Unit-3

Computer memory is a generic term for all of the different types of data storage technology that a computer
may use, including RAM, ROM, and flash memory.

Types of Computer Memory: Primary and Secondary

Although many types of memory in a computer exist, the most basic distinction is between primary memory,
often called system memory, and secondary memory, which is more commonly called storage.

The key difference between primary and secondary memory is speed of access.

• Primary memory includes ROM and RAM, and is located close to the CPU on the computer
motherboard, enabling the CPU to read data from primary memory very quickly indeed. It is used to
store data that the CPU needs imminently so that it does not have to wait for it to be delivered.

• Secondary memory by contrast, is usually physically located within a separate storage device, such as a
hard disk drive or solid state drive (SSD), which is connected to the computer system either directly or
over a network. The cost per gigabyte of secondary memory is much lower, but the read and write
speeds are significantly slower.

Primary Memory Types: RAM and ROM

There are two key types of primary memory:

1. RAM, or random access memory

2. ROM, or read-only memory

1) RAM Computer Memory

The acronym RAM stems from the fact that data stored in random access memory can be accessed – as the
name suggests – in any random order. Or, put another way, any random bit of data can be accessed just as
quickly as any other bit.

The most important things to understand about RAM are that RAM memory is very fast, it can be written to as
well as read, it is volatile (so all data stored in RAM memory is lost when it loses power) and, finally, it is very
expensive compared to all types of secondary memory in terms of cost per gigabyte. It is because of the relative
high cost of RAM compared to secondary memory types that most computer systems use both primary and
secondary memory.

Data that is required for imminent processing is moved to RAM where it can be accessed and modified very
quickly, so that the CPU is not kept waiting. When the data is no longer required it is shunted out to slower but
cheaper secondary memory, and the RAM space that has been freed up is filled with the next chunk of data that
is about to be used.
Types of RAM

• DRAM: DRAM stands for Dynamic RAM, and it is the most common type of RAM used in computers.
The oldest type is known as single data rate (SDR) DRAM, but newer computers use faster dual data
rate (DDR) DRAM. DDR comes in several versions including DDR2 , DDR3, and DDR4, which offer
better performance and are more energy efficient than DDR. However different versions are
incompatible, so it is not possible to mix DDR2 with DDR3 DRAM in a computer system. DRAM
consists of a transistor and a capacitor in each cell.

• SRAM: SRAM stands for Static RAM, and it is a particular type of RAM which is faster than DRAM,
but more expensive and bulker, having six transistors in each cell. For those reasons SRAM is generally
only used as a data cache within a CPU itself or as RAM in very high-end server systems. A small
SRAM cache of the most imminently-needed data can result in significant speed improvements in a
system

The key differences between DRAM and SRAM is that SRAM is faster than DRAM - perhaps two to three
times faster - but more expensive and bulkier. SRAM is usually available in megabytes, while DRAM is
purchased in gigabytes.

DRAM uses more energy than SRAM because it constantly needs to be refreshed to maintain data integrity,
while SRAM - though volatile – does not need constant refreshing when it is powered up.

2) ROM Computer Memory

ROM stands for read-only memory, and the name stems from the fact that while data can be read from this type
of computer memory, data cannot normally be written to it. It is a very fast type of computer memory which is
usually installed close to the CPU on the motherboard.

ROM is a type of non-volatile memory, which means that the data stored in ROM persists in the memory even
when it receives no power – for example when the computer is turned off. In that sense it is similar to secondary
memory, which is used for long term storage.

When a computer is turned on, the CPU can begin reading information stored in ROM without the need for
drivers or other complex software to help it communicate. The ROM usually contains "bootstrap code" which is
the basic set of instructions a computer needs to carry out to become aware of the operating system stored in
secondary memory, and to load parts of the operating system into primary memory so that it can start up and
become ready to use.

ROM is also used in simpler electronic devices to store firmware which runs as soon as the device is switched
on.

Types of ROM

ROM is available in several different types, including PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM.
 • PROM PROM stands for Programmable Read-Only Memory, and it is different from true ROM in that
while a ROM is programmed (i.e. has data written to it) during the manufacturing process, a PROM is
manufactured in an empty state and then programmed later using a PROM programmer or burner.

• EPROM EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory, and as the name suggests,
data stored in an EPROM can be erased and the EPROM reprogrammed. Erasing an EPROM involves
removing it from the computer and exposing it to ultraviolet light before re-burning it.

• EEPROM EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory, and the
distinction between EPROM and EEPROM is that the latter can be erased and written to by the
computer system it is installed in. In that sense EEPROM is not strictly read-only. However in many
cases the write process is slow, so it is normally only done to update program code such as firmware or
BIOS code on an occasional basis.

DDR and GDDR

Both DDR and GDDR are memories used for CPU and GPU respectively. DDR is used as system memory with
CPU (i.e. Central Processing Unit) in your PC. GDDR memory is used with GPU (i.e. Graphics Processing Unit) to speed
up performance of graphics card. Both CPU and GPU processors are interfaced using PCI Express slot.

DDR Memory
It is one type of SDRAM . It synchronizes with CPU timing or clock signal. There are two types of SDRAM
viz. SDR (Single Data Rate) and DDR (Double Data Rate).DDR SDRAM types include DDR1, DDR2, DDR3
and DDR4. Following table compares different types of DDR memories.

Differences between GDDR and DDR

• GDDR is built for much higher bandwidth, thanks to a wider memory
bus.
• GDDR1 sends 16 data bits compared to DDR1's 9 bits.
• GDDR can request and receive data on the same clock cycle, DDR
cannot.
• GDDR uses less power and gives off less heat, which allows for
higher performance modules with simpler cooling systems.
• GDDR3 commonly uses between a 256 and 512-bit bus spread across
4-8 channels whereas DDR1, DDR2, and DDR3 have a 64-bit bus
(or 128-bit in dual channel).

Different versions of GDDR

• GDDR2
• GDDR3
• GDDR4
• GDDR5
 Memory module

A memory module is another name for a RAM chip. It is often used as a general term used to describe SIMM, DIMM,
and SO-DIMM memory. While there are several different types of memory modules available, they all serve the same
purpose, which is to store temporary data while the computer is running.

Memory modules come in different sizes and have several different pin configurations. For example, the original SIMMs
had 30 pins. However, newer SIMM chips have 72 pins. DIMMs commonly come in 168-pin configurations, but some
DIMMs have as many as 240 pins. SO-DIMMs have a smaller form factor than standard DIMM chips, and come in 72-
pin, 144-pin, and 200-pin configurations.While "memory module" is the technical term used to describe
computer memory, the terms "RAM," "memory," and "RAM chip" are just as acceptable. But remember, while memory
terms may be interchangeable, the memory itself is not. This is because most computers only accept one type of memory.
Therefore, if you decide to upgrade you computer's RAM, make sure the memory modules you buy are compatible with
your machine.

Registered Modules, SDR DIMM, DDR DIMM, DDR2 DIMM, DDR3 DIMM, DDR4

SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory):

"Synchronous" tells about the behaviour of the DRAM type. In late 1996, SDRAM began to appear in systems.
Unlike previous technologies, SDRAM is designed to synchronize itself with the timing of the CPU. This
enables the memory controller to know the exact clock cycle when the requested data will be ready, so the CPU
no longer has to wait between memory accesses. For example, PC66 SDRAM runs at 66 MT/s, PC100 SDRAM
runs at 100 MT/s, PC133 SDRAM runs at 133 MT/s, and so on.
SDRAM can stand for SDR SDRAM (Single Data Rate SDRAM), where the I/O, internal clock and bus clock
are the same. For example, the I/O, internal clock and bus clock of PC133 are all 133 Mhz. Single Data Rate
means that SDR SDRAM can only read/write one time in a clock cycle. SDRAM have to wait for the
completion of the previous command to be able to do another read/write operation.

DDR SDRAM (Double Data Rate SDRAM):

The next generation of SDRAM is DDR, which achieves greater bandwidth than the preceding single data rate
SDRAM by transferring data on the rising and falling edges of the clock signal (double pumped). Effectively, it
doubles the transfer rate without increasing the frequency of the clock. The transfer rate of DDR SDRAM is the
double of SDR SDRAM without changing the internal clock. DDR SDRAM, as the first generation of DDR
memory, the prefetch buffer is 2bit, which is the double of SDR SDRAM. The transfer rate of DDR is between
266~400 MT/s. DDR266 and DDR400 are of this type.

DDR2 SDRAM(Double Data Rate Two SDRAM):

Its primary benefit is the ability to operate the external data bus twice as fast as DDR SDRAM. This is achieved
by improved bus signal. The prefetch buffer of DDR2 is 4 bit(double of DDR SDRAM). DDR2 memory is at
the same internal clock speed (133~200MHz) as DDR, but the transfer rate of DDR2 can reach 533~800 MT/s
with the improved I/O bus signal. DDR2 533 and DDR2 800 memory types are on the market.

DDR3 SDRAM(Double Data Rate Three SDRAM):

DDR3 memory reduces 40% power consumption compared to current DDR2 modules, allowing for lower
operating currents and voltages (1.5 V, compared to DDR2's 1.8 V or DDR's 2.5 V). The transfer rate of DDR3
is 800~1600 MT/s. DDR3's prefetch buffer width is 8 bit, whereas DDR2's is 4 bit, and DDR's is 2 bit. DDR3
also adds two functions, such as ASR (Automatic Self-Refresh) and SRT (Self-Refresh Temperature). They can
make the memory control the refresh rate according to the temperature variation.

DDR4 SDRAM (Double Data Rate Fourth SDRAM):

DDR4 SDRAM provides the lower operating voltage (1.2V) and higher transfer rate. The transfer rate of DDR4
is 2133~3200 MT/s. DDR4 adds four new Bank Groups technology. Each bank group has the feature of
singlehanded operation. DDR4 can process 4 data within a clock cycle, so DDR4's efficiency is better than
DDR3 obviously. DDR4 also adds some functions, such as DBI (Data Bus Inversion), CRC

(Cyclic Redundancy Check) and CA parity. They can enhance DDR4 memory's signal integrity, and improve
the stability of data transmission/access.

cache memory
Cache memory is a chip-based computer component that makes retrieving data from the computer's
memory more efficient. It acts as a temporary storage area that the computer's processor can
retrieve data from easily. This temporary storage area, known as a cache, is more readily available
to the processor than the computer's main memory source, typically some form of DRAM.

Cache memory is sometimes called CPU (central processing unit) memory because it is typically
integrated directly into the CPU chip or placed on a separate chip that has a
separate bus interconnect with the CPU. Therefore, it is more accessible to the processor, and able
to increase efficiency, because it's physically close to the processor.
In order to be close to the processor, cache memory needs to be much smaller than main memory.
Consequently, it has less storage space. It is also more expensive than main memory, as it is a more
complex chip that yields higher performance.

What it sacrifices in size and price, it makes up for in speed. Cache memory operates between 10 to
100 times faster than RAM, requiring only a few nanoseconds to respond to a CPU request.

The name of the actual hardware that is used for cache memory is high-speed static random access
memory (SRAM). The name of the hardware that is used in a computer's main memory is dynamic
random access memory (DRAM).

Cache memory is not to be confused with the broader term cache. Caches are temporary stores of
data that can exist in both hardware and software. Cache memory refers to the specific hardware
component that allows computers to create caches at various levels of the network.

Types of cache memory

Cache memory is fast and expensive. Traditionally, it is categorized as "levels" that describe its
closeness and accessibility to the microprocessor. There are three general cache levels:

L1 cache, or primary cache, is extremely fast but relatively small, and is usually embedded in the
processor chip as CPU cache.

L2 cache, or secondary cache, is often more capacious than L1. L2 cache may be embedded on the
CPU, or it can be on a separate chip or coprocessor and have a high-speed alternative system bus
connecting the cache and CPU. That way it doesn't get slowed by traffic on the main system bus.

Level 3 (L3) cache is specialized memory developed to improve the performance of L1 and L2. L1
or L2 can be significantly faster than L3, though L3 is usually double the speed of DRAM.
With multicore processors, each core can have dedicated L1 and L2 cache, but they can share an L3
cache. If an L3 cache references an instruction, it is usually elevated to a higher level of cache.

In the past, L1, L2 and L3 caches have been created using combined processor and motherboard
components. Recently, the trend has been toward consolidating all three levels of memory caching
on the CPU itself. That's why the primary means for increasing cache size has begun to shift from
the acquisition of a specific motherboard with different chipsets and bus architectures to buying a
CPU with the right amount of integrated L1, L2 and L3 cache.

Contrary to popular belief, implementing flash or more dynamic RAM (DRAM) on a system won't
increase cache memory. This can be confusing since the terms memory caching (hard disk
buffering) and cache memory are often used interchangeably. Memory caching, using DRAM or
flash to buffer disk reads, is meant to improve storage I/O by caching data that is frequently
referenced in a buffer ahead of slower magnetic disk or tape. Cache memory, on the other hand,
provides read buffering for the CPU.
Tabular difference between DDR and GDDR memory

Following table mentions difference between DDR and GDDR memory types.

Specifications DDR

Bandwidth Lower Higher

Power consumption High Low

Heat dispersal requirements Higher Lower

Performance Low High

Capacity Low High

Speed Low High

Cost Less More