WELCOME

Subject code: PH11003

Subject Name: Physics of Waves
Credit : 3 (3-1-0-3) (Lecture-Tutorial-Practical-Total)

Department of Physics
IIT Kharagpur

Introduction 1
 Marks Breakup
❖ 20% (objective type, surprise test )

❖ 20% (objective type, 1 class test, Dec end, Oscillation)

❖ Objective/Subjective Exam with negative marking :

❖ 20%(January end, Optics)

❖ 20% (March, Quantum)

❖ Assignments : 20% (Total # 4)

Introduction 2
 Reference materials
1. Lecture Notes & Problems bank for Physics by
R.S. Saraswat and G.P. Sastry
2. Vibrations and Waves in Physics, I. G. Main
3. The Physics of Waves, H. Georgi
4. Waves (Berkeley Physics Course, Volume 3), F. S. Crawford
5. Optics, E. Hecht
6. Fundamentals of Optics, F. A. Jenkins and H. E. White
7. Concepts of Modern Physics, A. Beiser
8. Feynman Lectures on Physics
9. PPT slides: will be made available at regular intervals

Note: If any other source is used then it would be told in the class

https://sites.google.com/view/physicsofwaves/home

Introduction 3
 Syllabus and number of Lectures
Review of Simple Harmonic Motion, Damped and Forced oscillations, Resonance, Coupled
oscillations, Normal modes. (2+6)

Wave Motion, longitudinal and transverse waves, wave equation, plane waves, phase velocity,
superposition, wave packets and group velocity, dispersion relations, two and three dimensional
waves. Electromagnetic Waves, Energy-momentum, Poynting’s theorem, reflection and refraction,
Stokes relations. (9)

Superposition of waves, Interference, Coherence, Two-beam and Multi-beam interference, Fresnel

Biprism and Mirrors, Newton’s rings, Michelson and Fabry-Perot Interferometers, Thin films,
Diffraction, Fraunhofer single slit diffraction and Grating, Polarisation, Birefringence, Retarders.
(9)

Failure of classical physics, Planck spectrum, Compton Effect, Davisson-Germer and Thomson
Experiments, de Broglie waves, Uncertainty principle. Observables and Hermitian Operators, Wave
function and Schrodinger equation, Probability interpretation, One dimensional problems. (9)
 Chapter 1

Oscillations

Why is this chapter important?

Introduction 5
 Importance of Chapter 1: Oscillations

❖ Oscillations in nature are ubiquitous (found everywhere)

http://www.animations.physics.unsw.edu.au/jw/oscillations.htm

❖ Some oscillations are visible; some are subtle but it is difficult to

find something which never exhibits oscillations.

❖ Examples:
– A mosquito’s wings,
vibrate 100 c/s and produce an audible note.
– The human body,
our hearts beat, our lungs oscillate, our eardrums, our
larynx vibrate etc..
the atoms of which we are constituted vibrate…”

Introduction 6
As a result…
❖ Understand the nature and causes of oscillations.

❖ Oscillations form the basis for understanding waves

❖ In astrophysics, thermal physics, quantum mechanics, optics,

condensed-matter physics, mechanics, atmospheric and
planetary physics, etc.
“So it’s a basic literacy in physics”

Introduction 7
 Examples
Obvious Oscillations
❖ Water waves Subtle Oscillations
❖ Pendulums ❖ Heat in a solid
❖ Car springs, shock absorbers ❖ Structure of an atom
❖ Superconductivity
Less-Obvious Oscillations ❖ Heat Radiation
❖ Musical instruments
❖ Suspension bridges
❖ Lasers
❖ Quartz-crystal electronic
watches
❖ Radio antenna
❖ Fiber optics

December 13, 2020 Introduction 8

Examples
Before starting...
Lets learn some important notations

December 13, 2020 Introduction 10

 Complex Numbers ❖ We will extensively use complex
numbers throughout this course.
x 2 = −1 x 2 = −1 = i 2
❖ Their use is NOT mandatory.
x2 = ? i = −1 ❖ But the use gives tremendous
Imaginary exponents convenience in classical wave
Euler’s equation: physics.
ei = cos  + i sin 
z=a+ib : Cartesian representation
z = r ei : Polar representation
Imaginary

Complex Plane
z = r (cos + i sin )
Complex conjugate
z r sin  b
 z* = r (cos − i sin )
r cos  Real −1
r = a 2 + b 2 ;  = tan (b / a)
a
Introduction 11
 Euler’s equation:
ei = cos  + i sin 

The black ball represents the position of the complex number eiφ as it moves through the complex plane.

The blue ball represents the position of cos(ωt) and the red ball represents the position of isin(ωt).

Oscillations that can be described by sin(ωt) or cos(ωt) are called harmonic oscillations.

If you look at the motion of the black ball from above, it moves in a circle but if you look at the
motion of the black ball from the side, it executes harmonic motion.

The complex number bridges the relationship between circular motion and harmonic oscillations

Sometimes when we observe a harmonic oscillation it is convenient to imagine that we are

looking at circular motion from the side. We can't measure the component of the motion in the
imaginary direction, we just imagine it.
Multiplication by ei is equivalent to rotating
counterclockwise by  in the complex plane

z = Ae i z = Aei ei

z * = A*e −i z * = A*e −i e −i

z z * = | z |2 = A 2

z=a+ib
Re z= a, and Im z = b

Re z = Re z*
Introduction 13
Phasor = Rotating Arrow + Associated Phase Angle

An Argand diagram is a
plot of complex numbers
as points
z=x+iy in the complex
plane
the x-axis as the real axis
and
the y-axis as the
imaginary axis.

In the plot
the circle represents the complex modulus
|z| of z and
the angle represents its complex argument.

The complex argument is also called the phase.

Introduction 14
 Oscillations
Oscillation: The periodic to and fro (back and forth)
motion of any quantity about its mean position
It can be the position of a material object or
electric field or magnetic field

Free OSCILLATION the amplitude, frequency, and energy all remain constant

Damped OSCILLATION decrease in amplitude,

the energy of the system keeps decreasing

Forced OSCILLATION amplitude experiences damping but remains constant

due to oscillatory force

December 13, 2020 Introduction 15

Simple example of SHM

F = −k x + c x 2
 Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration

Why sinusoidal function? Displacement : x(t ) = A cos(t +  )

The linear operations
dx
(differentiation, integration and Velocity : v(t ) = = −  A sin(t +  )
addition) applied to a sinusoidal dt
functions of a definite period d 2x
Acceleration : a(t ) = 2
= − 2 A cos(t +  )
generate other sinusoidal function of dt
the same period, differing at most in
amplitude and phase

December 13, 2020 SHO 17

 Mean position

L O P R
x = −A x=0 x x=+A
v(− A) = 0 (min) v(0) = A  (max), v( x) =   A2 − x 2 , v(+ A) = 0 (min)

a (− A) = − A  2 (max) a(0) = 0 (min), a ( x) = − x

2
a ( A) = − A  2 (max)
 Use complex number for solution of SHM
z (t ) = A ei0t x=ASin0t

z(t ) = A ei
A=Complex amplitude 
t
Real and imaginary x=Asin(0t+p/3)
parts of z(t) satisfy
simple harmonic
equation of motion 
t
x(t)=Re z(t)
x=Asin(0t+p/2)


t

December 13, 2020 SHO 19

 Superposition of two SHM

Let,

[ + ]

December 13, 2020 SHO 20

 Consider oscillation frequencies are different ( 1 and 2 )
x1 (t ) = a sin( 1 t )
x2 (t ) = a sin( 2 t )

Assume 2 > 1

Resulting displacement

x(t ) = x1 (t ) + x2 (t ) = a sin( 1 t ) + sin( 2 t )

 (1 + 2 ) t   (2 − 1 ) t 
x(t ) = 2a sin   cos 
 2   2 
 Superposition of SHMs in perpendicular directions:
x(t ) = a cos(1 t + 1 ) y(t ) = b cos(2 t + 2 )
If, 2 = 1= Eliminate t from the two equations
x y
cos 2 − cos 1 = sin(  t ) sin( 2 − 1 )
a b
x y
sin 2 − sin 1 = cos( t ) sin(2 − 1 )
a b
x2 y2 2x y
2
+ 2
− cos( 2 − 1 ) = sin 2
(2 − 1 )
a b ab
p
If, 2 − 1 =  n p If, 2 − 1 = Circle; if a=b
2
Straight Line; Ellipse otherwise
 Lissajous figure
and
its importance

Jules Antoine Lissajous

x2 y 2 2x y
2
+ 2
− cos( 2 − 1 ) = sin 2
(2 − 1 )
a b ab

Phase shift (2 − 1 )

 Importance of SHO

Know about
❖ The stable equilibrium
❖ Slightly away from stable equilibrium

Harmonic oscillator potential

1 2
V ( x) = kx
2

Lennard-Jones potential
   12   6 
V (r ) = 4    −   
 r   r  


December 13, 2020 Introduction 24

 Taylor series Brook Taylor
Reasonable approximations to
understand the behavior of complex
systems
If a function is defined in a interval at a
point and its derivative of all order exist
at that point then one can expand the 1685-1731
function at that point
1
f ( x) = f ( x0 ) + ( x − x0 ) f ' ( x0 ) +
( x − x0 ) 2 f " ( x0 ) + ...
2!
Goal is to find the value of a function f(x) at the
position x=x0+a, if we are given the information of
the function at x0

December 13, 2020 Introduction 25

 Taylor series expansion
Arbitrary potentials can be well approximated by harmonic oscillator
potentials near minima. Consider a potential V(x). Let us assume a
minimum at x=x0 ,
The Taylor series expansion around x=x0,
1
V ( x) = V ( x0 ) + ( x − x0 )V ' ( x0 ) + ( x − x0 )2V " ( x0 ) + ...
2!



f ( n) ( x0 )
= ( x − x0 )n
n!
n =0

V ' ( x0 ) = 0 & V " ( x0 )  0,

Since x0 is a minimum of V(x)
Example: Expansion of sin at 0 = 0
3 5
sin =  − + − ... Try for cos 
3! 5!
For small  : sin    (where  is in radians)
December 13, 2020 Introduction 26
Take a function, pick a specific point, and dive in. You can pull out enough
data from a single point to rebuild the entire function. It's like remaking a
movie from a single frame.

Growing a function from a point

 Euler equation and Taylor series

Taylor series..
Graphical representation of Taylor series approximation

df an d n f
f ( x0 + a ) = f ( x0 ) + a + ... +
dx x0 n! dx n x0
Waves and Oscillations, W. F. Smith
December 13, 2020 Introduction 29
Taylor series at z = a
1
f ( z ) = f (a) + ( x − a) f ' (a) + ( x − a ) 2 f " (a ) + ...
2!
Examples: Expand in Taylor series at z=π
sin z
1. f ( z ) =
z −p
sin z z − p 1 ( z − p )3 1 ( z − p )5
Ans : f ( z ) = =− + − + ...
z −p z − p 3! z − p 5! z − p
Expand in Taylor series at z=1
1 Try using,
2. f ( z ) =
z+2 (1 + x) −1 = 1 − x + x 2 − x 4 + ... (for | x | 1)
1 1 z − 1 2 ( z − 1) 2 2 ( z − 1) 3
Ans : f ( z ) = − + − + ...
3 9 1! 27 2 ! 27 3!
 Simple Pendulum
❖ A point mass suspended from a string or rod of negligible mass
Fnet = −m g sin 
A restoring force acts in the direction
opposite the displacement from the
equilibrium position.
m l  = −m g sin
  230 & sin   
g g
 +  = 0   =  max sin t
l l
Amplitude Phase

g
=  T = 2p = 2p l
l  g
Note: Small angle approximation is valid till ~ 0.4 radians (= 23 0)

December 13, 2020 SHO 31

 Spring-Mass system
Hooke’s Law:
F = −k x
Equation of SHM
m x + k x = 0 friction-free motion
k
x + x = 0  x + 02 x = 0
m
Solution of the above equation is
x(t ) = A cos (0 t +  )
A and  are arbitrary and can be
determined by the initial conditions
x(t ) = A0 cos (0 t )
❖ At any instant time, one can calculate
where the mass would be
❖ One can describe the motion which is oscillating
in position has period ω0
k 2p m
0 =  T =  = 2p k
m 0
December 13, 2020 SHO 32
 More examples of Free Oscillations
Physical Pendulum
Torque has a sign, depending on the sense of
rotation induced by torque. (point P is cm )

 = I = −( M g sin  )d
 + M g d  = 0
I
The solution is

 (t ) =  max sin(  t +  ) max can be find by initial condition

I = I cm +  mi ri
2
2p M gd
= =
T I
 Electrical version of Harmonic Oscillator

Initially, C is charged or a current is

induced in L. After that Current and
Q
Voltage oscillate harmonically.
di ; and V = Q
VL (t ) = − L = −L Q C
dt C

− LQ  = Q
C
The solution is Q(t ) = Qmax cos( t +  ) Qmax can be find by initial
condition
I (t ) = I max cos( t +  + 90 0 )

V (t ) = Vmax cos( t +  ) =
1
LC
 Torsional pendulum

Where,
I = Moment of Inertia
θ = Angular displacement
 = Rigidity modulus

December 13, 2020 SHO 35

 Energy of the simple harmonic oscillator
x = A cos(0 t +  ) Since, 0 = k / m
1 1 1
K .E = m v 2 = m 02 A2 sin 2 (0 t +  ) = k A2 sin 2 (0 t +  )
2 2 2
1 1 1
P.E = k x 2 = m02 A2 cos 2 (0 t +  ) = k A2 cos 2 (0 t +  )
2 2 2
1 1
E = K .E + P.E = k A2 = m 02 A2
2 2
1 p2 1 2
E= kA = 2
+ kx
2 2m 2
2 2
p x
2
+ 2
=1
kA A
p2 x2
+ 2 =1
m 0 A
2 2 2
A
Phase space
1-particles:
3 position and 3 momentum coordinates, so
total 6 dimensional space
1D---Phase Line
2D---Phase space and so on

p2 x2
+ 2 =1
m 0 A
2 2 2
A
 Finding Time Average of a physical observable

1 T /2
 Q = limT → 
2
[Q(t )]2 dt
T −T / 2
1
sin 2 (0t +  ) =
2
Average Energy
 In case of a sinusoidal wave, the RMS value is easy to calculate. If we define Ip to be
the amplitude, then:

where t is time and ω is the angular frequency (ω = 2π/T, where T is the period of
the wave). Since Ip is a positive constant:

Using a trigonometric identity:

but since the interval is a whole number of complete cycles (definition of RMS),
the sin terms will cancel out, leaving:

= 0.707 Ip

December 13, 2020 SHO and Damped Osc. 39

 Differential equation
g
 +  =0 x + 02 x = 0
l

Above equation is 2nd order ordinary homogenous

linear differential equation
2nd Order: because the highest derivative is second order
Ordinary: because the derivatives are only w.r.t. one variable t
Homogenous: because x /ϴ or its derivative appear in every term
Linear: because x /ϴ or its derivatives appear separately and
linearly in each term
 Simple Harmonic Oscillator
Let‘s find the general solution...
d 2x k
The equation of motion is given by: +  2
0 x = 0 where  2
0 =
dt 2 m
This is a second order linear homogeneous equation with constant coefficients.

x = e p t ,x = p e
pt
, x = p2 e p t ,

p 2 e p t + 02 e p t = 0  p =  i 0

The general solution is given by:

x = c1 ei 0t + c2 e −i 0t
The constansts c1 and c2 can be determined by the initial conditions.

December 13, 2020 SHO 41

The general solution is
x(t ) = c1 ei 0t + c2 e −i 0t
At t=0 x(0) = c1 + c2
The velocity is given by

x (t ) = c1 (i 0 )ei 0t + c2 (−i 0 ) e − i 0t

At t=0 x (0) = i 0 (c1 − c2 )
1 x (0)  1 x (0) 
c1 =  x ( 0) +  c2 =  x ( 0) − 
2 i 0  2 i 0 

1 x (0)  i 0t 1  x (0)  −i 0t

x(t ) =  x ( 0) +  e +  x ( 0) − e
2 i 0  2 i 0 
 We have the general solution 1 x (0)  i 0t 1  x (0)  −i 0t
x(t ) =  x ( 0) +  e +  x ( 0) − e
2 i 0  2 i 0 
Take the special cases
❖The mass is pulled to one side and released from rest at t=0
x(0) = a0
x(0) = 0
x(t ) =
1
2
1
a0 ei 0t + a0 e−i 0t
2  x(t ) =a0 cos 0t

❖ The mass is hit and is given a speed v0 at its equilibrium position at t=0


x(0) = 0 1  v0  i 0t 1  v0  −i 0t v0
x(t ) =  e + − e x(t ) = sin 0 t
x (0) = v0 2  i 0  2  i 0 
0
❖ The mass is given a speed v at a displacement a at t=0
x(0) = a
x(t ) =
1
a +
2
v  i 0t 1 
e
i 0 
+ a −
2
v  −i 0t
e
i 0   x(t ) = a cos0t +
v
0
sin 0t
x(0) = v
x = a0 cos(0t +  )
2
 v   v 
where a0 = a 2 +  
 and  = tan−1 − 


 0  0 
a

December 13, 2020 SHO and Damped Osc. 43