath martensite
(labelled G) in figure 6-15. There is some spread in the spot positions which
indicates that the martensite laths are separated by low angle boundaries'
Figure 6-17 shows a TEM image of a non-metallic inclusion which appears to
have acted as a nucleus for ferrite lath growth as seen in previous light
microscopy and SEM images.
Figure 6-18(a), shows ferrite or martensite laths with dark contrast features in
the lath boundaries (eg at J). Figure 6-18(b) shows a selected area diffraction
Page 120
Êt
(a) -
(b)
Figure 6-15 TEM Micrographs of Martensite Laths and Twinning
Page 122
110
Figure 6-16 Electron Diffraction Pattern of Martensite
r'I
r[j -r.à1+.i;¿
:
300nm
Figure 6-17 TEM Micrograph showing Ferrite Nucleation
Page 123
þ
Þr+'
300nm
Figure 6-18 (a) TEM Bright Field of Laths
r',t
r4
11 0cr 111y
002cr
Figure 6-18 (b) Selected Area Diffraction Pattern
Page 124
þ
r'l
'l,t
300nm
Figure 6-18 (c) Retained Austenite
I
r
I
Page 125
þ
6.3. NON.METALLIC PARTICLË ANALYSIS
6,3.1. Particle Analysis Techniques
Due to the importance of inclusions, discussed in chapter 2, they were closely
examined using electron microscopy techniques. Figure 6-19 shows
inclusions of interest in a mechanically polished specimen. The scratches on
the surface are artefacts from polishing with 1 micron diamond.
Figure 6-19 Weld lnclusions in 1pm Diamond Polished Surface
To avoid interference from the matrix either the use of carbon extraction
replicas or the electrolytic dissolution of the surrounding iron matrix is
generally used. Examples of carbon extraction micrographs can be seen in
the work of Court [80]. The analysis of particle volume fraction of the weld is
the only measurement where a planer polished specimen is necessary'
Page 126
l
ln the present study no time or resources were avaitable for preparation of
specimens to use with these techniques. Subsequently, all analysis was

done using mechanically polished specimens.
Early particle analysis work used a Phillips 505 SEM with Tracor Northern
particle recognition and EDS analysis software. Only low heat input welds
were examined with this system. To eliminate any uncertainties in the spatial
comparison data, this data was not used. All spatial comparisons were made
from data collected with the newer XL20 SEM.
6.3.2. Size Distributions and Volume Fractions
lmages for determining inclusion spatial data were collected using the Phillips
XL20 SEM. These images were then processed using the software package
AnalySlS 2.0. To obtain images suitable for analysis the SEM was operated
with a spot size of 3.0, accelerating voltage of 10 kV and a backscattered
detector at a working distance of 10.3 mm. A greater working distanced
would have been preferred to allow the use of larger samples thus minimising
sample preparation, however, larger working distances could not provide
suitable particle definition. At large working distances (eg 30 mm) the
particles had poor contrast with the matrix thus resulting in inaccurate
measurements.
An image with high contrast was required as the AnalySlS software, like most
I
image analysis software packages, uses a thresholding technique to
Page 127
Chapter 6 M¡crostructure
corresponds to a backscatter emission depth of about 0.035 microns which
results in negligible errors.
A further, but unavoidable error, is because a plane cut through a three
dimensional system of polydispersed spheres, will indicate a larger number of
small inclusions and less large inclusions than reality. The distribution in
figure 6-20 is therefore biased. For purposes of comparison this is not
important as this bias is applied to all particles from both high and low heat
input welds. No corrections have been made for this reason. lf these results
must be adjusted to remove the bias then methods such as those detailed in
Undenryood 11411 must be applied.
The results of particle size distribution analysis, shown in figure 6-20, indicate
little difference between the high and low heat input welds but compare well
to distributions found in other studies 180,142-1441. What differences do exist
show that inclusions in high heat input welds may be slightly larger. This
would be expected as the high heat input welds remain molten for longer
allowing a greater time for inclusion growth as discussed by Kluken et al
[143]. Like the inclusion size distributions there was also little difference in
the volume fractions of inclusions in the welds produced with different heat
inputs. Volume fraction statistics can be found in table 6-1 with a number of
other spatial statistics.
Page 129
Spatial Statistic 1.12 kJlmm l.97kJ/mm

Frames of area 1720 pm2 analysed 32 37
Total area analysed 55066 pm2 63671 pm2
No. of inclusions in analysis area 511 522
o/o
Volume fraction 0.19 0.24o/o
lnclusion density 2.02x107 per mm3 1.70x107 per mm3

Mean inclusion diameter 0.49 pm 0.54 pm
lnclusion diameter std deviation 0.33 pm2 0.37 pm2
Table 6-1 lnclusion Spatial Analysis Statistics
6.3.3. Elemental Compositions
In addition to determining size distributions of weld inclusions typical inclusion
elemental compositions were also characterised. This characterisation was
done using X-ray Analysis in the SEM. A typical X-ray spectrum from an
inclusion is shown in figure 6-21. Note the high iron peaks in this spectrum
emanating from the iron matrix.
1000
Fe
!t{¡)
o
ct
oc) TI
atl
a
o
(.)
Mn
ñ
É.
I
x Ca TI
Fe
0.0 1.0 2.o 3.0 4.0 6.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
X-ray Energy (kev)
Figure 6-21 EDS X-Ray Spectrum of Selected Weld lnclusion
Page 130
1400
o
J
o,
E
o
+ o)
1200
f!
G¡
õ'
o
ca + X ø
o
Ê
o ¡Al +
C)
c
cD (D
I
N 1 000 S¡
N + x
x xs
t
n xca *
Ð x
oTi
o 800
o Ø
+, +Mn
F .N¡ X
! J +
Ø
l¡)
(o
o o +
(D
g o 600
x
+
I
¡ts
a I
(¡) +
N) o
o X X a
o x ü +
+ x O
t o
+
-h
.l +
o 400
+ a o
+ X
ã
q
a T O
I ¿
ô
CL ¡ a :
!!¡ 200 I î I
¡
; i
õ'
o
tt ¡
x
@
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Mean Particle Diam eter (m icrons)
6.4. FRACTURE SURFACES
All tensite specimens had a ductile mode of failure initiated by microvoid
coalescence on the weld inclusions. There was some evidence of quasi-
cleavage on the low heat input specimens but this played a minor role in the
failure. Similar results on fracture test specimens for C-Mn-Ni welds have
also been reported by Abson t351. Figures 6-23 (a) and (b) show a
micrograph of this microvoid coalescence with the characteristic inclusion
based at the bottom of the equiaxed dimples.
Of interest was that there were minimal differences in dimple size between
the weld deposits of different heat inputs. This would suggest the nucleation
sites for microvoid coalescence are uniform and indicates a similar spatial
distribution of nucleating particles in the weld deposits of different heat inputs.
Page 133
Chapter 6 M¡crostructure
OO
I
I
J ,1
V Spot láagn Det WD Exp 10 gnr

kV 3 9 ZXÐx sE 371 6
^ - !
(a)
I I
¡ I *þ t #
V Spot Magn Det Exp I n¡m
kV 3.9 8fXþx SE 37 1 6
(b)
Figure 6-23 Microvoid Coalescence on Tensile Specimens
Page 134
6.5. DISCUSSION
Examination of the welds produced in this study has revealed a highly
complex microstructure which ranged from mostly martensitic at low heat
inputs to mostly bainitic at high heat inputs.
The ídentífication of this microstructure was not straightforward. Transmission
electron microscopy was required to positively identify microconstituents
present. Light microscopy was capable of identifying ferrite nucleation but
was unable to identify the characteristics of martensite. For positive
identification of martensite TEM was required. TEM revealed very high

dislocation densities and evidence of martensite twinning. Features unique to
martensite. ln addition to this, the use of TEM revealed the presence of
retained austenite as thin films between martensite laths.
SEM was also used to highlight microstructural features of interest and to
explain why the fracture resistance of the low heat input welds appeared to be
reduced. This was explained as being due to the aligned laths in the
microstructure of the low heat input welds and the randomly oriented laths
occurring in the high heat input welds. Aligned laths allow crack propagation
to occur relatively easily whereas a propagating crack would need to
frequently change direction in a microstructure of unaligned laths.
ln many cases the microstructure was influenced by the presence of non-
metallic particles while at other times they appeared to have little effect. Size
Page 135
distributions were exam¡ned as were the elemental compos¡tions of the
part¡cles. Distributions correlated well with those of other studies. Of interest
was the presence of a number of large particles of above 1pm in diameter.
These were mostly rich in manganese and sulphur.
Fracture surfaces of the tensile specimens were examined revealing a
surface characteristic of microvoid coalescence on particles in the weld

deposit. The examination of large particles in the weld deposit and their
effects on ductile fracture initíation is an area requiring further study.
Page 136
Chapter 7 Discussion and Conculsions
CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
7 ,1. CONCLUSIONS
This study has examined microstructural development as a function of heat
input for a high strength weld metal produced using flux cored consumables.
It has also made correlations between the microstructure and mechanical
properties.
Techniques used to characterise the microstructure were light microscopy,
SEM and TEM. Standard sample preparation techniques were used for
microstructural examination but, to determine the mechanical properties, non-
standard tests were required due to the unusually small amount of weld metal
available for testing. The use of such tests has provided results not
previously seen which has allowed a number of conclusions to be made
relating to the influence of heat input on the microstructure and mechanical
properties of this high strength weld metal in the as deposited state.
The conclusions of this study are:
1. This high strength weld metal is sensitive to heat input with

microstructures ranging from mostly martensitic, at low heat inputs of less
than 1.5 kJ/mm, to mostly bainitic at over 1.5kJ/mm. Near the upper heat
input examined (approx 2 kJ/mm) grain boundary ferrite was observed in
small quantities. This could possibly lead to a reduction in fracture

properties at even higher heat inputs where greater amounts of grain
boundary ferrite would be expected
Page 137
2. An increase in heat input resulted in a decrease in the tensile strength,

hardness and resistance to fracture. This conforms with the observed
change in microstructure.
3. The decreased resistance of the weld to fracture at low heat inputs may
be due to the microstructure of aligned laths (of either martensite or
bainite) at low heat inputs. At high heat inputs the improved fracture
toughness was possibly due to the random orientation of the ferrite laths.
The transition from atigned laths in the microstructure to randomly oriented
laths appears to occur at about 1.5 kJ/mm which correlated with the
observed change from a mostly martensitic to a mostly bainitic
microstructure.
4. Heat input was shown to have an insignificant effect on the elemental
composition of the weld deposit over the range of heat inputs studied.
This would suggest that the variations in microstructure and mechanical
properties was due to either cooling rate differences or differences in the
non-metallic particles and their propensity to nucleate ferrite.
5. Variations in the size distributions of non-metallic particles (as a function of
heat input) was small. This would suggest that differences observed in
the microstructure and mechanical properties are not attributable to
variations in the sizes of particles in this heat input range'
6. Mechanical testing of as deposited weld metal at low heat inputs is

possible but only with the use of non-standard specimens. The results
obtained can only be used for comparison to other results obtained using
the same specimen type.
Page 138
7.2. FUTURE WORK
The resutts of this study, as well as many of the studies examined in the
titerature rev¡ew, leave many quest¡ons unanswered. Explanations to these
quest¡ons will only come from further stud¡es focussed on individual aspects
of high strength welding metallurgy. General studies (such as this one) will
continue to be of value to examine the many effects of altering process
parameters, but concentrated efforts on individual aspects are required to
further the understanding of microstructural development and its relationship
with mechanical properties.
The results of this study suggest a number of areas in which further work can
be done. These areas are discussed below:
a Qua ntitative M ic rostru ctu re Exa m i n ati o n
Further progress into the effects of welding parameters on mechanical
properties will require quantitative examination of the microstructure. High
strength weld microstructures are currently difficult to identify using
techniques which can observe areas of the microstructure large enough to
be considered representative, thus allowing quantitative examination.
Techniques to allow positive identification of different phases using light
microscopy must therefore be investigated.
The ability to identify phases using light microscopy would allow
techniques such as point counting to be used to determine the percentage
Page 139
fractions of different microconstituents thus allowing direct correlations to
mechanical properties. Advanced image analysis techniques could also
be developed to be used in conjunction with either light microscopy or
SEM images.
There are also other microstructural features which this study has not
been able to examine. For example, the use of etchants such as LePera's
to reveal the solidification structure may provide valuable information.
a Mechanical lesf Development
Any study of mechanical properties for as deposited weld metals using low
heat inputs will be confronted with a limited amount of material from which
to obtain samples to perform mechanical testing. For this reason, non-
standard tests are often required, however, such tests being modifications
of proven test methods, requÍre verification if the results are to be
compared to those obtained in other studies. This is especially the case
for the sub-size CTOD specimens used in this study.
The verification of such tests could involve the testing of materials with
known properties using the subsize specimens. The results obtained
would then be compared to results obtained using standard test methods.
Page 140
a Multi-Pass Welds
The present study focussed on the as deposited weld metal. ln a real
situation, multi-pass welds are often used. ln such welds the as deposited
pass only constitutes the last welds made which are not reheated by
subsequent passes. For this reason a study should be made of the

effects of reheating high strength weld microstructures. The use of weld
thermal simulation may be of benefìt in such a study.
To perform such a study would require considerable resources as full
Charpy or CTOD transition curves should be obtained, as should be
tensile strength data, hardness and microstructural characterisation.
a No n-M etal I i c Pa rti c I e C ha racte risatio n
This would be especially relevant as, as discussed in chapter 2 and clearly
seen in chapter 6, it is these particles which are responsible for much of
the development of microstructure.
It is envisaged that a study focussed on this would require a number of
welds to be made under identical welding parameters but with

consumable fluxes specifically designed to vary the inclusion properties
Subsequent weld analysis would be highly dependent upon electron
microscopy techniques to determine mícrostructures and inclusion
composition and structure
Page 141
It would have been valuable if, in the present study, the size distributions
of inclusions containing different elements could have been determined
To make an assessment such as this the inclusions would need to be
removed from the weld using dissolution techniques and then many hours
of electron microscopy done to build a database of statistical significance.
The information obtained could then be correlated with differences in the
microstructure to make an assessment of what elements in particles are
important and what sizes of particles containing elements of importance
influence the microstructure. ln addition to this, inclusion inhomogeneities
could also be examined
Page 142
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{
Conference on Qualitative Microanalysis with High Spatial Resolution, The Metals Soc.,
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l77l Tweed J.H. and Knott J.F., "The Effect of Preheat Temperature on the Microstructure
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1989, pp 567-671
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References
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pp 3180-3188
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Metal", August, 1988
[97] Standards Association of Australia, "AS 2205, Methods of Destructive Testing of Welds
in Metal", August, 1988
[98] 84 Corrrnittee orr Mechanical Testing of Welds, "Mechanical Testing of Welds Part 1 -
Tension Testing of Welds", Welding Journal, Vol. 60, January, 1981, pp 33-37
[99] 84 Committee on Mechanical Testing of Welds, "Mechanical Testing of Welds Part2 -

Bend Testing of Welds", Welding Journal, Vol.60, February, 1981, pp 34-37
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References
[100] 84 Committee on Mechanical Testing of Welds, "Mechanical Testing of Welds Part 3 -

Fracture Toughness Testing of Welds", Welding Journal, Vol. 60, March, 1981, pp 37-40
[101] Barclay J., "Fracture Toughness Properties of Some Australian Electroslag Welds -
AWRA Contract 91", Australian Welding Research, December, 1982, pp 63-68
[102] American Society for Testing and Materials, "ASTM 892-82 Standard Test Method for
Vickers Hardness of Metallic Materials", 1982
[103] American Society for Testing and Materials, "ASTM E1290 - Standard Test Method for
Crack Tip Opening Displacement (CTOD) Fracture Toughness Measurement",
November, 1989
[104] Askerland D., "The Science and Engineering of Materials Sl ed.", Van Nostrand
Reinhold, 19BB
[105] Chen J.H., Ma H. and Wang G.2., "Fracture Behaviour of C-Mn Steel and Weld Metal
in Notched and Pre-Cracked Specímens: Parl2 Micromechanism of Fracture",
Metallurgical Transactions A, Vol 21A, February, 1990, pp 321-330
[106] Chen J., Xia T. and Yan C., "Study on lmpact Toughness of C-Mn Multi-layer Weld
Metal at -60oC", Welding Journal Research Supplement, January, 1993, pp 19-27
[107] Choi C.L. and H¡ll D.C., "A Study of Microstructural Progression in As-Deposited Metal",
Welding Journal Research Supplement, Vol.57, August, 1978, pp 232-236
[108] Cox E., "A Methodology for Characterising Weldment Fracture Behaviour", Welding
Journal Research Supplement, Vol. 66, February, 1987, pp 39-49
[109] Crawford D.G. and Baker T., "Microstructure and Toughness of Low Carbon Steel Weld
Metal", Materials Science and Engineering, A131, 1991, pp 255-263
[110] Deb P., Challenger K.D. and Burna R.F., "Microstructural Characterisation of Shielded
Metal Arc Weldments of a Copper Bearing HSLA Steel", Materials Science and
Technology, Vol. 1, November, 1985, pp 1000-1006
[111] DebP.,ChallengerK.andTherrienA.,"Structure-PropertyCorrelationofSubmerged
Arc and Gas Metal Arc Weldments in HY-100 Steel", Metallurgical Transactions A, Vol
184, June, 1987, pp 987-999
[112] Denys R.M., "Difference Between Smalland Large Scale Testing of Weldments",
Welding Journal Research Supplement, Vol. 68, February, 1989, pp 33-43
[113] Henderson l. and Steffens H., "Fracture Toughness of Narrow Gap Welded Joints in the
Nuclear Pressure Vessel Steel 22 NiMoCr 37", Nuclear Engineering and Design, Vol. 36,
No. 2, February, 1976, pp 273-285
[114] Matsoukas G., Cotterell B. and Mai Y., "On the plastic rotation constant used in
standard COD tests", Australian Welding Research, December, 1984, pp 50-51
[115] MatsoukasG.,Cotterell B.andMaiY.,"FractureToughnessofPressureVesselsteels",

Australian Welding Research, December, 1985, pp 1-7
[116] Morgenstern V., Herrera R,, Mejías H. and Patchett 8., "lnexpensive Computer
Controlled Fracture Toughness Testing", Welding Journal Research Supplement,
Vol.68, June, 1989, pp223-229
Page 149
References
[117] WilliamsJ.F.,JonesR.andGoldsmithN.,"AnlntroductiontoFractureMechanics-
Theory and Case Studies", Mechanical Engineering Transactions, The lnstitution of
Engineers Australia, Vol. ME 14, No, 4, 1989
[1 18] Signes E.G., "A Simplified Method for Calculating Cooling Rates in Mild and Low Alloy
Steel Weld Metals", Welding Journal Research Supplement, Vol. 51, October, 1972,
pp273-284
[119] Kim Y. and Eagar T., "Metal Transfer in Pulsed Current Gas MetalArc Welding",
Welding Journal Research Supplement,Vol. 72, July, 1993, 279-287
[120] Bosworth M., "Effective Heat lnput in Pulsed Current Gas MetalArc Welding with Solid
Wire Electrodes", Welding Journal Research Supplement, Vol.70, May, 1991,
pp 111-117
[121] Bosworth M., Unpublished, 1993
1122j Jhaveri P., Moffatt W.G. and Adams C.M. Jr., "The Effect of Plate Thickness and
Radiation on Heat Flow in Welding and Cutting", Welding Journal Research
Supplement, Vol. 41, January, 1962, pp 12-16
[123] Barry J.M., Paley Z. and Adams C.M. Jr., "Heat Conduction from Moving Arcs During
Welding", Welding Journal Research Supplement,Vol. 42, March, 1963, pp 97-104
[124] Christensen N., Davies V. and Gjermundsen K., "Distribution of Temperatures in Arc
Welding", British Welding Journal, February, 1965, pp 54-75
[125] Clyde M. and Adams Jr., "Cooling Rates and Peak Temperatures in Fusion Welding",
Welding Journal Research Supplement, Vol.47, May, 1958, pp210-215
[126] Eagar T.W. and Tsai N.S., "Temperature Fields Produced by Travelling Distributed Heat
Sources", Welding Journal Research Supplement, Vol.62, December, 1983, pp 346-355
[127] Myhr O.R. and Grong Ø., "Dimensionless Maps for Heat Flow Analysis in Fusion
Welding", Acta. metall. mater,, Vol. 38, No. 3, 1990, pp 449-460
[128] Paley 2., Lynch J.N. and Adams C.M., "Heat Flow ln Welding Heavy Steel Plate",
Welding Journal Research Supplement, Vol. 53, February, 1964, pp 71-79
[129] Kannatey-Asibu E. Jr., Kikuchi N. and Jallad A.R., "Experimental Finite Element
Analysis of Temperature Distribution During Arc Welding", Sensors and Controls for
Manufacturing, 1988, pp 1-14
[130] Bradstreet 8.J., "Effect of Welding Conditions on Coolíng Rate and Hardness in the
Heat Affected Zone", Welding Journal Research Supplement, Vol. 58, November, 1969,
pp 499-504
[131] ChakravartiA., Thibau R. and Bala S., "Cooling characteristics of bead-on-plate welds",
Metal Construction, March, 1985, pp 178-183
[132] Dorschu K.E., "Control of Cooling Rates in Steel Weld Metal", Welding Journal
Research Supplement, Vol. 57, February, 1968, pp 49-62
[133] Krantz B. and Coppolecchia V., "The Effects of Pulsed Gas Metal-Arc Welding
Parameters on Weld Cooling Rates", Welding Journal Research Supplement, Vol. 60,
November, 1971, pp 474-479
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References
[134] Lukens W.8., "lnfrared Temperature Sensing of Cooling Rates for Arc Welding
Control", Welding Journal, Vol.71, January, 1982, pp 27-33
[135] Eller F.C. Jr., "Thermocouples - Essential Devices for Proper Control of Local Weld
Heat Treatment", Welding Journal, Vol.72, December, 1983, pp 38-40
[136] Kinzie P.4., "Thermocouple Temperature Measurement", Wiley lnterscience,l9T3
[137] Lenk J.D., "ABC's of Thermocouples", Foulsam-Sams, 1968
[138] Bentley R., "Theory and Practice of Thermoelectric Thermometry", CSIRO Division of
Applied Physics, 1990
[139] French 1., "lnfluence of Shielding Gas Composition on Heat Transfer in FIux Cored Arc
Welding", Australian Welding Journal, Spring, 1984, pp 25-28
[140] Kluken 4., Grong Ø. and Hjelen J., 'SEM based automatic image analysis of non-
metallic inclusions in steelweld metals", Materials Science and Technology, Vol. 4, July,
1988, pp 649-654
[141] Underwood E., "Quantatative Stereology", London, Addison-Wesely, 1970
11421 Grong Ø., Siewart T.A., Martins G.P. and Olson D.L., "A Model for the Silicon-
Manganese Deoxidation of SteelWeldments", MetallurgicalTransactions, 174, 1986,
pp 1797-1807
[143] Kluken A. and Grong Ø., "Mechanisms of lnclusion Formation in Al-Ti-Si-Mn

Deoxidised Steel Weld Metals", Metallurgical Transactions A, Vol 204, August, 1989,
pp 1335-1349
[144] St-Laurent S. and L'Espérance G., "Effects of chemistry, density and size distribution of
inclusions on the nucleation of acicular ferrite in C-Mn steel shielded-metal-arc-welding
weldments", Materials Science and Engineering, 4149, 1992, pp 203-216
Page 151
Appendix A TMS Software Listing
/ ** *r ***** * t * *t **** t* ** t t* * ** tt*** ** ** * ** ** ** ** * ** * *** ** ** * ** * ** ** * ** ** *** ** *
THERilOCq.,PLE },IEASUREI,IENI SYSTEi,I 1.3
This program is for use in aquiring data from a pC-3OpcL D/A board.
uritten By cREc REDDEN
University of Adelaide, South Austratia
CRC for lJel.ding and Joining Technotogy
Language TURBO C++ version 3.0

This softxare rnay be freety modified under the provision that att
modifications are docunented ìn the space below.
This softrare may be used for åny purpose the user wishes Hith the provision
that it may not be sotd or leased for gain or profit in any form.
NOTE: Requires library containing the diagnostic routines.
NOTE: THE ABOVE ilEI{TIONED L¡BRARY IS NOT REOUIRED AS THE DIAG},IOSTIC ROIJTTNES
ARE NOT CURRENTLY USED.
***t*l**********t***************t******r****************t*************** ***** /
// #define tcc
// fhe above conpiter directive is required so that BORLAND TURBO products
// can use the predefined Iibraries and headers correctty.
#inctude <conio.h>
#inctude <ctype.h>
#inctude <dos.h>
#inctude <math.h>
#inctude <stdio.h>
#inctude <io.h>
/,/#incl,t¡de "pc30.ht'
//#incl,ude rrreg_30.hrl
// lhe onty function requiring the use of these headrers is the
// diagnostic routine.
/ /******** ******r****
// At present the diagnostic routines are not used. ldeatl.y they shoutd be
// however due to time restraints and difficul.ties encountered in util,ising
// ***then they have not yet been used.
// t***** **********
,// Definitions to describe ¡¡here registers are tocated retative to base.
#define BADD 0x700 /* Base address setting of board (Junper setting) */

#def i ne BLKC},IT (8ADD + 0) /* Btock counter reg. U. tl
#def i ne ADDATL (BADO 0) /r' AlD tot{ byte. R.
+ */
#def i ne ADDATH (BADD + 1¡ /* AlD high byte. n. */
#def i ne ADOSR (BADD + 1) /* Data/status register */
#def i ne ADCCR (BADD + 2¡ /* Controt,/ChanneI register */
#def i ne ADI,IDE (8ADD + 3) /* ilode register */
#def i ne PRESCALER (BADD + /¡¡ /* Clock prescaler. R/lJ. */
#def i ne DIVIDER (BADD + 5) /* Ctock divider. R/tl. */
#def i ne TI.IRCTR (BADD + 7) ,/* Ctock controt byte. R/!1. */
#def i ne D IOCNTRL (BADD + 11) l* Digital, I/0 controt. RIVI. */
#def i ne GAIN REG (BAoD + 24) /* Gain memory addness R/u. t /
// Send video rrites direct to video ram

// Be careful that video card is 100 U IBM conpatibte
int directvideo = 1;
/,/ gLobat constant decIarations
const int max_therrþcouptes = I ;

const int channets =g .
const int maxbarheight = lÌi
ll NOIÊ: Changing the vatue of channets is not a[[ that is required to
// change the nunber of channets rhich are sanpted.
// gtobat variabte dectarations
char fi Iename[80] ,t_type;
f t oat mâxteÍp, c j tenp, f sanpI erate, sanpI erate;
i nt ga i n, i ngai n,s i g_ga in, c jmodi f y, tenp f8J ;
int otdbarheight t9J ,a_d[81 , tut [4097J ,peaktenpt8l ;
/l lile handte declarations
FILE *fh;
// function dectarations
void screen_dnaw(vo i d) ;
void gen_tut(void),'
doubte r_vot t2tenp(doubte);
doubte k_voL t2tenp(doubI e);
void di sptaybar( f toat );
void get_user_i nfo(voi d);
void bars( i nt );
void wri te_f i I e_header(void),.
void drar_border( i nt );
void dray_vertI ine( int, int, int, int, int);
void drax_horI ine( int, int, int, i nt );
void beep(int, int);
void set_salpte_rate(voi d) ;
int c j terpconv( voi d),'
void i ni t i a t i se( vo i d),.
void set_channet_gai n(void),.
ståt i c b_test(int, int, int, int);
// function def initions

void get_user_i nf o(void)
ll fhis function gets vatues for some gtobat variabtes
// it is not in function main() in order to keep main() simpler.
(
char reply,answer, bufferfSl,'
int fi Ie_stat;
textco I or (llH I TE ),.
gotoxy(5,21 );
cputs(ttCotd Junction Te[perature ¡rr)i
gotoxy(5,22);
cputs( trli{ax i [r¡n expected te[perature : rr
),'
gotoxy(5, 23 ) ;
cputs(rrl¿ane of out¡rt fi te :rr)i
gotoxy(5,2ó),'
textcolor(RED);
cputs("tlAR¡¡lNG: Setting high gain may overtoad PC-30 causing dâmage'r);
textco I or( IJH I TE );
gotoxy( 5, 27);
cputs(r'PC-30 input gain (1,10,100,1000):");
gotoxy(5,28),'
cputs("Signal conditioner input gsin :rr)i
gotoxy(5,30);
cpLrts(ttThermocoupte type (R,K) :tr),.
[abet2:,' // Íor the goto statenent a fer l,ines beton.
// Lines belor ensure the previous vatues ¡¿hich are not defautt vatues
l/ are not displ,ayed.
gotoxy(3ó,21 ),.
ptits(tt ,t);
gotoxy(3ó,22),.
Putsltt ");
gotoxy(3ó,25);
puts(rt t,);
gotoxy(5,24)i
puts(rr ,,);
gotoxy(39,27);
puts(rr ,,);
gotoxy(39,28),.
Pr.rts (,t t,);
gotoxy(30,30),.
puts(rr tt)i
gotoxy(5,35 ),.
pr.¡ts ('r ,t
) ;
do
(
gotoxy( 5,20);
cplJts(ttRequired sarpterate (Hz) :rr)i
gotoxy( 35,20 );
Puts( rr tt
) ,'
gotoxy(3ó, 20 ) ;
scanf (rrXf 'r, &f sanpI erate),.
// fsarpterate is onty used to keep vatue that user entened.
sarçterate = f sanpterate,.
if (fsarpterate < 1)
(
beep( 700, 200 ) ;
gotoxy( 5,20 ),.
crxrts(rtÂ sarpterate of Iess than 1Hz is not supported.
de L ay( 2000 ) ,.
)
) rhite (fsanpterate < 1);
/l Gets cotd junction tefip€rature from user.

gotoxy(3ó,21 ),.
scanf (rt%f rr
, &c
j tenp) ,.
// Gets m€xi[r¡n expected tefiperature from user.

gotoxy(36,22);
scanf ( ilZf rr, &maxtenp),.
// Gets fitename to output datå to from user and checks to see if fite
// already exists. If it does user gets pronpted to decide to overwrite
// ot to give a different fite name.
do
(
gotoxy(3ó,23 ),'
puts(tr tt);
gotoxy(5,24);
puts tt
¡
gotoxy(5ó,23 ),.
scanf ('l%srr,f i Iename),.
fi te_stat = access(f i tename,0);

if (fite_stat == 0)
do
(
beep( 700,200 );
textcot or( YELLOtl);
gotoxy(5,24);
cprintf(ttFite ,Ís, already exists, over¡{ríte (y/N) rr,fitename)r.
textcotor( L I GHIGRAY ),.
scanf ( rrlcrr, &ansler ) ;
ans¡{er = toupper(ans¡rer) ;
textcotor(uH I TE );
) rhite ((ansler != ,Yr) && (ansr¿er l= ,Nr));
) rhite ((ânsHer l=,Y') && (fil,e_stat == 0));
drar_border( L I GHTBLUE ) ;
draw_hor t i ne( 1,80,1 5, L I GHTBLUE ),.
drar_hor t i ne( 1, 80, 1 7, L I cHIBLUE ),.
)
void drar_border( int cotor)
(
int i,.
textcotor(cotor);
for (i=2,.i<80,.i++)
(
gotoxy(i,1),.
cpri ntf ( rrX,ctr, char( 19ó) ) ;
gotoxy( i ,49) ;
cpr i ntf ( xXc", char( 1 9ó ) );
)
f or ¡ ¡=2. i<49,. i++)
(
gotoxy(1,i),.
cpr i nt f ( xlc", char( I 79) );
gotoxy(80, i ),.
cpr i nt f ( rrxcrr, char( 179) ),.
)
gotoxy(1,1);
cpr i nt f ( ¡'Zc'r, char( 218 ) ),.
gotoxy(80,1),.
cpr i ntf ( I'Xcrr, char( 191 ) ),.
gotoxy( 1 ,49) ;
cpr i ntf ( trXctr, char( 1 92 ) );
gotoxy(80,49);
cpr i ntf(t'Xcx, char(21 7) );
)
void draw_verttine(int startx,int starty, int finishx,int finishy,int col.or)
(
nt i i¡
nt a b, c rdr'
if (startx > finishx) (b = startx,. a = finishx,.)

else (a = stârtx; b = finishx;)
if. (starty > finishy) (d = starty;c = finishy,.)
etse (c = startyi d = finishy;)
textcotor(cotor),.
for 1 i=6' i<(b+1 ); i++)
for (j=c;j<(d+1);j++)
(
gotoxy(i,j),.
cprintf ( xUc", char( 1 79) );
)
)
void dral_hortine(int startx, int finishx,int ytoc,int cotor)
(
int i,.
int a,b;
if (stârtx > finishx) (b = startx; a = finishx;)
etse (a = startx; b = finishx,.)
textcotor(color),.
f or ( i-(a+l ),. i <b; i++¡
(
gotoxy( i,ytoc);
cpr i ntf ( r'l,crr, char( 19ó) ),.
)
ll Put ends on the line
gotoxy(a, ytoc);
cpr i ntf ( xZc", char( 195 ) ),.
gotoxy(b, ytoc),.
cpri ntf ( rrl,ctr, char( 180) ),.
)
void pai nt_data_screen( )
(
int i,j,value,'
const int tick_nuùer = 8ì ll nwÈer of ticks on bar y-axis
cI rscr( );
drax_border( L I GHTBLUE ) ;
drar_vert I i ne(31 ,48,31 ,2, L I GHTBLUE ),.
gotoxy(31,1),.
cpr i nt f (rrXcrt, char ( 19¿r ) ),'
gotoxy(31,/r9),.
cpr i nt f ( I'Zcrt, char( 195 ) );
draw hor t ine(31,80,45, LIGHTBLUE) ;

draw hor L ine(51,80, ¿r, L¡GHTBLUE);
gotoxy(35, 2 );
textco t or( YE LLOTJ),.
cFrts(TTTHER¡|oC(LJPLE I.IEASUREI,IENT SYSIEIII version I.3r),.
textcotor(CYAN);
gotoxy(34,3 );
cputs("lJritten by Greg Redden Adetaide Uni Feb 1993"),.
textcoI or( L I cHTRED );

gotoxy(43, ó);
cputs(TTPEAK TEI.IPERAIURE VALUES"),.
textco I or( IJH I TE ) ¡.
f or ( i=0,'i < max_thermocouples/2,. i++¡

(
gotoxy(34,7+i ),'
cprintf(rt\nTLit,i,i
)
j=0;
for ( i=max_thermocouptes /2; i < max_thermocouptes; i++)
(
gotoxy( 57,7+ j ),'
cprintf (tt\nTXitt, i );
j++ i
)
drar_hor t i ne(31 ,80, 13, L I cHTBLUE );
textcotor(LIGHTRED);
gotoxy(51,15);
cputs( |'IIESSAGEST'
),.
gotoxy(33,17),.
textco I or( IJll I TE ) ,.
// puts(t¡Data co[ [ection operating correcttyrr),.
dra¡{_hort i ne(51, 80, 19, L I GHTBLUE ),.
textcotor( L I cHTRED ),.

gotoxy(47,21 );
cpr¡ts( ITCURREI¡T SETT I ilcsrr );
textcolor(lJHlTE),.
gotoxy(35,23 ) i
cputs(rruser entered Cotd Junction Teltp : deg. Ctt) ;
gotoxy(33,24);
cputs(rruser entered sa[pte rate : Hzrr );
gotoxy(31,25 ),'
cputs(r'Actuôl sanpte rate : ¡¿r)i
gotoxy(33,27);
cpr.¡ts(r'Gain setting on PC-5oPGL :rr)i
gotoxy(33,28);
cputs(r'Gain setting on signaI conditioner :rr),.
gotoxy(33,29),'
cputs(rrTotât gain on a[[ channets :rr)i
if (ol.dbarheightttl <= maxbarheight)
(
if (nerbarheightttl < otdbarheightttl) /* erase a bit of bar */
(
textco t or( BLACK),.
height = nerbarheight Il],.
for (k=1;k < (1+otdbarheightf tl -height),.k++)
(
nerbarheightIl] = oldbarheightttl - k;
gotoxy( (7+3*t ), (43-newbarhei ght ttI ) ) ;
cpr i nt f ( "1cfc", char( 21 9) , char( 2 9) );
1
)
)
)
/* if (newbarheight = oldbarheightheight) do nothing */
otdbarheight Itl = ¡"*6".height ttl,.
)
)
void ¡rri te_f i le_header( )
(
int j,'
struct date d;
struct time t,.
getdate(&d),.
gett ime(&t ),.
fprintf(fh,t'THERMOCOUPLE I.IEASUREMENT SYSTEI.| version 1.3");
f pr i nt f ( f h, tr\rûATE : HlHlUx, d.da_day, d. da_mon, d. da_yea r ) ;

fprintf(fh,'r\nttl.tE: %2d¡%02d:y.02d,,;t.ti_houF, t.ti_mTn, t.ii_sec);
fprintf(fh,"\nuser entered Cotd Junction Terp 7"4.11 deg. C",cjtemp);
fprintf(fh,tt\nuser entered sarpte rate T.f Hz't,f sanpterate) ;
fprintf (fh, tt\nActual sarpte rate %f Hztt,sanpterate);
fprintf(fh,tt\nGain setting on pC-30pGL %itt, ingain);
fprintf(fh,tt\nGain setting on signaI conditioner %it',sig_gain),.
fprintflfh,tt\nÏotaI gain on alI channets %i tt, ( ingain*si g_gain) ),.
fprintf (fh, "\nlhermocoupte type used %crr, t_type),.
fPr i nt f ( f h, rt\n\ntr ),.

for ( j=0; i <channets; i++ ¡
(
fprintf(fh,tt Tui,,,j);
)
l // etld of function ¡{rite_file_header
void set_sarpte_rate( )
(
unsigned Iong int pre_div,ctock_div,ctock_div2;
// sanpterate is a gtobal variabte
ll lhe PC-5OPGL board has an internat cl.ock frequency of 2 l.lHz
ll The maxim¡n vatue for either the ctock or prescater is 6553ó ¡base 10)
// llhen the user enters sarpte rate a vatue tess than 1 Hz is disal.towed.
gotoxy(1,1);
ctock_div = (2e6 / sarpterate);
clock_div2 = ctock_div/2;
pre_div = 1,'
if (ctock_div > ó5530)
(
pre_div = 31;
ctock_div = ctock_div,/(pre_div);
outp(DlVlDER, (clock_div) ),.
outp(DMDER, (ctock_div >> 8));
)
if (ctock_div <= ó5530)
(
outp(DMDER, ¡ctock_div2) ) ;
outp(DlVlDER, (ctock_div2 >> 8))-
)
outp(PRESCALER, (pre_div) ),.
outp(PREScALER, ((pre_div) >> 8));
saripterate = 2e6 / (pre_div*ctock_div);
)
int cjterpconv()
// Iookup tabte m¡st be initial.ised before this function is used
(
int cjeqvat;
cjeqvat = -1,.
do
(
cj eqva t ++;
) rhiLe (cjtenp > (ftoat(tuttcjeqvâtl ))),.
return(cjeqvat),.
)
void initiatise()
// Ihis function performs the operations specified on page Z9 of the
// user manuat.
(
// llrite 92(hex) to the A/D mode registen (ADl,tDE).
outp(ADl.lDE,0x92),.
l/ lJl.ite 34(hex) to the counter controt register (il.tRCTR). lhis sets the
ll ¡node of the A/D ctock prescater to 2.
outp( Tl,lRCTR, 0x34 );
l/ llrite 74(hex) to the counter controI register (TI,|RCTR). This sets the
// ¡¡pde of the A/D cl,ock divider to 2.
outp(THRCTR, 0x74);
ll Utite 86(hex) to the counter controt register (TMRclR). This sets the
// tt¡ode of the uncolrmitted counter/timer to 3.
outp(T!.|RCTR, oxbó),.
// llrite 02(hex) to the A/D controt/channet register (ADccR). lhis disabLes

// Dl4A and interrupts, and sets the AlD Íor software strobes.
outp(ÂDCCR , 0x02 );
l/ llrite 0 to the digit6t I/O control register (D¡OCNTRL). This configures

// atl digitet inprt Iines as inprts.
outp(DlOCllTRL,0),.
/l llrite 0 to the clilEÈ,io, cltlElll, GMEH2 and Gl.tEil3 registers. This setects a
// channet gain of 1 for atl channets.
outp(GAIN_REG+o, 0),.
outp(GAtN_REG+1, 0);
outp(GAItl_REG+z, 0);
outp(GAIil_REc+3, 0),.
// llait at teâst 100 microseconds.

detay(10),' /l 10 nitliseconds detay.
)
void set_channel_gai n( )
// lhis function sets the gain of att channets to that specified by the user.
(
int i,'
Í gain == 0) f or ( i=0; i<4,. i++) outp( GA I ¡,|_REG+ i 0x00 ) ;
f gain == 1) f or ( i=Q' i<4; i++¡ outp( GA I ¡l_REG+ i 0x55 );
f gain == 2) f or ( irQ; i<4; i++¡ outP(GAI N-REG+i Oxoa ) ;
f gain == 3) f or (i=0,.i<4,.i++¡ outp(GA I N_REG+ i Oxff);
) ll etú function set_channet_gain()
void clear()
// Ctears the A/D subsystem as decribed on page 7ó of manuat.
(
unsigned i,.
// llrite 92(hex) to the A/D mode register (ADl.lDE).

outp(ADl,lDE, 0x92 ) ,.
// llrite 02(hex) to the A/D controt/channet register (ADccR). This disabtes

// Dl,1A and interrupts, and sets the AlD for softrare strobes.
outp(ADCCR , 0x02 ),.
// Read the high and toH byte of the A/D data register
i np(ADDATL ) ..
i np(ADDATH ) ,.
ll l¿ait at least 100 microseconds or at teast untit the done bit is set.
for (i = 0,' ((i < 20) && (l(inp(ADDSR) & 0x70))),. i++);
ll Read the high and tor¡ byte of the A/D dot6 register
i np(ADDATL ) ;
inp(ADDATH );
)
void Ioad_chan_List()
(
// Using bl.ock mode so rrite (257-N) to the BLKCNT register, rhere N is
// the nr¡Ëer of sanptes per btock.
outp(BLKCNT,0xf9);
l/ Clear the A/D subsystem.

ct ear( );
// l¿rite the first channel address to the ADCCR. AtI other bits except the
// SIBC shoutd be cteared. The channet Iist now contains onty the first
// channet.
outp(ADCCR, Oxl );
// Set A/D rpde register to (ADMDE) to 9f(hex).
ll lhis sets the channet tist nrode to add.
outp(ADHDE, 0x9f );
ll Htite in sequence the rest of the channets to be converted to the ADCCR
// as above.0n read the the ADCCR ¡¡it[ reftect the first channet
// address rritten.
outp(ADCCR, 0x00 ) ;
outp(ADCCR, 0x10 ),.
outp(ADCCR, 0x20);
outp(A0CCR, 0x30 );
outp(ADCCR, 0x40),. // toads the channet tist xith
outp(ADCCR, 0x50); ll the 8 channets to be sanpted
outp(ADCCR, 0xó0 ) ;
outp(ADCCR, 0x70 );
ll Set the A/D nrode register (ADl.lDE) to 91(hex) for btock trigger mode.
// To set A/D mode to normal trigger mode r¡rite 90(hex) to register.
// This sets the channel tist mode to ignore. You can now write control
// bits to the ADDCR rithout disturbing the channel Iist,
outp(ADl,lDE, 0x91 );
// Channel List is nor ready for operation
)
main()
(
// int diag_result,' l/ Diag resutt is not currentty in use.
int i,t,chan_t ist t8I, index, rec_disp_test;
char tooptest,'
textmode( C4350),.
pa i nt_t i t I e_screen( ) ;
// NOTE: THE DTAGNOSTIC RoUTINE LoCATED ¡}I IHE LIBRARY FILE Is ¡¡oT
// CURRE}ITLY I¡I USE.
ll Call the diagnostic routine tocated in the l,ibrary fil.e.

,// diag_resutt = diag();
textcotor(GREEN);
gotoxy(5,1ó);
.cprintf ('rPC-30 diagnostics not performed.");
//cprintf(t'PC-30 diagnostics report:r),.
if (diag_resutt l= 0)
(
textcotor(LIcHTRED + gLtNK);
gotoxy(36,1ó),.
cPuts(trPC-30 not found, or fai Ied.rt),.
deLay(5000);
// set textrþde to normaI
textmode(C80)i
not found, of faited.rt);
puts(rr\nPC-3O
Puts(rt\ncheck to mske sure card is property inserted into conputer."),.
puts(rr\nlf cerd is secure try rebooting.r);
Puts(r'\lf neither of the above have worked - TRy To HAVE A NtcE DAy'r),.
return 0,. // exit the program
)
et se
t
// textcotor(LIGHTGREEII + BLTNK),.
// gotoxy(3ó,,ló);
// cputs(r'PC-30 found and operating.r'),.
// )
get_user_i nf o( ),.
// Set initial, barheight.

for ¡¡=9,.i<8;i++¡ otdbarheighttil = 0;
// Initiatise vatues of erray to store peak temperatures
for ( i=0,'i<8,. i++¡ peakternptil = 0,.
:T // GENERATE THE LOOKUP TABLE
!! l./ \ltgre are 409ó possibte vatues the pc-3Opc may give as an A,/D conversion.
// Ihis assunes the PC-3OpG is configured in 0 -i itOV input range.
:
// conversion is made on microvotts as r vott2tenp and k'vott2tãnp
,/,/ is set up to take microvolts not vottsl
if (t_type == tRr)
(
for (i=0,.i<4096;i++)
(
Lut t iI = i nt( r_vot t2tenp( ( e7* i )/(4095. 0* i nga i n*s i g_ga i n) ) )
1
;
)_
)
if (t_type == ,K,)
(
for (i=0.i<409ó;i++¡
(
Lut til = i nt ( k_voI t2tenp( ( I e7* i ),/(4095. 0r i nga i n*s i g_ga i n) ) )
_ ;
)
)
// convert user entered cold junction tefiperature to an equivatent
// nuÈer between 0 and 4095 to change vatue of data from pc-3opcL
// belore conversion to teriperature using the l,ookup tabl.e.
c jtttodi fY = c jteÍpconv( ),.
ll turn off the cursor to get a cteaner more r'graphics tiker displ.ay
_setcursor type(_NOCUR SOR ),.
II paint_data_screen();
fh-= fopen(fi tenann,',¡,,¡ ì /t Open fi le for ¡{riting of data.
rrite_fite_header(),. // rrites a header on tñe output fite
rec_disp_test = 0;
looptest = rRri
Þ
if ((rec_disp_test == l) && (looptest == rRr))
gotoxy(63,47);
textcolor(LIGHTRED + BL¡NK);
cputs(t'REcoRDIHG r,);
rec_disp_test = 3,.
)
7
if ((rec_disp_test == O) && (l,ooptest == rRr))
textcolor(LtGHTBLUE + BLttlK);
gotoxy(ó3,47),.
cprts( rrl{ol RECoRD I [crr ) ;
rec_disp_test = 1,.
)
) rhite (looptest l= rer); ll erd of the data read toop

I
// clean up before exit
fctose(fh),.
textmode(C80),.
return 0;
) ll e¡¡d of function main
Appendix B TMS Data File Example
THERMOCOUPI,E MEASUREMENT SYSTEM veTsion 1.3
DATE: 24/3/]-ggz
TIME ]-'7:26:59
User entered Cold Junction Temp : 24.0 deg. C
User entered sample rate 50.000000 Hz
Actua1 sample rate 50.000000 Hz
Gain setting on PC-30PGL :1

Gain setting on signal conditioner z 2OO
Total gain on alL channels : 200
Thermocouple type used :R
Time T0 T1 T2
02825 25
0.02 28 25 25
0.04 25 25 25
0.06 25 25 25
0.08 25 25 25
0.1 25 25 25
<Data removed>
2.3 25 25 TT2
2.32 25 25 L42
2.34 25 25 l.67
2.36 25 25 L92
2.38 25 25 206
2.4 25 25 217
2.42 25 25 228
2.44 25 25 230
2.46 25 25 229
2.48 25 25 228
2.5 25 25 222
<Data removed>
3.16 25 25 445
3.18 25 25 524
3.2 25 25 621-
3.22 25 25 727
3.24 25 25 840
3.26 25 25 9 5l-
3.28 25 25 1 054
3.3 25 25 IT47
3.32 25 25 r228
3.34 25 25 ]-292
3.36 25 25 134 1
3.38 25 25 r37'7
3.4 25 25 14 01_
3.42 25 25 r4t7
PLATE 3 THENMAL DATA
1800
"t0. txi ù --
t't ¡r
i. . tirt --' - -
1600 "t2.txt tr
-
1400
72AO
L]
ct)
o 1000
E
0¡
L
=
+J
800
o
L
o
CI
600
o
+J
400
200
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 !?0 t40 160 180
t ime (seconds)
PLATE 6 THERMAL DATA
1 800 I
"to.t)it"
1600 "t'¿.txi-"
I "t2.txt"
D
H_type
L400
1200
c)
c'
c)
E 1000
o
L
=
+J 800
(g
L
o
o-
E
600
t-o
400
200
0 20 40 60 80 100 L20 t40 160 180 200

Ti.me (seconds)
PLATE 7 THERMAL DATA
1800
"t0.txt"
1600 txt
" t'.,i. . "
n
t2. txt "
Þ
1400
F_type
I
!
I
1200 I
i
c) t
El li
(Ð li
u 1000 !l
t
ii
G)
L ,l
:l
+J 800
o
L
OJ
o.
o 600
t-
400
200
60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

Time (seconds)
Appendix D Raw Hardness Data
Heat lnput 1.12 kJ/mm
350
F
I
3æ t-
t
t
2so
F
ro I
t
$, zm t-
WELD
v, t
U' DEPOSIT
0,
c t50
E' BUTTERED
(5 J BUTTERED
LAYER
tæ F I-AYER
UJ
UJ
50
a
ct
0 5 l0 ì5 20 25
Distance of lndent from Specimen Left Edge (mm)
Heat lnput 1.21 kJtmm
350
3æ
2æ
rft
5r.
at,
o
o)
BUTTERED BUfiERED
€'* LAYEB
WELD
LAYER
o DEPOSIT
E J BASE METAL
tm
F
tlJ
Lu
50 U)
c0
0 2 A ô I t0 t2 l4 tó ì8 20
Distance of lndent from Speclmen Left Edge (mm)

350
T
L
II
3æ _l-
iI
¡-
250 +_
ro i
3- u,
I
t
I
i WELD
an DEPOSIT
o
S CJ
rso
BUTTERED
LAYER
(g
BUTTERED
læ J LAYER
h
BASE METAL
50 UJ
(t
fD
0
0 5 l0 ì5 20 25
Distance of Indent from Specimen Left Edge (mm)
350
t"
i
3m L
;
2Ð r
lo L
$, zoo
v, : WELD
u,
0) DEPOSIT
C tso BUTTERED
ïl BUTTERED
G
LAYER
LAYER
ìæ J
F- BASE METAL
UJ
50 t!
(/)
()
0
0 2 4 ó t0 t2 l4 tó t8 20
Dlstance of Indent from Specimen Left Edge (mm)
Heat lnput 1.74 kJlmm
350
3æ
250
^lo
r
at,
2æ WELD
to I DEPOSIT
t,
c ! BUTTERED BUTTERED
P't
(E
I-AYER LAYER
J J
læ
t-- t-
uJ uJ
I..IJ uJ
50 U) U)
c0 fI¡
0 2 4 ó8t012t4tó t8 20
Distance of lndent from Specimen Left Edge (mm)

350
3m
^ro 250 r
I i
ut 26 L
Ø
o WELD
É r
DEPOSIT
E'so
(E
r
T
I BUTTERED
BUTTERED
ìm LAYER LAYER
50
0
0 5 t0 t5 20 25
Distance of lndent from Speclmen Left Edge (mm)

Appendix E Drawings of Fracture Testing Rig
I
CT!D THRTT PIINT BTNDING
RIG ASSTMBLY
I
[[
lt
[il
rl
It tl tl il
il I rl I
qF--J¡ ll
lt il tt
r$--+
STIRRER
MOTER
È¡.ñ6,
dOFdøh
ffi
THE UNIVERSITY OF ADtr.AII¡E
I.IECHANICAL ENGINEERINE DEPT FRACTURE RIG
CRC FT]R HATERIALS, E

VELI¡ING AND JEINING 93-05 I,IICRESTRUCTURE
FRONT VIEV N' ¡r q¡ M
6RE6 REDI¡EN 3 FEB 93 11 FRAC-01 A4
f,
il#
nlD
¡10
,l
I
MATERIALI MKS TEOL STEEL

NOTE¡ HEAT TREATMENT REOUIRET)
à( 1{t0 l}ßEA¡
tæt
q
3RD ANGLE PROJECTIDN
ilff
ffi
u
ffi 6 THE UNIVERSITY t]F ADELATDE
HECHANICAL Ð'¡GINEERING I¡EPT
CRC Ft]R I4ATERIALg
VELI¡ING AND JOINING
ru
E
93-05
LEAI¡ FRAI.IE
|i{ICRUSïRUCTURE
ryt n m
GREG REDI'EN 3 FEt 93 FRAC-06 A4
e0
?7 15
3
?4
s¡ 10
T 10
??
L
100
NOTES¡ Mttted sunfqce ftntsh ts sotlsÊoctony,
ø?0
2x M3 THREAI)
6 IIIN LE.I6TH
FIIJ- TI{REAI)
THE UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE ru THREE PUINT

I{ECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPT TIP HOLDER
CRC FOR }IATERIALS,
VELDING ANI' JEINING
3R¡t ANGLE PROJECIIO{
fnt E
GRE6 REDDEN 3 FEB 5r2 FRAC-05 A4
I Ë
¿l
6
?x ø3
-1 I
3-{
?1
3RD ANGLE PROJECTIEN

t{r
il
THE UNIVERSITY OF AI'ELAIDE
MATERIALT Sitven steel I.IECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPT THREE PI]INT TIP
CRC FT]R HATERIAL9 Æ

VELDING AND JEINING 93-f[i HICROSTRUCTURE
H' lil M
GREG REDDEN 3 FEE 9í' FRAC-04 A4
H3 THREAI)
a0
l
_{
ì
MATRIAL¡ Sitver steel

N0TE¡ Sunfo,ce must be potished
3RI' ATO-E PRfUECTTDN
ffi
THE UNIVERSITY T¡T ADELA¡DE
Ì.IECHANICAL ENGINEERING I¡EPT ROLLER
CRC FI]R HATERIALS G

VELDING AND JI]INING 93-05 I{ICROSTRUCTURE
ryt t[ m
GREG REIIDEN 3 FEI 9:t FRAC-03 A4
9,5
5 MATERIAL¡ Spntng steet

NoTE¡ Sunfoce ftntsh must be gnound.
10
2 HOLES DIA A
30' RFI
I 3RI' A}¡tr-E PRIUECNDN
¿ ru
THE UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE
I{ECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPT KNIFE EDGE
7
CRC FOR HATERIALS, E
VELDING AND JEINING 93-05 I,IICROSTRUCTURE
mt ¡t
GREG REDIIEN 3 FEB 93 FRAC-f)E A4
<
( ì ( ì {-
r ì
I I I
I I I
I I I !l
t\
+ J-
I
l I
I +
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
L ¿
- --4i!
I
I
I
I
I
i FOLD
I
Êu
I
a
Él -l r10 J
E
I
I
Ir
__l
I |
I
__ t_
_i
i
t THE UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE ru

t. th¡ckness .|otlSì t ."
Mo,tenro,t I'IECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPT
rAt*
IEfLA]E
CUTTNG
?, Fotd doshed l,¡ne9 cui sol,ld [¡nes.
3. Mo,tertol, ¡lust be o,bte to be soidered or bro,tsed. CRC FOR HATERIALS E
4. Vorkprece rs synetnlco.t o,bout càÀienl¡nes. VELI¡ING AND JOINING 93-05 I,ITCROSTRUCTURE
¡E lq¡ IE
GRE6 REI¡DEN 3Frft
l"' FRAC-O' A4
{
NOTEr Tonk is to be ottoched to bose

by brotsing on sotdertng
so os to ochteve q teok proof seot,
3RD ANGLE PREJECTIEN

DO
THE UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE rü

I.IECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPT TANK ATTACHMENT
CRC FOR MATERIALS, &
VELD¡NG ANI¡ JOINING 93-05 IIICROSTRUCTURE
mt lg¡ M
GREG REDDEN 3 FEI 93
lu' FRAC-08 A4
t _ __É;
71
ts-r 20-l
l
30
t_
?x øLD
MATERIALT Mitd steel

-.+
l
NETE¡ Mil.ted surfoce finish is sotisfoctony
tæt
3R,D ANA-E PREJECTIDN
TIIREAD
D{
THE UNTVERSITY OF ADELAIDE * LDAD FRAME

I.IECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPT INTERFACE
CRC FOR I'IATERIALS E
VELDING AND JEINING 93-05 I,IICROSTRUCTURE
ryi IE lg¡ M
GREG REDDEN 3 FEB 93
I t,t FRAC-07 A4
Appendix F TEM Foil Preparation Procedure
Foils for TEM analysis were prepared using the following procedure
1. Machine weld deposit to obtain a rod of weld metal of diameter 3.05mm
(+0.00mm - 0.05mm) as shown in drawing over the page.
2. Cut wafers from machined material of thickens 0.5mm.
3. Grind wafers to 0.1mm thickness using firstly 600 then 1200 grit wet
carbide paper.
4. Electropolish wafers until thinned to a foil and perforations appear
(Electropolishing fluid was a solution of 10o/o HCIO4 I 20% Glycerol / 70
% Ethyl Alcohol by volume. This mixture was cooled to between -10'C
and 0'C by pouring liquid nitrogen into the mixture. The electropolisher
was a twin jet unit)
5. Wash newly prepared foils in ethyl alcohol
6. Store dry foils in individual gelatine capsules.

50 DEGREE V-NOTCH
INCLUDEI' AI,¡GLE
AS SUPPLIEI) 20 H}I THICK

EASE Pl-rATE
VELD DEPOSIT
VELD BEAI¡
EF INTEREST
t-8 10 3.05
HIGH STRENGTH
VELD METAL
5
SCALE ltS
Speclmen to be
renoved
from weld depostt.
SPECIMEN LECATION
MILD STEEL
3RD ANtr-E PRO.ECTIII{
ffi
THE UNIVERSITY I¡F ADE-AIDE
I.IECHANICA- Ð.IGINEERING I¡EPT TEM SPECIMENS
CRC FOR }.IATERIALS,

VELDING ANI¡ JEINING 93-05 I,TICRUSTRUCTURE
BACKING VELI)
H' r[ lE M
GRE6 REDDEN e sP ree¡r
I
vanles sPEC-06 A4
Appendix G Stress lntensity Factor Software Listing
l*
This is a short program designed to assist in the determination of the
correct parameters to use when performing a CTOD test on a three point
bend test specimen.
Greg Redden
CRC Materials Welding and Joining
April 1994
Programmed using Borland Turbo C++ version 3.0

*l
#include <math.h>
#include <stdio.h>
const float B = 10e-3; //Specimen breadth [meters]

const float S = 40e-3; //Specimen span (S = 4W) [meters]
const float W = 10e-3; //Specimen width or thickness [meters]
ll The following constants of cod_function_slope and cod_function_const

ll have been derived from experimental data collected from actual test
// specimens with notch lengths of 4mm and 5.5mm.
const float cod_function_slope = 6.9522; ll lmicrons/(kN"mm)l

const float cod_function_const = -13.4798;
float ao_enter,a;
float bo,ao,Y; // Y is the stress intensity coefficient.
float sigma_y,sigma_uts_enter,sigma_ys_enter,sigma_ys;
float ASTM_Pmax, BS_Pmax;
float Pmax, Pmin, Pmean;
fl oat m ax_clip, clip_vs_load ;
main0
{
printf("\nCToD PARAM ETER DETERM I NATION");
printf("\nProgrammed by Greg Redden April 1994");
printf("\n\nEnter fatigue crack notch length (mm): ");
sca nf ("%of ', &ao_e nte r) ;
ao = ao_enter/1000;
if ((ao>O.55.W) ll (ao<0.45"W));
printf("WARNING: Crack length not within recommended envelope.\n");
printf("Enter ultimate tensile strength (MPa): ");
sca nf("70f ', &s g m a_uts_enter) ;
i
printf("Enter 0.2 percent offset yeild strength (MPa): ");

sca nf("%f ', &sigma_ys_enter) ;
sigma_ys = sigma_ys_enter* 1 e6;

sigma_y = (sigma_uts_enter + sigma_ys_enter)"1 e6/2;
bo=W-ao;
a = aoA|ú; lllhe parameter "a" is used to simplify the following equation
y=(6*pow(a,0.5)*(1 .99-2.15*a+6.08*pow(a,2)-6.63"pow(a,3)+2.7*pow(a,4)))
I ((1 +2* a)* pow(( 1 -a), 1 . 5)) ;
ASTM_Pmax = 0.S*B*pow(bo,2)"sigma_y/S;
BS_Pmax = 0.63*sigma_ys"pow(B, 1 .S)*pow(W,0.5)/Y;
printf("\nSpecimen dimensions: B = o/o.2f mm, W = Vo.2f mm, S = Vo.2f mm"

, 1 000*8, 1 000*w, 1 000.s);
printf("\nStress intensity coefficient, Y = 7o.3f ",Y);

printf("\nMax fatigue precracking force = o/o.31 kN (ASTM E1290)"
,ASTM_Pmax/1000);
printf("\nMax fatigue precracking force = o/o.3f kN (BS 5762:1979)"
,BS_Pmax/1000);
Pmax = ASTM_Pmax;
Pmin = Pmax*O.1;
Pmean = Pmin + (Pmax - Pmin)/2;
printf("\nFATIGUE LOADING PARAMETERS BASED ON ASTM E1290");

printf("\nPmax=o/o.3î kN Pmin =o/o.3f kN Pmean = 7o.3f kN"
, Pmax/1 000, Pmin/1 000, Pmean/1 000);
printf("\nEXPECTED CLIP GUAGE OPENING");
l*
The following procedure used to determine the expected clip

guage opening for a given crack length when using the recommended
fatigue loading parameters assumes (incorrectly) a linear
relationship between the clip guage opening for a given force
and the crack length. This linear approximation of the real case
(which is in fact a cubic relationship) is expected to be
satisfactory.
*l
cl p_vs_l oad = cod_fu n cti on_s ope*ao_e nte r + cod_fu nctio n_co nst
i I ;
printf("\nCli p g uage displaceme nt = o/oÍ m icrons/kN", cli p_vs_load) ;

max-clip = clip-vs-load*Pmax/1 000;
pri ntf("\n M ax g uage displaceme nt = o/o.2f m icrons", m ax_cl p) ; i
return 0;
)

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z.L-3-q.

THE INFLUENCE OF HEAT INPUT ON THE

MICROSTRUCTURE AND MECHANTCAL PROPERTIES

OF A HIGH STRENGTH FLUX CORED WELD METAL

Gregory Ross Redden

B.E. Mech. (Hons)

Thesis Submitted for the Degree of

Master of Engineering Science

The University of Adelaide

(Department of Mechanical Engineering)

only recently begun to be investigated. Knowledge of this type of weld metal,

found to be incomplete in the literature. This is especially the case for as

and 2.5 kJ/mm.

Literature reviewed includes reactions which occur before weld solidification,

during solidification and the subsequent solid phase austenite

transformations. The effects of shielding gas composition, different alloying

welding using metal compositions resulting in weld strengths ranging from

This study is subsequently focussed on as deposited weld metal in the 1.0 to

vertical up position. Heat input was recorded using a digital storage

oscilloscope and the weld cooling rate was monitored by plunging

thermocouples into the weld pool.

Light, scanning and transmission electron microscopy were employed to

examine microstructures. Mechanical tests performed included Vickers

to obtain fracture toughness comparisons. Weld chemical compositions were

also obtained using ICP analysis.

heat input range examined. These differences in microstructure correlated

with changes in the mechanical properties. This has suggested a number of

areas which require further study.

to the best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material previously

made in the text.

I give consent to this copy of my thesis, when deposited in the university

Of particular note, my superuisors, Dr John Bee (The University of Adelaide)

interpretation of metallographic results, Dr M. Wahab (The University of

thanked for their ass¡stance. The most significant of these include Dr

John Terlet (The University of Adelaide - CEMMSA) - SEM instruction and

EDS analysis advice, Dr John Yellup (CSIRO) - mechanical testing

Mechanical Engineering workshop - mechanical test sample preparation and

GHAPTER r. INTRODUCTION .....................1

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE SURVEY ...........3

CHAPTER 4. WELDING AND INSTRUMENTATION............. ......53

CHAPTER 6. MICROSTRUCTURE ............105

CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK.... ...........137

Figure 2-1 Cell Spacing as a Function of Heat Input

Figure 3-1 Cross Section of Flux Cored Electrode 48

Figure 4-1 Photo of Base Plate Preparation ........... ...........57

Figure 5-1 Hardness Traverse Location.... 85

Figure 5-4 Variation of Vickers Hardness as a Function of Heat lnput.......

Figure 5-7 Micrograph of Tensile Specimen Cross Section

Figure 6-1 1.12 kJlmm Representative Microstructure .. .... 1 09

Table 2-1 Microstructural Terminology......

Equation 2-1 Bainite Start Temperatu re 14

l BHP Broken Hill Proprietary Ltd

ccr Continuous Cooling Transformation

CDT Controlled Drop Transfer

CEMMSA Centre for Electron Microscopy and Microstructure Analysis

crG Commonwealth lndustrial Gases

cRc Co-operative Research Centre

CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and lndustrial Research Organisation

CTOD Crack Tip Opening Displacement

CVN Charpy V Notch