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Summary - Module 3 - Unit2

The photoelectric effect occurs when electromagnetic radiation ejects electrons from metal surfaces. Einstein proposed that light has a particle nature to explain this effect. Millikan's oil drop experiment provided evidence that electric charge is quantized in units of the elementary charge e. Radioactive decay is a spontaneous process where unstable atomic nuclei emit radiation as they transform into more stable nuclei. The type of radiation emitted depends on the unstable nucleus and can be detected using instruments like Geiger-Muller tubes.

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158 views

Summary - Module 3 - Unit2

The photoelectric effect occurs when electromagnetic radiation ejects electrons from metal surfaces. Einstein proposed that light has a particle nature to explain this effect. Millikan's oil drop experiment provided evidence that electric charge is quantized in units of the elementary charge e. Radioactive decay is a spontaneous process where unstable atomic nuclei emit radiation as they transform into more stable nuclei. The type of radiation emitted depends on the unstable nucleus and can be detected using instruments like Geiger-Muller tubes.

Uploaded by

emanuel coates
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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The photoelectric effect

■ When a metal surface is exposed to electromagnetic radiation, electrons are emitted from the
surface (photoelectric effect).
■ Classical wave theory cannot explain the photoelectric effect.
■ Einstein proposed a particle model of electromagnetic radiation to explain the photoelectric
effect.
■ 1 electronvolt (eV) is the energy transformed by an electron as it moves through a p.d. of 1V.

Investigating the photoelectric effect


■ The photoelectric effect can be investigated by measuring the photoelectric current when the
frequency of the incident electromagnetic radiation is varied.
■The stopping potential can be used to determine the work function of the metal
■ The Planck constant can be determined from the data obtained from photoelectric effect
experiments.
■ Φ = hf = (hc)/λ
0 o

■ hf = Φ + 1/ 2 mv = Φ + eVs
2

Millikan's oil drop experiment

■ Millikan's experiments showed that electric charge is quantised.


■ electric charges are integral multiples of a unique elementary charge e.
■The magnitude of the fundamental charge e = 1.6 x 10 C.19

Emission and absorption spectra


■ A line emission spectrum is a series of discrete bright lines on a dark background.
■ A line absorption spectrum is a continuous bright spectrum crossed by dark lines.
■ Line spectra provide evidence for discrete energy levels in isolated atoms.
■ Each line represents a photon of a specific energy. The photon is emitted or absorbed as a
result of an energy change of an electron. Specific energies (lines) are observed, therefore there
are discrete energy levels.
■ E - E = hf is used to calculate the frequency of an emitted photon when an electron undergoes
2 1

an energy change from E to E


2 1

Wave-particle duality
■ Wave-particle duality refers to the idea that light and matter have both wave and particle
properties.
■ de Broglie stated that the wavelength of a particle is given by λ = h/p
■ Electron diffraction provides evidence that particles are able to behave as waves.
■ Interference and diffraction provide evidence for the wave nature of electromagnetic radiation.
■ The photoelectric effect provides evidence for the particle nature of electromagnetic radiation

X-rays

■ X-rays are produced by bombarding a metal surface with electrons that have been accelerated
through a large potential difference.
■ The typical spectrum of X-rays produced in an X-ray tube consists of a continuous distribution
of wavelengths and a series of sharp high-intensity lines.
■ The intensity of X-rays decreases exponentially as it passes through matter.
■ X-rays are used to obtain shadow pictures of internal structures of the body, three-dimensional
images using CT scanners and in radiotherapy in the treatment of cancers.
■ I=I exp (-μx)
0
Atomic structure
■ In J. J. Thomson's model the atom is a positive sphere with negative electrons distributed
throughout it.
■ The alpha-scattering experiments provided evidence against this 'plum pudding’ model.
■ In Rutherford's model the nucleus is very small and positively charged with electrons orbiting
around it.
■ In Niels Bohr's model of the atom electrons orbit the small positively charged nucleus but
occupy discrete energy levels.

Nuclear reactions
■ Nuclear fission is an induced process whereby an unstable nucleus is bombarded by a neutron.
The nucleus splits into two or more stable fragments as well as several neutrons.
■ Nuclear fusion is the process whereby light nuclei become more stable by combining with
other light nuclei to form a heavier stable nucleus, accompanied by the release of energy.
■ Nucleon number, proton number and energy are conserved in nuclear reactions.

Binding energy

■ The energy required to completely separate the nucleons of a nucleus is called the binding
energy of the nucleus.
■ The binding energy per nucleon is equal to the binding energy of the nucleus divided by the
total number of nucleons.
■ Energy is released when heavy nuclei undergo fission.
■ Energy is released when light nuclei undergo fusion.
■ ΔE = Δmc2
Radioactivity

■ Radioactive decay is the spontaneous and random process whereby an unstable nucleus
attempts to become stable by disintegrating into another nucleus and emitting any one or more of
the following: alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays.
■ Random nature: the decay is unpredictable. It is impossible to predict which nucleus will decay
next or when.
■ Spontaneous nature: the decay process is not affected by conditions external to the nucleus
(e.g. temperature and pressure).
■ A G-M tube, cloud chamber or spark counter can be used to detect ionising radiation.

■ Background radiation is random radioactivity detected from the surroundings.

Types of radiation
■ Three types of ionising radiation are alpha particles, beta particles and gamma rays.
■ An alpha-particle is a helium nucleus.
■ A beta-particle is a fast-moving electron.
■ gamma-rays consist of high-energy electromagnetic waves.
■ alpha-particles are the strongest ioniser and gamma-rays are the weakest ioniser.
■ alpha-particles are stopped by a thin sheet of paper (2 mm).
■ beta-particles are stopped by a thin sheet of aluminium (1-10 mm).
■ gamma-rays are the most penetrating but most of the radiation is stopped by a sheet of lead.
■ alpha-particles and beta-particles are deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
■ gamma-rays are not deflected by electric or magnetic fields.
■ The intensity of gamma-rays from a point source is inversely proportional to the square of the
distance from the source.
Radioactive decay
■ Mass number and atomic number are conserved in nuclear reactions.
■ The activity A of a radioactive sample is the number of nuclei decaying per second.
■ The activity of a radioactive sample is proportional to the number of nuclei present in the
sample.
■ The decay constant A is the probability of decay of a nucleus per unit time.
■ The half-life of a radioactive substance is the average time taken for the number of undecayed
nuclei to decrease to half of its initial value.
■ Radioactive decay can be expressed mathematically by x = x e^-λt.0

■ Half-life and decay constant are related by the equation t = ln2/λ


1/2

Measuring half-life
■ The half-life of radon-220 can be determined experimentally. The count rate is measured over
a period of time.
■ The half-life can be measured by measuring the average time taken for the activity to decrease
by half its initial value.
■ The half-life can also be calculated from the gradient of a suitably plotted straight line.
Uses of radioisotopes
■ Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same atomic number but different mass
number.
■ Radioisotopes have many uses such as radioactive dating, tracers, thickness control, imaging,
smoke detectors and cancer treatment.

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