Active Learning

Active learning is more likely to take place when

students are doing something besides listening.
—Ryan & Martens, 1989

Active learning has many definitions. Bonwell and Eison (1991) refer to active learning as
“instructional activities involving students in doing things and thinking about what they are doing”
(p. iii). Paulson and Faust (1998) define it as “any learning activity engaged in by students in a
classroom other than listening passively to an instructor’s lecture” (cited in Staley, 2003, p. 5). It
is a mode of learning in which students “engage, think critically, discuss, and problem solve as a
natural and expected part of the learning experience” (Staley, 2003, p. 5). Chickering and
Gamson (1987) note that:
learning is not a spectator sport. Students do not learn much by sitting in classes
listening. ... They must talk about what they are learning, write about it, relate it to past
experiences, apply it to their daily lives. They must make what they learn part of
themselves. (p. 5)

While passive learning methods, epitomized by traditional instructor-dominated lecture

formats, continue to pervade postsecondary classrooms, the advantages of more active
learning activities have been repeatedly demonstrated in the literature. Research has shown, for
example, that students prefer strategies that involve active learning over traditional lectures, that
such strategies are comparable to lectures in promoting mastery of content and superior in
promoting higher-order thinking skills, and that a significant number of individuals have learning
styles best served by teaching methods other than lecturing (Angelo & Cross, 1993; Bain, 2004;
Bok, 2006; Bonwell & Eison, 1991; Chickering & Ehrmann, 1996; Chickering & Gamson, 1987;
Ericksen, 1984; Fink, 2003; Fox & Hackerman, 2003; King, 1993; Kristensen, 2007; McKeachie
& Svinicki, 2006; Royse, 2001; Ryan & Martens, 1989; Staley, 2003).

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Some general principles underlying active learning include:
• Students engage more when active learning is a part of the learning environment.
• Students learn more when they are challenged to discuss, reflect, and solve problems.
• Students benefit from opportunities to “try out” ideas and content, and from immediate
feedback from peers and instructors.
• Students learn new knowledge more easily when it relates to “real life,” personal
experience, or prior knowledge.
• Students learn best by performing authentic tasks that build and expand on what they
already know.
• Students learn more when they have some control over what and how they are learning.
• Prompt feedback is essential to effective learning.
• Learning styles vary considerably and not all students are well served by traditional
lecture formats.

The characteristics of active learning experiences may be summarized as follows:

• Students are involved in more than just listening.
• Less emphasis is placed on transmitting information and more on developing students’
skills.
• Students are involved in higher-order thinking (application, analysis, evaluation, and
creation).
• Students are actively engaged with the content or concepts (e.g., reading, discussing,
writing, brainstorming, summarizing, critiquing, and presenting).
• Greater emphasis is placed on students’ exploration of their own ideas, attitudes, and
values.
(adapted from Bonwell & Eison, 1991; Chickering & Gamson, 1987; King, 1993;
Kristensen, 2007; McKeachie & Svinicki, 2006; Royse, 2001; Staley, 2003)

In other words, “active inquiry, not passive absorption, is what engages students. It
should pervade the curriculum,” (Johnson, Spalding, Paden & Ziffren, 1989, p. 68). As student
learning activities involve ever-increasing degrees of active participation, through discussion,
practice, and teaching others, rates of knowledge retention rise significantly (Dale, 1946;
National Training Laboratories, 2009). Of course, some lecturers are phenomenally engaging,
but as a general principle, traditional lecture formats are less supportive of developing higher-
order thinking skills than active learning strategies, and many students could benefit from a

10 Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Limited

broader range of instructional strategies. (Further activities to promote active learning are
described in more detail in Part II, Constructing Rich Learning Activities, and incorporated into
Part IV, Sample Lessons.)
In Figure 1, the Learning Pyramid of Student Activities graphically illustrates the
improvements in student achievement as teaching/learning activities move away from traditional
lecturing, where students are predominantly passive recipients of instructor-dispensed content,
through a series of learning activities (such as discussion, presentation, simulation, and
authentic practice) that progressively move from passive to more active participation.

Figure 1: Learning Pyramid of Student Activities

(adapted from Dewey, 1938, Bonwell & Eison, 1991; King, 1993; Kristensen, 2007; McKeachie
& Svnicki, 2006; National Training Laboratories, 2009; Royse, 2001; Staley, 2003)

 
 
 
Teaching  
Others 

More Engaging 
More Active 
Demonstrating 
Presenting 

 
Applying 
Doing 
Practising 
Participating 
Discussing 
Watching 
Listening 
 
 
Table 3 summarizes the characteristics of passive learning versus active learning, and
indicates the direction of increases in retention, higher-order thinking, participation, and
engagement as expectations and activities move from passive to more active learning
experiences.

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Table 3: Passive Learning versus Active Learning

Passive Learning Active Learning

• Students are seen as passive recipients of • Students are seen as active participants
instructor’s knowledge. in their own learning.
• Students memorize and reflect teacher- • Students strive to understand, relate, and
transferred knowledge and positions. apply new learning.
• Learning activities primarily constitute sitting, • Students are empowered to pursue
listening, and taking notes. ongoing, self-directed learning.
• Students are encouraged to discuss,
share, collaborate, and do!

Increase in retention, higher-order thinking, participation, and engagement

In summary, with respect to core principles of engaging teaching, research has

demonstrated consistently that student-centred, deep, and active learning activities lead to
improvements in student learning in terms of knowledge retention, higher-order thinking skills,
participation, and engagement. Table 4 compares old and new paradigms in teaching and
learning, and indicates the direction of increased student learning as instructional methods
move from teacher-centred, surface, and passive learning activities toward more student-
centred, deep, and active learning experiences.

Table 4: Old and New Paradigms in Teaching and Learning

Old Paradigms New Paradigms

Teacher-Centred Instruction Student-Centred Instruction

Surface Learning Deep Learning

Passive Learning Active Learning

Increase in retention, higher-order thinking, participation, and engagement.

12 Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Limited

 Creating Positive Learning Environments

The learning process is more effective when the intellectual side is balanced with the
emotional, when teachers demonstrate concern about students and their academic
progress, when they show empathy and understanding with the non-academic
interests and needs of students—in short, when they “care.”
—Eric Kristensen, 2007

Student-centred, deep, and active learning experiences are best supported in classroom
environments where students feel that instructors care about their progress, where a sense of
community emerges, and where instructors manifest strong organizational skills.
In particular, a wealth of research on student ratings of postsecondary instructors has
demonstrated that students consistently rate instructors as more effective when the students
perceive that the instructor cares about their progress as an individual student (Badger, 2008;
Bain, 2004; Carini, Kuh, & Klein, 2004; Cashin, 1995; Chickering & Gamson, 1987; Fink, 2003;
Fisher & Engemann, 2009; King, 1993; Kolitich & Dean, 1999; Kristensen, 2007; Kuh, 2008;
Lizzio, Wilson, & Simons, 2002; Marsh & Dunkin, 1992; McKeachie & Svinicki, 2006; O’Banion,
1997; Purkey & Siegel, 2003; Scott, 2005; Staley, 2003; Stronge, 2002; Tang, 1997; Theall,
2008; Tinto, 1994; Umbach & Wawrynski, 2005; Young & Shaw, 1999).
Instructors can demonstrate this important element of faculty-student rapport by:
• showing interest in students as individuals
• learning (or at least attempting to learn) students’ names
• projecting warmth, openness, and approachability
• setting high expectations
• inviting student participation, sharing of experiences, and opinions
• encouraging students to ask questions
• respecting their contributions
• encouraging and supporting individual risk taking.

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 Furthermore, students’ learning experiences are consistently rated as more enjoyable
and profitable “when they feel connected to each other and to the faculty member” (Royse,
2001, p.6). As in the case of developing more effective faculty–student rapport, creating and
maintaining this sense of community in the classroom can be achieved through a range of
activities.
Community building activities include:
• ensuring a safe, respectful learning environment (physically and emotionally)
• using ice-breakers to facilitate a collegial atmosphere
• encouraging the use of students’ names as often as possible
• viewing education as a two-way interactive process
• inviting and responding respectfully to student questions and comments
• using small-group or paired discussion formats on a regular basis
• encouraging and empowering students’ responsibility in their own learning.

Additionally, students consistently rate instructors as more effective when they

demonstrate clear organizational skills.
Some activities that instructors can employ to demonstrate their organizational skills include:
• providing clear preliminary overviews of courses, content, and lessons
• communicating clear instructions and setting high expectations
• demonstrating the relevance of course material
• using organizational headings, graphic organizers, visual aids, and concept maps
• using rubrics as objective assessment instruments
• providing prompt, fair feedback that helps students improve.

Instructors who demonstrate caring and build rapport with their students, develop a
sense of community in their classrooms, and demonstrate effective organizational skills will be
rewarded with students who are more engaged and successful in learning, understanding,
relating, and applying the new knowledge presented in their courses.
In synthesizing these and other approaches to creating positive learning environments,
Chickering and Gamson’s (1987) seminal article Seven Principles for Good Practice in
Undergraduate Education crystallized a wealth of literature and research on the benefits of
positive learning environments. Table 5 summarizes Chickering and Gamson’s seven principles,
and includes some practical ideas, behaviours, attitudes, and activities for applying these
principles in contemporary postsecondary classrooms.

14 Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Limited

Table 5. Seven Principles of Good Practice and Related Activities
(adapted from Chickering and Gamson, 1987)

Principles of Instructor Behaviours

Good Practice
• Be approachable
Encourage • Demonstrate concern about your students’ success
student–faculty • Attempt to learn students’ names
contact • Be available for meeting outside the classroom
• Attend student events
• Engage in informal discussions

Encourage • Give students opportunities to share and respond to each others’ ideas

cooperation • Invite and encourage participation and sharing

among students • Use small-group formats

• Encourage students to ask questions and share responses during class

• Sacrifice content delivery for student participation
Encourage active • Provide real-life situations and samples
learning • Provide authentic problem-solving activities
• Use role-playing, simulations, and experiments
• Provide student choice in assignment topics
• Return student work by the next class (within a week, at maximum)
Provide prompt
• Provide substantial written feedback on their work
feedback
• Use immediate feedback tools (clickers, etc.)
• Balance constructive criticism with positive reinforcement
• Start and finish on time (demonstrate essential employability skills)
Emphasize time on
• Use feedback tools, pop quizzes at start of class
task
• Organize class time into blocks (e.g., lecture, small-group task, general
discussion, and assignment presentation)
• Communicate expectations verbally and in writing at the beginning of a
Communicate high
course, and repeat/reinforce periodically
expectations
• Provide examples of exemplary work
• Suggest and encourage further reading and areas to explore
• Appeal to a range of learning styles
Respect diverse
• Use a range of teaching methods
talents and ways
• Invite students’ sharing of interests and backgrounds
of learning
• Provide choice in readings and assignment topics
• Accommodate students’ needs for individual assistance

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