MEDIA INFLUNCE AND AWARENESS OF CHILDREN’S RIGHTS AT

MAKINDYE DIVISION IN KAMPALA

UGANDA

A Thesis

Presented to the School of

Postgraduate Studies and Researc

Kampala International University

Kampala, Uganda

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree

Masters of Arts in Human Rights and Development

By:

Nthigah Nicholus Murimi

MHD/14363/111/DF

September, 2012
 APPROVAL SKEET
This thesis entitled, Media influence and awareness of children’s rights in Makindye
Division, prepared and submitted by Mr. Murimi Nicholus in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Human Rights and Development has
been examined and approved by the panel on oral examination.

pv~ YY~L.4l~~ ~
Name and sig. of Chairperson ___________________________

Name and sig. of Panelist

I ~ ~fr~J
Name and sig. of Supervisor Name and sig. of Panelist

Name and sig. of Panelist

Date of Comprehensive Examination:___________________________

Grade: _____________________________

Name and sig. of Director, CHDR

Name and sig. of DVC, S

III
 DEDICATION
This book is dedicated with deepest love and affection to my parent, Mum (Mrs.
Nthigah Nancy), Dad (Mr. Nthigah Patrick). Their unconditional love, wisdom,
encouragement and strength have inspired me to be the best I can be and shaped
whom I am today.

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 Acronyms

SCM Save the Children Movement

IPU International Peace Union

UN United Nations

TV Television

UDHR Universal Declaration of Human Rights

CVI Content Validity Index

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, glory back to God for having helped and guided me to accomplish this work
in the Scheduled time. I owe gratitude to my wonderful Parent for their constant
Support and effort for motivating me to higher achievements.

With great pleasure, I cordially thank my Uncle, Dr. KIMATHI Moses for the
encouragement he bestowed in me, I thank him for understanding my abilities and
helping me unlock my potential.

To my lovely brother, GITONGA Charles, Sister, MUKAMI Lucy for their long and
interesting conversation we had till dawn and for their brilliant ideas, from which I
always benefit.

I thank all the participant who gave their feedback on the questionnaires, shared their
thoughts and encouraged me to write this book. Their positive feedback has supported
me in developing this simple presentation of such a complex subject.

To my friends, WACUKA Mary, MURIMI Antony, WANGECH Beatrice, MURIMI Jack,

KIMANI Antony, MBOGO Joseph for efficiently and responsibly taking over the research
assistant role during this project. That was a quality service you showed. Thank you.

My heartfelt gratitude and appreciation goes to Dr. ABUGA Isaac, whose help, brilliant
creativity, guidance and enthusiasm have guided this book from its conception to its
completion.

I thank the DVC CHDR for the professional guidance and intellectual support. I thank
the Members of the Panel; Chairperson; Dr. MWANIKI Roseanne, Dr. ABUGA Isaac, and
Pastor RWABUHIHI Festus for accepting to critically examine and evaluate this
intellectual piece of work.

I thank my classmates for always being there and for their continued friendship. I could
not ask for a better sounding board and friend.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PRELIMINARY PAGES

DECLARATION A

DECLARATION B ii

APPROVAL SHEET iii

Dedications iv
Acknowledgements v
Table of contents vi
List of Tables vii
Abstract viii
Chapter

One: THE PROBLEM AND ITS SCOPE 1

Background of the Study 1

Statement of the Problem 2

Purpose of the Study 3

Research Objectives 4

Research Questions 4

Hypothesis 4

Scope 5

Significance of the Study 6

vi
 Operational Definitions of Key Terms 6

Two REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Concepts, Ideas, Opinions From Authors/Experts 7

Theoretical Perspectives 11

Related Studies 15

Three METHODOLOGY 18

Research Design 18

Research Population 18

Sample Size 18

Sampling Procedure 19
Research Instrument 20

Validity and Reliability of the Instrument 20

Data Gathering Procedures 21

Data Analysis 21

Ethical Considerations 23

Limitations of the Study 23

Four DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS 25

Introduction 25

Description of respondents 25

The level of Media influence 28

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 The level of Children’s Rights awareness 32

Relationship between Media influence and awareness 36

Significant difference between Media influence and awareness 37

Five FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS 39

Findings 39

Conclusions 40

Recommendations 40

References 44

Appendices 46

Appendix I - Transmittal Letter 46

Appendix II - Clearance from Ethics Committee 51

Appendix III - Informed Consent 54

Appendix IV - Calculation of the sample size 55

Appendix V - Research Instrument 56

Appendix VI - Proposed data presentation through tables 61

Appendix VII — Content Validity Index 63

Appendix VIII — Proposed budget 65

Appendix IX — Time schedule 66

ResearcherTs Curriculum Vitae 67

VII
LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

Table 1.Respondents of the study 19

Table 2~Demographic characteristics of respondents 26

Table 3.Level of Media influence 29

Table 4.Level of Children’s rights awareness 33

Table 5~Relationship between Media influence and awareness 37

Table 6Significant difference between Media influence and awareness 38

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 ABSTRACT
The background of the study explains the history of mass media back beyond the
dawns of recorded history to the people that figured out that they could reach audience
through painting picture on cave walls. Research objectives was(i) to identify
demographic characteristics of the respondents (ii) to identify the level of media
influence on children (iii) to identify the level of awareness of children’s rights(iv) to
establish if there is a significance relation on independent variable and dependent
variable(v) to establish if there is a significant difference in IV and DV. The geographical
scope was Makindye Division a Kampala suburb. The researcher’s area of interest was
to test theoretical perspective. Cultivation theory by George Gerbner in 1976, was used
ad validated, it argues that Television has long term effects which are small, gradual,
indirect but cumulative and significant. The study employed descriptive survey design
which was used to discover casual relationships between the two variables. Sloven’s
formula was used to arrive at the sample size. To ensure validity of instruments,
content validity index was used and reliability of the instrument was established by
corn-bachs coefficient alpha variable. Data gathering procedure before and after
administration of questionnaires was followed to the letter. To ensure confidentiality of
data collected ethical consideration were put in place Data presentation, analysis and
interpretation was tabulated using spss Method, this included the analysis of
demographic characteristics of respondents, the IV (Media influence) and DV
(Awareness of children’s rights) whose summary was done in terms of mean. The
hypothesis was accepted on both correlation and regression hence significant effect on
two variables. The researcher found out non~violent and collaborative ways was not
supposed to be used as a viable option and he did recommends diplomatic ways of
solving problems to be used, ie dialogue.

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 CHAPTER ONE

THE PROBLEM AND ITS SCOPE

Back ground

The history of mass media is long and complex. It stretches back beyond the
dawns of recorded history to the people that figured out that they could reach a larger
audience through painting a picture on a cave wall than just by telling the story to
whatever group happened to be present. While these distant mass communicators may
not have been Homo sapiens certainly they were human, As James Shreeve points out
in The Neanderthal Enigma p312:

It is hard to argue with the fact that mass media has a compelling effect on the
human mind. Especially on minds which are more impressionable. For example, the
mass media influence on children is understandably higher than it is in adults. So how
exactly does mass media influence us? Media influence or media effects refer to the
theories about the ways in which mass media affect how their audiences think and
behave.

Early European notions of what would now be recognized as children’s rights

emphasized both children’s need for special protection and their place in society within
families and schools, but not in the workplace. The first identification of children as
subjects of rights, rather than objects of concern, is usually associated with the work of
Eglantyne Jebb. One outcome of this splendid Edwardian lady’s experiences in
charitable work with the Macedonian Relief Fund during the Balkan War of the early
twentieth century was that, at the outbreak of the First World War, she declared herself
a peace lover. This was not a popular decision among the patriotic British public, but
she remained committed, insisting that “all wars are waged against children.”

1
 Miss Jebb was the prime mover behind both the Save the Children Movement
(SCM) and the International Peace Union (IPU). The former organization, set up in
1919, was dedicated to child protection and operated under a Declaration of Child
Rights. This was the first global charter protecting the rights of a particular section of
the community focused on children. It was taken over almost without alteration by the
League of Nations in 1924 as the Geneva Declaration of the Rights of the Child, and
with some additions and amendments by the United Nations (UN) in 1959,

Children’s rights are the human rights of children with particular attention to the
rights of special protection and care afforded to the young, including their right to
association with both biological parents, human identity as well as the basic needs for
food, universal state-paid education, health care and criminal laws appropriate for the
age and development of the child. Amnesty International, Retrieved 2/23/08.

There is a growing need amongst the youth to be accepted as a part of a group,

to be popular, to have friends and relationships with people of the opposite sex etc.
Mass media experts understand this need of the people and hence they come out with
advertisements on Television (TV), or in the newspapers, or on websites on how people
can be more popular using a certain product. Most advertisements you see which are
aimed at the youth generally talk about the ‘cool quotient’ of the product and how it is
going to be the next ‘in-thing’. And if you want to stay ahead of the game, it is
absolutely vital that you procure it. The visual effect, seeing the things happen in front
of you and the slice-of-life effect makes them look a lot believable than they should be.

Statement of the prob’em

“Children have the right to reliable information from the media which should not
promote materials that could harm them.”[UNICEF,lggl], however there is hardly any
restriction placed on the dreadful things that media has to offer and so children these
days have easy access to all that they should not be seeing or hearing in the media.
This simply means that the media are not playing their role where protecting children is

2
concerned. In today’s society where the mass media convey all forms of negativity the
media violates the rights of a child by exposing them to crime and violence, giving them
access to sexuality explicit content and by creating false sense of reality in which they
believe almost everything they see.

The media expose children to crime and violence on daily basis. This is so
because everyday at least child watch the television, listen to the radio, play video
games or surf the internet. Huesman [1986] as cited in kundanis [2003] is of the view
that children with poor academic skills are more aggressive and are the ones who
watch more violence on the television. It is believed that violence in the media leads to
aggressive behavior. (Abel, 2005, Huesmann, 1986 as cited in kundanis, 2003 &
Johnson,1998). All of these authors believe that if children are exposed to violence in
the media it will have a negative impact on them in which they will become aggressive.
Children who behave aggressively tend to carry this behavior with them to adulthood
and sometimes cause damage to those around them. According to Johnson (1998),
children act out what they see in the Television. Therefore the researcher will examine
whether violent programs can be cultivated in these young developing brains and have
a long term implication in their lives.

Purpose of the Study

1) To test the hypothesis of no significant relationship between Media influence and

awareness of Children’s rights.

2) To validate the Cultivation theory where the study is underpinned.

3) To generate new information on Media influence and awareness of Children’s
rights.
4) To bridge the gaps from the exiting review of literature.

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Research Objectives

This study was guided by the following objectives;

1. To identify the demographic characteristics of the respondent according to;

• Gender
o Age
o Education level
o Years of experience
2. To identify the level of Media influence on children.
3. To identify the level of awareness of Children’s Rights.
4. To establish if there is a significance relationship in the level of media influence
and awareness of Children’s Rights.
5. To establish if there is a significance differences in the level of Media influence
and awareness of children’s Rights.

Research Questions

1. What are the demographic characteristic of the respondents in terms of; gender,
age, education level and years of experience?
2. What is the Media influence on children?
3. What is the level of awareness of Children’s Rights?
4. Is there a significance relationship in Media influence and awareness of
Children’s Rights?
5. Is there a significance difference in Media influence and awareness of children’s
rights?
Hypothesis

Hol

There is no significant relationship between Media influence and awareness

of children rights.
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Scope

Geographica~ scope

The study was carried at Makindye division, a Kampala suburb, Makindye East
was researcher’s area of interest these areas included, Kansanga, Kabalagala,
Namuwongo, Bbunga, Ggaba and Nsambya.

Content scope
Originally proposed by Gerbner & Gross (1976 — Living with television: The violence
profile, Journal of Communication, 26, 76.) Cultivation theory (sometimes referred to as the
cultivation hypothesis or cultivation analysis) was an approach developed by Professor
George Gerbner, in 1976s, dean of the Annenberg School of Communications at the
University of Pennsylvania. He began the ‘Cultural Indicators’ research project in the
mid-1970s, to study whether and how watching television may influence viewers’ ideas
of what the everyday world is like. Cultivation research is in the ‘effects’ tradition.
Cultivation theorists argue that television has long-term effects which are small,
gradual, indirect but cumulative and significant.

Time Scope

The researcher is scheduled to take a period of one year so that the researcher
can engage all members of the community to participate on his work, especially on
the questionnaire part. This ample time will ensure the researcher get to the root
cause of the problem.

Significance of the Study

The following disciplines will benefit from this study:

Ministry of information will be able to monitor media programming which will in

turn help them to formulate guiding policies.
5
 The study will echo the voice of local community, whose interest is to ensure
their children’s rights are not abused.

The program developers will be able to know the kind of programs they are
supposed to design for the children.

The Non Governmental organizations concerned with the rights of children will
be able to monitor the media on the bases of their content

Operationa’ Definitions of Key Terms

UDHR Universal Declaration of Human Rights

IPU International peace union

SCM Save the children movement

6
 CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Concepts, Ideas, Opinions From Authors! Experts

Media influence

Media violence and its effects on children was the first area in which extensive scientific
research was done. In 1972 the Office of the Surgeon General conducted studies on
media violence and its effects on children who viewed it. The conclusions of these
studies were confirmed and extended by studies performed at the National Institute of
Mental Health in 1982. Three years later, the American Psychological Association (APA)
published a report that reaffirmed the previous studies. A landmark report of media
influence on children was published by the AAP in 1999. The study was done by the
Committee on Public Education, and presented in their policy statement of August 1999,

In July 2000, at a Congressional Public Health Summit, the AAP, the American Medical
Association, the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, and the APA
issued an unprecedented “Joint Statement on the Impact of Entertainment Violence on
Children.” Speaking for members of the national public-health community, the
statement presented a consensus opinion on the effects of violence in the media on
children.

The joint statement, however, included an interesting and important distinction that
addressed the context of violence in the media, stating: “It is not violence itself but the
context in which it is portrayed that can make the difference between learning about
violence and learning to be violent.” With the important caveat in mind, the
overwhelming consensus of the aforementioned studies was that there is substantial
evidence that exposure to violence in the media has harmful effects on children and has
been linked to children’s aggressive behavior.

7
Violence in interactive media forms (Internet, computer and video games) as opposed
to passive media forms (television, movies, videos) may have even stronger effects on
children and, as a result, has become a focus of new research. According to the Office
of the Surgeon General, “children are theoretically more susceptible to behavioral
influences when they are active participants than when they are observers.” To further
legitimize these concerns, the AAP reported that initial studies of interactive media show
that the element of child-initiated virtual violence may result in even more significant
effects than those of passive media, Because research has already shown that passive
media violence has significant influence on children, the implications of increased
effects from interactive media are troublesome.

Despite the research reports, there was debate between television broadcasters and
scientists regarding the harmful effects of television violence on children, Broadcasters
asserted that there was not enough evidence to link viewing television violence to
children’s aggressive behavior, Scientists, nevertheless, stood by their research findings.

Awareness of children’s rights

ARTICLE 17: Access to appropriate information

According to convention of the rights of the child; The State shall ensure the
accessibility to children of information and material from a diversity of sources, and it
shall encourage the mass media to disseminate information which is of social and
cultural benefit to the child, and take steps to protect him or her from harmful
materials.

States Parties recognize the important function performed by the mass media and shall
ensure that the child has access to information and material from a diversity of national
and international sources, especially those aimed at the promotion of his or her social,
spiritual and moral well-being and physical and mental health.

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The Commissioner for Children, Ms. Carmen Zammit, visited 3 to 5 year olds at St. Elmo
Primary C in Valletta, as part of her work to increase awareness of children’s rights
amongst children of all ages. The aim of the visit was to re-launch a Children’s Rights
game, which will continue to be distributed by the Office of the Commissioner for
Children in future.

This game was initially launched in 2005 by the previous Commissioner for Children
Mrs. Sonia Camilleri, and was made possible through the sponsorship of Plasmon.

The game, which is a floor puzzle, is primarily aimed at 3-5 year olds and consists of 12
different flash cards showing sad characters when rights are not respected, and the
same characters clearly happy when their rights are respected. The children have to
pair the flash cards. The game is particularly useful for teachers and parents as an
educational resource, in teaching human rights education to children of a very young
age.

SADC Chi~dren’s Broadcasting Charter

We, the peoples of the Southern African Developing Countries of Angola, Kenya,
Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland and Zambia,
affirm and accept the internationally adopted Children’s Television Charter, which was
accepted in Munich on 29 May 1995.

Without detracting from the International Children’s Charter, we further adopt in line
with the said Charter and in the spirit of the said Charter, our SADC Children’s
Broadcasting Charter, which takes into consideration the needs and wants of children in
our region.

Children should have programmes of high quality, made specifically for them and
which do not exploit them. These programmes, in addition to entertaining, should
allow children to develop physically, mentally and socially to their fullest potential,

9
Whilst endorsing the child’s right to freedom of expression, thought, conscience
and religion, and protection against economic exploitation, children must be
ensured access to programms and production of programms through multi-media
access centers.

Children should hear, see and express themselves, their culture, their language
and their life experiences, through the electronic media which affirms their sense
of self, community and place.

As part of the child’s right to education and development, children’s programms

should promote an awareness and appreciation of other cultures in parallel with
the child’s own cultural background. To facilitate this there should be an ongoing
research into the child audience, including the child’s needs and wants which, as
a matter of priority, should be implemented.

Children’s programms should be wide ranging in genre and content, but should
not include gratuitous scenes of violence and sex.

Children’s programms should be aired in regular slots at times when children are
available to listen and view, and/or be distributed via other widely accessible
media or technologies.

Sufficient resources, technical, financial and other must be made to make these
programms to the highest possible standards, and in order to achieve quality,
setting codes and standards for children’s broadcasting must be formulated and
developed through a diverse range of groupings.

In compliance with the UN policy of co-operation between states in the

international community, and especially in the SADC countries, the Children’s
Broadcasting Charter recognizes all international covenants, conventions,
treaties, charters and agreements adopted by all international organizations

10
 including the UN and the OAU affecting children, but with particular reference to
the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child.

Media and awareness of children’s right

According to Aidan White General Secretary International Federation of Journalists

children’s rights figure prominently in mainstream media it is usually in the context of
child abuse, exploitation and sensationalist news making. Children are generally seen
and heard at a distance, reflecting weakness that resonates through any discussion on
media and the rights of children, that young people are seldom allowed to speak for
themselves, Raising awareness about the rights of children and the promotion of
children’s rights is a challenge to media.

Media must not just report fairly, honestly and accurately on the experience of
childhood, but they must also provide space for the diverse, colorful and creative
opinions of children themselves. Whether it is news and current affairs, or the complex
world of creative and performing arts, all media professionals, and the organizations for
which they work, have a responsibility to recognize children’s rights and reflect them in
their work.

BUt how do we raise awareness? To answer requires examination of the way media
work, of how existing principles of accountability apply, and how media must be freed
from reins of political and economic control which limit professionalism and undermine
ethical standards. It will not be easy in a world of rapid technological change and
globalization of information and commercial competition.

Theoretical Perspectives

Cultivation theory (sometimes referred to as the cultivation hypothesis or cultivation

analysis) was an approach developed by Professor George Gerbner, in 1976, dean of
the Annenberg School of Communications at the University of Pennsylvania. He began

11
the ‘Cultural Indicators’ research project in the mid-1970s, to study whether and how
watching television may influence viewers’ ideas of what the everyday world is like.
Cultivation research is in the ‘effects1 tradition. Cultivation theorists argue that television
has long-term effects which are small, gradual, indirect but cumulative and significant.

Cultivation theory in its most basic form, suggests that television is responsible for
shaping, or cultivating ‘viewers’ conceptions of social reality. The combined effect of
massive television exposure by viewers over time subtly shapes the perception of social
reality for individuals and, ultimately, for our culture as a whole. Gerbner argues that
the mass media cultivate attitudes and values which are already present in a culture:
the media maintain and propagate these values amongst members of a culture, thus
binding it together. He has argued that television tends to cultivate middle-of-the- road
political perspectives.

Gerbner called this effect mainstreaming’. Cultivation theorists distinguish between

Jirst order’ effects (general beliefs about the everyday world, such as about the
prevalence of violence) and second order’ effects (specific attitudes, such as to law
and order or to personal safety). There is also a distinction between two groups of
television viewers: the heavy viewers and the light viewers, The focus is on heavy
viewers’. People who watch a lot of television are likely to be more influenced by the
ways in which the world is framed by television programs than are individuals who
watch less, especially regarding topics of which the viewer has little first-hand
experience. Light viewers may have more sources of information than heavy viewers.

Cultivation analysis usually involves the correlation of data from content analysis
(identifying prevailing images on television) with survey data from audience research
(to assess any influence of such images on the attitudes of viewers).

In other words, viewers with varied cultural, social, and political characteristics should
give different answers to questions about values, beliefs, and practices, These

12
differences, however, are diminished or even absent from the responses of those who
watch a large amount of television, while they exist for viewers who watch small
amounts of television, Thus, television cultivates common perspectives; it fosters similar
views and perspectives among those who, on the surface, should be very different.

The cultivation questions posed to respondents do not mention television, and the
respondents’ awareness of the source of their information is seen as irrelevant. The
resulting relationships, if any, between the amount of television viewing and the
tendency to respond to these questions in the terms of the dominant and repetitive
facts, values, and ideologies of the world of television (other things held constant)
illuminate television’s contribution to viewers’ conceptions of social reality,

For example, one of the most examined features of television is gender-role

stereotyping. Study after study has found that women are under-represented and that
most television characters are gender-typed (Signorielli, 1985; Signorielli and Bacue,
1999). Two cultivation analyses focusing on gender roles examined children’s responses
to questions that dealt with gender-role attitudes and behaviors (Morgan, 1987;
Signorielli and Lears, 1992b). The questions that were related to gender-role attitudes
asked if certain chores (i.e., wash or dry the dishes, mow the lawn, take out the
garbage, help with the cooking, clean the house, help with small repairs around the
house, and make the bed) should be done by boys only, girls only, or either girls or
boys. Responses to these questions were analyzed to indicate whether or not they
reflected traditional gender-role divisions of labor. The children’s gender-role behaviors
were also determined by asking which of these seven chores they did. In these studies,
the “television answer” was the response that only girls should do “girl chores” (i.e.,
wash or dry the dishes, help with the cooking, clean the house, and make the bed) and
that only boys should do “boy chores” (i.e., mow the lawn, take out the garbage, and
help with small repairs around the house). With regard to the children’s own behaviors,
the “television answer” was indicating that they did those chores that were consistent
with their gender. These studies found that those who watched more television typically

13
gave more gender-stereotyped views about which chores should be done by boys and
which should be done by girls.

The most well-known area of cultivation analysis has focused on the manifestation of
television violence through the “mean-world syndrome” Signorielli, 1990. The results of
these studies indicate that those who spend more time watching television’s mean and
dangerous world tend to have conceptions that the world in which they live is a mean
and dangerous place.

Cultivation analyses have also examined relationships between viewing and the
conceptions that people have about aging (i.e., those who watch more television tend
to underestimate and undervalue the elderly population of society), occupations (i.e.,
those who watch more television want high-status and well-paying jobs but do not want
to work very hard), and nutrition (i.e., those who watch more television tend to eat less
healthy food) (e.g., Gerbner et al., 1980; Signorielli, 1993; Signorielli and Lears,
1992a).

As in most studies of media effects, the observable empirical evidence of cultivation

tends to be modest in terms of its absolute size. In most national surveys a trivial, and
demographically diverse, number of respondents (about 4% or less) say they do not
watch television. Consequently, there are no real control groups. Even “light” viewers
watch some television and live in the same cultural environment as “heavy” viewers.
But, if one argues that the messages are stable, that the medium is virtually ubiquitous,
and that it is accumulated exposure that counts, then it seems reasonable that almost
everyone should be affected, regardless of how much television they watch. This means
that the cards are stacked against finding evidence of cultivation. Therefore, the
discovery of a systematic pattern of small but pervasive differences between light and
heavy viewers may indicate far-reaching consequences. Indeed, in study after study,
the evidence continues to mount as to the viability of cultivation theory in explaining
the cumulative, long-term effects of watching television,

14
In summary, cultivation theory is an attempt to understand and explain the dynamics of
television as a distinctive feature of the modern age. Cultivation analysis concentrates
on the enduring and common consequences of growing up and living with television:
the cultivation of stable, resistant, and widely shared assumptions, images, and
conceptions that reflect the underlying dimensions, institutional characteristics, and
interests of the medium itself. Cultivation analysis examines television as the common
symbolic environment— the true “melting pot” of the twentieth and twenty-first
centuries.

Related Studies

A study carried out for the International Federation of Journalists by the UK based Press
wise revealed that few journalists’ organizations had specific codes of good practice
covering the rights of children. In May 1998 the IFJ drew up the draft of the first
international guidelines for journalists covering children’s rights, at a conference
attended by journalists from 70 countries.

Regional discussion on these guidelines took place in Latin America, Africa and Asia and
they were formally adopted at the Annual Congress of the International Federation of
Journalists in Seoul in 2001.The guidelines were presented at the 2nd World Congress
against Commercial Exploitation of Children held at Yokohama, Japan, in December
2001.

The aim of the guidelines—Pages 61-63—is to raise the standards of journalism in

reporting on issues involving children, and to encourage media to promote children’s
rights and give them a voice,

Violent movies, video games and computer games may spur violence and produce other
adverse effects on children. American children and adolescents spend more than 90
hours a month watching television, according to the Academy of Child & Adolescent
Psychiatry. They will have viewed hundreds of thousands of acts of violence by they

15
time they reach 18. Many experts have concluded that the ubiquitous presence of
violence in our media encourages violence in our youth.

Decades of research and hundreds of studies substantiate the negative effects of media
violence on children, according to the Kaiser Family Foundation. The American Academy
of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry also concludes that viewing media violence can
produce distress, emotional anesthetization to violence, loss of empathy for victims and
the view that violence is an acceptable means for dealing with problems. But the
relationship between media violence and violence in children and adolescents is
complex, according to Media Awareness. Correlation studies don’t necessarily indicate
the direction of the causal relationship between media and children’s violence, For
example, children who are inclined to be violent might be drawn to violent video games
and television programs. However, studies seem to indicate that, at least under certain
circumstances, media violence can affect children and adolescents.

Media Characteristics

The characteristics of the media content influence the extent to which media affects the
attitudes and behavior of children, according to the Center for Communication and
Social Policy. Realistic action portrayed by real actors has greater influence over
children than animated violence. The consequences that characters experience
influences how much children will imitate the portrayed violence. Children are more
likely to imitate characters who are rewarded or who are presented as heroic, and less
likely to imitate violent behavior when violent media characters are punished.

Viewer’s Characteristics

Younger children are still developing their cognitive capacity to differentiate between
fantasy and reality. Therefore, preschool and school-age children are more sensitive to
the effects of media violence than adolescents, according to the Media Awareness
Network. Teenagers have a more highly developed ability for critical thinking and are

16
more autonomous and cynical, so they are more likely to view media violence as
fictional action meant to entertain. Nonetheless, adolescents who have violent fantasies
or emotional problems can be incited by media violence, especially if their core values
and peers, family or other people support the use of violence.

Environmenta~ Factors

Children internalize the values and behavior patterns of their primary role models,
Children who grow up in violent families or neighborhoods, or who associate with
violent peers tend to be more vulnerable to the effects of media violence, according to
Young Media, Of course, children who grow up in a subculture of violence are likely to
engage in violent behavior even if they don’t view media violence, For these children,
media violence might simply trigger or heighten a violent tendency. On the other hand,
children who grow up in a family and subculture that emphasizes reasoned, rational,
nonviolent approaches to resolving problems are more resistant to the influence of
media violence, Similarly, children’s empathy toward victims of violence is moderated by
the values of empathy and helping that are cultivated in them as they grow up.

Interventions

You can minimize the effect of media violence on your child by creating a family culture
of empathy, respect and nonviolence, Limit your child’s exposure to violent media,
especially while they are young and more vulnerable, according to Media Awareness
Network. If your child has a problem with aggressive or violent behavior, he should not
view or play violent media, Don’t use corporal punishment, and don’t engage in violent
or aggressive behavior around your children, because you are your child’s most
powerful role model,

17
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

Research design

This study employed the descriptive survey design specifically the descriptive
correlation strategy. Descriptive studies are non-experimental researches that describe
the characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group. It deals with the relationship
between variables, testing of hypothesis and development of generalizations and use of
theories that have universal validity. Descriptive surveys were used to discover causal
relationships (descriptive correlation) between, media influence and awareness of
Children’s Rights. The social-demographic characteristics of respondents were also
included in the study.

Research Population

The target population will include a total of 65 children and 26 media

practitioners, drawn from selected schools and media houses respectively.

Sample Size
In view of the nature of the target population where the number for both
listeners and Media staff are many, a sample was taken from each category. Table 1
below shows the respondents of the study with the following categories: ward, target
population and sample size. The Sloven’s formula is used to determine the minimum
sample size.

N
— 1+N(O.O5)~

18
TABLE 1

RESPONDENT OF THE STUDY

KAMPALA MEDIA HOUSE SCHOOLS

WARD
TARGET SAMPLE SIZE TARGET SAMPLE SIZE
POPULATION POPULATION
A 17 16 37 33
B 11 10 35 32

Sampling Procedures
Purposive sampling was utilized to select the respondents based on the following
criteria’s:

a) The media practitioners with professional experience ranging from one year and
above.
b) Basing on gender, male or female children in the media selected.
c) Teenagers from Senior Schools since they are exposed to Media content.

From the list of qualified respondents chosen based on the inclusion criteria, the
systematic random sampling was used to finally select the respondents with
consideration to the computed minimum sample size.

19
Research Instruments

The research tools that were utilized in this study included the following: (1) face
sheet to gather data on the respondents’ demographic characteristics (Gender, age,
Education qualifications and years of experience); (2) researcher devised questionnaires
to determine the levels of media influence and awareness of Children’s Rights. The
response modes of the questionnaires in both variables were indicated as 4. Strongly
agree, 3. Agree 2. Disagree and 1. Strongly disagree.

Validity and Reliability of Instruments

To ensure the validity of the instruments, content validity index was used for
both media influence and awareness of children’s rights with a Content Validity Index
(CVI) of 0.87 and 0.88 respectively (see appendix 7). After constructing the
questionnaire, the researcher contacted experts in the study area to go through it to
ensure that it measured what it was designed to measure and necessary adjustments
were made after consultation and this ensured that the instrument was clear, relevant,
specific and logically arranged.

Alternatively, the reliability of the instrument was established by Corn-bachs Co

efficient alpha variable (mean 0.88). Variables with Corn-bachs, Co-efficient Alpha test
value for less than 0.5 were used.

20
Data Gathering Procedures

Before the administration of the questionnaires

1. An introduction letter was obtained from the College of Higher Degrees and
Research for the researcher to solicit approval to conduct the study from
respective Media houses and Senior Schools.
2. When approved, the researcher would secure a list of the qualified respondents
from Media houses and Senior Schools and select through systematic random
sampling from this list to arrive at the minimum sample size.
3. The respondents would be explained about the study and would be requested to
sign the Informed Consent Form (Appendix 3).
4. Reproduce more than enough questionnaires for distribution.

During the administration of the questionnaires

1. The respondents were requested to answer completely and not to leave any part
of the questionnaires unanswered.
2. The researcher and assistants emphasized retrieval of the questionnaires within
five days from the date of distribution.
3. On retrieval, all returned questionnaires would be checked if all were answered.

After the administration of the questionnaires

The data gathered was collated, encoded into the computer and statistically treated
using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS).

Data Analysis

The frequency and percentage distribution was used to determine the

demographic characteristics of the respondents.

21
The mean and standard deviation was used to determine the level of media influence
and awareness of children’s rights. All item strategies were established in terms of
mean and rank. The following mean ranges were used to arrive at the mean range of
individual indications.

Media influence
Mean range Response mode Interpretation

3.26-4.00 Strongly agree High

2.51-3.25 Agree Average

1.76-2.50 Disagree Low

1.00-1.75 Strongly disagree Very low

Awareness of Children’s Rights

Mean range Response mode Interpretation

3.26-4.00 Strongly agree Very High

2.51-3.25 Agree High

1.76-2.50 Disagree Low

1.00-1.75 Strongly disagree Very Low

22
Pearson correlation coefficient was used to test the relationship between the levels of

media influence and awareness of Children’s rights at 0.05 Margin errors.

Ethical Considerations

To ensure confidentiality of the information provided by the respondents and to

ascertain the practice of ethics in this study, the following activities were to be
implemented by the researcher:

1. The respondents, Media houses and Senior Schools were coded instead of reflecting
the names.
2. Soliciting permission was done through a written request to the concerned officials
of the Media house and Senior Schools included in the study.
3. Request the respondents to sign in the Informed Consent Form (Appendix 3)
4. Acknowledge the authors quoted in this study and the author of the standardized
instrument through citations and referencing.
5. Present the findings in a generalized manner,

Limitations of the Study

In view of the following threats to validity, the researcher claimed an allowable

S% margin of error at 0.05 level of significance value. Measures were also indicated in
order to minimize if not to eradicate the threats to the validity of the findings of this
study.

1. Extraneous variables which were beyond the researcher’s control such as

respondents’ honesty, personal biases and uncontrolled setting of the study.

23
2. Instrumentation; The research instruments on resource availability and
utilization are not standardized. Therefore a validity and reliability test was
done to produce a credible measurement of the research variables.

3. Testing; There was a likelihood of research assistants being inconsistent in

terms of the day and time of questionnaire administration, There was
thorough briefing and orienting the research assistants in order to address
the threat,

4. Attrition; There was a likelihood of some respondents of not returning back

the questionnaires and this was to affect the researcher in meeting the
minimum sample size. To solve this threat, the researcher gave quit more
questionnaire exceeding the minimum sample size.

24
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

Introduction

This chapter shows the profile of respondents, Media influence, Children’s Rights
awareness and the relationship between the Media influence and Children’s Rights
awareness among selected Media houses and Senior Schools in Uganda.

Description of Respondents

In this study, respondents were described according to gender, age, Marital status,
education qualification and number of years of experience. In each case, respondents
were asked to declare their respective profile information in order to enable the
researcher classify them accordingly. Close ended questionnaire were employed by the
researcher in ascertaining information about their personal profiles and analyzed their
responses using frequencies and percentage distributions as summarized in table 4.1
below,

25
Tab~e 2 Demographic Characteristics Of the Respondents
Category Frequency Percentage
(%)
Gender

Male 36 39.6%

Female 56 60.4%

Total 91 100.0%

Age

26-35 30 33%

36—44 48 52.7%

45—54 13 14.3%

Total 100.0 %

Marital status

Single 36 39.6%

Married 55 60.4%

Total 91 100.0 %

Educational Qualifications

PhD 2 2.2 %

Masters 30 33.0%

Postgraduate diploma 12 13.2%

Degree 31 34.l%

Diploma 15 16.S%

Others 1 1.1%

Total 91 100.0 %

Number of Years Experience

Below a year 5 5.5%

1 - 3 years 31 34.1 %

4 - 6 years 46 50.5 %

7- 9 years 7 7.7%

10 and above years 2 2.2 °k

Total 91 100.0 %

26
Results from Table 2 indicate that most of the respondents were female that is to say
56 (60.4%) and minorities were males with 36 (39.6%). Therefore, females dominated
in this sample.

Pertaining age, 48 (52.7%) respondents were in the age bracket of 36-44, 30 (33%)
were in the age bracket of 26-35 of age and 13 (l4.3%) were 45-54. It can therefore
be deduced that though all age categories were represented, the middle adult hood
respondents monopolized in this study. This is true because organizations prefer
employing adults who have the potential to work towards development and hence
increasing Media credibility.

Table 2 outlines the level of education of respondents with particular reference to Media
profession, Those with bachelors’ degrees were 31(34.1%), Masters Degrees were 30
(33.0%), 15 (l6.5%) were Diploma holders, while Postgraduate diploma were 12
(13.2%), and 2 (2.2%) had PhD, and those with other qualifications represent
approximately 1(1.1%). Therefore, if education level relates to professionalism, then
one can assume that the information provided is valid and reliable.

Concerning number of years of experience, 46 (S0.5%) of the respondents had served

for a period of 4 - 6 years, followed by 31 (34.1%) 1 - 3 years and 7 (7.7%) for a
period of 7 — 9 years, 5 (5.5%) less than a year experience and 2 (2.2%) above 10
years. This indicates that majority of the respondents are experienced, knowledgeable
about the Media profession therefore are able to give accurate information.

27
The level of Media Influence

The independent variable In this study was Media influence for which the researcher
wanted to determine Its level. It was subdMded into fifteen questions which were
measured using qualitative questions In which respondents were required to indicate
the extent to which they agree or disagree with each of the Items by indicating the
number that suits their perceptions. Each of these questions were measured on a 4-
point Uke scale. Their responses were anaiyzed using SPSS and summarized using
means as Indicated in table 3 below;

Key for Interpretation of means

Mean range Response mode Interpretation
3.26-4.00 strongly agree High
2.51-3.25 Agree Average
1.76-2.50 Disagree Low
1.00-1.75 Strongly disagree Very low

28
Table 3: Level of media influence
Indicator Mean Interpretation Rank
Media influence

I am aware of the impact of media on the individual and 3.56 High 2

society.
I have an understanding of the process of mass 3.51 High 3
communication.
I have the ability to analyze and discuss media messages. 3.45 High 6
I prefer an awareness of media context as a text that 3.43 High 8
provides recognition of culture.
I have production and analysis skills. 3.44 l-jigh 7
I know about traditional and non-traditional literacy skills of 3.30 High 10
the Media.
I have an enriched enjoyment, understanding and 3.37 High 9
appreciation of media content.
I respect the privacy of children and protection of their 3.44 High 7
identity unless it is demonstrably in the public interest.
I think there is need to give children access to media to 3.38 High 8
express their own opinions.
I have the obligation to verify information before publication. 3.49 High 5
There is need to consider the consequences of publication 3.51 High 4
and to minimize harm to children.
Media houses need guidelines for reporting on children. 3.51 High 4
The Children are entitled to human rights. 3.52 High 3
During our annual meetings, there is awareness training for 3.18 Average 11
media professionals on interviewing, photographing and
filming children.
I respect Guidelines and principles for reporting on issues 3.57 High 1
involving children.
Mean 3A4 High

29
It should be noted that the data for the independent variables were collected from
senior editors and staff in selected Media houses in Uganda. The independent variable
represents the perception of the overall management and entire staff regarding these
concepts. All the items for the independent variable were measured on a 4-point scale
(1 strongly disagree to 4 = strongly agree).

Table 3 shows that respecting Guidelines and principles for reporting on issues involving
children was ranked first with a mean of 3.57 interpreted as high. This means that
Media influence try to enhance the capacity of the staff members to exercise these
issues.

The awareness of the impact of media on the individual and society was ranked second
with a mean of 3.56 interpreted as high. This means that the respondents encouraged
others on the awareness.

The Children are entitled to human rights was ranked third with a mean of 3.52
interpreted as high. This means that the respondents are aware of children’s rights.

An understanding of the process of mass communication was ranked forth with a mean
of 3.51 interpreted as high. This means that the respondents understood the Mass
communication process.

There is need to consider the consequences of publication and to minimize harm to

children was ranked forth with a mean of 3.51 interpreted as high. This means that the
respondents recognize the importance to censor some of the information.

I have the obligation to verify information before publication was ranked fifth with a
mean of 3.49 interpreted as high. This means respondents upholds Media codes of
ethics while disseminating information.

I have the ability to analyze and discuss media messages was ranked sixth with a mean
of 3.45 interpreted as high .This means that respondents comfortably disseminated
valuable content.

30
I have production and an analysis skill was ranked seventh with a mean of 3.44
interpreted as high. This means that respondents are fully qualified on media
profession.

I respect the privacy of children and protection of their identity unless it is

demonstrably in the public interest was ranked seventh with a mean of 3.44 interpreted
as high. This means respondents are knowledgeable of Media ethics.

I prefer an awareness of media context as a text that provides recognition of culture

was ranked eighth with mean of 3.43 interpreted as high. This means that respondents
were aware of local culture.

I think there is need to give children access to media to express their own opinions was
ranked eighth with mean of 3.38 interpreted as high. This means that respondents
were aware of children’s rights.

I have an enriched enjoyment, understanding and appreciation of media content was

ranked ninth with a mean of 3.37 interpreted as high. This means that the respondents
enjoyed media work.

I know about traditional and non-traditional literacy skills of the Media was ranked tenth
with a mean of 3.30 interpreted as high. This means that the respondents recognize
literacy skills.

During our annual meetings, there is awareness training for media professionals on
interviewing, photographing and filming children was ranked eleventh with a mean of
3.18 interpreted as average. This means the respondents were not aware of media
training during annual meetings.

On the overall, it is deduced that Media influence in selected Media houses is high
which confirms that the level of Media influence in selected institution is high where all
employers agree with it.

31
The ~eveI of ChNdren’s Rights Awareness

The third objective sought to determine the level of Children’s Rights Awareness of
selected Media houses in Uganda for which respondents were required to ascertain the
extent to which they agree or disagree with the items or statement by indicating the
number which best describes their perceptions. This variable was measured using
twenty qualitative questions with response rate ranging between 1=strongly disagree,
2~Disagree, 3=Agree and 4=Strongly agree. The responses were analyzed and
described using means as summarized below in table 4.3;

Key for interpretation of means

Mean range Response mode Interpretation
3.26-4.00 Strongly agree High
2.51-3.25 Agree Average
1.76-2.50 Disagree Low
1.00-1.75 Strongly disagree Very low

32
Tab~e4: Level of Children’s Rights awareness
Indicator Mean Interpretation Rank

Children’s Rights Awareness

My school is a place where students are safe and secure. (Art. 3 & 5) 3.53 High 2

All students receive equal information and encouragement about academic and 3.41 High 4
career opportunities. (Art. 2)
Members of the school community are not discriminated against because of their 3.02 Average 17
life style choices, such as manner of dress, associating with certain people, and
non-school activities. (Art. 2 & 16)

My school provides equal access, resources, activities, and scheduling 3.34 High 7
accommodations for all individuals. (Art. 2 & 7)
Members of my school community will oppose discriminatory or demeaning 3.07 Average 16
actions, materials, or slurs in the school. (Art. 2, 3, 7, 28, & 29)

When someone demeans or violates the rights of another person, the violator is 3.42 High 3 ~‘

helped_to_learn_how_to_change_his/her_behavior._(Art._26)
Members of my school community care about my full human as well as academic 326 High 9
development and try to help me when I am in need. (Art. 3, 22, 26 & 29)
When conflicts arise, we try to resolve them through non- violent and 3.16 Average 12
collaborative ways. (Art. 3, 28)

Institutional policies and procedures are implemented when complaints of 3.22 Average 10
harassment_or_discrimination_are_submitted._(Art._3_&_7)
In matters related to discipline (including suspension and expulsion), all persons 3,31 High 8
are assured of fair, impartial treatment in the determination of guilt and
assignment of punishment. (Art. 6, 7, 8, 9 & 10)
No one in our school is subjected to degrading treatment or punishment. (Art. 5) 2.97 Average 18

Someone accused of wrong doing is presumed innocent until proven guilty. (Art. 3.02 Average 17
11 )
My personal space and possessions are respected. (Art. 12 & 17) 3.22 Average 10

My school community welcomes students, teachers, administrators, and staff 3.57 High 1
from diverse backgrounds and cultures, including people not born in Uganda.
(Art. 2, 6,13, 14 & 15)
I have the liberty to express my beliefs and ideas (political, religious, cultural, or 3,38 High 5
other) without fear of discrimination.(Art. 19)
Members of my school can produce and disseminate publications without fear of 3.15 Average 13
censorship or punishment. (Art, 19)
Diverse voices and perspectives (e.g. gender, race/ethnicity, ideological) are 3.10 Average 15
represented in courses, textbooks, assemblies, libraries, and classroom
instruction. (Art. 2, 19, & 27)
I have the opportunity to express my culture through music, art, and literary 3,12 Average 14
form. (Art. 19, 27 & 28)
Members of my school have the opportunity to participate (individually and 3.35 High 6
through associations) in democratic decision-making processes to develop school
policies and rules. (Art, 20, 21, & 23)
Members of my school have the right to form associations within the school to 3,19 Average 11
advocate for their rights or the rights of others. (Art. 19, 20, & 23)
Mean 3.24 Average

33
My school community welcomes students, teachers, administrators, and staff from
diverse backgrounds and cultures’, including people not born in Uganda (Art. 2, 6, 13,
14 & 15) was ranked first with a mean of 3.57 interpreted as high. This means that the
respondents appreciate hospitality offered by their institution.

My school is a place where students are safe and secure (Art. 3 & 5) was ranked
second with a mean of 3.53 interpreted as high. This means that the respondents feel
secure while studying.

When someone demeans or violates the rights of another person, the violator is helped
to learn how to change his/her behavior (Art. 26) was ranked third with a mean of 3.42
interpreted as high. This means that the respondents are satisfied by the help offered,

All students receive equal information and encouragement about academic and career
opportunities (Art. 2) was ranked forth with a mean of 3.41 interpreted as high. This
means that the respondents access information they need.

I have the liberty to express my beliefs and ideas (political, religious, cultural, or other)
without fear of discrimination (Art. 19) were ranked fifth with a mean of 3.38
interpreted as high. This means that the respondents enjoyed freedom of expression.

Members of my school have the opportunity to participate (individually and through

associations) in democratic decision-making processes to develop school policies and
rules; (Art. 20, 21, & 23) was ranked sixth with a mean of 3.35 interpreted as high. This
means that respondents enjoy their rights.

My school provides equal access, resources, activities, and scheduling accommodations

for all individuals, (Art. 2 & 7) was ranked seventh with a mean of 3.34 interpreted as
high. This means that the respondents are satisfactory of their rights.

In matters related to discipline (including suspension and expulsion), all persons are
assured of fair, impartial treatment in the determination of guilt and assignment of

34
punishment, (Art. 6, 7, 8, 9 & 10) was ranked eighth with a mean of 3.31 interpreted as
high. This means that the respondents are treated equally.

Members of my school community care about my full human as well as academic

development and try to help me when I am in need, (Art. 3, 22, 26 & 29) was ranked
ninth with a mean of 3.26 interpreted as high. This means that the respondents respect
each other rights.

Institutional policies and procedures are implemented when complaints of harassment

or discrimination are submitted. (Art. 3 & 7) was ranked tenth with a mean of 3.22
interpreted as average. This means that the respondents did not agree.

My personal space and possessions are respected; (Art. 12 & 17) was ranked tenth with
a mean of 3.22 interpreted as average. This means that the respondents found their
personal space and possessions are not respected.

Members of my school have the right to form associations within the school to advocate
for their rights or the rights of others, (Art. 19, 20, & 23) was ranked eleventh with a
mean of 3.19 interpreted as average. This means that respondents have no favorite
atmosphere while advocating their rights.

When conflicts arise, we try to resolve them through non- violent and collaborative
ways, (Art. 3, 28) was ranked twelfth with a mean of 3.16 interpreted as average. This
means that the respondents have no access to diplomatic ways of solving problems.

Members of my school can produce and disseminate publications without fear of

censorship or punishment (Art. 19) was ranked thirteenth with a mean of 3.15
interpreted as average. This means that respondents are afraid to produce, disseminate
information for fear of punishment.

I have the opportunity to express my culture through music, art, and literary form, (Art.
19, 27 & 28) was ranked fourteenth with a mean of 3.12 interpreted as average. This
means that respondents do not have opportunity to their culture.

35
Diverse voices and perspectives (e.g. gender, race/ethnicity, ideological) are
represented in courses, textbooks, assemblies, libraries, and classroom instruction. (Art.
2, 19, & 27) was ranked fifteenth with a mean of 3.10 interpreted as average. This
means that respondents do not enjoy diverse voices and perspectives,

Members of my school community will oppose discriminatory or demeaning actions,

materials, or slurs in the school. (Art. 2, 3, 7, 28, & 29) was ranked sixteenth with a
mean of 3.07 interpreted as average. This means that respondents experience
discrimination or demeaning actions, materials, or slurs in the school.

Members of the school community are not discriminated against because of their life
style choices, such as manner of dress, associating with certain people, and non-school
activities. (Art. 2 & 16) was ranked seventeenth with a mean of 3.02 interpreted as
average. This means that respondents did not agree with this.

Someone accused of wrong doing is presumed innocent until proven guilty. (Art. 11 )
was ranked seventeenth with a mean of 3.02 interpreted as average. This means that
respondents were victimized before their cases were determined.

No one in our school is subjected to degrading treatment or punishment. (Art. 5) was

ranked eighteenth with a mean of 2.09 interpreted as average. This means respondents
rights were violated.

Relationship between Media influence and Awareness of Children’s Rights

The forth objective was sought to determine relationship between the level of
Media influence and Awareness of Children’s Rights of selected Media houses and
Senior School respectively. On this, the researcher stated a null hypothesis that there is
no significant relationship between Media influence and Awareness of Children’s Rights
of selected Media houses and Selected Senior Schools in Uganda respectively. To
achieve this objective and to test the null hypothesis, the researcher correlated the

36
means of all aspects of Media influence and Awareness of Children’s Rights of selected
Media houses and selected Senior SchoQls in Uganda using Pearson linear correlation
coefficient, as indicated in table 4 below:-

Table 5 Relationship between Media influence and Awareness of Children’s

Rights

Variables Computed P-value Interpretation Decision on

correlated r- value of Correlation
Ho

Media influence 0.009 0.272 Significant Accepted

vs. Awareness of difference
Children’s rights

Source: primary data

The results in table 5 indicate that the relationship that exist between Media
influence and Awareness of Children’s Rights of selected Media houses is significantly
correlated, (all sig.>O.05). This means that the more Media influence is exposed and
disseminated by the Media after a given period, the level of awareness of Children’s
rights in Senior Schools in selected Senior Schools do change.

Significant difference between the Media influence and Awareness of

Children’s Rights

The fifth objective of sought to determine significant difference between the level of
Media influence and Awareness of Children’s Rights of selected Media houses and of
Selected Senior Schools. On this, the researcher stated a null hypothesis that there is
37
no significant difference between Media influence and Awareness of Children’s Rights of
selected Media houses and Senior Schools in Uganda. To achieve this objective and to
test the null hypothesis, the researcher regressed the means of all aspects of Media
influence and Awareness of Children’s Rights of selected Media houses and Senior
Schools in Uganda, as indicated in table 6 below:

Table 6 Regression Analysis between Media influence and Awareness of Children’s

Rights among selected Media houses and Senior School in Uganda.
TABLE 6 Significance difference between media influence and awareness

Variables Regressed Computed F- R2 Interpre Decision

Value tation on Ho

Media influence Vs Awareness of 0.272 0.074 significant Accepted

Children’s rights effect

Source: Primary data

The linear regression results in Table 6 above indicate that the Media influence
significantly affects the Awareness of Children’s Rights in selected Media houses and
Senior Schools in Uganda.

The coefficients section of this table indicates the extent to which each aspect of Media
influence affects, Awareness of Children’s Rights and this is indicated by R- value, which
has a significant value of 7.4 %, hence Media influence has an impact on awareness,
which indicates a significant effect. This means that the Media messages that are
produced by Media programmers have significant effect as required improving the
Awareness of Children’s Rights of selected Senior Schools.

38
 CHAPTER FIVE

FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Profile of the respondents

The study indicated that the female respondents were the highest (60.4%), in
terms of working staff; respondents aged 36-44 provided a high response to the study.
As of marital status, married people emerged the highest respondents of the study
(60.4%), and in the education qualification, Degree holders ranked high among the
respondents, 50.5% had the highest number of years of experience who had worked
for 4 6 years.
-

The level of Media influence on children

The second objective of the study which intended to find out the level of Media
influence on Children’s rights revealed that the Media houses have promoted awareness
of Children’s rights highly (at a mean of 3.44).

The level of awareness of Children’s Rights

The third objective of the study which intended to find out the level of awareness
of Children’s Rights revealed that the level of awareness in Senior School was not
enough with an average (at a mean of 3.24).

The relationship in Media influence and awareness of Children’s Rights

The fourth objective of the study was set to establish whether there was a
significant relationship between Media influence and awareness of Children’s Rights in

39
Maklndye East for which It was hypothesized that there is no significant relationship
between media influence and awareness of children’s rights.

Basing on the findings, the null hypothesis rejected leading to a condusion that
media Influence were of a positive and a significant influence to awareness of Children’s
Rights in Maldndye East The justification of this Is revealed by the level of significant
value that Is less than 0.05 for example (r=0.009, sig=0.272). The same results were
supported by the linear regression results which also indicate that all Media influence
awareness of children’s rights in Maldndye East

Conduslons
The hypothesis of there is no significant relationship between Media Influence
and awareness of children’s rights was rejected. Therefore there is a significant
relationship between Media influence and awareness of children’s rights.

The study validated the “Cultivation Theory” by George Gerbner (1976), provIng then
argument that television has long-term effects which are small, gradual, indirect but
cumulative and significant
The study found out that media Influence was high while the awareness of
Children’s rights was average; the media message did increase the level of awareness
of chIldren’s rights or fadlitate Schools to Improve their behavior or respect their rights.

Under the related studIes, It was revealed that Teenagers have a more highly
developed ability for critical thinking and are more autonomous and cynical, so they are
more likely to view media violence as fictional action meant to entertain.

.tecommendatlons

From the findings and the condusions of the study, the researcher recommends
there is need to improve on gender equality in the work place since most of them were
found to be females leaving out men.

40
 In line with the above, the researcher recommends encouraging men also to
actively participate in the media profession and enroll in courses like Mass
communication since it was only females who dominated in the sample and also to
upgrade for Postgraduate diploma and PhDs,

There is need for entire media staff to maintain good Media influence in order to
improve the level of awareness of Children’s rights which was found to be average so
as not to deteriorate.

Since during annual meetings, there was no awareness training for media
professionals on interviewing, photographing and filming children, the researcher
recommends Media fraternity to create awareness training for their professionals~

The researcher found that the Institutional policies and procedures were not
implemented when complaints of harassment or discrimination were submitted, he
recommends Schools to honor the laid down policies.

On the issue of personal space and possessions, the researcher found out
respect is not upheld; he therefore encourages children’s rights to be respected.

The right to form associations within the school, to advocate for the individual
rights or the rights of others, researcher recommends the School administration to help
Children to form association body.

Researcher noted with concerned that when conflicts arise, to resolve them
through non- violent and collaborative ways was not used as a viable option. He
recommends diplomatic ways of solving problems to be used as opposed to corporal
punishment.

41
 Researcher recommends freedom of expression to be respected, because
Members of the school could not produce and disseminate publications without fear of
censorship or punishment.

Researcher noted that respondents didn’t have opportunity to express culture

through music, art, and literary form; he recommends a cultural Gala day to be on
School calendar.
Diverse voices and perspectives (e.g. gender, race/ethnicity, ideological) are not
represented in courses, textbooks, assemblies, libraries, and classroom instruction. He
recommends full representation.

Members of school community will not oppose discriminatory or demeaning

actions, materials, or slurs in the school. Researcher recommends the administration to
oppose discrimination.

Someone accused of wrong doing is not presumed innocent until proven guilty.
The researcher recommends suspects to be treated well even when under serious
allegations.

Researcher found out that majority of Children in school are subjected to

degrading treatment or punishment, he recommends everyone to be treated with
dignity.

There is a need also to employ experts who are to maintain the Children’s Rights
awareness always.

The government of Uganda should reinforce measures for total adhesion to

Media influence in all academic institutions and maintain highest awareness.

42
Areas for further Research

The research does not and cannot guarantee that the study was completely exhausted.
In any case, the scope of the study was limited in accordance with the space, and
objectives, It is therefore suggested that a national research covering the whole country
be undertaken.
Also, prospective researchers and even students should be encouraged to research on
the following;

1. Media Influence on Youth, Body image; Young girls are being deluged by
media images of skinny models

2. Raising public awareness of human rights through the media

43
 REFERENCES

American Academy Of Pediatrics, 2001 “Media Violence,” Pediatrics 108:1222—1226.

Austin, T.’ Media Effects: A Never-Ending Debate’. Introduction To Media Study, 2002
Effects Lecture2.Doc. [2004, May 10].
Barker, M. “The Newton Report: A Case Study In Common Sense’ In Iii Effects In The
Media /Violence Debate, (Second Edition), Ed. Martin Baker And Julian Petey
(London: Rutledge, 2001), Pp.27—46.
Brian L; And Zuckerman, 1992 Bi:g World, Small Screen: The Role Of TeIev,~ion In
American Society. Lincoln: University Of Nebraska Press.
Brooke, Michael. Screen Online, (2003—07), Online, ‘The News on Report’ October 17,
2007
David Gauntlet (1998). “Ten Things Wrong With The ‘Effects Model’. Approaches To
Audiences —A Reader. Retrieved January 22, 2007
Dr. Harry Vassallo. Yesterday, Alternattiva Demokratika Joined With The International
Community In Commemorating The United Nations International Children’s
Rights Day.
Field, Alison E. 2000. “Media Influence On Self-Image: The Real Fashion Emergency.’
Healthy Wei~iht Journal 14 (6)
Flew, Terry And Humphrey, Sal ‘Games: Technology, Industry, Culture’ In New Media:
An Introduction (Second Edition), Ed. Terry Flew (South Melbourne: Oxford
University Press, 2005). P.101-114
Freedman, Jonathan. ‘No Real Evidence For Tv Violence Causing Real Violence’ First
Amendment Centre, 2007, Online, [2007, October 17.]
Gerbner, G., & Gross, L. (1976a) Living With Television: The Violence Profile. Journal
Of Communication, 26(2), 172-199.
Gerbner, G., & Gross, L. (1976b). The Scary World Of Tv’S Heavy Viewer,
Psychology Today, 10(4) , 4 1-89
Hoffner, Cynthia. 1996. “Media, Children, And The Family: Social Scientific,
Psychodynamic, And Clinical Perspectives.” Journal Of Broadcasting And
Electronic Media 40 (1):389—402.

44
Liebert, Robert M., And Sprefkin, Joyce N. 1988. The Early Window: Effects Of
Television On Children And Youth. New York: Pergamum.
Media Awareness Network: Television Violence: A Review Of The Effects On Children O~
Different Age
National Institute Of Mental Health. 1982. “Television And Behavior: Ten Years Of
Scientific Progress And Implications For The Eighties.” Rockville, Md: U.S.
Department Of Health And Human Services.
Rutten, Tom. “For Some, Jackson Verdict Is Already In”. Los Angeles Times, June 11,
2005, Retrieved May 20, 201~1
Taylor, C. Barr; And Berkey, Catherine 5. 2001. “Peer, Parent, And Media Influences On
The Development Of Weight Concerns And Frequent Dieting Among
Preadolescent And Adolescent Girls And Boys.” Pediatrics 107:54—60
Wendy; And Kilmartin, Christopher. 2001. “Adolescent Self-Esteem And Gender:
Exploring Relations To Sexual Harassment, Body Image, Media Influence, And
Emotional Expression.” Journal Of Youth And Adolescence 30:225—244.

45
 APPENDIX LB

TRANSM~AL LETFER FOR THE RESPONDENTS

Dear Sir! Madam,

Greetings!

I am a Masters Students in Human Rights And Development candidate of Kampala

International University~ Part of the requirements for the award is a researdi thesis0 My
study is entitled, Media Influence and Awareness of Children’s Right in
Maklndye East Within this context, may I request you to participate in this study by
answering the questions~ Kindly do not leave any option unanswered~ Any date you will
provide shall be for academ~ purposes only and no information of such kind shall be
disclosed to others.

May I retrieve the questionnaire within five days (5~?

Thank you very much in advancer

Yours faithfully,

Mr. Murimi Nicholus

47
- - +256-414-2~Th

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49
 APPENDIX II

CLEARANCE FROM ETHICS COMMITTEE

Candidate’s Data

Name

Reg

Course

Title of Study

Ethica~ Review Checkllst

The study reviewed considered the following:

Physical Safety of Human Subjects

Psychological Safety

Emotional Security

Privacy

Written Request for Author of Standardized Instrument

Coding of Questionnaires/Anonymity/Confidentiality

Permission to Conduct the Study

Informed Consent

52
 Citations/Authors Recognized

Resufts of Ethica’ Review

Approved

Conditional (to provide the Ethics Committee with corrections)

Disapproved! Resubmit Proposal

Ethics Committee (Name and Signature)

Chairperson

Members _______________________________

53
 Appendix III

Informed consent

I am gMng my consent to be part of the research of Mr. Murimi Nlcholus that will focus
on Media influence and awareness of children’s rights. I shall be assured of
privacy, anonymity and confIdentiality and that I will be gIven the option to refuse
partldpatlon and right to withdraw my partldpatlon anytime.

I have been Informed that the research Is voluntary and that the results will be gIven to
me If I ask for It.

InItlals~__________________

Date. __________

54
 APENDIX IV

CALCULATION OF THE SAMPLE SIZE USING THE SLOVENS FORMULAE

N
ii =
I — Nu

Where n= sample size

N= Study population/Target population
a= level of significance or margin of error (0.05)

The study population! Target population is 1693

Therefore N
iNa

n= 100

1+100(0.05)2

n= 100
1+100*0,0025

n= 100

1~25

n= 91 (sample size)

55
 APPENDIX V

RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
FACE SHEET

Demographic characteristics of the respondents

P~ease tick where appropriate

Gender: Male Female

Age 26 — 35 _________ 36 — 44 45 — 54 _________ 55 and above

Marital status Single Married

Education ~evel

_____PhD

_______Masters

______Postgraduate Diploma

______Degree

______Diploma

_______Other (specify)

Years of experience

_______Below a year

_______One — three

_______Four — six

_______Seven — Nine

______Ten and above

56
 QUESTIONNAIRE FOR MEDIA INFLUENCE

Direction: on the space provided before each option, indicate your best choice by
using the rating system below.

Response mode rating description

Strongly agree (4) You agree with no doubt at all

Agree (3) You agree with some doubt

Disagree (2) You disagree with some doubt

Strongly disagree (1) You disagree with no doubt at all

1. _____I am aware of the impact of media on the individual and society.

2. ______I have an understanding of the process of mass communication.
3. _____I have the ability to analyze and discuss media messages.
4. ______I prefer an awareness of media context as a text that provides recognition
of culture.
5. ______I have production and analysis skills.
6. ______I know about traditional and non-traditional literacy skills of the Media.
7. _____I have an enriched enjoyment, understanding and appreciation of media
content.
8. ______I respect the privacy of children and protection of their identity unless it is
demonstrably in the public interest.
9. ______I think there is need to give children access to media to express their own
opinions.
10. _____I have the obligation to verify information before publication.
11. _____There is need to consider the consequences of publication and to minimize

57
 harm to children.
12. _____Media houses need guidelines for reporting on children.
13. ______The Children are entitled to human rights.
14. ______During our annual meetings, there is awareness training for media
professionals on interviewing, photographing and filming children.
15. ______I respect Guidelines and principles for reporting on issues involving
children.

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR CHILDREN’S RIGHTS

Direction: on the space provided before each option, indicate your best choice by
using the rating system below.

Response mode rating description

Strongly agree (4) You agree with no doubt at all

Agree (3) You agree with some doubt

Disagree (2) You disagree with some doubt

Strongly disagree (1) You disagree with no doubt at all

1. My school is a place where students are safe and secure. (Art. 3 & 5)

____ 2. All students receive equal information and encouragement about academic and
career opportunities. (Art. 2)

____ 3. Members of the school community are not discriminated against because of
their life style choices, such as manner of dress, associating with certain people, and
non-school activities. (Art. 2 & 16)

58
____ 4. My school provides equal access, resources, activities, and scheduling
accommodations for all individuals. (Art. 2 & 7)

____ 5. Members of my school community will oppose discriminatory or demeaning

actions, materials, or slurs in the school. (Art. 2, 3, 7, 28, & 29)

____ 6. When someone demeans or violates the rights of another person, the violator is
helped to learn how to change his/her behavior, (Art. 26)

____ 7. Members of my school community care about my full human as well as

academic development and try to help me when I am in need. (Art. 3, 22, 26 & 29)

____ 8. When conflicts arise, we try to resolve them through non- violeht and
collaborative ways. (Art. 3, 28)

____ 9. Institutional policies and procedures are implemented when complaints of

harassment or discrimination are submitted. (Art. 3 & 7)

____ 10. In matters related to discipline (including suspension and expulsion), all
persons are assured of fair, impartial treatment in the determination of guilt and
assignment of punishment. (Art. 6, 7, 8, 9 & 10)

____ 11. No one in our school is subjected to degrading treatment or punishment. (Art.

____ 12. Someone accused of wrong doing is presumed innocent until proven guilty.
(Art. 11)

____ 13. My personal space and possessions are respected. (Art. 12 & 17)

____ 14. My school community welcomes students, teachers, administrators, and staff
from diverse backgrounds and cultures, including people not born in the Uganda. (Art.
2, 6,13, 14 & 15)

59
____15. I have the liberty to express my beliefs and ideas (political, religious, cultural,
or other) without fear of discrimination.(Art. 19)

____ 16. Members of my school can produce and disseminate publications without fear
of censorship or punishment. (Art. 19)

____ 17. Diverse voices and perspectives (e.g. gender, race/ethnicity, ideological) are
represented in courses, textbooks, assemblies, libraries, and classroom instruction. (Art.
2, 19, & 27)

____ 18. I have the opportunity to express my culture through music, art, and literary
form. (Art. 19, 27 & 28)

____ 19. Members of my school have the opportunity to participate (individually and
through associations) in democratic decision-making processes to develop school
policies and rules. (Art. 20, 21, & 23)

____ 20. Members of my school have the right to form associations within the school to
advocate for their rights or the rights of others. (Art. 19, 20, & 23)

60
 APPENDIX VI

PROPOSED DATA PRESENTATION THROUGH TABLES! GRAPHS

TABLE 2
Demographic characteristics of the respondents

Category frequency Percentage (%)

Gender
Male
Female
Age
26 35 —

36 44 —

45 — 54
55 and above
Marital status
Single
Married
Education level
PhD
Masters
Postgraduate Diploma
Degree
Diploma
Other (specify)
Years of experience
Below a year
One three
—

Four six
—

Seven Nine
—

Ten and above

61
Table 3 A

Media influence

Media influence Mean interpretation rank

low
Average
High

Table 3 B

Awareness of children rights

Indicators Mean interpretation rank

62
 APPENDIX VII Content Validity Index
Indicator No of Judges CVI
judges declared
valid

Media influence

I am aware of the impact of media on the individual and society. 3 3 1

I have an understanding of the process of mass communication. 3 3 1

I have the ability to analyze and discuss media messages. 3 2 067

I prefer an awareness of media context as a text that provides recognition of culture, 3 3 1

I have production and analysis skills. 3 2 0.67

I know about traditional and non-traditional literacy skills of the Media. 3 3 1

I have an enriched enjoyment, understanding and appreciation of media content. 3 3 1

I respect the privacy of children and protection of their identity unless it is demonstrably in the 3 3 1
public interest.

I think there is need to give children access to media to express their own opinions. 3 3

I have the obligation to verify information before publication. 3 3

There is need to consider the consequences of publication and to minimize harm to children. 3 3 1

Media houses need guidelines for reporting on children. 3 3 1

The Children are entitled to human rights. 3 2 0.67

During our annual meetings, there is awareness training for media professionals on 3 1 0.33
interviewing, photographing and filming children.

I respect Guidelines and principles for reporting on issues involving children. 3 2 1167

Mean 0.87

Chikiren’s Rights Awareness

My school is a place where students are safe and secure. (Art. 3 & 5) 3 1 0.33

All students receive equal information and encouragement about academic and career 3 3 1
opportunities. (Art. 2)

Members of the school community are not discriminated against because of their life style 3 3 1
choices, such as manner of dress, associating with certain people, and non-school activities.
(Art. 2 & 16)

My school provides equal access, resources, activities, and scheduling accommodations for all 3 3 1
individuals. (Art. 2 & 7)

Members of my school community will oppose discriminatory or demeaning actions, materials, 3 2 0.67
or slurs in the school. (Art. 2, 3, 7, 28, & 29)

When someone demeans or violates the rights of another person, the violator is helped to 3 2 0.67
learn how to change his/her behavior. (Art. 26)

Members of my school community care about my full human as well as academic development 3 2 0.67
and try to help me when I am in need. (Art. 3, 22, 26 & 29)

63
When conflicts arise, we try to resolve them through non- violent and collaborative ways. (Art. 3 3 1
3, 28)

Institutional policies and procedures are implemented when complaints of harassment or 3 3 1

discrimination are submitted. (Art. 3 & 7)

In matters related to discipline (including suspension and expulsion), all persons are assured of 3 3 1
fair, impartial treatment in the determination of guilt and assignment of punishment. (Art. 6, 7,
8, 9 & 10)

No one in our school is subjected to degrading treatment or punishment. (Art. 5) 3 3

Someone accused of wrong doing is presumed innocent until proven guilty. (Art. 11 ) 3 3 1

My personal space and possessions are respected. (Art. 12 & 17) 3 1 0.33

My school community welcomes students, teachers, administrators, and staff from diverse 3 3 1
backgrounds and cultures, including people not born in Uganda. (Art. 2, 6,13, 14 & 15)

I have the liberty to express my beliefs and ideas (political, religious, cultural, or other) without 3 3 1
fear of discrimination.(Art. 19)

Members of my school can produce and disseminate publications without fear of censorship or 3 3 1
punishment, (Art, 19)

Diverse voices and perspectives (e.g. gender, race/ethnicity, ideological) are represented in 3 3
courses, textbooks, assemblies, libraries, and classroom instruction. (Art. 2, 19, & 27)

I have the opportunity to express my culture through music, art, and literary form. (Art. 19, 27 3 3
& 28)

Members of my school have the opportunity to participate (individually and through 3 3

associations) in democratic decision-making processes to develop school policies and rules.
(Art. 20, 21, & 23)

Members of my school have the right to form associations within the school to advocate for 3 3 1
their rights or the rights of others. (Art. 19, 20, & 23)

Mean ~L88

Content Validity index

CVI= (0.87 + 0.88)12

= 0.88

64
 APPENDIX VIII

PROPOSED BUDGET

ParticWar Quantity Amount (UgShs)

stationary Paper 4 reams 70,000
Ink I cartridge 40,000
, Binding materials 250,000
Research assistants 3 at 100,000 300,000
Transport costs 1 year 500,000
Data analysis 2 weeks 100,000
Up keep On the field 300,000
miscellaneous During data collection 200,000
Tota’ 1,760,000

65
 APPENDIX IX

TIME SCHEDULE

ACTIVITY TIME
Selecting research topic February 2011
Writing proposal March 2011
Proposal hearing May 2011
Field study June 2011
Data analysis and report writing
Viva
Graduation
August 2012
September 2012
November 2012
1

66
 RESEARCHER’S CURRICULUM VITAE

To document the details of the researcher~, his competency in writing a research and to
recognize his efforts and qualifications, this part of the research report Is thus meant

Personal profile

NAME: NTHIGAH NICHOWS MURIMI

GENDER: MALE

NAnONALITY: KENYAN

EDUCAflONAL BACKGROUND

Masters of Arts in Human Rights 2011 to date

Bachelor of mass communIcation 2010

Matriculation certificate 2007

KCSE (KEGONGE BOYS HIGH SCHOOL) 2005

WORK EXPERIENCE

6 months internship, Kenya National Assembly

UnIversIty lecturing (KIU) 2011 to date

67