Instrumentation Notes by Alamgir Rahim

Overview
Instrumentation is the art of measuring the value of some plant parameters, for example,
temperature, pressure, flow, or level to name a few, and supplying a signal that is
proportional to the measured parameter. The output signals are standard signals and can
then be processed by other equipment to provide indication, alarms or automatic control.
The one year apprenticeship notes pertaining to instrumentation and control of temperature, pressure,
flow, level, and position indication. This apprenticeship course material is based entirely on TNB
Liberty power plant mirpurmathalo sindh. Material takes from, DOE Fundamentals Handbook,
Instrumentation and Control, Volume 1 of 2 and Science and Reactor Fundamentals. Instrumentation
& Control 5 CNSC Technical Training Group
These notes are applicable to all instrumentation, electrical, mechanical and operation
trainees and maintenance personnel.
Specific Knowledge or Skill Obtained

Notes teaches the following specific knowledge and skills:
• Principle and operation of RTDs and thermocouples
• The purpose, function, and components of a bridge circuit and the effect of the
indicated temperature for failures, open circuit and short circuit
• The theory and operation of pressure detectors, including bourdon tubes, bellows,
strain gauges and capacitance capsules
• The basic operation of a differential pressure transmitter
• Principal of operation for various types of level detectors, including gauge glass,
magnetic bond, conductivity probe, ball float, and differential pressure level detectors
• The process of density compensation for level detectors
• How a level signal is derived for: an open vessel, a closed vessel with dry reference
leg, and a closed vessel with wet reference leg
• Why density compensation is required in some flow measurements
• The effects of varying liquid temperature or pressure on level indication
• How flow detectors generate a differential pressure signal through the use of orifice,
venture tubes, dall flow tube, rotameter, nutating disk and pitot tube
• The effects of varying fluid temperature or pressure on flow indication
• The construction, operation and failure modes for various types of position indicators
including limit switches, reed switches, potentiometer and LVDT
Prepared by Alamgir Rahim (I&C) 2009
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ………… 6
RTD Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ……… . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . …………. 6
Summary …………………………………………………………………………………8
THERMOCOUPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ………………. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Thermocouple Construction . . . . . . . . . . . …………………………………………. . . . 8
Thermocouple Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ……………………………...………9
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . …………………………………………….. . .. . . . . . . . 10
FUNCTIONAL USES OF TEMPERATURE DETECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Functions of Temperature Detectors . . . . . . . . . . ……… . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Detector Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . …………. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Environmental Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ………... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . …………… . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
TEMPERATURE DETECTION CIRCUITRY . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Bridge Circuit Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ………….. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Bridge Circuit Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ………….. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Temperature Detection Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . ……….. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Temperature Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ……….. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . …………... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Questions …………………………………………………………..…………………..17
Pressure ……………………………………………………………………………….19
Pressure measurement ……………………………………………….………………..20
Common pressure detectors …………………………………………………………..20
Bourdon tubes…………………………………………………………………………20
Bellows, Diaphragms and Capsules…………………………………………………..21
Differential pressure Transmitter…………………………………………….……….22
Strain gauges ………………………………………………………………………….23
Capacitance capsule ………………………………………………………………….24
Pressure detector functions……………………………………………………………24
Detector failure ……………………………………………………………………….24
Summary (bellows, bourdon tube and pressure detector)……………………………..25
2
Functional uses summary ………………………………………….…………………25
Detection circuitry …………………………………………………...……………….26
Questions ………………………………………………………………….………….27
Level ………………………………………………………………………………….28
Principles of level operation …………………………………………….……………29
Gauge glass ……………………………………………………………...……………29
Ball float ………………………………………………………….…………………..30
Chain float …………………………………………………………... ………………30
Magnetic bond method ………………………………………………………………31
Conductivity probe method …………………………………….……………………31
Differential pressure level detectors …………………………………………………32
Level instrumentation summary ………………………………….………………….34
Specific volume ……………………………………………………………………..35
Pressure level instruments summary …………………………….………………….36
Flow………… ……………………………………………………..………………..37
Head flow meter …………………………………………………..…………………38
Orifice plates……………………………………………………….………………...39
Concentric …………………………………………………………….……………..39
Segmental …………………………………………………………..………………..39
Eccentric ……………………………………………………………...………………40
Venture tube …………………………………………………………………………..40
Dall flow tube …………………………………………………………………………41
Pitot tube ………………………………………………………………………………42
Head flow meter construction …………………………………………………………43
Orifice plate ……………………………………………………………………………43
Venture tube …………………………………………………………………………...43
Dall flow tube ………………………………………………………………………….43
Pitot tube ………………………………………………………………………………43
Other flow meter ………………………………………………………………………44
Area flow meter ……………………………………………………………………….44
Rotameter ……………………………………………………………………………..44
Displacement meter ………………………………………………………….………..45
Nutating disk ……………………………………………………………….…………45
3
Hotwire anemometer ………………………………………………..………46
Electromagnetic flow meter …………………………………………..…46

Ultrasonic flow meter …………………………………………..……….46
Other flow meters ………………………………………..……………...47
Summary …………………………………………………………………47
Steam flow detection ……………………………………………………..48
Summary ………………………………………………………………….50
Use of flow indication …………………………………………………….50
Position indicators ………………………………………..……………...52
Switches …………………………………………………………………...53
Limit switches ……………………………………………………………..53
Reed switches …………………………………………………..…………53
Summary ……………………………………………………….…………54
Variable out put devices…………………………………………………..55
Potentiometer ……………………………………………………………..55
Linear variable differential transformers (LVDT) ……………………………………..56
Summary ……………………………………………………………………………….57
Control …………………………………………………………………………………58
Control introduction …………………………………………………………………….59
Basic control principles …………………………………………………………………59
Feedback control ………………………………………………………………………...59
Feed forward control …………………………………………………………………….60
Summary …………………………………………………………………………………61
Level control ……………………………………………………………………………..62
Bubbler systems (open or closed tank ) …………………………………………………..62
Open tank installation …………………………………………………………………….62
Flow control ……………………………………………………………………………….63
Pressure control ……………………………………………………………………………64
Temperature control ……………………………………………………………………...65
Instrumentation Objective Questions……………………………………….66
4
INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL
Temperature
5
Temperature
TNB Liberty power Ltd INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL
Temperature
The hotness or coldness of a piece of plastic, wood, metal, or other material depends upon the
molecular activity of the material. Kinetic energy is a measure of the activity of the atoms which
make up the molecules of any material. Therefore, temperature is a measure of the kinetic energy
of the material in question.
Whether you want to know the temperature of the surrounding air, the water cooling a car’s engine,
or the components of a nuclear facility, you must have some means to measure the kinetic energy of
the material. Most temperature measuring devices use the energy of the material or system they are
monitoring to raise (or lower) the kinetic energy of the device. A normal house hold thermometer is
one example. The mercury, or other liquid, in the bulb of the thermometer expands as its kinetic
energy is raised. By observing how far the liquid rises in the tube, you can tell the temperature of the
measured object.
Because temperature is one of the most important parameters of a material, many instruments have
been developed to measure it. One type of detector used is the resistance temperature detector
(RTD). The RTD is used at many power plant facilities to measure temperatures of the process or
materials being monitored.
RTD Construction
The RTD incorporates pure metals or certain alloys that increase in resistance as temperature
increases and, conversely, decrease in resistance as temperature decreases. RTDs act some what like
an electrical transducer, converting changes in temperature to voltage signals by the measurement of
resistance. The metals that are best suited for use as RTD sensors are pure, of uniform quality, stable
within a given range of temperature, and able to give reproducible resistance-temperature readings.
Only a few metals have the properties necessary for use in RTD elements.
RTD elements are normally constructed of platinum, copper, or nickel. These metals are best suited
for RTD applications because of their linear resistance-temperature characteristics (as shown in
Figure 1), their high coefficient of resistance, and their ability to withstand repeated temperature
cycles.
The coefficient of resistance is the change in resistance per degree change in temperature,
usually expressed as a percentage per degree of temperature. The material used must be
capable of being drawn into fine wire so that the element can be easily constructed.
6
Temperature
RTD elements are usually long,spring-like wires surrounded by an insulator and enclosed in a sheath of
metal. Figure 2 shows the internal construction of an RTD.
This particular design has a platinum element that is surrounded by a porcelain insulator. The insula-
-tor prevents a short circuit between the wire and the metal sheath.
Inconel, a nickel-iron-chromium alloy,is normally used in manufacturing the RTD sheath because of its
inherent corrosion resistance. When placed in a liquid or gas medium, the Inconel sheath quickly reaches
the temperature of the medium. The change in temperature will cause the platinum wire to heat or cool,
resulting in a proportional change in resistance.
This change in resistance is then measured by a precision resistance measuring device that is calibrated to
give the proper temperature reading. This device is normally a bridge circuit.
Figure 3 shows an RTD protective well and terminal head. The well protects the RTD from damage by the
gas or liquid being measured. Protecting wells are normally made of stainless steel, carbon steel, Inconel,
or cast iron, and they are used for temperatures up to 1100°C.
7
Temperature
Thermocouple Construction
A thermocouple is constructed of two dissimilar metal wires joined at one end.When one end of each wire
is connected to a measuring instrument, the thermocouple becomes a sensitive and highly accurate
measuring device. Thermocouples may be constructed of several different combinations of materials.The
performance of a thermocouple material is generally determined by using that material with platinum. The
most important factor to be considered when selecting a pair of materials is the "thermoelectric difference"
between the two materials. A significant difference between the two materials will result in better
thermocouple performance.
Figure 4 illustrates the characteristics of the more commonly used materials when used with platinum.
Other materials may be used in addition to those shown in Figure 4.
8
Temperature
For example: Chromel- Constantan is excellent for temperatures up to 2000°F; Nickel/Nickel

Molybdenum sometimes replaces Chromel-Alumel; and Tungsten-Rhenium is used for temperatures
up to 5000°F. Some combinations used for specialized applications are Chromel-White Gold,
Molybdenum-Tungsten, Tungsten-Iridium, and Iridium/Iridium-Rhodium.
Figure5 shows the internal construction of a typical thermocouple. The leads of the thermocouple are
encased in a rigid metal sheath. The measuring junction is normally formed at the bottom of the
thermocouple housing. Magnesium oxide surrounds the thermocouple wires to prevent vibration that
could damage the fine wires and to enhance heat transfer between the measuring junction and the
medium surrounding the thermocouple.
Thermocouple Operation
Thermocouples will cause an electric current to flow in the attached circuit when subjected to
changes in temperature. The amount of current that will be produced is dependent on the temperature
difference between the measurement and reference junction; the characteristics of the two metals
used; and the characteristics of the attached circuit.
Figure 6 illustrates a simple thermocouple circuit.
9
Temperature
FUNCTIONAL USES OF TEMPERATURE DETECTORS
Temperature sensing devices, such as RTDs and thermocouples, provide necessary temperature
indications for the safe and continued operation of the Power plant systems. These temperature
indications may include:
• Reactor hot and cold leg temperatures

• Pressurizer temperature
• Purification demineralizer inlet temperature
• Cooling water to and from various components
• Secondary feed temperature
Functions of Temperature Detectors

Although the temperatures that are monitored vary slightly depending on the details of facility design,
temperature detectors are used to provide three basic functions: indication, alarm, and
control. The temperatures monitored may normally be displayed in a central location, such as
a control room, and may have audible and visual alarms associated with them when specified
preset limits are exceeded. These temperatures may have control functions associated with them
so that equipment is started or stopped to support a given temperature condition or so that a
protective action occurs.
10
Temperature
Detector Problems
In the event that key temperature sensing instruments become inoperative, there are several alternate
methods that may be used. Some applications utilize installed spare temperature detectors or dual element
RTDs. The dual-element RTD has two sensing elements of which only one is normally connected. If the
operating element becomes faulty, the second element may be used to provide temperature indication. If
an installed spare is not utilized, a contact pyrometer (portable thermocouple) may be used to obtain
temperature readings on those pieces of equipment or systems that are accessible.
If the malfunction is in the circuitry and the detector itself is still functional, it may be possible to obtain
temperatures by connecting an external bridge circuit to the detector. Resistance readings may then be
taken and a corresponding temperature obtained from the detector calibration curves.
Environmental Concerns
Ambient temperature variations will affect the accuracy and reliability of temperature detection
instrumentation. Variations in ambient temperature can directly affect the resistance of components in a
bridge circuit and the resistance of the reference junction for a thermocouple. In addition, ambient
temperature variations can affect the calibration of electric/electronic equipment. The effects of
temperature variations are reduced by the design of the circuitry and by maintaining the temperature
detection instrumentation in the proper environment.
The presence of humidity will also affect most electrical equipment, especially electronic equipment.
High humidity causes moisture to collect on the equipment. This moisture can cause short circuits,
grounds, and corrosion, which, in turn, may damage components. The effects due to humidity are
controlled by maintaining the equipment in the proper environment.
11
Temperature
TEMPERATURE DETECTION CIRCUITRY
The bridge circuit is used whenever extremely accurate resistance measurements are required (such as
RTD measurements).
Bridge Circuit Construction
Figure 8 shows a basic bridge circuit which consists of three known resistances, R1, R2, and R3 (variable),
an unknown variable resistor RX (RTD), a source of voltage, and a sensitive ammeter.
Resistors R1 and R2 are the ratio arms of the bridge. They ratio the two variable resistances for
current flow through the ammeter. R3 is a variable resistor known as the standard arm that is
adjusted to match the unknown resistor. The sensing ammeter visually displays the current that
is flowing through the bridge circuit. Analysis of the circuit shows that when R3 is adjusted so
that the ammeter reads zero current, the resistance of both arms of the bridge circuit is the same.
Equation 1-1 shows the relationship of the resistance between the two arms of the bridge.
Since the values of R1, R2, and R3 are known values, the only unknown is Rx. The value of Rx
can be calulated for the bridge during an ammeter zero current condition. Knowing this
resistance value provides a baseline point for calibration of the instrument attached to the bridge
circuit. The unknown resistance, Rx, is given by Equation 1-2.
12
Temperature
Bridge Circuit Operation
The bridge operates by placing Rx in the circuit, as shown in Figure 8, and then adjusting R3 so
that all current flows through the arms of the bridge circuit. When this condition exists, there
is no current flow through the ammeter, and the bridge is said to be balanced. When the bridge
is balanced, the currents through each of the arms are exactly proportional. They are equal if R1 =R2.
Most of the time the bridge is constructed so that R1 = R2. When this is the case, and the
bridge is balanced, then the resistance of Rx is the same as R3, or Rx = R3.
When balance exists, R3 will be equal to the unknown resistance, even if the voltage source is
unstable or is not accurately known. A typical Wheatstone bridge has several dials used to vary
the resistance. Once the bridge is balanced, the dials can be read to find the value of R3. Bridge
circuits can be used to measure resistance to tenths or even hundredths of a percent accuracy.
When used to measure temperature, some Wheatstone bridges with precision resistors are
accurate to about + 0.1°F.
Two types of bridge circuits (unbalanced and balanced) are utilized in resistance thermometer
temperature detection circuits. The unbalanced bridge circuit (Figure 9) uses a mill voltmeter that is
calibrated in units of temperature that correspond to the RTD resistance.
The battery is connected to two opposite points of the bridge circuit. The millivoltmeter is connected to the
two remaining points. The rheostat regulates bridge current. The regulated current is divided between the
branch with the fixed resistor and range resistor R1, and the branch with the RTD and range resistor R2. As
the electrical resistance of the RTD changes, the voltage at points X and Y changes. The millivoltmeter
detects the change in voltage caused by unequal division of current in the two branches. The meter can be
calibrated in units of temperature because the only changing resistance value is that of the RTD.
13
Temperature
The balanced bridge circuit (Figure 10) uses a galvanometer to compare the RTD resistance with
that of a fixed resistor. The galvanometer uses a pointer that deflects on either side of zero when
the resistance of the arms is not equal. The resistance of the slide wire is adjusted until the
galvanometer indicates zero. The value of the slide resistance is then used to determine the
temperature of the system being monitored.
A slide wire resistor is used to balance the arms of the bridge. The circuit will be in balance
whenever the value of the slide wire resistance is such that no current flows through the
galvanometer. For each temperature change, there is a new value; therefore, the slider must be
moved to a new position to balance the circuit.
Temperature Detection Circuit

Figure 11 is a block diagram of a typical temperature detection circuit. This represents a
balanced bridge temperature detection circuit that has been modified to eliminate the
Galvanometer.
14
Temperature
The block consists of a temperature detector (RTD) that measures the temperature. The detector
is felt as resistance to the bridge network. The bridge network converts this resistance to a DC
voltage signal.
An electronic instrument has been developed in which the DC voltage of the potentiometer, or
the bridge, is converted to an AC voltage. The AC voltage is then amplified to a higher (usable)
voltage that is used to drive a bi-directional motor. The bi-directional motor positions the slider
on the slide wire to balance the circuit resistance.
If the RTD becomes open in either the unbalanced and balanced bridge circuits, the resistance
will be infinite, and the meter will indicate a very high temperature. If it becomes shorted,
resistance will be zero, and the meter will indicate a very low temperature.
When calibrating the circuit, a precision resistor of known value is substituted for the resistance
bulb, as shown in Figure 12.
Battery voltage is then adjusted by varying Rb until the meter indication is correct for the known
resistance.
Temperature Compensation
Because of changes in ambient temperature, the resistance thermometer circuitry must be

compensated. The resistors that are used in the measuring circuitry are selected so that their
resistance will remain constant over the range of temperature expected. Temperature
compensation is also accomplished through the design of the electronic circuitry to compensate
for ambient changes in the equipment cabinet. It is also possible for the resistance of the
detector leads to change due to a change in ambient temperature. To compensate for this change,
three and four wire RTD circuits are used. In this way, the same amount of lead wire is used
in both branches of the bridge circuit, and the change in resistance will be felt on both branches,
negating the effects of the change in temperature.
15
Temperature
16
Temperature
1.1 DESCRIBE the construction of a basic RTD including:

• Major component arrangement
• Materials used
1.2 EXPLAIN how RTD resistance varies for the following:

• An increase in temperature
• A decrease in temperature
1.3 EXPLAIN how an RTD provides an output representative of the measured temperature.
1.4 DESCRIBE the basic construction of a thermocouple including:

• Materials used
1.5 EXPLAIN how a thermocouple provides an output representative of the measured temperature.
1.6 STATE the three basic functions of temperature detectors.
1.7 DESCRIBE the two alternate methods of determining temperature when the normal temperature
sensing devices are inoperable.
1.8 STATE the two environmental concerns which can affect the accuracy and reliability of
temperature detection instrumentation.
1.9 Given a simplified schematic diagram of a basic bridge circuit, STATE the purpose of
the following components:
• R1 and R2
• Rx
• Adjustable resistor
• Sensitive ammeter
1.10 DESCRIBE the bridge circuit conditions that create a balanced bridge.
1.11 Given a block diagram of a basic temperature instrument detection and control system,
1.12 STATE the purpose of the following blocks:

• RTD
• Bridge circuit
• DC-AC converter
• Amplifier
• Balancing motor/mechanical linkage
1.13 DESCRIBE the temperature instrument indication(s) for the following circuit
faults:
• Short circuit
• Open circuit
17
Temperature
1.14 EXPLAIN the three methods of bridge circuit compensation for changes in
ambient temperature.
1.15 DESCRIBE the construction of a basic RTD including:

• Materials used
1.16 EXPLAIN how RTD resistance varies for the following:
• An increase in temperature
• A decrease in temperature
1.17 EXPLAIN how an RTD provides an output representative of the measured temperature.
1.18 DESCRIBE the basic construction of a thermocouple including:

• Materials used
1.19 EXPLAIN how a thermocouple provides an output representative of the measured temperature.
1.20 STATE the three basic functions of temperature detectors.
1.21 DESCRIBE the two alternate methods of determining temperature when the normal
temperature sensing devices are inoperable.
1.22 STATE the two environmental concerns which can affect the accuracy and reliability of
temperature detection instrumentation.
1.23 Given a simplified schematic diagram of a basic bridge circuit, STATE the purpose of the
following components:
• R1 and R2
• Rx
• Adjustable resistor
• Sensitive ammeter
1.24 DESCRIBE the bridge circuit conditions that create a balanced bridge.
1.25 Given a block diagram of a basic temperature instrument detection and control system, STATE
the purpose of the following blocks:
• RTD
• Bridge circuit
• DC-AC converter
• Amplifier
• Balancing motor/mechanical linkage
1.26 DESCRIBE the temperature instrument indication(s) for the following circuit faults:
• Short circuit
• Open circuit
1.27 EXPLAIN the three methods of bridge circuit compensation for changes in ambient
temperature.
18
Pressure
19
Pressure
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
This module will examine the theory and operation of pressure detectors (bourdon tubes, diaphragms,
bellows, forced balance and variable capacitance). It also covers the variables of an operating
environment (pressure, temperature) and the possible modes of failure.
Theory
Pressure is probably one of the most commonly measured variables in the power plant. It
includes the measurement of steam pressure; feed water pressure, condenser pressure,
lubricating oil pressure and many more.
The units of measurement are either in pounds per square inch (PSI) in British units or
Pascals (Pa) in metric. As one PSI is approximately 7000 Pa, we often use kPa and MPa as
units of pressure.
Gauge pressure is the unit we encounter in everyday work (e.g., tire ratings are in gauge pressure). A
gauge pressure device will indicate zero pressure when bled down to atmospheric pressure (i.e., gauge
pressure is referenced to atmospheric pressure). Gauge pressure is denoted by a (g) at the end of the
pressure unit [e.g., kPa (g)].
Absolute pressure includes the effect of atmospheric pressure with the gauge pressure. It is denoted by
an (a) at the end of the pressure unit [e.g., kPa (a)]. An absolute pressure indicator would indicate
atmospheric pressure when completely vented down to atmosphere - it would not indicate scale zero.
Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure
the relationship between absolute and gauge. That the base point for gauge scale is [0 kPa (g)] or
standard atmospheric pressure 101.3 kPa The majority of pressure measurements in a plant are gauge.
Absolute measurements tend to be used where pressures are below atmosphere. Typically this is
around the condenser and vacuum building.
Common Pressure Detectors

Bourdon Tubes
Bourdon tubes are circular-shaped tubes with oval cross sections the pressure of the medium acts on
the inside of the tube. The outward pressure on the oval cross section forces it to become rounded.
Because of the curvature of the tube ring, the bourdon tube then bends as indicated in the direction of
the arrow. Due to their robust construction, bourdon are often used in harsh environments and high
pressures, but can also be used for very low pressures; the response time however, is slower than the
bellows or diaphragm.
20
Pressure
Bellows
Bellows type elements are constructed of tubular membranes that are convoluted around the
circumference The membrane is attached at one end to the source and at the other end to an indicating
device or instrument. The bellows element can provide a long range of motion (stroke) in the direction
of the arrow when input pressure is applied.
Diaphragms
A diaphragm is a circular-shaped convoluted membrane that is attached to the pressure fixture around
the circumference .The pressure medium is on one side and the indication medium is on the other.
The deflection that is created by pressure in the vessel would be in the direction of the arrow
indicated.
Diaphragms provide fast acting and accurate pressure indication. However, the movement or stroke is
not as large as the bellows.
Capsule
The capsule consists of two circular shaped, convoluted membranes usually stainless steel) sealed tight
around the circumference. The Pressure acts on the inside of the capsule and the generated stroke
movement is shown by the direction of the arrow. The second type of capsule is like the one shown in
the differential pressure transmitter. The capsule in the bottom is constructed with two diaphragms
forming an outer case and the interspace is filled with viscous oil. Pressure is applied to both side of
the diaphragm and it will deflect towards the lower pressure.
21
Pressure
To provide over-pressurized protection, a solid plate with diaphragm matching convolutions is usually
mounted in the center of the capsule. Silicone oil is then used to fill the cavity between the diaphragms
for even pressure transmission.
Capsule
Most DP capsules can withstand high static pressure of up to 14 MPa (2000 psi) on both sides of the
capsule without any damaging effect. However, the sensitive range for most DP capsules is quite low.
Typically, they are sensitive up to only a few hundred kPa of differential pressure. Differential
pressure that is significantly higher than the capsule range may damage the capsule permanently.
Differential Pressure Transmitter
Most pressure transmitters are built around the pressure capsule concept. They are usually capable of
measuring differential pressure (that is, the difference between a high pressure input and a low
pressure input) and therefore, are usually called DP transmitters or DP cells. Illustrates a typical DP
transmitter. A differential pressure capsule is mounted inside a housing. One end of a force bar is
connected to the capsule assembly so that the motion of the capsule can be transmitted to outside the
housing. A sealing mechanism is used where the force bar penetrates the housing and also acts as the
pivot point for the force bar. Provision is made in the housing for high- pressure fluid to be applied on
one side of the capsule and low-pressure fluid on the other. Any difference in pressure will cause the
capsule to deflect and create motion in the force bar. The top end of the force bar is then connected to
a position detector, which via an electronic system will produce a 4-20 ma signal that is proportional
to the force bar movement.
22
Pressure
Differential Pressure Transmitter
Strain Gauges
The strain gauge is a device that can be affixed to the surface of an object to detect the force applied to
the object. One form of the strain gauge is a metal wire of very small diameter that is attached to the
surface of a device being monitored. For a metal, the electrical resistance will increase as the length of
the metal increases or as the cross sectional diameter decreases. the overall length of the wire tends to
increase while the cross-sectional area decreases.
The amount of increase in resistance is proportional to the force that produced the change in length
and area. The output of the strain gauge is a change in resistance that can be measured by the input
circuit of an amplifier. Strain gauges can be bonded to the surface of a pressure capsule or to a force
bar positioned by the measuring element.
strain gauge that is bonded to a force beam inside the DP capsule. The change in the process pressure
will cause a resistive change in the strain gauges, which is then used to produce a 4-20 mA signal.
23
Pressure
Capacitance Capsule
Similar to the strain gauge, a capacitance cell measures changes in electrical characteristic. As the
name implies the capacitance cell measures changes in capacitance. The capacitor is a device that
stores electrical charge. It consists of metal plates separated by an electrical insulator. The metal plates
are connected to an external electrical circuit through which electrical charge can be transferred from
one metal plate to the other. The capacitance of a capacitor is a measure of its ability to store charge.
The capacitance of the capacitance of a capacitor is directly proportional to the area of the metal plates
and inversely proportional to the distance between them. It also depends on a characteristic of the
insulating material between them. This characteristic, called permittivity is a measure of how well the
insulating material increases the ability of the capacitor to store charge.
By building a DP cell capsule so there are capacitors inside the cell capsule, differential pressures can
be sensed by the changes in capacitance of the capacitors as the pressure across the cell is varied
Pressure Detector Functions
Although the pressures that are monitored vary slightly depending on the details of facility
design, all pressure detectors are used to provide up to three basic functions: indication, alarm,
and control. Since the fluid system may operate at both saturation and sub cooled conditions,
accurate pressure indication must be available to maintain proper cooling. Some pressure
detectors have audible and visual alarms associated with them when specified preset limits are
exceeded. Some pressure detector applications are used as inputs to protective features and
control functions.
Detector Failure
If a pressure instrument fails, spare detector elements may be utilized if installed. If spare
detectors are not installed, the pressure may be read at an independent local mechanical gauge,
if available, or a precision pressure gauge may be installed in the system at a convenient point.
If the detector is functional, it may be possible to obtain pressure readings by measuring voltage
or current values across the detector leads and comparing this reading with calibration curves.
24
Pressure
25
Pressure
Detection Circuitry
Figure 10 shows a block diagram of a typical pressure detection circuit.
The sensing element senses the pressure of the monitored system and converts the pressure to
a mechanical signal. The sensing element supplies the mechanical signal to a transducer, as
discussed above. The transducer converts the mechanical signal to an electrical signal that is
proportional to system pressure. If the mechanical signal from the sensing element is used
directly, a transducer is not required and therefore not used. The detector circuitry will amplify
and/or transmit this signal to the pressure indicator. The electrical signal generated by the
detection circuitry is proportional to system pressure. The exact operation of detector circuitry
depends upon the type of transducer used. The pressure indicator provides remote indication of
the system pressure being measured.
26
Pressure
1.1 EXPLAIN how a bellows-type pressure detector produces an output signal including:
a. Method of detection
b. Method of signal generation
1.2 EXPLAIN how a bourdon tube-type pressure detector produces an output signal
including:
1.3 STATE the three functions of pressure measuring instrumentation.
1.4 DESCRIBE the three alternate methods of determining pressure when the normal
pressure sensing devices are inoperable.
1.5 STATE the three environmental concerns which can affect the accuracy and reliability
of pressure detection instrumentation.
1.6 EXPLAIN how a strain gauge pressure transducer produces an output signal including:
1.7 Given a basic block diagram of a typical pressure detection device, STATE the purpose
of the following blocks:
a. Sensing element
b. Transducer
c. Pressure detection circuitry
d. Pressure indication
1.8 EXPLAIN how a bellows-type pressure detector produces an output signal including:
1.9 EXPLAIN how a bourdon tube-type pressure detector produces an output signal including:
1.10 STATE the three functions of pressure measuring instrumentation.
1.11 DESCRIBE the three alternate methods of determining pressure when the normal pressure
sensing devices are inoperable.
1.12 STATE the three environmental concerns which can affect the accuracy and reliability of
pressure detection instrumentation.
27
Level
28
Level
LEVEL
Liquid level measuring devices are classified into two groups: (a) direct method,
and (b) inferred method. An example of the direct method is the dipstick in your
car which measures the height of the oil in the oil pan. An example of the
inferred method is a pressure gauge at the bottom of a tank which measures the
hydrostatic head pressure from the height of the liquid.
The principle of operation of the following types of level instrumentation:
a. Gauge glass
b. Ball float
c. Chain float
d. Magnetic bond
e. Conductivity probe
f. Differential pressure (ΔP)
Gauge Glass
A very simple means by which liquid level is measured in a vessel is by the gauge glass method
(Figure 1). In the gauge glass method, a transparent tube is attached to the bottom and top (top
connection not needed in a tank open to atmosphere) of the tank that is monitored. The height
of the liquid in the tube will be equal to the height of water in the tank.
Figure 1 (a) shows a gauge glass which is used for vessels where the liquid is at ambient
temperature and pressure conditions. the gauge glasses in Figure 1 effectively form a "U" tube
manometer where the liquid seeks its own level due to the pressure of the liquid in the vessel.
Gauge glasses made from tubular glass or plastic are used for service up to 450 psig and 400°F.
If it is desired to measure the level of a vessel at higher temperatures and pressures, a different
type of gauge glass is used. The type of gauge glass utilized in this instance has a body made
of metal with a heavy glass or quartz section for visual observation of the liquid level. The glass
section is usually flat to provide strength and safety.
29
Level
Ball Float
The ball float method is a direct reading liquid level mechanism. The most practical design for
the float is a hollow metal ball or sphere. However, there are no restrictions to the size, shape,
or material used. The design consists of a ball float attached to a rod, which in turn is connected
to a rotating shaft which indicates level on a calibrated scale (Figure 5). The operation of the
ball float is simple. The ball floats on top of the liquid in the tank. If the liquid level changes,
the float will follow and change the position of the pointer attached to the rotating shaft.
The travel of the ball float is limited by its design to be within ±30 degrees from the horizontal
plane which results in optimum response and performance. The actual level range is determined
by the length of the connecting arm.
The stuffing box is incorporated to form a water-tight seal around the shaft to prevent leakage
from the vessel.
Chain Float
This type of float gauge has a float ranging in size up to 12 inches in diameter and is used where small
level limitations imposed by ball floats must be exceeded. The range of level measured will be limited
only by the size of the vessel. The operation of the chain float is similiar to the ball float except in the
method of positioning the pointer and in its connection to the position indication.
The float is connected to a rotating element by a chain with a weight attached to the other end to
provide a means of keeping the chain taut during changes in level (Figure 6).
30
Level
Magnetic Bond Method

The magnetic bond method was developed to overcome the problems of cages and stuffing boxes.
The magnetic bond mechanism consists of a magnetic float which rises and falls with changes in level.
The float travels outside of non-magnetic tube which houses an inner magnet connected to a level
indicator. When the float rises and falls, the outer magnet will attract the inner magnet, causing the
inner magnet to follow the level within the vessel (Figure 7).
Conductivity Probe Method

Figure 8 illustrates a conductivity probe level detection system. It consists of one or more level
detectors, an operating relay, and a controller. When the liquid makes contact with any of the
electrodes, an electric current will flow between the electrode and ground. The current energizes
a relay which causes the relay contacts to open or close depending on the state of the process
involved. The relay in turn will actuate an alarm, a pump, a control valve, or all three. A typical
system has three probes: a low level probe, a high level probe, and a high level alarm probe.
31
Level
Differential Pressure Level Detectors

The differential pressure (ΔP) detector method of liquid level measurement uses a ΔP detector
connected to the bottom of the tank being monitored. The higher pressure, caused by the fluid
in the tank, is compared to a lower reference pressure (usually atmospheric). This comparison
takes place in the ΔP detector. Figure 9 illustrates a typical differential pressure detector attached
to an open tank.
The tank is open to the atmosphere; therefore, it is necessary to use only the high pressure (HP)
connection on the ΔP transmitter. The low pressure (LP) side is vented to the atmosphere;
therefore, the pressure differential is the hydrostatic head, or weight, of the liquid in the tank.
The maximum level that can be measured by the ΔP transmitter is determined by the maximum
height of liquid above the transmitter. The minimum level that can be measured is determined
by the point where the transmitter is connected to the tank.
Not all tanks or vessels are open to the atmosphere. Many are totally enclosed to prevent vapors
or steam from escaping, or to allow pressurizing the contents of the tank. When measuring the
level in a tank that is pressurized, or the level that can become pressurized by vapor pressure
from the liquid, both the high pressure and low pressure sides of the ΔP transmitter must be
connected (Figure 10).
32
Level
The high pressure connection is connected to the tank at or below the lower range value to be
measured. The low pressure side is connected to a "reference leg" that is connected at or above
the upper range value to be measured. The reference leg is pressurized by the gas or vapor
pressure, but no liquid is permitted to remain in the reference leg. The reference leg must be
maintained dry so that there is no liquid head pressure on the low pressure side of the transmitter.
The high pressure side is exposed to the hydrostatic head of the liquid plus the gas or vapor
pressure exerted on the liquid’s surface. The gas or vapor pressure is equally applied to the low
and high pressure sides. Therefore, the output of the ΔP transmitter is directly proportional to
the hydrostatic head pressure, that is, the level in the tank.
Where the tank contains a condensible fluid, such as steam, a slightly different arrangement is
used. In applications with condensible fluids, condensation is greatly increased in the reference
leg. To compensate for this effect, the reference leg is filled with the same fluid as the tank.
The liquid in the reference leg applies a hydrostatic head to the high pressure side of the
transmitter, and the value of this level is constant as long as the reference leg is maintained full.
If this pressure remains constant, any change in ΔP is due to a change on the low pressure side
of the transmitter (Figure 11).
The filled reference leg applies a hydrostatic pressure to the high pressure side of the transmitter,
which is equal to the maximum level to be measured. The ΔP transmitter is exposed to equal
pressure on the high and low pressure sides when the liquid level is at its maximum; therefore,
the differential pressure is zero. As the tank level goes down, the pressure applied to the low
pressure side goes down also, and the differential pressure increases. As a result, the differential
pressure and the transmitter output are inversely proportional to the tank level.
33
Level
Summary
The different types of level instruments presented in this chapter are summarized below.
Level Instrumentation Summary
• In the gauge glass method, a transparent tube is attached to the bottom and top
(top connection not needed in a tank open to atmosphere) of the tank that is
monitored. The height of the liquid in the tube will be equal to the height of
water in the tank.
• The operation of the ball float is simple. The ball floats on top of the liquid in
the tank. If the liquid level changes, the float will follow and change the
position of the pointer attached to the rotating shaft.
• The operation of the chain float is similar to the ball float except in its method
of positioning the pointer and its connection to the position indication. The float
is connected to a rotating element by a chain with a weight attached to the other
end to provide a means of keeping the chain taut during changes in level.
• The magnetic bond mechanism consists of a magnetic float that rises and falls
with changes in level. The float travels outside of a non-magnetic tube which
houses an inner magnet connected to a level indicator. When the float rises and
falls, the outer magnet will attract the inner magnet, causing the inner magnet to
follow the level within the vessel.
• The conductivity probe consists of one or more level detectors, an operating

relay, and a controller. When the liquid makes contact with any of the
electrodes, an electric current will flow between the electrode and ground. The
current energizes a relay which causes the relay contacts to open or close
depending on the state of the process involved. The relay in turn will actuate an
alarm, a pump, a control valve, or all three.
• The differential pressure (ΔP) detector uses a ΔP detector connected to the

bottom of the tank that is being monitored. The higher pressure in the tank is
compared to a lower reference pressure (usually atmospheric). This comparison
takes place in the ΔP detector.
34
Level
Specific Volume
Before examining an example which shows the effects of density, the unit "specific volume" must
be defined. Specific volume is defined as volume per unit mass as shown in Equation 3-1.
Specific Volume = Volume/Mass (3-1)
Specific volume is the reciprocal of density as shown in Equation 3-2.
Specific Volume 1/density (3-2)
Specific volume is the standard unit used when working with vapors and steam that have low
values of density.
For the applications that involve water and steam, specific volume can be found using "Saturated
Steam Tables," which list the specific volumes for water and saturated steam at different
pressures and temperatures.
The density of steam (or vapor) above the liquid level will have an effect on the weight of the
steam or vapor bubble and the hydrostatic head pressure. As the density of the steam or vapor
increases, the weight increases and causes an increase in hydrostatic head even though the actual
level of the tank has not changed. The larger the steam bubble, the greater the change in
hydrostatic head pressure.
Figure 12 illustrates a vessel in which the water is at saturated boiling conditions.
A condensing pot at the top of the reference leg is incorporated to condense the steam and
maintain the reference leg filled. As previously stated, the effect of the steam vapor pressure is
cancelled at the ΔP transmitter due to the fact that this pressure is equally applied to both the low
and high pressure sides of the transmitter. The differential pressure to the transmitter is due only
to hydrostatic head pressure, as stated in Equation 3-3.
Hydrostatic Head Pressure = Density x Height (3-3)
35
Level
Pressurizer Level Instruments

Figure 13 shows a typical pressurizer level system. Pressurizer temperature is held fairly constant
during normal operation. The ΔP detector for level is calibrated with the pressurizer hot, and the
effects of density changes do not occur. The pressurizer will not always be hot. It may be cooled down
for non-operating maintenance conditions, in which case a second ΔP detector, calibrated for level
measurement at low temperatures, replaces the normal ΔP detector. The density has not really been
compensated for; it has actually been aligned out of the instrument by calibration.
Density compensation may also be accomplished through electronic circuitry. Some systems
compensate for density changes automatically through the design of the level detection circuitry. Other
applications compensate for density by manually adjusting inputs to the circuit as the pressurizer cools
down and depressurizes, or during heat up and pressurization. Calibration charts are also available to
correct indications for changes in reference leg temperature.
36
Flow
37
Flow
HEAD FLOW METERS

Flow measurement is an important process measurement to be considered in operating a facility’s
fluid systems. For efficient and economic operation of these fluid systems, flow measurement is
necessary.
Head flow meters operate on the principle of placing a restriction in the line to cause a differential
pressure head. The differential pressure, which is caused by the head, is measured and converted to a
flow measurement. Industrial applications of head flow meters incorporate a pneumatic or electrical
transmitting system for remote readout of flow rate. Generally, the indicating instrument extracts the
square root of the differential pressure and displays the flow rate on a linear indicator.
There are two elements in a head flow meter; the primary element is the restriction in the line, and
the secondary element is the differential pressure measuring device. Figure 1 shows the basic
operating characteristics of a head flow meter.
The flow path restriction, such as an orifice, causes a differential pressure across the orifice. This
pressure differential is measured by a mercury manometer or a differential pressure detector. From this
measurement, flow rate is determined from known physical laws. The head flow meter actually
measures volume flow rate rather than mass flow rate. Mass flow rate is easily calculated or computed
from volumetric flow rate by knowing or sensing temperature and/or pressure. Temperature and
pressure affect the density of the fluid and, therefore, the mass of fluid flowing past a certain point. If
the volumetric flow rate signal is compensated for changes in temperature and/or pressure, a true mass
flow rate signal can be obtained. In Thermodynamics it is described that temperature and density are
inversely proportional, while pressure and density are directly proportional. To show the relationship
between temperature or pressure, the mass flow rate equation is often written as either Equation
4-1 or 4-2.
m = KA √ΔP (P) (4-1)

m = KA √ΔP (1/T) (4-2)
38
Flow
Where
m = mass flow rate (lbm/sec) ˙

A = area (ft2)
ΔP= differential pressure (lbf/ft2)
P = pressure (lbf/ft2)
T = temperature (°F)
K = flow coefficient
The flow coefficient is constant for the system based mainly on the construction characteristics
of the pipe and type of fluid flowing through the pipe. The flow coefficient in each equation
contains the appropriate units to balance the equation and provide the proper units for the
resulting mass flow rate. The area of the pipe and differential pressure are used to calculate
volumetric flow rate. As stated above, this volumetric flow rate is converted to mass flow rate
by compensating for system temperature or pressure.
Orifice Plate
The orifice plate is the simplest of the flow path restrictions used in flow detection, as well as the most
economical. Orifice plates are flat plates 1/16 to 1/4 inch thick. They are normally mounted between a
pair of flanges and are installed in a straight run of smooth pipe to avoid disturbance of flow patterns
from fittings and valves Three kinds of orifice plates are used: concentric, eccentric, and segmental (as
shown in Figure 2).
The concentric orifice plate is the most common of the three types. As shown, the orifice is
equidistant (concentric) to the inside diameter of the pipe. Flow through a sharp-edged orifice
plate is characterized by a change in velocity. As the fluid passes through the orifice, the fluid
converges, and the velocity of the fluid increases to a maximum value. At this point, the
pressure is at a minimum value. As the fluid diverges to fill the entire pipe area, the velocity
decreases back to the original value. The pressure increases to about 60% to 80% of the original
input value. The pressure loss is irrecoverable; therefore, the output pressure will always be less
than the input pressure. The pressures on both sides of the orifice are measured, resulting in a
differential pressure which is proportional to the flow rate.
Segmental and eccentric orifice plates are functionally identical to the concentric orifice. The
circular section of the segmental orifice is concentric with the pipe. The segmental portion of
the orifice eliminates damming of foreign materials on the upstream side of the orifice when
mounted in a horizontal pipe. Depending on the type of fluid, the segmental section is placed
on either the top or bottom of the horizontal pipe to increase the accuracy of the measurement.
39
Flow
Eccentric orifice plates shift the edge of the orifice to the inside of the pipe wall. This design
also prevents upstream damming and is used in the same way as the segmental orifice plate.
Orifice plates have two distinct disadvantages; they cause a high permanent pressure drop (outlet
pressure will be 60% to 80% of inlet pressure), and they are subject to erosion, which will
eventually cause inaccuracies in the measured differential pressure.
Venturi Tube
The venturi tube, illustrated in Figure 3, is the most accurate flow-sensing element when properly
calibrated. The venturi tube has a converging conical inlet, a cylindrical throat, and a diverging
recovery cone. It has no projections into the fluid, no sharp corners, and no sudden changes in
Contour.
40
Flow
The inlet section decreases the area of the fluid stream, causing the velocity to increase and the
pressure to decrease. The low pressure is measured in the center of the cylindrical throat since
the pressure will be at its lowest value, and neither the pressure nor the velocity is changing.
The recovery cone allows for the recovery of pressure such that total pressure loss is only 10%
to 25%. The high pressure is measured upstream of the entrance cone. The major disadvantages
of this type of flow detection are the high initial costs for installation and difficulty in installation
Dall Flow Tube

The dall flow tube, illustrated in Figure 4 has a higher ratio of pressure developed to pressure lost than
the venturi flow tube. It is more compact and is commonly used in large flow applications. The tube
consists of a short, straight inlet section followed by an abrupt decrease in the inside diameter of the
tube. This section, called the inlet shoulder, is followed by the converging inlet cone and a diverging
exit cone. The two cones are separated by a slot or gap between the two cones. The low pressure is
measured at the slotted throat (area between the two cones). The high pressure is measured at the
upstream edge of the inlet shoulder.
The dall flow tube is available in medium to very large sizes. In the large sizes, the cost is normally
less than that of a venturi flow tube. This type of flow tube has a pressure loss of about 5%. Flow rate
and pressure drop are related as shown in Equation 4-3.
V= K√ ΔP (4-3)
where
V = volumetric flow rate
K = constant derived from the mechanical parameters of the primary elements
ΔP = differential pressure
41
Flow
Pitot Tube
The pitot tube, illustrated in Figure 5, is another primary flow element used to produce a differential
pressure for flow detection. In its simplest form, it consists of a tube with an opening at the end. The
small hole in the end is positioned such that it faces the flowing fluid. The velocity of the fluid at the
opening of the tube decreases to zero. This provides for the high pressure input to a differential
pressure detector. A pressure tap provides the low pressure input.
The pitot tube actually measures fluid velocity instead of fluid flow rate. However, volumetric
flow rate can be obtained using Equation 4-4.
V = KAV (4-4)
Where
V= volumetric flow rate (ft3/sec.)

A = area of flow cross-section (ft2)
V = velocity of flowing fluid (ft/sec.)
K = flow coefficient (normally about 0.8)
Pitot tubes must be calibrated for each specific application, as there is no standardization. This
type of instrument can be used even when the fluid is not enclosed in a pipe or duct.
42
Flow
Summary
Head flow meters operate on the principle of placing a restriction in the line to cause a pressure
drop. The differential pressure which is caused by the head is measured and converted to a flow
measurement. The basic construction of various types of head flow detectors is summarized
below.
Head Flow Meter Construction Summary
Orifice plates
• Flat plates 1/16 to 1/4 in. thick

• Mounted between a pair of flanges
• Installed in a straight run of smooth pipe to avoid disturbance of flow patterns
due to fittings and valves
Venturi tube
• Converging conical inlet, a cylindrical throat, and a diverging recovery cone

• No projections into the fluid, no sharp corners, and no sudden changes in contour
Dall flow tube
• Consists of a short, straight inlet section followed by an abrupt decrease in the

inside diameter of the tube
• Inlet shoulder followed by the converging inlet cone and a diverging exit cone
• Two cones separated by a slot or gap between the two cones
Pitot tube
• Consists of a tube with an opening at the end

• Small hole in the end positioned so that it faces the flowing fluid
43
Flow
OTHER FLOW METERS

Two other types of mechanical flow meters which can be used are the area flow and displacement
meters. In addition, there exists much more sophisticated techniques for measurement of flow rate
than use of differential pressure devices, such as anemometry, magnetic, and ultrasonic.
The following types of mechanical flow detectors, including the basic construction and theory of
operation.
a. Rotameter
b. Nutating Disk
Area Flow Meter

The head causing the flow through an area meter is relatively constant such that the rate of flow
is directly proportional to the metering area. The variation in area is produced by the rise and
fall of a floating element. This type of flow meter must be mounted so that the floating element
moves vertically and friction is minimal.
Rotameter
The rotameter, illustrated in Figure 6, is an area flow meter so named because a rotating float is the
indicating element. The rotameter consists of a metal float and a conical glass tube, constructed such
that the diameter increases with height. When there is no fluid passing through the rotameter, the float
rests at the bottom of the tube. As fluid enters the tube, the higher density of the float will cause the
float to remain on the bottom. The space between the float and the tube allows for flow past the float.
As flow increases in the tube, the pressure drop increases. When the pressure drop is sufficient, the
float will rise to indicate the amount of flow. The higher the flow rate the greater the pressure drop.
The higher the pressure drop the farther up the tube the float rises.
44
Flow
The float should stay at a constant position at a constant flow rate. With a smooth float, fluctuations
appear even when flow is constant. By using a float with slanted slots cut in the head, the float
maintains a constant position with respect to flow rate. This type of flow meter is usually used to
measure low flow rates.
Displacement Meter
In a displacement flow meter, all of the fluid passes through the meter in almost completely isolated
quantities. The number of these quantities is counted and indicated in terms of volume or weight units
by a register.
Nutating Disk
The most common type of displacement flow meter is the nutating disk, or wobbles plate meter. A
typical nutating disk is shown in Figure 7.
This type of flow meter is normally used for water service, such as raw water supply and evaporator
feed. The movable element is a circular disk which is attached to a central ball. A shaft is fastened to
the ball and held in an inclined position by a cam or roller. The disk is mounted in a chamber which
has spherical side walls and conical top and bottom surfaces. The fluid enters an opening in the
spherical wall on one side of the partition and leaves through the other side. As the fluid flows through
the chamber, the disk wobbles, or executes a nutating motion. Since the volume of fluid required to
make the disc complete one revolution is known, the total flow through a nutating disc can be
calculated by multiplying the number of disc rotations by the known volume of fluid.
To measure this flow, the motion of the shaft generates a cone with the point, or apex, down. The top
of the shaft operates a revolution counter, through a crank and set of gears, which is calibrated to
indicate total system flow. A variety of accessories, such as automatic count resetting devices, can be
added to the fundamental mechanism, which perform functions in addition to measuring the flow.
45
Flow
Hot-Wire Anemometer
The hot-wire anemometer, principally used in gas flow measurement, consists of an electrically
heated, fine platinum wire which is immersed into the flow. As the fluid velocity increases, the rate of
heat flow from the heated wire to the flow stream increases. Thus, a cooling effect on the wire
electrode occurs, causing its electrical resistance to change. In a constant-current anemometer, the
fluid velocity is determined from a measurement of the resulting change in wire resistance. In
constant-resistance anemometer, fluid velocity is determined from the current needed to maintain a
constant wire temperature and, thus, the resistance constant.
Electromagnetic Flowmeter
The electromagnetic flowmeter is similar in principle to the generator. The rotor of the generator is
replaced by a pipe placed between the poles of a magnet so that the flow of the fluid in the pipe is
normal to the magnetic field. As the fluid flows through this magnetic field, an electromotive force is
induced in it that will be mutually normal (perpendicular) to both the magnetic field and the motion of
the fluid. This electromotive force may be measured with the aid of electrodes attached to the pipe and
connected to a galvanometer or an equivalent. For a given magnetic field, the induced voltage will be
proportional to the average velocity of the fluid. However, the fluid should have some degree of
electrical conductivity.
Ultrasonic Flow Equipment
Devices such as ultrasonic flow equipment use the Doppler frequency shift of ultrasonic signals
reflected from discontinuities in the fluid stream to obtain flow measurements. These discontinuities
can be suspended solids, bubbles, or interfaces generated by turbulent eddies in the flow stream. The
sensor is mounted on the outside of the pipe, and an ultrasonic beam from a piezoelectric crystal is
transmitted through the pipe wall into the fluid at an angle to the flow stream. Signals reflected off
flow disturbances are detected by a second piezoelectric crystal located in the same sensor.
Transmitted and reflected signals are compared in an electrical circuit, and the corresponding
frequency shift is proportional to the flow velocity.
46
Flow
Summary
The basic construction and theory of operation of rotameters, nutating disks, anemometers,
electromagnetic flow meters, and ultrasonic flow equipment are summarized below.
47
Flow
STEAM FLOW DETECTION
Steam flow detection is normally accomplished through the use of a steam flow nozzle.
density compensation of a steam flow instrument to include the reason density compensation
is required and the parameters used.
The flow nozzle is commonly used for the measurement of steam flow and other high velocity fluid
flow measurements where erosion may occur. It is capable of measuring approximately 60% higher
flow rates than an orifice plate with the same diameter. This is due to the streamlined contour of the
throat, which is a distinct advantage for the measurement of high velocity fluids. The flow nozzle
requires less straight run piping than an orifice plate. However, the pressure drop is about the same for
both. A typical flow nozzle is shown in Figure 8.
Since steam is considered to be a gas, changes in pressure and temperature greatly affect its density.
Equations 4-5 and 4-6 list the fundamental relationship for volumetric flow and mass flow.
and
m = Vρ (4-6)
48
Flow
Where
V = volumetric flow
K = constant relating to the ratio of pipe to orifice
h = differential pressure
ρ = density
m = mass flow
It is possible to substitute for density in the relationship using Equation 4-7.
ρ = pm/ Rθ (4-7)
where
ρ = density
p = upstream pressure
m = molecular weight of the gas
θ = absolute temperature
R = gas constant
By substituting for density, the values are used by the electronic circuit to calculate the density
automatically. Since steam temperature is relatively constant in most steam systems, upstream
pressure is the only variable in the above equation that changes as the system operates. If the other
variables are hardwired, measuring the system pressure is all that is required for the electronics to
calculate the fluid’s density.
As the previous equations demonstrate, temperature and pressure values can be used to electronically
compensate flow for changes in density.A simple mass flow detection system is illustrated by Figure 9
where measurements of temperature and pressure are made with commonly used instruments.
49
Flow
For the precise measurement of gas flow (steam) at varying pressures and temperatures, it is necessary
to determine the density, which is pressure and temperature dependent, and from this value to calculate
the actual flow. The use of a computer is essential to measure flow with changing pressure or
temperature.
Summary
Density compensation is summarized below.
Density Compensation Summary
• Changes in temperature and pressure greatly affect indicated steam flow.
• By measuring temperature and pressure, a computerized system can be used to

electronically compensate a steam or gas flow indication for changes in fluid density.
Use of Flow Indication
The flow of liquids and gases carries energy through the piping system. In many situations, it is very
important to know whether there is flow and the rate at which the flow is occurring. An example of
flow that is important to a facility operator is equipment cooling flow. The flow of coolant is essential
in removing the heat generated by the system, thereby preventing damage to the equipment. Typically,
flow indication is used in protection systems and control systems that help maintain system
temperature. Another method of determining system coolant flow is by using pump differential
pressure. If all means of flow indication are lost, flow can be approximated using pump differential
pressure. Pump differential pressure is proportional to the square of pump flow.
50
Flow
1.1 DESCRIBE the basic construction of the following types of head flow detectors:
a. Orifice plates
b. Venturi tube
c. Dall flow tube
d. Pitot tube
1.2 DESCRIBE the following types of mechanical flow detectors, including the basic construction
and theory of operation.
a. Rotameter
b. Nutating Disk
1.3 DESCRIBE density compensation of a steam flow instrument to include the reason density
compensation is required and the parameters used.
1.4 Given a block diagram of a typical flow detection device,

STATE the purpose of the following blocks:
a. Differential pressure (DP) transmitter

b. Extractor
c. Indicator
51
Position Indicators
52
Position indicators
SWITCHES
Mechanical limit switches and reed switches provide valve open and shut indications. They also are
used to determine the physical position of equipment.
The following switch position indicators to include basic construction and theory of operation.
a. Limit switches
b. Reed switches
Limit Switches
A limit switch is a mechanical device which can be used to determine the physical position of
equipment. For example, an extension on a valve shaft mechanically trips a limit switch as it moves
from open to shut or shut to open. The limit switch gives ON/OFF output that corresponds to valve
position. Normally, limit switches are used to provide full open or full shut indications as illustrated in
Figure 3.
Many limit switches are the push-button variety. When the valve extension comes in contact with the
limit switch, the switch depresses to complete, or turn on, the electrical circuit. As the valve extension
moves away from the limit switches, spring pressure opens the switch, turning off the circuit.
Limit switch failures are normally mechanical in nature. If the proper indication or control function is
not achieved, the limit switch is probably faulty. In this case, local position indication should be used
to verify equipment position.
Reed Switches
Reed switches, illustrated in Figure 4, are more reliable than limit switches, due to their
simplified construction. The switches are constructed of flexible ferrous strips (reeds) and are
placed near the intended travel of the valve stem or control rod extension.
53
Position indicators
When using reed switches, the extension used is a permanent magnet. As the magnet approaches the
reed switch, the switch shuts. When the magnet moves away, the reed switch opens. This ON/OFF
indicator is similar to mechanical limit switches. By using a large number of magnetic reed switches,
incremental position can be measured. This technique is sometimes used in monitoring a reactor’s
control rod position.
Failures are normally limited to a reed switch which is stuck open or stuck shut. If a reed switch is
stuck shut, the open (closed) indication will be continuously illuminated. If a reed switch is stuck
open, the position indication for that switch remains extinguished regardless of valve position.
Summary
Switch position indicators are summarized below.
Switch Position Indicators Summary
• A limit switch is a mechanical device used to determine the physical position of

valves. An extension on a valve shaft mechanically trips the switch as it moves
from open to shut or shut to open. The limit switch gives ON/OFF output which
corresponds to the valve position.
• Reed switches are constructed of flexible ferrous strips placed near the intended
travel of the valve stem or control rod extension. The extension used is a
permanent magnet. As the magnet approaches the reed switch, the switch shuts.
When the magnet moves away, the reed switch opens.
54
Position indicators
VARIABLE OUTPUT DEVICES
Variable output devices provide an accurate position indication of a valve or control rod.
The following variable output position indicators to include basic construction and theory of
operation.
a. Potentiometer
b. Linear variable differential transformers (LVDT)
Potentiometer
Potentiometer valve position indicators (Figure 5) provide an accurate indication of position

throughout the travel of a valve or control rod. The extension is physically attached to a variable
resistor. As the extension moves up or down, the resistance of the attached circuit changes, changing
the amount of current flow in the circuit. The amount of current is proportional to the valve position.
Potentiometer valve position indicator failures are normally electrical in nature. An electrical short or
open will cause the indication to fail at one extreme or the other. If an increase or decrease in the
potentiometer resistance occurs, erratic indicated valve position occurs.
55
Position indicators
Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDT)

A device which provides accurate position indication throughout the range of valve or control
rod travel is a linear variable differential transformer (LVDT), illustrated in Figure 6. Unlike the
potentiometer position indicator, no physical connection to the extension is required.
The extension valve shaft, or control rod, is made of a metal suitable for acting as the movable core of
a transformer. Moving the extension between the primary and secondary windings of a transformer
causes the inductance between the two windings to vary, thereby varying the output voltage
proportional to the position of the valve or control rod extension. Figure 6 illustrates a valve whose
position is indicated by an LVDT. If the open and shut position is all that is desired, two small
secondary coils could be utilized at each end of the extension’s travel. LVDTs are extremely reliable.
As a rule, failures are limited to rare electrical faults which cause erratic or erroneous indications. An
open primary winding will cause the indication to fail to some predetermined value equal to zero
differential voltage. This normally corresponds to mid-stroke of the valve. A failure of either
secondary winding will cause the output to indicate either full open or full closed.
56
Position indicators
Summary
Variable output position indicators are summarized below.
Variable Position Indicator Summary
• Potentiometer valve position indicators use an extension which is physically attached to a

variable resistor. As the extension moves up or down, the resistance of the attached circuit
changes, changing the amount of current flow in the circuit.
• An LVDT uses the extension shaft or control rod as a movable core of a transformer. Moving
the extension between the primary and secondary windings of a transformer causes the
inductance between the two windings to vary, there by varying the output voltage proportional
to the position of the valve or control rod extension.
57
Control
58
Control
CONTROL
INTRODUCTION
Control of the processes in the plant is an essential part of the plant operation. There must be enough
water in the boilers to act as a heat sink for the reactor but there must not be water flowing out the top
of the boilers towards the turbine. The level of the boiler must be kept within a certain range. The heat
transport pressure is another critical parameter that must be controlled. If it is too high the system will
burst, if it is too low the water will boil. Either condition impairs the ability of the heat transport
system to cool the fuel. In this section we will look at the very basics of control. We will examine the
fundamental control building blocks of proportional, integral and differential and their application to
some simple systems.
BASIC CONTROL PRINCIPLES

Consider a typical process control system. For a particular example let us look at an open tank, which
supplies a process, say, a pump, at its output. The tank will require a supply to maintain its level (and
therefore the pump.s positive suction head) at a fixed predetermined point. This predetermined level is
referred to as the set point (SP) and it is also the controlled quantity of the system. Clearly whilst the
inflow and outflow are in mass balance, the level will remain constant. Any difference in the relative
flows will cause the level to vary. How can we effectively control this system to a constant level?
We must first identify our variables. Obviously there could be a number of variables in any system, the
two in which we are most interested are: The controlled variable - in our example this will be level.
The manipulated variable. the inflow or outflow from the system. If we look more closely at our
sample system (Figure 1), assuming the level is at the set point, the inflow to the system and outflow
are balanced. Obviously no control action is required whilst this status quo exists. Control action is
only necessary when a difference or error exists between the set point and the measured level.
Depending on whether this error is a positive or negative quantity, the appropriate control correction
will be made in an attempt to restore the process to the set point.
Henceforth, the error will always take the form of:
Error = Set point - Measured Quantity

OR
e = SP – M
59
Control
The control action will be either to vary the inflow or outflow from the system in order to keep the
level at the setpoint. Let us consider the general format for achieving these objectives. As can be seen
from Figure 2, the process can be represented by a closed loop. The system output (level) is monitored
by a process sensor and the measurement signal is fedback to a comparator at the input of the system.
The second input to the comparator is the setpoint signal; the comparator.s output being the difference
or error signal. The amplifier, a present just a black box, will provide the appropriate correction to
Maintain the process at its setpoint despite disturbances that may occur. It can be seen that if the
system were being operated in manual control the feedback path would not be present. The operator
would provide this feedback and apply the necessary correction to the system whilst observing the
effect on the controlled variable. This is termed open loop operation.
Feedback Control
This concept justifies the use of the word negative in three ways:
• The negative aspect of feeding the measured signal backwards from the output to the input
of the system. (Actual definition of negative feedback control).
• The control correction must be negative in that a correction rather than a compounding of
error must occur.
• The fact that an error must occur before a correction can take place, i.e., retrospective or
negative control action.
In the next section we will study in more detail the methods used to
effect the necessary control corrections.
Feedforward Control
If we wish to control our process without an error first occurring, we must base our control on
correction of the disturbances, which will eventually, cause a process error. This is termed feedforward
control.Feedforward control is rarely if ever used on its own but is used in conjunction with feedback
control to improve the response of control to process disturbances.
60
Control
Summary
• Controlled Variable. Output quantity of system (Level, Temperature,

etc.).
• Manipulated Variable . means of maintaining controlled variable at
the setpoint.
• Error signal. equals the difference between the setpoint and the
measurement. (e = SP . M).
• Setpoint. desired process level. (SP)
• Measurement. actual process level. (M)
• Closed Loop. automatic control.
• Open Loop. manual control.
• Feedback control is error correction following a disturbance.
• Feedforward control is control of disturbances, which could Cause a
process error.
61
Control
Level Control
In general we can divide level measurement into three types:
Open Tanks
Closed Tanks
Bubbler Systems (Open or Closed Tanks)

If a differential pressure transmitter is used as a level detector, the low pressure port will be vented to
atmosphere in an open tank application. In a closed tank, where there is often a gas phase at pressure
above the liquid, the low-pressure port will be taken to the top of the tank. Any gas pressure will then
be equally sensed by the high and low sides and thus cancelled. Remember the closed tank installation
will have either a wet or dry leg on the low-pressure sides.
Open Tank Installation

Assuming the control valve is on the inflow, the best failure mode for the valve would be to fail
closed, i.e., Air to Open (A/O) valve. The pressure sensed at the base of the tank on a falling level will
decrease, i.e., controller input. The valve must open more, to replenish the tank, requiring an
increasing signal. The controller must be reverse acting and will usually have P + I modes. The system
is shown in Figure 19
If it is necessary to mount the valve in the outflow, the best failure mode
would probably be to fail open (A/C). This valve action would require an increasing signal to halt a
falling tank level, again a reverse acting (P + I) controller is necessary.
The same reasoning would apply to closed tank or bubbler systems, the only difference being in the
sensing method employed. Remember control modes use of derivative action on large, slow, systems.
62
Control
Flow Control
A typical flow control system requires some form of restriction to provide a pressure differential
proportional to flow (e.g. orifice plate) plus a square root extractor to provide a linear signal. The
controller action depends upon the choice of control valve. If an air to open valve is chosen then
controller action should be reverse, as an increase in flow must be countered by a decrease in valve
opening. For an air to close valve the action must of course be direct. The general format is shown in
Figure 20.
The control modes will be proportional plus integral (never use derivative on a flow control loop).
63
Control
Pressure Control
The control of pressure in, say, a pressure vessel, is generally achieved in
one of three ways.
1. Variable Feed with Constant Bleed
2. Constant Feed with Variable Bleed
3. Variable Feed and Bleed
Consider first Variable Feed and Constant Bleed (Figure 21).
The feed valve action is air to close (A/C). Increasing pressure will require an increasing valve signal
to throttle the supply. The (P + I) controller is direct acting. For a variable bleed application the control
valve will be transferred to the bleed application the control valve will be transferred to the bleed line
and will need to be A/O if a direct acting controller is used.
For variable feed and bleed we can use a split range control scheme (one controller driving two
valves). This is shown in Figure 22. When at the setpoint we require feed to equal bleed. If pressure
increases we require less feed action and more bleed action and vice versa. The valve actions must
therefore be opposite, say feed valve A/C and bleed valve A/O. On increasing pressure the direct
acting controller will supply a larger signal to the feed valve (closing it) and to the bleed valve
(opening it). Pressure should thus be maintained at the setpoint with proportional plus integral control.
64
Control
Temperature Control
The general problem with temperature control is the slowness of response. For this reason the use of
derivative action is fairly standard. Figure 23 shows a representative heat exchanger, which cools hot
bleed with cold service water.
The choice of control valve would probably be air to close, i.e., fail open, to give maximum cooling in
the event of a air supply failure to the valve.
An increase, say, in bleed temperature requires a larger valve opening, i.e., smaller valve
signal. A reverse acting controller is required. Three modes, P+ I + D, control is fairly usual.
65
TNB LIBERTY POWER LTD
APPRENTICE SHIP PROGRAM 2009 / 2010
NAME: ALAMGIR RAHIM
DESIGNATION: INSTRUMENT FITTER.
INSTRUMENTATIOIN & CONTROL

DEPARTMENT
Checked by: Verified by:
Maqsood Ahmed Mangi ABDUL HALIM ABDULLAH SHUKOR

(Sr. Eng. (EIC&IT) Sr. Manager (Maintenance&Eng.)
66

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Overview

Specific Knowledge or Skill Obtained

• Principle and operation of RTDs and thermocouples

• The basic operation of a differential pressure transmitter

• The process of density compensation for level detectors

• Why density compensation is required in some flow measurements

• The effects of varying liquid temperature or pressure on level indication

• The effects of varying fluid temperature or pressure on flow indication

Electromagnetic flow meter …………………………………………..…46

For example: Chromel- Constantan is excellent for temperatures up to 2000°F; Nickel/Nickel

Figure 6 illustrates a simple thermocouple circuit.

FUNCTIONAL USES OF TEMPERATURE DETECTORS

• Reactor hot and cold leg temperatures

Functions of Temperature Detectors

TEMPERATURE DETECTION CIRCUITRY

Bridge Circuit Construction

Bridge Circuit Operation

Temperature Detection Circuit

Because of changes in ambient temperature, the resistance thermometer circuitry must be

1.1 DESCRIBE the construction of a basic RTD including:

1.2 EXPLAIN how RTD resistance varies for the following:

1.4 DESCRIBE the basic construction of a thermocouple including:

1.6 STATE the three basic functions of temperature detectors.

1.12 STATE the purpose of the following blocks:

1.15 DESCRIBE the construction of a basic RTD including:

1.18 DESCRIBE the basic construction of a thermocouple including:

1.20 STATE the three basic functions of temperature detectors.

Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure

Common Pressure Detectors

Prepared by Alamgir Rahim (I&C) 2009

Differential Pressure Transmitter

Differential Pressure Transmitter

Pressure Detector Functions

Figure 10 shows a block diagram of a typical pressure detection circuit.

1.3 STATE the three functions of pressure measuring instrumentation.

1.10 STATE the three functions of pressure measuring instrumentation.

The principle of operation of the following types of level instrumentation:

Magnetic Bond Method

Conductivity Probe Method

Differential Pressure Level Detectors

Level Instrumentation Summary

• The conductivity probe consists of one or more level detectors, an operating

• The differential pressure (ΔP) detector uses a ΔP detector connected to the

Specific Volume = Volume/Mass (3-1)

Specific volume is the reciprocal of density as shown in Equation 3-2.

Specific Volume 1/density (3-2)

Figure 12 illustrates a vessel in which the water is at saturated boiling conditions.

Hydrostatic Head Pressure = Density x Height (3-3)

Pressurizer Level Instruments

HEAD FLOW METERS

m = KA √ΔP (P) (4-1)

Prepared by Alamgir Rahim (I&C) 2009

m = mass flow rate (lbm/sec) ˙

Dall Flow Tube

V= volumetric flow rate (ft3/sec.)

Head Flow Meter Construction Summary

• Flat plates 1/16 to 1/4 in. thick

• Converging conical inlet, a cylindrical throat, and a diverging recovery cone

Dall flow tube

• Consists of a short, straight inlet section followed by an abrupt decrease in the