HUNNARSHALA FOUNDATION-DOCUMENTATION

TECHNIQUES USED
Rammed Earth Construction

What is rammed earth?

Rammed earth construction is the process of ramming a mixture of aggregates, like
gravel, sand, silt and clay into a formwork to create walls. When the earth is dry the
formwork is removed to reveal solid monolithic walls.

Rammed earth is an ancient form of construction, generally seen in drier hotter parts
of the world. Although many rammed earth structures exist in this basic form, a new
‘stabilised’ rammed earth variant has been developed which adds a small amount
of cement (5-10%) to the mixture to ensure strength and durability. It is a natural
building method that is thousands of years old, and has been used in all of earth’s
continents.

Rammed Earth buildings has many favourable qualities. They are low-tech
construction process and economical to build. They need low maintenance and they
are suitable for the cold and hot climate. The availability of suitable soil and a building
design appropriate for local climatic conditions are the factors that favour its use.

Traditionally, a wooden pole is used to ram the earth into the formwork, but modern
methods now use a mechanical ram.

The process is labour intensive, but is considered to have a low environmental impact
depending on materials used (cement content) and source of those materials. While
some elements of the rammed earth wall will have a low embodied energy,
cementitious products do not. So, it is to be considered as the best sustainable
building method.
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History & Background

Evidence of ancient use of rammed earth has been found in Neolithic archaeological
sites such as those of the Fertile Crescent, dating to the 9th–7th millennium BC, and of
the Yang Shao and Longshan cultures in China, dating to 5000 BCE. By 2000 BCE,
rammed-earth architectural techniques were commonly used for walls and foundations
in China.

In the 1800s, rammed earth was popularized in the United States by the book Rural
Economy by S. W. Johnson. The technique was used to construct the Borough House
Plantation and the Church of the Holy Cross in State burg, South Carolina, both
are National Historic Landmarks.

From the 1920s -1940s rammed-earth construction was studied in US.

1920-1950 (over 30 years they experimented on rammed earth construction) South

Dakota State College extensively researched and constructed almost one hundred
weathering walls of rammed earth.

1945- Clemson Agricultural College, California published a pamphlet entitled "Rammed

Earth Building Construction"

1936- In Gardendale, Alabama, the United States Department of Agriculture constructed

an experimental community of rammed-earth edifices with architect Thomas Hibben. The
project successfully provided valuable homes to low-income families

1946 – US Agency for international development published a Handbook of Rammed

earth

Interest in rammed earth declined after World War II when the cost of modern
construction materials decreased. Rammed earth was considered substandard, and still
is opposed by many contractors, engineers, and tradesmen who are unfamiliar with
earthen construction techniques. The prevailing perception that such materials and
techniques perform poorly in regions prone to earthquakes has prevented their use in
much of the world.

Applications for rammed earth wall systems

 Load bearing wall systems
 Interior walls
 Built in furniture
 Decorative elements

Basic Materials
 Raw Earth
 Stabilizer (Cement or lime where required)
 Insulation (where required)
 Water resistant finish (where required))
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What does Rammed earth construction looks like?

The appearance of rammed earth will depend on the earth and aggregate used, in
terms of colour and texture. However, rammed earth has a horizontal layered
appearance which demonstrate the process used to construct the walls. Some like
this feature of rammed earth, however it is possible to control it so that the layers are
not visible. Rammed earth is often seen in a red/orange tone colour. Rammed earth
structures can be considered relatively basic and of simple form, or for eco
enthusiasts. However, many architects are now developing designs to use the process
in contemporary projects, to spectacular effect.

How it is done?
 Compacting a damp mixture of subsoil that has suitable proportions
of sand, gravel, clay, and stabilizer, if any, into a formwork (an externally
supported frame or mould)

(Historically, additives such as lime or animal blood were used to stabilize it.)

 Soil mix is poured into the formwork to a depth of 10 to 25 cm (4 to 10 in) and

then compacted to approximately 50% of its original volume. ( The soil is
compacted iteratively, in batches or courses, so as to gradually erect the wall
up to the top of the formwork.)
 Tamping was historically manual with a long ramming pole, and was very
laborious, but modern construction can be made less so by
employing pneumatically-powered tampers.
 After a wall is complete, it is sufficiently strong to immediately remove the
formwork. This is necessary if a surface texture is to be applied, e.g., by wire
brushing, carving, or mould impression, because the walls become too hard to
work after approximately one hour.

The compressive strength of rammed earth increases as it cures. Cement-stabilised

rammed earth is cured for a minimum period of 28 days.

In modern rammed earth buildings, the walls are constructed on top of

conventional footings or a reinforced concrete slab base.
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Advantages of Rammed Earth

 Ramming requires little water, which can be an important consideration in dry
climates with sacristy of fresh water.

 They require few other resources like aggregates or additives to improve their
properties.
 Earth can be recycled, is easy and agreeable to work.
 Has good insulating properties if built with high thermal mass especially for hot
climate.
 Known fact earth gives off no harmful emissions.
 Good for noise reduction and insulation.
 Earth doesn’t burn, so rammed earth walls are fire proof.
 Load bearing, which reduces the need for structural supports, therefore
reducing building costs. Standard 400mm thick rammed earth walls can be
used as load bearing in constructions up to four stories high.
 Termites and other pests are of little concern to rammed earth walls
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Thermal Mass

Thermal mass keeps the internal room temperature stable due to the length of time
required for heat to transfer through the walls.

For example, 300mm thick rammed earth wall will take 8-9 hrs for heat to transfer
through the walls to the other side.

The solar passive building designer needs to ensure that summer sun does not shine
directly on any walls but at the same time allow the direct sun on the walls in winter
for as long as possible, this will allow the warmth from the sun to be absorbed by the
walls in winter when it is needed the most. So more the thickness of the walls, higher is
the thermal mass and higher the time for transfer of heat from one side to the another.

Insulated rammed earth contains insulation which is placed in such a way to slow the
heat transfer even further. This is great in sub zero temperatures however in warmer
temperatures the insulation will have a detrimental effect as it will prevent the warmth
of the sun from being stored in the wall. It also shields from electromagnetic fields and
radiations.
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Aesthetics

Natural beauty of the rammed earth material, variations in texture, colour, and finish
are possible; and elements such as artwork, patterns, circular windows, alcoves and
feature stones can be incorporated that makes it versatile in nature.

Structural Aspects

Rammed earth is very strong in compression which results in large load bearing
capacity and thus can be used for multi-storied load bearing construction. These walls
can withstand earthquakes to a greater extend comparative to masonry walls.

Sustainability

 Sustainable for 1000+ years, uses local material for walls.

 Uses subsoil and not the top soil.
 Its thermal properties lower the cost for heating and cooling, And the
construction cost is comparable to the conventional construction cost.
 Rammed earth is non-toxic, non-polluting, and breathes.
 This creates safer more people friendly building.
 It is very low in embodied energy and
 Extremely comfortable to live in.

Minimal Maintenance

Rammed earth walls are extremely low maintenance. Once they are built and sealed
they shouldn’t need any further attention for 10-20 years. At that point they may
perhaps need a second coat of sealer, which is an easy process. They feature and
standalone don’t need finishing with plaster board or render.

Fire resistance

Earth doesn’t burn. It is an ideal material for fire resistance, bush settings and leafy
shrubs. The walls are stronger and thick and monolithic rather than block construction
so have no vulnerable major mortar joints which make the masonry walls vulnerable
to fire resistance

Insects, termites, rodent proof

Since the rammed earth walls are load bearing it reduces the amount of termite-
tempting structural timber, there are no cavities in rammed earth walls for the pests
to live in, free of fungicides and pesticides too

Noise Reduction

The thickness and density of the walls mean that unpleasant noises, such as traffic or
wild weather, are very much reduced. Rammed earth walls are also extremely useful
in providing sound insulation between areas with different needs- for instance
between living and sleeping areas, between a public or family room and a study
areas etc;
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Disadvantages of Rammed Earth

Building a strong rammed earth wall requires good knowledge and

understanding of soil types. A number of factors influence the strength and
durability of rammed earth structures, which need rigorous quality checks;

 Rammed earth walls require additional insulators in colder climates (if following
modern building codes and practices).
 Although rain won't wash away a rammed earth wall, they need overhang roof
protection to keep walls safe against erosion. This is important in areas with high
rainfall;
 Building rammed earth is a labour-intensive process. It may be expensive in
certain situations;
 Rammed earth buildings might take more to get approved by building
authorities, bankers and insurers;
 Once a wall is built it cannot easily be corrected like brick work;
 Some degree of carpentry skills is needed to build the formwork.
 The ramming itself is relatively time consuming and hard physical work

Thermal resistance / Insulation

Poor thermal resistance- external walls require additional insulation despite of its high
thermal mass because in some regions where the temperatures is extremely low, the
thermal mass doesn’t work effectively. Therefore, it requires an extra insulation.
Insulation can be external in which outer surface is plastered with lime and light
weight aggregate and can be internal in which a minimum space is left as cavity
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and then timber studwork infilled with insulation with an insulation with plasterboard,
but that would be a big comptonization for the appearance of the wall. It can also
be within the wall and its thickness can vary from 1” and 8” depending on the
requirement.

Labour Intensive

Mixing soils, building walls forms, ramming the walls etc; all these processes are very
labour intensive which makes it costly in the regions where the labour cost is quite
high.

Construction time

Longer than average construction period. So as the time increases, the construction
cost will also increase.

Composition and Soil type

Not all the soil types are appropriate. And the composition should be very effective
an meets the requirements in terms of properties. High clay content can cause
moisture movement which can affect the structure. Addition of too much cement
can compromise the environmental credentials

 An un-stabilised rammed earth building will require more ongoing

maintenance than a standard home
 High levels of construction quality measures are required.

Environmental effects and sustainability

Edifices of rammed earth are more sustainable and environmentally friendly than other
building techniques that use more cement and other chemicals.

 Use locally available materials

 Low embodied energy
 Generate very little waste
 The soils used are typically subsoil which conserve the topsoil for agriculture
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 Soil excavated in preparation for a foundation can be used, the cost and energy
consumption of transportation are minimal
 Formwork is removable and can be reused

Mixing cement with the soil can counteract sustainable benefits such as low
embodied energy and humidity regulation because manufacture of the cement itself
adds to the global carbon dioxide burden at a rate of 1.25 tonnes per tonne of cement
produced.

 Density, thickness, and thermal conductivity of rammed earth render it an

especially suitable material for passive solar heating. Warmth requires almost 12
hours to be conducted through a wall 35 cm (14 in) thick
 Rammed-earth construction may also reduce the ecological impacts
of deforestation and the toxicity of artificial materials associated with conventional
construction techniques.
 The most basic kind of traditional rammed earth has very low greenhouse gas
emissions

The more engineered and processed variant of rammed earth has the potential for
significant emissions.

Rammed Earth Methods and Techniques

Soil identification and preliminary soil site tests

a series of field tests should be conducted using a sample from the site taken from a
depth of 0.5 meter, to ensure that the surface organic materials are not included. Site
tests may include

1. The smell test (presence of organic soil)

2. The Biting test (content in sand and clay)
3. The jar test “Particle size test” (simplified sedimentation)
4. The sieve test (granularity)
5. The sausage test (excessive clay content)
6. The ball test (humidity content)

The Smell Test (presence of organic soil)

The smell test (presence of organic soil) Topsoil and organic soil have a strong smell of
mouldy, especially when fresh or humid. They are not suitable for building.

The biting test (content in sand and clay)

Put some soil in your mouth and press it between your teeth. If sandy soil: a lot of hard
particles of sand which crunch unpleasantly under the teeth. If silt-laden: it crunches
too but not so unpleasantly. If clayey: it is smooth like flour and even sticky.
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The jar test “Particle size test” (simplified sedimentation)

In order to know the proportions of different particle sizes of the soil, the jar test could
be used. That is to get a preliminary assessment of the ratio of coarse to fine particles
in the soil.
 Two thirds of a bottle were filled by
soil taken from the site, and water
was added to fill the bottle. The
bottle is shaken till all the soil particles
are suspended then it is left to settle
for a few hours.
 As the water cleared, you can see
the formation of different soil layers
separated by clearly visible lines.
 The sand layer normally settle at the
bottom as its particles are heavier,
then layers of silt and clay stays on
top.

The left jar shows a higher content of gravel and very little quantity of silt and clay. On
the right it is mainly sand, silt and clay (this was the soil we used and it was perfect).
The best would probably be a mixture of both. In the middle jar one notices more
gravel at the bottom.

The sieve test (granularity)

 Use different sieves: for instance, 5mm, 2mm, 1mm, 0.5mm, 0.2mm, 0.1mm.
 Pile them on top of one another, with the widest mesh on top, the finest at the
bottom.
 In each sieve will remain what is smaller than the precedent one and yet bigger
than the next one.
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 Weighing each content separately, can measure which percentage of the

total weight goes through at each time, when one starts of course with the
wider mesh.
 The sieving must be done in a flow of water that will help smaller grains to go
through the meshes. The weight must be measured after the material has dried.
This test is very difficult to perform for particles smaller than 0.1mm.

The curve shown on the picture presents an ideal proportion of possible granularity,
with a visibly very wide range of possibilities.

Clay between 10 and

40%, silt between 10 and 40%, sand between 35 and 65%, gravel between 0 and 40%. The size
of the particles can vary from 5m to 10cm.

Granularity will also influence the aspect of the walls. Gravel and stones will be visible
on the surface of the wall and this higher diversity of granularity can provide an
interesting structure to the lot.

The sausage test (excessive clay content)

 Take some soil in hand, and make
it wet enough to be able to be
formed but not to become sticky.
 Form with it a kind of sausage or
cigar of 12mm diameter and try to
extend its length by diminishing its
thickness and by pressing it
between your thumb and
forefinger.
 Handle with care as the purpose is
to obtain the longest possible
length with a thickness of some
3mm without breaking; if it
reaches 25 to 30 cm, it contains
too much clay and needs
probably to be stabilised with the
addition of sand and cement.
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Too much clay makes the material too sensitive to water absorption and too flexible.

 If the band reaches 5 or 10cm, it contains only little clay and will be probably
suitable for rammed earth walls.

If cannot make a 3mm thick band, your soil will be probably adequate.

The ball test (humidity content) or The drop test

 A handful of un-sieved soil was taken, moisten and made into a ball
 It was held in hand and left to dry for a few minutes
 After that drop the ball

If the ball is broken into a few lumps that is an indication of a good mix.
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Types of Rammed Earth

1. Rammed Earth construction
2. Stabilised Rammed Earth construction

Comparison between REC and SREC

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Soil mixing

The mix depends on the type of the soil available on site.

 2.5 gravel, 2 course sand and 2.5 clay

Mixing is the most essential operation to ensure homogeneity of the soil used.

 After the thorough dry mix process (using drum mixture) water was added
gradually.
 The mixture had to be turned over while water is sprinkled to ensure that all the
particles will be moistened.

The amount of water added to the soil is very important, because if the mixture
contains little water the soil will not be properly squeezed, and with too much water
the soil becomes too wet and water will resist compaction.

 Generally speaking water forms 10%-15% of the mixture, and the mixture should
look quite dry after adding it.

The drop test gave an indication of the amount of water needed to achieve plasticity,
but the site conditions also had an effect, as water evaporates while mixing specially
in hot weather.

To attain optimum results, it is advised undertaking soil screening, crushing and mixing
as a one continuous process. It is important primarily to ensure an even dispersal of
moisture content within the soil mix. Rotating-drum can be used to achieve uniform
mix on site. Rotating drum type mortar mixers work adequately when the soil is high in
sand and gravel content but in general this is a slow procedure.

In summary soils suitable for rammed earth construction are broad.

 The soil mix should include sands with sufficient clay and silt, clayey silts, clayey
gravels and gravel-sand-clay mixtures.
 Soil suitability test is as a must (shrinkage, strength, erosion resistance) of
individual soil samples.
 Begins with site selection and
acquisition of very specific
material: soil mix, water and an
optional stabilizer.
 An approximate proportion of
subsoil is 30% clay/70% sand/
gravel
 Water has a direct impact on the
strength of finished walls and
depending on the soil mix is 8-16%
of the mix
 An optional stabiliser may be
added-4 to 12% depending on
condition such as bonding
strength of the clay, seismic
activity desired construction
process or desired wall
proportions. Stabilisers include
cement, lime or pozzolan added
to the mix.
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1. Foundations
Foundation design for rammed earth buildings is very similar to that for low rise
buildings.

Concrete strip footing are the most common types of footings. The size of footings
depends on the type of the supported structure and the soil bearing capacity
underneath the foundation.

 It is important that foundation is of sufficient depth to avoid frost underneath

and footings should be well protected from water infiltration.
 The ground immediately adjacent to the base of a rammed earth wall should
be well drained.
 Extended eaves and raised footings protect walls from rainfall.

Generally, the installation of surface and underwater drains and damp-proof courses
are considered essentials. bitumen sheets for water insulation is an example

Stabilised Rammed Earth Foundation process

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2. Rammed Earth Walls- Design Guidelines

Stabilisation of walls

Stabilisation through shapes

 To stabilise rammed earth walls of less thickness, use elements in the shape of
L, T, U, X, Y & Z due to their angles due to their angles they show lesser stability
against lateral forces.
 If the wall is 300mm thick,
the free ends of the
elements should not be
longer than ¼ and not
shorter than 1/3 of their
height. This minimal length
is necessary to transfer the
load diagonally to the
plinth or foundation.
 Nevertheless, the height
should be not more than 8
times the width.
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Stabilisation for corners (angles in the walls)

For corners ie; 90-degree angles in the walls

need to make a separate formwork to make
the angles which means that angles should be
built as a single element. And to provide
stability to these corners to make the structure
earthquake resistant it needs to leave some
space to place a vertical rod Fixed to the
foundation and to the beam above and will
act as a reinforcement.

Joints
Walls are built in panels of 3.5 m in length
with flexible joints comply with building rules
requirements for masonry structures.

When a wall consists of more than one

panel a recess is built into the end of the first
wall. The second wall moulds into the
recessed groove and lock the walls
together for lateral stability.
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 This joint is called as Tongue and Groove joint.

There is no need of Tongue and groove joint

If the elements are well linked to a ring
beam above and plinth below.

Internal Reinforcement

Internal reinforcement is the method of stabilising the

rammed earth wall against horizontal forces by using
vertical rods of bamboo, wood or steel in the wall.

These elements should be fixed to the foundation

below and the ring beam above. The joints between
rammed earth are pre-designed rupture joints which
can crack in an earthquake and allow independent
movement of each element. So, the kinetic energy of
the seismic shock will be absorbed by deformation, but
the element being fixed at the top and the bottom will
not fall. After the earthquake the open joints can easily
be closed by earth
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Formwork
Basic elements of any formwork system

Shutters- The two sides of the form

End stops- The boards which close off the open ends of the form work

Ties and Bolts- These can be either direct through bolts, cantilever bolts, threaded ties
or ties with wedges

Props or Stays- The fixed or moveable vertical posts to brace the forms

Spacers- Bolting often requires spacers in order to set the width of the wall. Spacers
should be softer than the formwork in order to prevent damage to the form faces

Wedges- For adjustment of the formwork

 Formwork in rammed earth construction is used as a temporary support during

soil compaction.
 Formwork can range from simple to complicated systems we can use plywood
or steel ones.
 Like concrete formwork it is required to have sufficient strength, stiffness and
stability to resist pressures it is subjected to during assembly, pouring the soil mix,
and dismantling.
 Unlike concrete, rammed earth formwork can be removed after compaction,
enabling much faster re-use efficient organization of formwork is essential to
efficient rammed earth construction.
Wooden formwork

Formwork & Tampers

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Steel formwork

Modern Formwork

When making a choice of formwork the following general criteria should be kept in
mind:

 Strength and stiffness of the formwork to be able to withstand the outward

pressure of earth mix and to maintain the form without excessive distortion
during ramming.
 Durability, adaptability for appropriate maintenance as forms must be able to
meet the expected number of uses under normal site.
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 Formwork must not be too heavy or bulky in order to avoid making assembly
and disassembly difficult and time-consuming.
 Formwork should contain smooth horizontal and vertical holes for bolts and ties
to allow easy and consistent horizontal and vertical alignment.

Any formwork system should contain

 Shutters from both sides of the form.

 Ties and bolts.
 Props or stays- the (fixed or movable) vertical posts used to brace the form.
 Wedges for adjustment of the formwork.

Preparing Formwork

 If using
any textured or rough form work then it
is to apply oil on the inner surface so
that the mixture wont stuck to the
surface
 Instead
of using steel we can also use wood or
timber to make this formwork

 Conduits are provided, so after removing the formwork wall doesn’t get
damage because of bolts.
 Also, can maintain the distance between boards and it won’t become
bulgy
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Ramming
 The mixed moist soil was poured in the formwork creating a uniform level of
almost 15 cm
 After ramming it is to be compressed up to 10 cm.
 As the first layer was rammed properly another is poured to be rammed, and
so on
 Electric and hand metal rammers can be used to ram the soil.

(The metal was composed of a steel rod with a flat steel plate, the weight of the
rammers and the size of the plates differs to suit the purpose for example to ram the
corners)

 A layer was considered to be properly rammed as soon as an echoing sound

was heard from the rammers, an indication of the compactness of that layer.
(The width of the formwork enabled users to
stand inside it and ram, an advantage that
ensured that all the corners and the edges
were rammed properly)

Plastering, rendering and re-touch

 One of the advantages of using smooth formwork is to achieve a smooth fair-
faced surfaces.
 Rammed earth walls do not need plastering, it is advisable to sponge the
surface with a moist towel immediately after dismantling the formwork.
 In case there were any small holes in the walls, they can be filled by hand
from the same soil mixture.
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Rainfall erosion lines

 Erosion breaks can be made in different ways.
 The main purpose is to protect the rammed earth walls form heavy and
continuous rains.
 The mix is 4 gravel sand and 1/2 eco cement bag and you can add one spoon
of colour powder.
 Erosion line can be every second or third layer.

Shrinkage
Rammed earth as all earth building materials containing clay, swell on contact with
water and shrink on drying.

Only with tests you can predict the percentage of shrinkage.

 The range of acceptable shrinkage percentage differs from one building code
to another and the range is from 0.05% till 3 %.
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Regardless of any code requirements, the shrinkage characteristics of a soil should be

examined and incorporated into the design to satisfy the serviceability requirement
of the structure.

Openings
Arched and flat openings can be made by using block-out forms or using structural
lintels inserted inside the wall formwork are an effective means of providing openings
over modest spans up to 1.5 m.

Lintels can be formed from wood, concrete, steel (T or angle section) and stone.

Lintels require adequate bedding length to avoid bearing problems and preferred
spans not to exceed 3 M.

Roof support
For loadbearing rammed earth structure, lightweight timber is most widely used for
typical floor ceilings and for roofs. Also load-bearing self-supported earth vaults and
domes can be used. In the absence of a wall plate the roof may be tied down
directly to the wall with ties (usually metallic), embedded within the wall.
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Quality Control
The most common problem influencing quality of construction on site is keeping the
earth dry prior to, during and following construction. Material selection is important
to the finished quality of rammed earth. Quality of in-situ rammed earth can be
measured by strength (cylinder or cube compressive strength), dry density, surface
hardness and finish.

Fire Safety
Rammed earth can be classified as non-combustible material.

A 30 cm wall is capable of providing fire resistance of at least 90 minutes.

Codes of practice
Some countries have specific codes or standard for rammed earth construction

Cement stabilization
Cement can be been used but not to exceed 5% of the soil mix. Reasons for using
cement are varied, but mainly for improving durability and strength combined with
reducing risk but it is not recommended.

Costs and feasibility

Due to the fact the labour wages are very high. Rammed earth is more economical
in developing countries than in developed countries.

Maintenance & Repairs

 Maintenance of a rammed earth building is not more burdensome than the
maintenance of any other traditionally-built earth dwellings.
 Absence of regular maintenance can be more damaging in earthen
structures than in other building types.
 It is important that a suitable maintenance schedule for rammed earth
structures is set and sustained.
 Water is a major agent of decay in rammed earth buildings.
 Maintenance should seek to protect rammed earth from water borne
deterioration

Productivity
Productivity of rammed earth construction depends on several factors like

 Site circumstances,
 Weather conditions,
 Workers proficiency and
 Formwork system.

Generally, Organization of formwork is one of the most time-consuming in rammed

earth construction.
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 Productivity rates quoted for rammed earth vary between 5hrs/m3 to over
25hrs/m3

Thermal properties of rammed earth walls

Rammed earth has largely been recognized with the poor thermal insulating
properties.

The thermal performance of rammed earth is measured in a many way.

The most common used ones are:

Thermal Storage

 This is a measure of the specific heat capacity expressed in volume terms and
has units of J/m3 C.
 Houben & Guillaud (1994) claims that for rammed earth the thermal storage is
around 1830 J/m3C.

Thermal Resistance (R-value)

 The R-value is a measure of resistance to heat flow through a given thickness

of a wall and is measured in m2 K/W.
 A 30 cm thick rammed earth wall has an R value between 0.35-0.70 m2 K/W
(Berge, 2009).
 Generally, the more thermal resistance the material has the better insulating
properties.
 Thick walls are required to provide sufficient high thermal mass. Improved
insulation techniques are needed to increase the thermal performance of
wall cross sections.
 A rammed earth wall density can range from 1700 to 2200kg/m3

Tips for successful Rammed Earth walls

1. Formwork is the key to building with rammed earth, and the better the formwork the faster
and more accurate the construction. Forms must be able to withstand the considerable
forces of ramming the earth within and be able to be assembled and disassembled with
a minimum of effort. Formwork that is reusable can help keep costs down. Check with
experienced builders to see what formwork systems are being used successfully.
2. Soils used for rammed earth must be very well mixed and not too wet. An even distribution
of clay and any additional binders (cement, slag, lime, fly ash) is crucial to final wall
strength. Rammed earth mixes do not benefit from the plasticity that water adds, and
require plenty of mechanical mixing to achieve best results instead.
3. Test potential soils before using. The makeup of the soil is critical to the performance of the
wall. A lot of soil is required to make a rammed earth wall, and changes in its composition
will mean that mixes may need to change too. Compact samples of the earth and use
reliable sources to determine whether or not you will need stabilizers, and which ones are
most appropriate for the soil type.
4. Plan mechanical systems and wall openings carefully, as modifying rammed earth walls is
time-consuming. If services are to be run within the walls, consider using conduit so that
you can make changes and repairs without opening the wall.
5. Avoid finishes that will reduce or eliminate the permeability of the rammed earth wall.
 HUNNARSHALA FOUNDATION-DOCUMENTATION

6. If you are building your own home, consider buying the equipment you will need to dig,
mix and tamp the earth. It can be much less costly to buy used equipment and re-sell it
at the end of a project than to rent it for a long period of time.

Embodied Carbon & Energy of Rammed Earth Construction

Conclusion
The recent widespread use of rammed earth across the world is an evidence to its
success as a building material. Design and detailing of these buildings have evolved
and developed in recognition of the material’s low strength, relatively high drying
shrinkage, poor water resistance and low thermal resistance