NSCET

E-LEARNING
PRESENTATION
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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
Branch/Year/Sem: B.E. Civil Engineering/II/III
CE8351 - SURVEYING

Mr. N.Nagarathinam.,M.E.,
HOD&Assistant Professor, Civil,
Nadar Saraswathi College of Engineering &
Technology,
Vadapudupatti, Annanji (po), Theni – 625531.

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Objective
1.To introduce the rudiments of plane surveying and
geodetic principles to Civil Engineers.
2.To learn the various methods of plane and
geodetic surveying to solve the real world Civil
Engineering problems.
3.To introduce the concepts of Control Surveying
4.To introduce the basis of Astronomical Surveying

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UNIT I FUNDAMENTALS OF CONVENTIONAL SURVEYING ANDLEVELLING
Classifications and basic principles of surveying - Equipment and accessories for ranging and chaining
- Methods of ranging - Compass - Types of Compass - Basic Principles- Bearing – Types - True Bearing
- Magnetic Bearing - Levelling- Principles and theory of Levelling – Datum- - Bench Marks –
Temporary and Permanent Adjustments- Methods of Levelling- Booking – Reduction - Sources of
errors in Levelling - Curvature and refraction.
UNIT II THEODOLITE AND TACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING
Horizontal and vertical angle measurements - Temporary and permanent adjustments - Heights and
distances - Tacheometer - Stadia Constants - Analytic Lens -Tangential and Stadia Tacheometry
surveying - Contour – Contouring – Characteristics of contours – Methods of contouring –
Tacheometric contouring - Contour gradient – Uses of contour plan and map
UNIT III CONTROL SURVEYING ANDADJUSTMENT
Horizontal and vertical control – Methods – specifications – triangulation- baseline – satellite stations –
reduction to centre- trigonometrical levelling – single and reciprocal observations – traversing – Gale’s
table. - Errors Sources- precautions and corrections – classification of errors – www.rejinpaul.com 40
true and most probable values - weighed observations – method of equal shifts – principle of least
squares - normal equation – correlates- level nets- adjustment of simple triangulation networks.
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UNIT IV ADVANCED TOPICS IN SURVEYING
Hydrographic Surveying – Tides – MSL – Sounding methods – Three point problem – Strength of
fix – astronomical Surveying – Field observations and determination of Azimuth by altitude and
hour angle methods –.Astronomical terms and definitions - Motion of sun and stars - Celestial
coordinate systems - different time systems - Nautical Almanac - Apparent altitude and corrections -
Field observations and determination of time, longitude, latitude and azimuth by altitude and hour
angle method .
UNIT V MODERN SURVEYING
Total Station : Advantages - Fundamental quantities measured - Parts and accessories - working
principle - On board calculations - Field procedure - Errors and Good practices in using Total
Station GPS Surveying : Different segments - space, control and user segments - satellite
configuration - signal structure - Orbit determination and representation - Anti Spoofing and
Selective Availability - Task of control segment - Hand Held and Geodetic receivers - data
processing - Traversing and triangulation.

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 UNIT I
FUNDAMENTALS OF CONVENTIONAL
SURVEYING AND LEVELLING
Classifications and basic principles of surveying - Equipment and
accessories for ranging and chaining -Methods of ranging - Compass -
Types of Compass - Basic Principles- Bearing – Types - True Bearing -
Magnetic Bearing - Levelling- Principles and theory of Levelling – Datum-
- Bench Marks – Temporary and Permanent Adjustments- Methods of
Levelling- Booking – Reduction - Sources of errors in Levelling –
Curvature and refraction.

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 DEFINITION

• Surveying is the Art of determining the relative position

on above or beneath the Surface of the earth by means of
direct or indirect measurements of distance, direction and
elevation.

• It also includes the art of establishing points by

predetermined angular & Linear Measurements.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING

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EQUIPMENT AND ACCESSORIES FOR CHAINING
AND RANGING
• Chain
• Arrows
• Pegs
• Surveyors' band
• Ranging rods and ranging poles
• Offset rods
• Laths
• Whites
• Plumb bobs and
• Line ranger.

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Chain
The Chain Is Made Up Of Steel Wire Which Is Divided Into Links And Togs
(Rings) To Facilitate Folding.
 It Is Sometimes Used As A Unit OfMeasurement
 It Has Brass Handles At Both Ends For Easy Handling. The Link Is 0.2m
Or 200mm In Diameter.
 The Length Is 20m Or 30m

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 Arrows
• Arrows are made of steel wire of diameter 4mm and their
ends are bent into a circle where red cloth is tied to
facilitate visibility. They are used for showing points on
the ground

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Pegs
Pegs are made of wood 40mm square by 50cm long and are used for
permanently marking positions during survey

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Surveyors' band:
The surveyor’s band is made of a steel strip which is rolled into a
metal frame with a winding handle. It is 30m, 50m or 100m long. Is
used in projects where more accuracy measurement is required.
Ranging rods and ranging poles:
– A ranging rod is a surveying instrument used for marking the
position of stations and for sightings of those stations as well as for
ranging
– Ranging poles are used to mark areas and to set out straight lines
on the field. They are also used to mark points which must be seen
from a distance, in which case a flag may be attached to improve
the visibility.
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Offset rods:
• These rods are also similar to ranging rods and
they are 3 m long. They are made up of hard
wood and are provided with iron shoe at one
end.
• A hook or a notch is provided at other end. At height of
eye, two narrow slits at right angles to each other are
also provided for using it for setting right angles.

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Laths &Whites:
 Laths are 0.5 to 1.0 m long sticks of soft wood. They are sharpened at one end
and are painted with white or light colors. They are used as intermediate points while
ranging or while crossing depressions.
 Whites are the pieces of sharpened thick sticks cut from the
nearest place in the field. One end of the stick is sharpened and the other end is
split. White papers are inserted in the split to improve the visibility. Whites are also
used for the same purpose as laths.

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Plumb bobs:
In measuring horizontal distances along sloping ground plumb bobs are used to
transfer the position to ground. They are also used to check the verticality of
ranging poles.

Line Ranger :
It is an optical instrument used for locating a point on a line and hence useful for ranging. It
consists of two isosceles prisms placed one over the other and fixed in an instrument with
handle.

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 METHODS OF RANGING
I. Direct Ranging
Direct Ranging is done when the two ends of survey lines are intervisible

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 METHODS OF RANGING
II. Indirect Ranging
Its done when both ends of the survey line not inter visible either dueto
Long distance between them.

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 COMPASS SURVEY

• Compass surveying is a type of surveying in which the

directions of surveying lines are determined with a
magnetic compass, and the length of the surveying lines
are measured with a tape or chain or laser range finder.
i)Prismatic Compass
ii)Surveyor Compass

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i ) Prismatic Compass
• A prismatic compass is a navigation and surveying
instrument which is extensively used to find out the bearing
of the traversing and included angles between them
ii ) Surveyor Compass
• Surveyor’s compass consists of a circular brass box
containing a magnetic needle which swings freely over a
brass circle which is divided into 360 degrees. The horizontal
angle is measured using a pair of sights located on north –
south axis of the compass. They are usually mounted over a
tripod and leveled using a ball and socket mechanism.

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BASIC PRINCIPLE OF COMPASS SURVEY
• The Principle of Compass Survey is Traversing; which
involves a series of connected lines the magnetic
bearing of the lines are measured by prismatic compass
and the distance (lengths) of the are measured by chain.
Bearing
• The Bearing of a line is the Horizontal Angle which it
makes with a reference line(meridian) depending upon
the Meridian.
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Types of Bearing
• True Bearing
True Bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which it makes with the true meridian through
one of the extremities of the line.

• Magnetic Bearing
The Magnetic Bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which it makes with the magnetic
meridian passing through one of the extremities of the line.

• Arbitrary Bearing
Arbitrary Bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which it makes with any arbitrary meridian
passing through one of the Extremities.

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LEVELLING
Levelling is a branch of surveying, the object of which is:
– To Find The Elevations Of Given Points With Respect ToA
Given Or Assumed Datum,And
– To Establish Points At A Given OrAssumed Datum.
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF LEVELING
– The fundamental principle of leveling lies in finding out the
separation of level lines passing through a point of known
elevation (B.M.) and that through an unknown point (whose
elevation is required to be determined).
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 Levelling

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DATUM
• In surveying , a datum is a reference system or an
approximation of the Earth's surface against which positional
measurements are made for computing locations.
• Datum level A surface or level which is regarded as a base
from which other levels can be counted (i.e. a datum).
For example, sea level is often used as a datum level against
which the height of land and depth of the sea bed are
measured.

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BENCH MARK

• A benchmark is a point of reference by which

something can be measured. In surveying, a "bench
mark" (two words) is a post or other permanent mark
established at a known elevation that is used as the basis
for measuring the elevation of other topographical points

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Temporary Adjustment
I.Centering -To place the
vertical axis exactly over
the station mark

II. Leveling- Done using leveling

screws o foot screws. The objective is to make the vertical
axis of the instrument truly vertical

III. Elimination of parallax – This condition arises when the image

formed by the objective is not in plane of crosshair
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 Permanant Adjustment
I. Adjustment of plate level - Plate level adjustment is done
for making the axis of plate bubble perpendicular to the
vertical axis when the bubble is central
II. Adjustment of the line of sight- The line of sight should
coincide with the optical axis of the telescope
III. Adjustment of the horizontal axis– The adjustment of the
horizontal axis is done by spire test. In this test horizontal
axis should be perpendicular to the vertical axis
IV. Adjustment of altitude level or vertical index frame
The adjustment of the horizontal axis is done by spire test.
In this test horizontal axis should be perpendicular to the
vertical axis
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Methods of Levelling
a. Barometric Levelling
– Barometric Leveling. Barometer is an instrument used to
measure atmosphere at any altitude. So, in this method of
leveling, atmospheric pressure at two different points is
observed, based on which the vertical difference between two
points is determined.

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 Barometric Levelling

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Methods of Levelling
b. Direct Levelling
– It is the most commonly used method of leveling. In this
method, measurements are observed directly from leveling
instrument.

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Methods of Levelling
c. Trignometric Levelling
The process of leveling in which the elevation
of point or the difference between points is measured
from the observed horizontal distances and vertical
angles in the field is called trigonometric leveling.

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 Trignometric Levelling

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Booking
(i) Booking is commenced at the bottom of the page and worked
upwards and carried continuously through the successive pages
so that while writing, the centre line of the book and the chain
on the ground correspond with the Surveyor’s own direction
(ii)The number or name of the line and the name of the station from
where the line starts are written at the commencement of each
line.
(iii)All distances along the chain line (changes) are entered in the
central column.
(iv)The objects offsetted are sketched with conventional signs
towards right or left of the central column according as they are
on the right or left of the chain line on the ground.

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(vi) Sufficient space is allowed between rows of booking along or across the page to
avoid congestion. About 1 ½ cm space is left between the two entriesin the central
column.
(vii)When any features such as a road, fence, hedge or a wall etc. crosses the chain
line, changes of the point of intersection is entered in the central column and
direction of the feature sketched. The line representing the feature is not carried
across the central column, but it is drawn meeting the column.
(viii)A symbol ∆ is used to denote a main station in the field-book. The zero changes at
the commencement and the closing changes at the end of a line are written inside the
symbol. The name of the station is written close to the symbol.
Tie or subsidiary stations are indicated by circles or ovals round their changes.
(ix)The directions of the survey lines starting off or ending at any of main or tie
stations are clearly shown with their names or numbers.
At the commencement of the tie or check line in the field-book, the position of the
tie station is described e.g. tie station (T3) on AC at 30 m from A. Similarly it is
described at the finish of the line.
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Points should kept while booking field notes
(i) It is one of the most important survey records. It should be carefully and neatly
written up with a good quality pencil.
(ii) Each chain line should be started on a fresh page.
(iii) The surveyor should always face the ‘direction of chaining while booking.
(iv) The notes should be complete. Nothing should be left to memory,
(v) The notes should be clear, neat and accurate. Over-writing and erasing should be
avoided. When a correction is to be made, the figures should be neatly crossed over and
fresh entry made above it and the correction initialled and dated. If however, the entire
page is to be discarded, it should be marked ‘cancelled’ and a reference to the other
page on which the correct notes are written should be made on this page.

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Points should kept while booking field notes
(vi) It is one of the most important survey records. It should be carefully
and neatly written up with a notes and reference sketches of important
objects should be drawn on separate page.
vii) Each survey must indicate the following:
 Name of Survey.
 Site of Survey.
 Dates of commencement and completion.
 The length of chain used and whether tested or not.
 The rough sketch of the area to be surveyed showing north
direction, proposed station-points, main and tie lines etc.
 Line diagram showing the skeleton of survey and the page index.
 Magnetic bearing of at least one line together with the amount of
declination at the time of survey.
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Sources of Errors in Levelling

 Instrumental Error
 Collimation Error
 Error due to curvature & Refraction
 Other Errors

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i ) Instrumental Error & Correction
• Collimation error
 Correction: Check before use and equalise sights.
• Under sensitive bubble.
• Errors in staff graduation
 Correction: Check
• Loose tripod head.
• Telescope not parallel to bubble tube
 Correction: Permanent adjustment.
• Telescope not at right angles to the vertical axis
 Correction: Permanent adjustment

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ii ) Collimation Error
• Collimation error occurs when the collimation axis is not truly
horizontal when the instrument is level. The effect is illustrated
in the sketch below, where the collimation axis is tilted with
respect to the horizontal by an angle.

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iii ) Curvature of Earth
• The earth appears to “fall away” with distance. The curved
shape of the earth means that the level surface through the
telescope will depart from the horizontal plane through the
telescope as the line of sight proceeds to the horizon.
• This effect makes actual level rod readings too large by:

where D is the sight distance in thousands of feet

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iii ) Curvature of Earth
• The earth appears to “fall away” with distance. The
curved shape of the earth means that the level surface
through the telescope will depart from the horizontal
plane through the telescope as the line of sight proceeds
to the horizon.
• This effect makes actual level rod readings too large by:

where D is the sight distance in thousands of feet

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Reduction
• Relative level in surveying refers to equating elevations of
survey points with reference to a common assumed datum.
It is a vertical distance between survey point and adopted
datum plane.
• Reduced here means equating and Level means Elevations.

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Curvature & Refraction
• Due to curvature, the points appear to be lower
than they actually are; while due to refraction, they
appear to be higher than they actually are.
• The effect of curvature being greater than that
of refraction, the combined effect causes the points
to appear to be lower than they actually are

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THANK YOU
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