Elpro International School, Pune

Ready Reckoner
Session 2020-21

Subject: Science Topic: Science

Class : IX

Key notes for Chapter- L-5: The Fundamental Unit of Life Cell

It is the structural and functional unit of life.

• Cell is termed as the structural unit of life as it provides structure to our body.
• Cell is considered as the functional unit of life as all the functions of the body take place at cell level.

Discovery of cell:
• Discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665.
• Robert Brown in 1831 discovered the nucleus in the cell.

Cell Theory:

Cell theory states that:

• All living organisms are composed of cells.
• Cell is the fundamental unit of life.
• All new cells come from pre-existing cells.

Types of Organisms on the Basis of Number of Cells

There are two kinds of organisms on the basis of cells:
(i) Unicellular Organisms: The organisms that are made up of single cell and may constitute a whole
organism, are named as unicellular organisms.

For example: Amoeba, Paramecium, bacteria, etc.

(ii) Multicellular Organisms: The organisms which are composed of a collection of cells that assume function
in a coordinated manner, with different cells specialized to perform particular tasks in the body, are named as
multicellular organisms.

For example: Plants, human beings, animals, etc.

Shape and Size of Cells

• Cells vary in shape and size. They may be oval, spherical, rectangular, spindle shaped, or totally irregular like
the nerve cell.
• The size of cell also varies in different organisms. Most of the cells are microscopic in size like red blood cells
(RBC) while some cells are fairly large like nerve cells.
Types of Cells
The cells can be categorized in two types:
1. Prokaryotic Cell 2. Eukaryotic Cell

1. Prokaryotic cell
Prokaryotic cells are cells in which true nucleus is absent. They are primitive and incomplete cells. Prokaryotes
are always unicellular organisms. For example, archaebacteria, bacteria, blue green algae are all prokaryotes.

2. Eukaryotic Cell
Eukaryobc cells are the cells in which true nucleus is present. They are advanced and complete cells.
Eukaryotes include all living organisms (both unicellular and multicellular organisms) except bactera and blue
green algae.
Difference Between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells:

S. No. Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

Size of cell is generally small Size of cell is generally large

1.
(1-10 mm). (5-100 mm).

Nuclear membrane is absent. Nuclear membrane is

2.
present.

It contains single It contains more than one

3.
chromosome. chromosome.

4. Nucleolus is absent. Nucleolus is present.

Memrane bound cell Memrane bound cell

organelles are absent. organelles such as
mitochondria, plastids,
5.
endoplasmic reticulum, golgi
apparatus, lysosomes, etc.,
are present.

Structure of Cell
Cell is generally composed of three basic components:

(i) Cell wall and cell membrane

(ii) Nucleus

(iii) Cytoplasm

(i) Cell membrane or Plasma membrane:

Plasma membrane is the covering of the cell that separates the contents of the cell from its
external environment.

It is a living part of the cell and is present in cells of plants, animals and microorganisms.

It is very thin, delicate, elastic and selectively permeable membrane.

 It is composed of lipid and protein.

Function:
As it is selectively permeable membrane, it allows the flow of limited substances in and out of the cell.

(ii) Cell wall:

cell wall is non-living, thick and freely permeable covering made up of cellulose.

It is present in eukaryotic plant cells and in prokaryotic cells.

Functions:
• It determines the shape and rigidity to the plant cell.
• It protects the plasma membrane.
• It prevents desiccation or dryness in cell.
• It helps in the transport of varous substances in and out of the cell.

(iii) Nucleus:

Nucleus is dense and spherical organelle.

Nucleus is bounded by two membranes, both forming nuclear envelope. Nuclear envelope
contains many pores known as nuclear pores.

The fluid which present inside the nucleus is called nucleoplasm.

Nucleus contains chromosomes and chromosomes contain genes which are the centres of genetic
information.

Functions:
• Nucleus controls all the metabolic activities of the cell.
• It regulates the cell cycle.
• Nucleus is the storehouse of genes.It is concerned with the transmission of hereditary traits from the parent to
offspring.

(iv) Cytoplasm:
It is a jelly-like, viscous, colourless semi-fluid substance that occurs between the plasma
membrane and the nuclear membrane.

The aqueous ground substance of cytoplasm is called cytosol that contains a variety of cell
organelles and other insoluble waste products and storage products, like starch, glycogen, lipid,
etc.

Functions:
• Protoplasm acts as a store of vital chemicals like amino acids, proteins, sugars, vitamins, etc.
• It is the site of certain metabolic reactions, like glycolysis, synthesis of fatty acids, nucleotides, etc.
Cell organelles:

Inside the cell there are different parts performing different activities to keep the cell alive and functional.

These part are called Cell organelles. They are explained below:

1. Golgi Apparatus:

Golgi apparatus consists of a set of membrane bound, fluid filled vesicles, vacuoles and flattened
cisternae (closed sacks).

Cisternae are usually arranged parallel to each other.

Functions:
• Its main function is to store, modify, package and dispatch the substances.
• It is also involved in the synthesis of cell wall, plasma membrane and lysosomes.

2. Endoplasmic Reticulum:

It is a membranous network of tube like structures extending from nuclear membrane to plasma
membrane.

It is absent in prokaryotic cells and matured RBCs of mammals.

There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum:

(i) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER): Here ribosomes are present on the surface for the
synthesis of proteins.
(ii) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER): Here ribosomes are absent and is meant for secreting
lipids.

Functions:
• It gives internal support to cell.
• It helps in transport of various substances from nuclear membrane to plasma membrane or vice versa.
• RER helps in synthesis and transportation of proteins.
• SER helps in synthesis and transportation of lipids.
• This lipid and protein is used for the formation of cell membrane. This is called membrane biogenesis.
3. Ribosomes:

These are extremely small, dense and spherical bodies which occur freely in the matrix (cytosol)
or remain attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.

These are made up of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and proteins.

Function:

They play a major role in the synthesis of proteins.

4. Mitochondria:

They are small rod-shaped organelles.

It is a double membrane structure with outer membrane being smooth and porous whereas inner
membrane being thrown into a number of folds called cristae.

They contain their own DNA and ribosomes.

They are absent in bacteria and red blood cells of mammals.

Functions:
• They are the sites of cellular respiration, hence provide energy for the vital activities of living cells.
• They store energy releases during reactions, in the form of ATP (Energy currency of the cell). Therefore,
they are also called ‘powerhouse’ of the cell.

5. Centrosome and Centrioles:

Centrosome is found only in eukaryotic animal cells. It is not bounded by any membrane but
consists of centrioles.

Centroles are hollow cylindrical structures arranged at right angle to each other and made up of
microtubules.
Function:
Centrioles help in cell division and also help in the formation of cilia and flagella.

6. Plastids:

Plastids are present in most of the plant cells and absent in animal cells.

They are usually spherical or discoidal in shaped and double membrane bound organelles.

They also have their own DNA and ribosomes.

Plastids are of three types:

(a) Chloroplasts: These are the green coloured plastids containing chlorophyll. Chloroplasts aid
in the manufacture food by the process of photosynthesis.
(b) Chromoplasts: These are the colourful plastids (except green colour).
(c) Leucoplasts: These are the colourless plastids.

Function:
• Chloroplasts trap solar ebergy and utilise it to manufacture food for the plant.
• Chromoplasts impart various colours to flowers to attract insects for pollination.
• Lecuoplasts help in the storage of food in the form of starch, proteins and fats.

7. Lysosomes:

Lysosomes are small, spherical, sac like structures which contain several digestive enzymes
enclosed in a membrane.

They are found in eukaryotic cells mostly in animals.

Functions:
• Lysosomes help in digestion of foreign substances and worn-out cell organelles.
• They provide protection against bacteria and virus.
• They help to keep the cell clean.
• During the disturbance in cellular metabolism, for example when the cell gets damaged, lysosomes may burst
and the enzymes digest their own cell. Therefore, lysosomes are also known as suicide bags of a cell
8. Vacuoles:

Vacuoles are liquid/solid filled and membrane bound organelles.

In plant cells, vacuoles are large and permanent. In animal cells, vacuoles are small In size and
temporary.

In mature plant cell, It occupies 90% space of cell volume.

Due to its size, other organelles, including nucleus shift towards plasma membrane.

Function:
• They help to maintain the osmotic pressure in a cell.
• They provide turgidity and rigidity to the plant cell.

Difference Between Animal Cell and Plant Cell:

Animal cell Plant cell

Animal cells are generally Plant cells are larger than

small in size. animal cells.

Cell wall is absent. Plasma membrane of plant cell

is surrounded by a rigid cell
wall of cellulose.

Plastids are absent except in Plastids are present.

case of protozoan Euglena.

Here vacuoles are many, small They have a permanent and

and temporary. large central sap vacuole.

They have centrosome and They lack centrosome and

centrioles. centrioles.
Structure of Plant cell and Animal cell:
Plant Tissues

o The group of cells with similar in origin, structure and function are called tissues.

Meristematic Tissue

o The cells of meristematic tissue have the power of division, which mean these are the dividing tissues
of the plant.
o In meristematic tissues, the cells are highly active, have dense cytoplasm, large nucleus, thin
cytoplasm and vacuole smaller in size or may be absent.
o The new cells produced by meristematic cells are initially like meristem but later on maturation they
differentiate into other tissues.
PERMANENT TISSUES
o The meristem after attaining maturition loses their ability to divide and take up a specific role and
form permanent tissues.
o The process in which the meristematic tissues take a permanent shape, size and function is known as
differentiation.

Types of Simple Permanent Tissues

Complex Permanent Tissues

o These are the tissues made of different types of cells; all the cells combine to perform a common function.
o They constitute of vascular bundles.
o Complex permanent tissues are of two types:-
Epidermis
Epidermis is present on the outer surface of the entire plant body. The cells of the epidermal tissue form
a continuous layer without any intercellular space. It performs the following important functions:

(i) It is a protective tissue of the plant body It protects the plant against mechanical injury, bacteria,
fungi and loss of water.

(ii) It allows exchange of gases through the stomata

(iii) Some of the cells of root epidermis are modified into hair like structure. These root hairs increase
surface area to absorb water.
iv)The epidermis of desert plants are covered by waxy layer called cuticle which prevents loss of water.

Leaf Epidermis Root Epidermis

 ELPRO INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL, PUNE

Ready Reckoners 2020-21

CLASS: IX CHAPTER – 13 Why do we fall ill?

NAME:

1.” Health” is a state of being well enough to function well physically, mentally, and socially.

2.”Disease”( disturbed ease) means being uncomfortable. One or more systems of the body will change, give rise
to “Symptoms” ( Cough, loose motions, pus formation, headache, fever, breathlessness, vomiting, fits,
unconsciousness, inflammation , swelling and general effects – a Doctor look for the basis of symptoms).

Diseases are basically two types- Acute Disease & Chronic Disease.

3.Acute Disease: The disease which lasts for only a short period of time is called Acute Disease Ex. Common
Cold.
4.Chronic Disease: The disease which lasts for long period of time is called Chronic Disease Ex. Tuberculosis.
Acute Disease Chronic Disease

They are short duration disease They are long lasting disease

Patient recovers completely after the cure Patient does not recover completely

There is no loss of weight or feeling of There is often loss of weight of feeling

tiredness afterward of tiredness

There is short duration loss of work and There is a prolonged loss of work and
efficiency efficiency

5. Causes of Diseases : Most of the diseases have many causes, rather than one single cause, like unclean water,
nourishment, genetic differences, genetic abnormalities e.g. Based on the causes diseases are of two types: Non-
Infectious Diseases and Infectious Diseases.
6. Non-Infectious Diseases: Not caused by infectious agents, mostly internal and non- infectious cause. Ex.
Cancer
7. Infectious Diseases: Caused by infectious agents.

Type Of Disease
• Bacterial diseases – Typhoid, Cholera, Tuberculosis, Acne, Anthrax,
• Viral diseases – Common Cold, Influenza, Dengue fever, AIDS, Japanese encephalitis or brain fever
• Fungal diseases: Skin diseases
• Protozoan diseases -Malaria ( Plasmodium), Kalaazar (Leishmania), Sleeping sickness( Trypanosomes)
• . Worm diseases – Ascariosis ( Round worm), Elephantiasis(Wuchereria )
8. The infectious diseases spread by agents are called as Communicable Diseases.
Type of
SNo Disease Example
 Air born
1. Diseases Pneumonia, common cold, Tuberculosis;

Water born
2. diseases Cholera, hepatitis

Sexual
3. Diseases HIV, Syphilis

– Rabbis.
*(Vector- the animal carrying infectious agent from a sick
personto another potential host without getting affected Ex.
Animal born
4. Disease Mosquitocarrying Malaria Parasite)

9. Principles of Treatment
• Treatment to reduce symptoms
• Treatment to remove the root cause of the disease
1. Antibiotics– many bacteria make a cell wall to protect themselves, the antibiotic (Penicillin) blocks the
bacterial process that builds cell wall and blocks the biochemical pathways. Antibiotics do not work against
viral infections. Antiviral medicine is harder than making Antibacterial medicine because Virus has only few
biochemical mechanisms of their own. Other medicines bring down fever, reduce pain or loose motions. We
can take bed rest to conserve energy.

10 Principles of Prevention :

Why is Prevention better than cure?

• Once someone has disease, their body functions are damaged and may never recover completely.
• Treatment will take time, which means that someone suffering from a disease is likely to be bedridden for
some time even if we can give proper treatment.
• The person suffering from an infectious disease can serve as the source from where the infection may spread
to other people.
General ways of preventing infectious disease
• Air-borne – We can prevent exposure by providing living condition that are not over crowded.
• Water-borne – prevent by providing safe drinking water. This is done by treating the water to kill any
microbial contamination.
• Vector-borne – We can provide clean environment, which would not allow mosquito breeding.
• Proper nutrition is essential to maintain body immunity. There are vaccines against tetanus, diphtheria,
whooping cough, measles, polio and many other diseases.

Vaccination is another way to prevent the disease in which killed microbes are introduced into the body to develop
antibodies and can prevent occurrence of disease during actual entry of disease causing microbes.
 ELPRO INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL, PUNE

Ready Reckoners 2020-21

CLASS: IX SUB: SCIENCE(CHEMISTRY)

NAME:

UNIT 2- IS MATTER AROUND US PURE

Compounds

Compound is a pure substance made up of two or more elements combined chemically in a definite ratio.
Characteristics:
1. The properties of compound differ from those of its constituents. 2. Compound has fixed melting point and
boiling point.

3. Compound is a homogeneous substance.

4. Constituent elements can be separated by chemical process.

Mixtures

It is made up of two or more elements or compounds mixed in any ratio/proportion. Properties:

• It may be homogeneous of heterogeneous.

• The properties of constituent substances are retained. • No new compound is formed.

• Elements can be separated by simple physical processes. • It does not have fixed melting and boiling point.

Separation of Mixtures

Physical and Chemical Change

Concentration of solution

UNIT 3- ATOMS AND MOLECULES

Laws of Chemical Combination

Given by Lavoisier and Joseph L. Proust as follows:

(I) Law of conservation of mass: Mass can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.

e.g. A+B-àC+D Reactants R Products

Mass of reactants = Mass of products

(II) Law of constant proportion: In a chemical substance the elements are always present in definite
proportions by mass.

E.g., in water, the ratio of the mass of hydrogen to the mass of oxygen is always 1 : 8 respectively.
These laws lacked explanation. Hence, John Dalton gave his theory about the matter. He said that the smallest
particle of matter is called ‘atom’.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1. Every matter is made up of very small or tiny particles called atoms.

2. Atoms are not divisible and cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction.

3. All atoms of a given element it are same in size, “mass and chemical properties.

4. Atoms of different elements are different in size, mass and chemical properties.

5. Atoms combine in the ratio of small whole number to form compounds.

6. The relative number and kinds of atoms are constant in a given compound.
Atom
Atoms are the smallest particles of an element which can take reaction.
Size of an atom: Atomic radius is measured in nanometers.
1m =109 nm
Atomic radii of hydrogen atom = 1 × 10–10 m.
Symbols used for some common elements are given below

Molecule
It is the smallest particle of an element- or a Compound which can exist independently. • Molecules of an
element constitute same type of atoms.

• Molecules may be monoatomic, di-atomic or polyatomic.

• Molecules of compounds join in definite proportions and constitute different type of atoms.
Atomicity
The number of atoms constituting a Molecule is known as its atomicity.

Chemical Formula of some compounds

Molecular Mass

It is the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in a molecule of the substance. It is expressed in atomic
mass unit (u).
e.g., H2 + O2 →H2O [H = 1, 0 = 16] 1 × 2 + 16 = 18 u
Formula Unit Mass
It is the sum of the atomic masses of all atoms in a formula unit of a compound. The constituent particles are
ions.
e.g., Na+ + Cl– → NaCl

1 × 23 + 1 × 35.5 = 58.5 u
Mole Concept
Definition of mole: It is defined as one mole of any species (atom, molecules, ions or particles) is that quantity
in number having a mass equal to its atomic or molecular mass in grams.
1 mole = 6.022 × 1023 in number

Molar mass = mass of 1 mole → is always expressed in r gram, and is also known as gram atomic mass.

1u of hydrogen has → 1 atom of hydrogen 1 g of hydrogen has → 1 mole of hydrogen = 6.022 × 1023 atoms of
hydrogen

UNIT 4-STRUCTURE OF ATOM

Sub-atomic particles of atom

(a) Electrons – negatively charged with charge of –1 and negligible mass.

(b) Protons – Positively charged with charge of +1 and mass is 1 u.

(c) Neutrons – Particles are with no charge and mass of 1 u.

Thomson’s model of an atom
Thomson’s model of an atom proposed that:

An atom is a uniform sphere of positive charges (due to presence of protons) as well as negative charges (due to
presence of electrons).

Atom as a whole is electrically neutral because the negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude.

This model is also known as water melon model, plum pudding model and apple pie model. Limitations of
Thomson’s Model:

It failed to explain how protons and electrons were arranged in atom so close to each other.

Rutherford’s model of an atom

This was based on an experiment in which α – particles were bombarded on a thin gold foil.
Observations of Rutherford’s α-particle scattering experiment are:
(a) Most of the α – particles passed without any hindrance.
(b) Some of the α – particles deflected from their original path at a noticeable angle.
(c) Very few of the α – particles bounced back at their original path
Postulates of Rutherford’s Model of Atom:
(a) Most of the part in an atom is empty.
(b) There is a positively charged center in atom, which contains nearly the whole mass of atom. The centre is
called nucleus.

(c) The size of nucleus is very small compared to an atom.

(d) Electrons revolve round the nucleus.

Drawbacks of Rutherford Model

(a) According to Rutherford’s Model, electron revolves round the positively charged nucleus which is not
expected to be stable. But a charged particle in an accelerated motion along a circular path would continuously
undergo loss of energy and finally would fall into nucleus. This makes an atom unstable while atoms are quite
stable.

(b) Rutherford model could not solve the problem of atomic mass of atom as it proposed only the existence of
protons in the nucleus.

Bohr’s model of an atom This model of atom states that:

• An atom consists of heavy positively charged nucleus. The whole mass of the atom is concentrated in the
nucleus.
• The electrons in an atom revolve around the nucleus in definite circular paths called orbits or energy level.
• Each energy level is associated with definite amount of energy.
• The change in energy takes place when electron jumps from one energy level to another energy level.
.Bohr-Bury scheme

• The number of electrons that can be present in a given shell is 2n2, when ‘n’ is the number of shell.
• Maximum number of electrons in the outermost orbit should not exceed 8.

Valency
• The combining capacity of the atoms of an element is valency.

• Elements having 1, 2, 3, and 4 electrons in the valence shell, has valency equal to number of electrons.

• Elements having more than 4 electrons in the valence shell has valency equal to 8 minus the number of valence
electrons.
Atomic number and mass number
• Atomic number (z) is number of protons in one atom of an element.

• Mass number (A) is the sum of protons and neutrons present in the atom of the element. • Notation for an atom
Isotopes
• Isotopes are the atoms of the same element, having some atomic number but different mass number.

• Isotopes are useful as nuclear fuel (Uranium), in medical field, in carbon dating (Carbon), etc.
Examples-Isotopes of hydrogen - protium, deuterium, tritium
Isobars
• Isotopes are the atoms of the different element, having some mass number but different atomic number.
Examples – Calcium –20 and Argon- 18
 ELPRO INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL, PUNE
Work and Energy
Work (W)

Work is defined as a force acting upon an object to cause a displacement

It is expressed as the product of force and displacement in the direction of force.

W=F x s
Here, W= work done on an object
F = Force on the object
s = Displacement of the object
The unit of Work is Newton metre (Nm) or joule (J).
1 Joule is defined as the amount of work done by force of 1 N when displacement is 1 m.

Nature of Work Done

• when both the force and the displacement are in the same direction, positive work is done.
W=Fxs
• when force acts in a direction opposite to the direction of displacement, the work done is negative.
W= − F x s

Angle between force and displacement is 180o.

• If force and displacement are inclined at an angle less than 180o, then work done is given as:

W= Fs cosθ

• If force and displacement act at an angle of 90° then work done is zero.
Necessary Conditions for Work to be done

Two conditions need to be satisfied for work to be done:

• Force should act on the object.

• Object must be displaced.
Energy
The capacity of a body to do work is called the energy of the body.
Unit of energy = Joules

1KJ = 1000 J

Forms of Energy

The various forms of energy are potential energy, kinetic energy, heat energy, chemical energy, electrical energy
and light energy.

Kinetic Energy

• It is the energy possessed by a body due to its motion. Kinetic energy of an object increases with its speed.
• Kinetic energy of body moving with a certain velocity = work done on it to make it acquire that velocity
Derivation

Let an object of mass m, starts from rest and attains a uniform velocity v, after a force F is applied on it. Let during
this period the object be be displaced by distance s.
Potential Energy
The energy possessed by a body due to its position or shape is called its potential energy.

For Example:

• Water stored in a dam has large amount of potential energy due to its height above the ground.
• A stretched rubber band possesses potential energy due to its distorted shape.
Types of Potential Energy

On the basis of position and change in shape of object, potential energy is of two type:

1. Gravitational Potential Energy:

It is the energy possessed by a body due to it position above the ground.

2. Elastic Potential Energy:

It is the energy possessed by a body due to its change in shape.

Expression for Potential Energy

The potential energy (Ep) is equal to the work done over an object of mass ‘m’ to raise it by a height ‘h’.

Thus, Ep = mgh, where g = acceleration due to gravity.

Law of Conservation of Energy

It states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but it can be transformed from one form to another.

The total energy before and after the transformation remains the same.

Proof of Law of Conservation of Energy

Let a body of mass m falls from a point A, which is at a height h from the ground as shown in the following figure:
At point A,

Kinetic energy Ek = 0

Potential energy Ep = mgh

Total energy, EA = Ep + Ek

⟹ EA = mgh + 0

⟹ EA = mgh

During the fall, after moving a distance x from A, the body has reached at B.

At point B,

Let the velocity at this point be v.

We know, v2 = u2 + 2as

⟹ v2 = 0 + 2ax = 2ax [As, velocity at A, u = 0]

Also, Kinetic energy, Ek = 1/2 mv2

⟹ Ek =1/2 m × 2gx

⟹ Ek = mgx

Potential energy, Ep = mg(h – x)

So, total energy, EB = Ep + Ek

⟹ EB = mg (h − x) + mgx

⟹ EB = mgh – mgx + mgx

⟹ EB = mgh

At the end the body reaches the position C on ground.

At point C,

Potential energy, Ep = 0

Velocity of the body is zero here.

So, v2 = u2 + 2as

⟹ v2 = 0 + 2gh = 2gh

Kinetic energy, Ek = 1/2 mv2

⟹ Ek = 1/2 x m x 2gh = mgh

Total energy at C

EC = Ep + Ek

EC = 0 + mgh

EC = mgh

Hence, energy at all points remains same.

Power

The time rate of doing work is defined as power (P).

Power= work/time
Unit of power
• sI unit of Power is Joule per second or Js1.
• 1 watt is the power when 1J of work is done in 1s.
• The bigger unit of power is Kilowatt and represented by kW.
1kW = 1000W
• Some another units to measure power are:

1 Megawatt = 106 watt

1 horse power = 746 watt

Commercial unit of energy

• Commercial unit of energy is kilo watt hour (kWh)
• The unit kilowatt-hour means one kilowatt of power supplied for one hour.

1 kWh = 1 kW x 1 h

= 1000 W x 60 x 60 s

= 1000 Js-1 x 3600 s

= 3.6 x 106 J

1 unit = 1 kilowatt hour = 3.6x106 J.

Try the following questions:

Q1. Does work have a direction?

Q2. A body of mass 25 g has a momentum of 0.40 kgm/s.Find its kinetic energy.

Q3. A body of mass 3.0kg and a body B of mass 10 kg are dropped simultaneously from a height of 9m. Calculate
their Momenta, their Potential energies and kinetic energies when they are 10m above the ground.

Q4. A light and heavy body have equal momenta. Which one has greater kinetic energy?

Q5. Why does a person standing for a long time get tired when he does not appear to do any work?
GRAVITATION

GRAVITATION :
The force of attraction between objects because of their mass is called the gravitational force.
eg -1.Attraction between the earth and moon.2.Attraction between the sun and planets.3.Attraction of
objects towards earth.(falling apple).
UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION
This law states that “Every object in the universe attracts every other object with a force which is
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them. The force is along the line joining the centres of two objects.”
i.e. F α M1. M 2
F α 1/d2
F α M1. M 2/d2
F= G.M 1 .M2 /d2

• G is the constant of proportionality and is called the universal gravitation constant.

• SI unit -N m 2 kg–2
• The accepted value of G is 673 x 10–11 N m2 kg–2 .
• It was discovered by Henry Cavendish (1731 – 1810)

Importance of the universal law of gravitation

It explained
(i) the force that binds us to the earth;
(ii) the motion of the moon around the earth;
(iii) the motion of planets around the Sun;
(iv) the tides due to the moon and the Sun.
FREE FALL

• The earth attracts objects towards it due to gravitational force. When an object falls towards the
earth due to the earth’s gravitational force it is called free fall.

When an object falls towards the earth there is a change in its acceleration due to the gravitational
force of the earth. So this acceleration is called acceleration due to gravity.

• The acceleration due to gravity is denoted by g.

• The unit of g is same as the unit of acceleration ms -2 .

From the second law of motion, force is the product of mass and acceleration.
 F = ma
For free fall, a=g.
F = mg .
Also from gravitational law F= G.M x m/d 2
mg = G M x m/d2
g = G m/d2
where M is the mass of the earth and d is the distance between the object and the earth.
For objects near or on the surface of the earth d is equal to the radius of the earth R
mg = G M x m/ R 2 or g = G M/ R 2.
-2
Putting value of G,R and M we get value of g is 9.8 ms .
MASS :

• Mass is the measurement of inertia.

• Greater the mass, the greater is the inertia.
• mass of an object is constant and does not change from place to place.
• SI unit : Kg (kilogram).

WEIGHT :

• The weight of an object is the force with which it is attracted towards the earth.
• The SI unit of weight is the same as force – Newton (N).
• Weight is denoted by ‘W’.
• W =m g .
• The weight of a body changes from place to place.
• The weight of an object on the moon is one sixth (1/6 th ) of its weight on the earth.

Some extra questions-

1.Why is ‘G’ called the universal gravitational constant?
Ans-The constant ‘G’ is universal because it is independent of the nature and sizes of bodies, the space where
they are kept and at the time at which the force is considered.
2. How is gravitation different from gravity?
Ans-Gravitation is the force of attraction between any two bodies while gravity refers to attraction between any
body and the earth.
3. At what place on the earth’s surface is the weight of a body maximum?
Ans-At the poles.
4. If the mass of a body is 9.8 kg on the earth, what would be its mass on the moon?
Ans-It will remain the same on the moon, i.e., 9.8 kg.
5. Is weight a force?
Ans-Yes.
6. What keeps the moon in uniform circular motion around the earth?
Answer:
Gravitational force between moon and the earth keeps moon in uniform circular motion around the earth.
Notes- Force and Laws of Motion

Force: It is a push or pull on an object. unit of force is Newton.

• A force can do -
(a) It can change the speed of a body.
(b) It can change the direction of motion of a body.
(c) It can change the shape of a body.
• Balanced forces: Forces are said to be balanced forces if they nullify one another and their resultant force
is zero.
 Unbalanced Force:-If the resultant of applied forces are greater than zero the forces are called unbalanced
forces. An object in rest can be moved because of applying balanced forces.

• Inertia: The natural tendency of an object to resist a change in their state of rest or of uniform motion is
called inertia.
The mass of an object is a measure of its inertia.
Its S.I. unit is kg.
A body with greater mass has greater inertia.

• Newton's First Law of Motion: Any object remains in the state of rest or in uniform motion along
a straight line, until it is compelled to change the state by applying external force.

Newton’s First Law of Motion in Everyday Life:

a. A person standing in a bus falls backward when bus is start moving suddenly. This happens
because the person and bus both are in rest while bus is not moving, but as the bus starts
moving the legs of the person start moving along with bus but rest portion of his body has
tendency to remain in rest. Because of this person falls backward; if he is not alert.
b. A person standing in a moving bus falls forward if driver applies brakes suddenly. This
happens because when bus is moving, the person standing in it is also in motion along with
bus. But when driver applies brakes the speed of bus decreases suddenly or bus comes in the
state of rest suddenly, in this condition the legs of the person which are in the contact with bus
come in rest while the rest parts of his body have tendency to remain in motion. Because of this
person falls forward if he is not alert.

• Second law of motion: The rate of change of momentum of an object is proportional to the applied
unbalanced force in the direction of the force. Mathematically,

Momentum: The momentum of an object is the product of its mass and velocity and has the same direction as
that of the velocity. Its S.I. unit is kg m/s.
1 Newton: A force of one Newton produces an acceleration of 1 m/s2 on an object of mass 1 kg.
IN. = 1 kg m/s2 (F = ma)

Newton’s Second Law of Motion in everyday life:

(a) A fielder pulls his hand backward; while catching a cricket ball coming with a great speed-
According to Newton’s Second Law of Motion; rate of change of momentum is directly
proportional to the force applied in the direction.

by pulling the hand backward a fielder gives more time to the change of momentum to become zero and
force is reduced. This prevents the hands of fielder from getting hurt.

(b) For athletes of long and high jump sand bed or cushioned bed is provided to allow a delayed change of
momentum to zero because of jumping of athlete.

By providing a cushioned bed, the reduction of the momentum of the athlete to zero is delayed. Thus,
reduces the force. This prevents the athlete from getting hurt.

(c) Seat belts in car - Seat belts in the vehicles prevent the passenger from getting thrown in the direction of
motion. In case of emergency, such as accidents or sudden braking, passengers may be thrown in the
direction of motion of vehicle and may get fatal injuries. The stretchable seat belts increase the time of the
rate of momentum to be reduced to zero. The delayed reduction of momentum to zero prevents passengers
from such fatal injury.

Third law of motion: To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction and they act on two different
bodies.

a. Walking of a person - A person is able to walk because of the Newton’s Third Law of Motion.
During walking, a person pushes the ground in backward direction and in the reaction the
ground also pushes the person with equal magnitude of force but in opposite direction. This
enables him to move in forward direction against the push.
b. Recoil of gun - When bullet is fired from a gun, the bullet also pushes the gun in opposite
direction, with equal magnitude of force. This results in gunman feeling a backward push from
the butt of gun.
c. Propulsion of a boat in forward direction – Sailor pushes water with oar in backward direction;
resulting water pushing the oar in forward direction. Consequently, the boat is pushed in
forward direction. Force applied by oar and water are of equal magnitude but in opposite
directions.

Conservation of momentum: If the external force on a system is zero, the momentum of the system remains
constant i.e., in an isolated system, the total momentum remains conserved.
Suppose A and B are two balls, they have mass mA and and initial velocities uA and uB as shown in above figure
before collision. The two bodies collide and force is exerted by each body. There is change in their velocities
due to collision.
(mAuA + mAuB) is the total momentum of the two balls A and B before collision and (mAvA + mBvB) is their
total momentum after the collision.
The sum of momenta of the two objects before collision is equal to the sum of momentum after the collision,
provided there is no external unbalanced force acting on them.
This is known as the law of conservation of momentum.

Some extra questions-

Which law of motion gives the measure of force?

Answer:
Newton’s second law of motion.

Write the C.G.S unit of force.

Answer:
Dyne.

Define 1 newton force.

Answer:
1 newton is the magnitude of force which produces an acceleration of 1 m/s2 in a body of mass 1 kg.

What do balanced forces usually do to a body?

Answer:
Balanced forces usually produce a change in the shape of the body.

Do action and reaction act on the same body?

Answer:
No, action and reaction act on different bodies.

What is the total momentum of a bullet and a gun before firing?

Answer:
Zero

Name the physical quantity that corresponds to the rate of change of momentum.
Answer:
Force.
Why does a boat tend to leave the shore, when passengers are alighting from it?
Answer:
When the passengers alight from the boat, they push the boat in backward direction. As a result, the boat has a
tendency to slip back into water. This difficulty is usually overcome by the boatman by tying the boat to some
rigid support.

Motion

Motion: Movement of any object from one position to another position with the passage of time.
Reference point: point from which the location of object is measured.

Position in straight line Motion

Positive sign shows position in right (positive) direction

Negative sign shows position in left (negative) direction

Zero is usually considered as origin.

For example- Position of X= +1 m, Position of Y = -3m

Here (+) and (-) sign indicates the direction of object from the origin and 1m, 3m represents the distance of
object from the origin.

Vector and Scalar:

Vector_- Magnitude and direction. Example- Force, position etc.

Scalar- only magnitude. Example- Temperature, mass etc.

Distance and Displacement:

Distance: Length of actual path moved by the body. It is a scalar quantity.

Displacement: Shortest straight line path between initial and final position.

Note- If the initial and final is same the displacement will be zero.

Distance depends upon the path but displacement does not.

Uniform and Non-uniform motion-

Uniform motion: It is a motion in which equal distance is covered in equal interval of time.

Non uniform motion is the motion in which object covers unequal distance in equal intervals of time.

Speed and Velocity:

Speed: Distance travelled in unit time. Scalar quantity, unit is m/s

Speed = distance travelled/time taken

Average speed= total distance/total time

Velocity- Displacement of body in unit time, vector quantity, unit m/s

Velocity= displacement/ time

Acceleration- rate of change of velocity. Vector quantity, unit m/s2

Acceleration = (final velocity - initial velocity) / time

Acceleration =a, initial velocity = u, final velocity = v, time =t

a = (v- u) / t

Note – if velocity increases with time its positive acceleration

If velocity decreases with time its negative acceleration or retardation.

Graphical Representation of Motion:

Distance- Time Graph

a) graph is parallel to time axis body is at rest.

b) graph is straight line object is moving with uniform speed or speed is constant.

c) graph is curve – object is moving with non-uniform speed or variable speed

Note- slope of distance-time graph = speed

Equations of uniform accelerated motion:

Relation among velocity, distance, time and acceleration is called equations of motion. There are three
equations of motion for bodies moving with uniform acceleration.

First equation of motion: v = u + at

Second equation of motion: S= ut + ½ at2

Third equation of motion v2 = u2 + 2as

Velocity-Time Graph for Uniform Acceleration:

Velocity-Time graph for uniform acceleration, is a straight line as shown below:

2. Velocity-Time Graph for Non-Uniform Acceleration:

Velocity-Time graph for non-uniform acceleration, is obtained as a zig-zag line as shown below:

2. Velocity-time graph- acceleration is zero (velocity constant)

velocity

time

Slope of velocity time graph= acceleration

Area under the graph = distance/displacement

Uniform circular motion: When an object moves on a circular path with constant or uniform speed

Speed of an Object Moving on a Circular Path:

Extra Questions Very Short Answer Questions

1. Are rest and motion absolute or relative terms?

Ans- They are relative terms.
2. Can the displacement be greater than the distance travelled by an object?
Ans-No, it is always either equal to or less than the distance travelled by the object.
3. When do the distance and displacement of a moving object have the same magnitude?
Ans-The magnitude of distance and displacement of a moving object are same when the object moves along the
same straight line in the same fixed direction.
4. Can a body have constant speed but variable velocity?
Ans-Yes, e.g. a body in uniform circular motion has constant speed but due to the change in the direction of
motion, its velocity changes at every point.
5. Differentiate between distance and displacement.
Answer:

6. Write three equations of motion.

Ans- v = u +at

S = ut +1/2 at2

V2 = u2 + 2as.