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UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO JAINISM

Contents

1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Origin and Development of Jainism
1.3 Mahavira
1.4 Sacred Scriptures of Jainism
1.5 The Concept of God
1.6 The Concept of the Soul
1.7 Jaina Ethics
1.8 Liberation (Moksa)
1.9 Jain Sects
1.10 Let Us Sum Up
1.11 Key Words
1.12 Further Reading and References
1.0 OBJECTIVES
Jainism is one of the oldest religious traditions of the world. A great generation of tirthankaras,
acaryas, saints, and scholars belonged to this tradition. In today’s world, there is an assumption
that religion loses its grip on humanity, but Jainism has lot to offer to negate this contention. The
main objective of this paper is to achieve a complete understanding of this tradition. Jainism
takes the path of self reliance, self discipline, and self purification to realize the inherent
potentialities of the human self. It is also a focus on the history, and the sublime and dynamic
religiosity of Jainism.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Jainism is one of the religions whose origin can be traced back to the twenty four teachers
(tirthankaras - ones who establishes a path or ford), through whom their faith is believed to have
been handed down. The term ‘jaina’ is derived from the term ‘jina’,and the term ‘jina’ is the
common name for the supreme souls who are totally free from all feelings of attachment,
aversion, etc. The etymological meaning of the word ‘jina’ is conqueror. It is the common name
given to the twenty four teachers (tirthankaras), because they have conquered all passions (raga
and dvesa) and have attained liberation. Jainism in its essence is the religion of heroic souls who
are jinas or conquerors of their self. The devotees of jina are called ‘jaina’, and the religion
propounded by jina is called the ‘Jaina Religion.’
The first of these teachers was Rsabhadeva and the last was Vardhamana, also known as
Mahavira (the Great Hero). He is said to have lived in the sixth century B.C. as a contemporary
ofGautama Buddha. Mahavira is the successor of Parvanatha, who lived in the ninth century B.C.
The contribution of Jainism to Indian culture, spirituality, and philosophy is really immense. It is
a religion of praxis than of faith. Jainism is a sramanic religion. The word ‘Sramana’ means an
ascetic or a monk. Thus asceticism and mysticism, meditation and contemplation, silence and
solitude, practice of virtues like non-violence, renunciation, celibacy, self-control, etc. are
distinguishing characteristics of this tradition. Jainism was also instrumental for a radical change
in the social life of Indians. Jainism has the universal message of non-violence.

 
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1.2 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF JAINISM

The advent of Jainism in the sixthth century BC was expected, as many people were beginning to
oppose the hierarchical organization and formalized ritualism of the Vedic religion. The failure
of the Vedic religion to meet popular needs, the meaningless forms of sacrifices which did not
provide release from samsara, and the merciless killing of animals in the sacrificial context
forced the Jinas to provide the people with a new orientation and new interpretation. Their
teachings laid primary emphasis on personal training, and taught that salvation is attainable to
anyone willing to learn it. They stressed on personal effort and practice, not theoretical
speculation, and proof of their validity was found in personal experience, not textual authority or
logical argument. Jains hold the view that the Jaina religion is eternal and has been revealed
again and again in the succeeding periods of the world by innumerable Tirthanakaras. It is
believed that all the Tirthankaras reached moksa at the time of their death, as a result of their
personal effort; they are regarded as ‘Gods’ and are worshipped by the Jains. Jains believe that it
is on the authority of the teachings of the omniscient liberated saints (Jinas or Tirthankaras) that
we can have real knowledge about certain spiritual matters. The teachings and lives of the saints
show the possibility and path to attain liberation. The twenty- third tirthankara, the immediate
predecessor of Mahavira, was Parvanatha, and he preached the doctrine of love and ahimsa. He
enjoined four vows, which are, (i) Not to destroy life (ahimsa) (ii) Not to lie (satya) (iii) Not to
steal (asteya) and (iv) Not to own property (aparigraha). His great successor Mahavira added
the fifth vow of chastity (brahmacarya).

1.3 MAHAVIRA
Mahavira was the twenty-fourth tirthankara. Jainism is closely associated with Vardhamana
Mahavira, who lived from 540 to 468 B.C. and established the central doctrines of Jainism. He
was born in Northern India, in the town of Vyshali, into a royal family. His father was
Siddhartha Maharaja who ruled Kundapura, and his mother was Priyakarini. Vardhamana lived
as a householder for thirty years. At the age of thirty he left his wife, child, and family and
started a life of total renunciation and asceticism. Mahavira passed twelve years of his ascetic
life with equanimity, performing hard and long penances, and enduring all afflictions and
calamities with an undisturbed mind. At the end, the ascetic obtained omniscience; he became
jina, the victorious and Mahavira, the great hero.
He realized his true self and attained omniscience by practising rigorous austerities and
penances. He understood the nature of physical bondage and ways of achieving total liberation
from bondage, and thus, liberation from rebirth and bodily existence. The ideal state of freedom
can be achieved only through a radial ascetical life, the essence of which is total renunciation of
all bodily comforts and all material objects. He says, “It is owing to attachment that a person
commits violence, utters lies, commits theft, indulges in sex, and develops a yearning for
unlimited hoarding.” (Bhakta-parijna). Modern Jains believe that his message is full of
pragmatic optimism, self-reliance, self-discipline, and self-purification to develop the inherent
and infinite potentialities of the human self. A glimpse into his life shows that he was an
embodiment of non-violence and compassion. He taught five great vows and initiated many
people into this way of life, established the four fold order, (monks, nuns, male lay-votaries and
female votaries.) and emerged a teacher of many monks, a renowned preacher, and a founder of
a new religion. Lord Mahavira passed the last thirty years of his life as the omniscient

 
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tirthankara. By the time of his death at the age of seventy- two, a large group of people
embraced this new faith. Mahavira’s close disciples led the movement after his death, and
Jainism spread from the north-east of India to the north-west and even to the south, especially to
the present day state of Karnataka.

Check Your Progress I

Note: Use the space provided for your answer
1) Who is a tirthankara? Why are they called so?
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2) What is the core teaching of the tirthankaras?
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3) What is the main contribution of Vardhamana Mahavira to Jainism?
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1.4 SACRED SCRIPTURES OF JAINISM

There are various opinions with regard to the classification of Jaina texts. Each of the main sects
of Jainism recognizes its own body of sacred scriptures though many texts are common to all.
Most of the ancient Jain texts are written in Prakrta (an early form of Sanskrit). According to
their own tradition, the canon( as we know it today) was agreed upon almost a thousand years
after the death of Mahavira, in the late fifth or early sixth century of the Christian era, at a
Council held at Vallabhi in Gujarat, presided over by the famous monk Devarddhi
Ksamasramana, who was called for the specific purpose of collecting and putting the sacred texts
into written form.

The general outline of the canon is as follows. It is divided into six sections and contains either
forty-five or forty-six books.

I. The twelve Angas or limbs.

II. The twelve Upangas, or secondary limbs
III. The ten Painnas, or ‘Scattered pieces’
IV. The six Cheya-Suttas

 
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V. Individual texts (two)

VI. The four Mula-Suttas

The Angas treat the life of the monks; are mostly made up of sermons on various themes of
importance to the Jains. Ahimsa is a central feature, and often stressed upon. There is an Upanga
(sub-section) for each of the Angas. They are of varied content, mainly dogmatic and
mythological. The term Anga means - what comes out (from the mouth of the Lord). It is
generally accepted that whatever Lord Mahavira taught after gaining omniscience, was compiled
by his Ganadharas in twelve parts, the Sanskrit word for part being Anga. These twelve
compilations are therefore called the twelve Angas and are collectively known as Dwadashangi.
The foremost of these Angas is the Aacharang Sutra. Other well known Angas are Sutrakritang,
Samavayang, Sthanang, and Vyakhya Pragnapti which is more popularly known as Bhagavati
Sutra. Based on these Angas, the seers also compiled twelve auxiliary works that came to be
known as Upangas. These twenty-four compilations should have been completed by the time of
Jambuswami, who was the second successor of the religious order set up by Lord Mahavira, and
was also the last omniscient of the current time cycle. The Painnas, or Scattered Pieces, deal
with almost every topic of interest to the Jains, in both prose and verse. The fourth division of the
canon corresponds roughly with the Vinaya-pitaka of the Pali Buddhist canon, and probably
contains a great deal of quite ancient material. The most representative of this section is the
Kalpa-Sutra which is supposed to have been written by the great Jain Bhadrabahu, the sixth head
of the movement after Mahavira.

Of the Mula-Sutras, the first which is Uttaradhyana-Sutra, is best known in the West, and is one
of the most valuable books in the whole canon for an understanding of Jainism. It is partly poetic
and partly prose. It contains sermons, proverbs, advice to students, counsel to monks and nuns,
parables, dialogues, and ballads. The two individual texts, at times mentioned before and at
times after the Mula-Sutras, are sometimes listed among the Scattered Pieces. They are not
primarily religious in content though they do deal in part with religious subjects. They may be
characterized rather as encyclopedias “dealing with everything that should be known by a Jain
monk.”

1.5 THE CONCEPT OF GOD

Jainism does not believe in a personal God or a creator God. According to the Jaina
philosophical works, the definition of God is as follows: God is that soul who has completely
removed all the Karmas. The defining characteristic of Godhood is identical with that of
liberation itself. To attain liberation is to attain Godhood. The term ‘Isvara’ can very well apply
to the soul that has become powerful by attaining its perfectly pure nature constituted of four
characteristics, which are , infinite knowledge, infinite vision, infinite power, and infinite bliss.
By constant practice of spiritual discipline, spiritually right knowledge, and right conduct, the
means of liberation gradually develop and ultimately attain perfection. And when they attain
perfection, all the coverings get removed and all the bondages are cut off. As a result, the soul’s
natural qualities get fully manifested. To attain this state is to attain Godhood. Though the Jains
reject God as the creator of the world, they think it is necessary to meditate on and worship the
liberated, perfect souls. Prayers are offered to them for guidance and inspiration. According to
the Jain religion, worship is not for seeking mercy and pardon. Inspite of the absence of a
creator-God, the religious spirit of the Jaina lacks neither in internal fervour nor in external

 
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ceremonial expressions. As the lay community increased in Jainism, there evolved also rituals
and religious practices.

1.6 THE CONCEPT OF SOUL

The Jaina holds that every living and non-living being is gifted with souls. All souls are not
equally conscious, but every soul has the potential to attain infinite consciousness, power, and
happiness. The soul is inherently perfect. These qualities are inherent in the very nature of the
soul. Each Jiva (soul) is eternally associated with Ajiva (non-sentient or non-conscious being)
because of Karman. They are obstructed by karma, just as the natural light of the sun is hindered
by clouds. By removing the karmas, a soul can remove bondage and regain its natural
perfections. But what then are these obstacles and how do they come to rob the soul of its native
perfections? The obstacles, the Jaina asserts, are constituted by matter-particles which infect the
soul and overpower its nature qualities. In other words, the limitations that we find in any
individual’s soul are due to the material body with which the soul has identified itself. The
Karma or the sum of the past life of a soul - its past thought, speech, and activity – generates in it
certain blind cravings and passions that seek satisfaction. Those cravings in a soul attract to it
particular sorts of matter-particles and organize them into the body unconsciously desired. Jaina
writers point out that bondage or the fall of the soul begins in thought. They therefore speak of
two kinds of bondage: (1) internal or ideal bondage, that is to say, the soul’s bondage to bad
disposition (bhava-bandha), and (2) its effect, which is material bondage, that is to say, the
soul’s actual association with matter (dravya-bandha). But we should keep in mind that the soul,
for the Jaina, is not devoid of extension, but co-extensive with the living body. The soul is the
jiva, the living being; and in every part of the living body we find matter as well.

Check Your Progress II

Note: Use the space provided for your answer
1) What is the concept of God in Jainism?
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2) What is the concept of Soul in Jainism?
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1.7 JAINA ETHICS

The most important part of Jaina philosophy is its ethics. Metaphysics or epistemology is useful
for the Jaina insofar as it guides him to right conduct. The goal of right conduct is salvation
(moksa), which negatively means the removal of all bondage of the soul, and positively, the
attainment of liberation.

 
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Twelve Vows: In the activities dealing with spiritual discipline for the layman, there occurs the
exposition of twelve vows. They are: the gross vow of refraining from violence, the gross vow of
refraining from telling lies, the gross vow of refraining from taking anything which is not given,
the vow of refraining from sexual activities, the gross vow of limiting one’s possessions, the vow
of limiting the area of acts that are not virtuous, the vow of limiting the quality of things that
could be used once as also of things that could be used repeatedly, the vow to abstain from
harmful activities that serve no useful purpose, the vow of remaining completely equanimous for
a fixed period of time, the vow of reducing the limits of the area set forth in the sixth vow for a
limited period of time, the vow of observing fast and living like a monk for certain days, and the
vow of sharing things with deserving guests.
Pancha Vrathas: Jaina writers are not unanimous about the necessity of all the above steps.
Some of them select the first five, namely, the five great vows (Pancha Vrathas) as sufficient for
the perfection of conduct.
Ahimsa: Non-violence: Among the five, ahimsa is the most important vow. It is really a positive
virtue based upon universal love and mercy towards all beings. Ahimsa is abstinence from all
injury to life, life that exists not simply in the moving beings (trasa), but also in some non-
moving ones (sthavara), such as plants and beings inhabiting the bodies of the earth. Abstinence
from injury to life must be observed in thought, word, and deed –Mana, Vachana, and Kaya
respectively. Hence the principle of Ahimsa – non-violence, naturally implies purity of thought,
word, and deed. Thus, ahimsa vritha is binding to all members of the society, whether
householder or ascetic. In the case of the householder, it is applicable with a limitation. In the
case of ascetics, it is to be observed absolutely without any limitation.

Satya or Truth: This vow is abstinence from falsehood. The vow of satya or truthfulness
consists in speaking what is true, as well as what is pleasant and good. Truthfulness is not only
speaking what is true, but speaking what is true as well as good and pleasant. It is also pointed
out that for the perfect maintenance of this vow, one must conquer greed, fear and anger.

Astheya or ‘Non-stealing’: This vow consists in not taking what is not given. This vow also
includes abstinence from evil practices. The vow of asteya or ‘non-stealing’ is based on the idea
of the sanctity of property.

Brahmacharaya: The vow of brahmacharaya consists in abstaining from all forms of self-
indulgence. This refers to purity of personal conduct in the matter of sex. This vow when applied
to the ascetic implies absolute celibacy, since a saint who has renounced all possible connections
with the outside world is expected to practise strict celibacy. For the complete maintenance of
this vow, one mustdesist from all forms of self-indulgence – external and internal, subtle and
gross, mundane and extra-mundane, direct and indirect.

Aparigraha or Abstinence from all attachment: The vow of aparigraha consists in abstaining
from all attachment to the senses – pleasant sound, touch, colour, taste, and smell. Attachment to
the world’s objects means bondage to the world, and the force of this causes rebirth. Liberation is
impossible without the withdrawal of attachment. In the case of the ascetic, he must practise non-
possession strictly in thought, word, and deed. But in the case of the householder, such a
complete renunciation will be meaningless. Since the householder is also expected to keep in

 
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mind the ultimate goal of life, which is the realization of the true self, he must also practise
isolating himself, as far as possible, from attachment to external things.

Right knowledge, faith, and conduct jointly bring about liberation consisting in fourfold
perfection. When a person, through the harmonious development of these three, succeeds in
overcoming the forces of all passions and karmas, old and new, the soul is freed from its
bondage to matter and attains liberation. Being free from the obstacles of matter, the soul realizes
its inherent potentiality. It attains the fourfold perfection, namely, infinite knowledge, infinite
faith, infinite power, and infinite bliss.

1.8 LIBERATION (MOKSA)

If the bondage of the soul is its association with matter, liberation must mean the complete
dissociation of the soul from matter. Liberation is the expulsion of matter from the soul. On
account of the removal of the causes of bondage, as also on account of the dissociation of the
bound karmas, there takes place the total and absolute dissociation of all karmas. This is
liberation. In liberation the soul is totally and absolutely free from all karmas and consequently
established in its pure and pristine state. All the miseries a soul experiences in the world are due
to its desire for sensual pleasures. Afflictions due to desire for sensual pleasures are the only
afflictions that we find in the world. The cause of passions, the afflictions for sensual pleasures,
ultimately spring from our ignorance. Those who are afflicted with desires arising from delusion
or nescience find pleasure in activities inspired by it.
Our ignorance about the real nature of our souls and other things leads to anger, vanity,
infatuation, and greed. Knowledge alone can remove ignorance. The Jainas, therefore, stress the
necessity of right knowledge (samyag-jnana) or the knowledge of reality. Right knowledge can
be obtained only by carefully studying the teachings of the omniscient tirthankaras or teachers
who have already attained liberation and are therefore fit to lead others out of bondage. But
before we feel inclined to study the teachings, we must have a general acquaintance with the
essentials of their teachings and faith in those teachers. This sort of faith (called samyag-
darshana) paves the way for right knowledge (samyag-jnana) and is therefore regarded as
indispensable. But mere knowledge is of no use unless it is put to practice. Right conduct
(samyak-caritra) is therefore regarded by the Jaina as the third indispensable condition of
liberation. In right conduct, a man has to control his passions, his senses, his thought, speech, and
action, in the light of right knowledge. Thus, in Jainism, liberation is attained only through the
human body.
Right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct have therefore come to be known in Jaina ethics
as the three gems (triranta). The path to liberation lies through right faith, right knowledge, and
right conduct. Liberation is the joint effect of these three. Jaina philosophy does not accept the
principle that after having attained absolute freedom a soul comes again into this world in the
form of incarnation.
Right Faith (samyag-darshana): Right faith is an attitude of respect (sraddha) towards truth.
This faith may be innate and spontaneous in some, but for others it may be acquired by learning
or culture. In short, right faith is the respect for truth. It should not be believed that the followers
of Jainism have to blindly accept what is taught by the tirthankaras. The attitude of the Jaina is
rationalistic rather than dogmatic. The initial faith is necessary and so is a reasonable attitude.

 
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This is because it is the minimum will to believe, without which no study can rationally begin.
Starting with partial faith and studying further, if the beginner finds that the Jaina teachings are
reasonable, he finds his faith increasing.. Perfect faith can result only from perfect knowledge. It
is a cyclical process.
Right Knowledge (samyag-jnana): Right knowledge consists in the detailed knowledge of all
truths. It means the knowledge of the nature of the soul also as the means of spiritual welfare. In
order to completely know the nature of the soul, it is necessary to know even the material karmic
covering that affects it. All our miseries and distresses are due to our ignorance of the soul. In
other words, right knowledge is the truth towards understanding about the distinction between
Jiva and Ajiva.
Right Conduct (samyak-caritra): Right conduct is refraining from wrong and performing what
is right. The fruit of knowledge of reality is the refrainment from the vicious acts, and it alone is
right conduct. The true meaning of ‘right conduct’ is to make one’s life pure, keeping it aloof
from vices and moral defilements, and to help others strive for the good according to one’s
ability. Generally, right conduct is divided into two grades – right conduct for the mendicant and
right conduct for the layman. Right conduct for the mendicant is called sadhu dharma and right
conduct for the layman is called grahastha dharma. A man who performs acts beneficial to
himself as well as to others is a sadhu (a saint, mendicant). He follows five major scale vows:
refraining from violence, refraining from telling lies, refraining from taking anything that is not
given, refraining from sexual activities and refraining from possessions and attachment for
possessions. Those who are not qualified for the monastic discipline can make their lives fruitful
by observing the spiritual discipline meant for laymen.

1.9 JAIN SECTS

Shortly after the death of Mahavira, the community split into several sects. There are two
important Jain sects, the Svetambaras (wearers of white clothes) and the Digambaras (the
naked). Their division was on the basis of nudity. The literal meaning of the word digambara is
sky-clad and that of svetambara is white clad. These two sects are divided into a number of
sects. The Digambara’s contend that perfection cannot be reached by anyone who wears
clothing. The Digambara thinks that a man should abstain from food and possessions, including
clothing, to become a saint. They also denied the eligibility of women for salvation. The
Digambaras strictly maintain that there can be no salvation without nakedness. Since women
cannot go without clothes, they are said to be incapable of salvation. The Digambaras believe
that no original canonical text exists now. The Svetambaras still preserve a good number of
original scriptures. They believe that having known that the true self consists in the freedom
from passions, having realized the strength of the spiritual practice of non-attachment, and
having understood the gradual order of undertaking the practice of the means of liberation, one
can very well understand a monk’s acceptance of clothing. The only essential point is that when
one attains the state of perfect non-attachment, one definitely attains liberation, irrespective of
one’s being nude or not. Clothing is not an obstacle to salvation. It is attachment that acts as an
obstacle to salvation. The Svetambaras also allow women to enter the monastic order under the
assumption that they have a possibility of attaining Nirvana.

Check Your Progress III

 
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Note: Use the space provided for your answer

1) What are the three jewels in Jainism to attain liberation?
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2) Which are the five important vows in Jainism?
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3) Which are the main sects in Jainism?
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1.10 LET US SUM UP

In today’s world, where religion is losing its grip on humanity, Jainism plays an important role.
In spite of its small number of followers, it continues to inspire and influence many. In modern
times, Jainism is undergoing a process of revival. This is partly due to the Western interest in this
old religious tradition of India. Numerous scholarly works have been written on Jainism by
Western authors as well as Indian Jains. Jainism holds an integral view of life. Either faith or
only knowledge by itself cannot take us to the path of salvation. We should have a combination
of right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct to tread the path of salvation. These constitute
the three jewels of Jainism. Jainism teaches us that it is possible to attain liberation, and thereby
one’s potentials, through personal efforts. The message of Jainism is full of pragmatic optimism.
The core of the Jaina religion is its ethics. Jainism had exerted and still exerts immense influence
on humanity. This is especially notable in their propagation and promotion of the ideal of non-
violence. The religion of the Jaina is a religion of the strong and the brave. It is a religion of self-
help.

1.11 KEY WORDS

Liberation (Moksa): The ultimate aim of any soul in Jainism is liberation from bondage and
karmic matters. This can be achieved through one’s own personal efforts. God has no role to play
in liberation. The state of liberation is the state of Godhood; there one achieves the four infinite
qualities.
Ahimsa (non-violence): It is the key message of Jainism. The principle of non-violence (non -
injury to life) in Jainism embraces not only human beings but also animals, birds, plants,

 
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vegetables, and creatures on the earth, in the air, and water. It is the holy law of compassion
extended to body, mind, and the speech of living beings.

1.12 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Chakravarti, A. The Religion of Ahimsa. Bombay: Ratanchand Hirachand, 1957.

Chatterjee, Satischandra and Dhirendramohan Datta. An Introduction to Indian

Philosophy. Calcutta: University of Calcutta, 1984.
Dasagupta, S.N. History of Indian Philosophy. Allahabad: Kitab Mahal, 1969.

Hiriyanna, M. The Essentials of Indian Philosophy. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1949.

Mehta, Mohan Lal. Jaina Philsophy. Varnasi: Jainashram, Hindu University, 1974.

Puligandla, R. Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy. New York: Abingdon Press, 1975.

Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 22, p. 43 (xliii).
Shah, Nagin J. Jaina Philosophy And Religion: English Translation of "Jaina Darsana" By
Warder, A.K. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1980.