Solutions to Chapter 9 exercises

9.1 The complement of any subset V of a discrete space X is open in X , so V is closed in X .

9.2 In order to be open in X , a subset either has to be empty or to have finite complement in
X . So the subsets of X which are closed in X are X itself and any finite subset of X .

9.3 We may choose for example U = (0, 1) ∪ (2, 4), V = (1, 3). Then

U ∩ V = (2, 3], U ∩ V = [2, 3), U ∩ V = {1} ∪ [2, 3], U ∩ V = ∅.

9.4(a) Using Exercise 9.2, we see that any finite subset A of X is closed in X and hence is its
own closure.
(b) Again using Exercise 9.2 we see that when A is infinite, the smallest closed set containing
A is X . Hence A = X (by Proposition 9.10 (f)).

9.5 (a) This is false in general. For a counterexample, let X be the space {0, 1} with the
discrete topology, let Y be the space {0, 1} with the indiscrete topology, and let f be the
identity function. Then f is continuous for example by Exercise 8.1, (c) or (d). Also, A = {0}
is closed in X but f (A) = A is not closed in Y . (The same counterexample would work for any
set with at least two points in it.)
(b) Again this is false: we have seen a counterexample in Exercise 9.3 - take A = (0, 1) ∪ (2, 4)
and B = (1, 3) in R, and we have A ∩ B = (2, 3] while A ∩ B = ∅.
(c) This is false too. Let f be as in the counterexample for (a) and let B = {0}. Then B = {0, 1}
so f −1 (B) = {0, 1} but f −1 (B) = {0} so f −1 (B) = {0}.

m

m

m

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9.6 (a) For each j = 1, 2, . . . , m we have Aj ⊆ Ai so Aj ⊆ Ai . Hence Ai ⊆ Ai .
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1

m
Conversely, since each Ai is closed in X and a finite union of closed sets is closed, Ai is
i=1


m

m
closed in X . Also, since Ai ⊆ Ai , we have Ai ⊆ Ai . So the latter is a closed subset of X
i=1 i=1


m

m

m

m
containing Ai and by Proposition 9.10 (f) it contains Ai . Hence Ai = Ai .
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1

(b) The right-hand side is an intersection of sets closed in X , hence is closed in X . It also

contains Ai since Ai ⊆ Ai for each i ∈ I . The required result follows by Proposition 9.10 (f).
i∈I
9.7 Suppose first that f : X → Y is continuous and that A ⊆ X . Let y ∈ f (A), say y = f (x)
where x ∈ A. Let U be any open subset of Y containing y . Then f −1 (U) is open in X and
x ∈ f −1 (U). Hence there exists a ∈ A ∩ f −1 (U), and f (a) ∈ U . Hence y ∈ f (A). This shows
that f (A) ⊆ f (A).
Conversely suppose that f (A) ⊆ f (A) for any subset A ⊆ X . In particular we apply this
with A = f −1 (V ) where V is closed in Y . Then f (f −1 (V ) ⊆ f (f −1(V ) ⊆ V = V . Hence
f −1 (V ) ⊆ f −1 (V ). Since always f −1 (V ) ⊆ f −1 (V ), we have f −1 (V ) = f −1 (V ) hence by
Proposition 9.10 (c) f −1 (V ) is closed in X , showing that f is continuous.
o
9.8 (a) When A is finite, the only open set contained in A is ∅, so A = ∅. In this case, as we
saw in Exercise 9.4, A = A. Hence ∂A = A.
(b) Suppose that A is infinite. We distinguish two cases.
o
Case (1) If X \ A is finite then A is open in X so A = A.
Case (2) If X \ A is infinite, then X \ B is infinite for any subset B of A, so ∅ is the only
o
subset of A which is open in X . Hence in this case A = ∅.
Since (see Exercise 9.4) A = X when A is infinite, in Case (1) ∂A = X \ A while in Case (2)
∂A = X .
o
9.9 (a) If a ∈ A then by definition there is some open set U of X such that a ∈ U ⊆ A. In
o
particular then a ∈ A. So A ⊆ A.
o
(b) if A ⊆ B and x ∈ A then by definition there is some open subset U of X such that
o o o
a ∈ U ⊆ A. Since A ⊆ B then also U ⊆ B , so a ∈ B . This proves that A ⊆ B .
(c) If A is open in X then for every a ∈ A there is an open set U (namely U = A) such that
o o o
a ∈ U ⊆ A, so a ∈ A . This shows A ⊆ A , and together with (a) we get A = A.
o
Conversely if A = A then for every a ∈ A there exists a set open in X , call it Ua , such that


a ∈ Ua ⊆ A. It is straightforward to check that A = Ua which is a union of sets open in X ,
a∈A
so is open in X .
o o o
(d) by (a), the interior of A is contained in A . Conversely suppose that a ∈ A . Then there
exists a subset U open in X such that a ∈ U ⊆ A. Now for any point x ∈ U we have
o o o
x ∈ U ⊆ A, so also x ∈ A . This shows that a ∈ U ⊆ A , so a is in the interior of A . These
o o
together show that the interior of A is A .
(e) This follows from (c) and (d).
o
(f) We know that A is open in X from (e). Suppose that B is open in X and that B ⊆ A.
o o o o o
By (b) then B ⊆ A . Since B is open we have B = B by (c). So B ⊆ A , which says that A
is the largest open subset of X contained in A.
 o
9.10 Suppose first that f : X → Y is continuous, and let B ⊆ Y . Since B is open in Y ,
o o o
by continuity f −1 (B ) is open in X , so since also f −1 (B ) ⊆ f −1 (B) we have that f −1 (B ) is
contained in the interior of f −1 (B).
o
Conversely suppose that for every subset B ⊆ Y we have f −1 (B ) is contained in the interior
o
of f −1 (B). We apply this with B open in Y , when B = B so we get that f −1 (B) is contained
in the interior of f −1 (B), which says that f −1 (B) is open in X . Hence f is continuous.

o 
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9.11 Since Ai ⊆ Ai we get Ai ⊆ Ai . Also, Ai is the intersection of a finite family of
i=1 i=1 i=1

m 
m
open sets, so is open in X , hence it is contained in the interior of Ai . Conversely, Ai ⊆ Aj
i=1 i=1

m
o
for each j ∈ {1, 2, . . . , m}; it follows that the interior of Ai is contained in Aj for each
i=1

m 
m
o
j ∈ {1, 2, . . . , m} so the interior of Ai is contained in Ai . This proves the result.
i=1 i=1

o

m
9.12 This follows since Ai is open and contained in Ai .
i∈I i=1
o o
An example: take X = R, A1 = (0, 1), A2 = [1, 2). Then A1 ∪ A2 = (0, 1) ∪ (1, 2) while
the interior of A1 ∪ A2 is (0, 2).

9.13 This follows from the fact that ∂A = A ∩ X \ A (Proposition 9.20) since each of A, X \ A
is closed in X hence so is their intersection.
o
9.14 (a) If A is closed in X then A = A, so ∂A = A \ A ⊆ A.
o o o
By definition ∂A = A \ A so in general A = A ∪ ∂A. So if ∂A ⊆ A then both ∂A and A are
subsets of A so A ⊆ A and A is closed in X .
o o
9.14 (b) Suppose that ∂A = ∅. This says that A = A, and since always A ⊆ A ⊆ A we get
o
A = A and A = A. From the first of these A is open and from the second A is closed in X .
o o
Conversely if A is both open and closed in X then A = A and A = A. Hence ∂A = A \ A = ∅.
o o o
9.15 Since ∂A = A \ A , certainly ∂A ∩ A = ∅. By the definition ∂A = A \ A we know that
o o o
∂A ⊆ A, and A ⊆ A ⊆ A. So the disjoint union ∂A  A ⊆ A. Conversely since ∂A = A \ A ,
o o
we have A ⊆ A  ∂A. These two together show that A = A  ∂A.
o
Now if B ⊂ X and B ∩ A = ∅ then B ∩ A = ∅ so either B ∩ A = ∅ or B ∩ ∂A = ∅.
o o o o
9.16 First A ∩ (X \ A) = ∅ since A ⊆ A and (X \ A) ⊆ X \ A. Exercise 9.15 shows that
o o o
A ∩ ∂A = ∅. Since ∂A = ∂(X \ A) by Corollary 9.21, ∂A ∩ (X \ A) = ∂(X \ A) ∩ (X \ A) = ∅.
Thus the three sets are pairwise disjoint. To see that their union is X , we use Exercise 9.15 and
the fact that ∂A = ∂(X \ A) (Corollary 9.21):
o o o o o o
A ∪ ∂A ∪ (X \ A) = A ∪ ∂A ∪ ∂A ∪ (X \ A) = A ∪ ∂A ∪ ∂(X \ A) ∪ (X \ A) = A ∪ X \ A = X.